UNIVERSITY OF MANCHESTER

SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL, AEROSPACE AND CIVIL ENGINEERING

Civil Engineering, Hydraulics 1

Semester 2, Course Unit

Two Lectures and one Examples’ class per week, over 12 Weeks
One three-hour laboratory class
Course Leader: Dr G-L Serff (Weeks 4-12)
Contributor: Prof H. Iacovides (Weeks 1-3)
Assessment
Assignments
Lab Report
End-of-Semester Exam

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 CONTENTS

Properties of fluids – density, viscosity (H.I.)

Hydrostatics – static pressure, forces (H.I.)

Kinematics – motion, velocity, acceleration (G-L.S.)

Energy and momentum – basic principles (G-L.S.)

Pipe flow – application of above (G-L.S.)

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• Definition of a Fluid
- Substances can be broadly classified into :
Solids and Fluids

- A solid can resist a force by Static Deformation

- A fluid would continuously move and deform under the

action of a force.

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- Fluids are further sub-divided into :
Liquids and Gases

Liquids retain a Gases expand to occupy

constant volume all available space

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• A MICROSCOPIC VIEW.

- A fluid consists of a collection of ‘freely’ and randomly

moving atoms/molecules which require containment to stay
together.

- For the purpose of engineering analysis, a fluid is treated

as a continuous substance.

- Exception: Nano-Applications 5
Fluid Properties

Continuum – large number of molecules represented

though bulk properties below :

Density - kg/m3 (mass/volume)

Pressure – N/m2 or Pa (normal stress)

Viscosity – kg/(m.s) (causes shear stress)

Compressibility (volume changes due to pressure)

Surface tension (small force on interface between two fluids)

Gas (special law) 6

 Density, ρ

ρ mass/volume – kg/m3

γ ≡ ρ.g specific weight (weight/volume) – N/m3

Relative density or specific gravity – dimensionless ratio

of density of fluid to density of water.
Specific Gravity ≡ density/density of water

In Gases density changes with temperature and pressure

In Liquids density changes only with temperature

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Hydrostatic pressure

Normal force on an area due to weight of

water (fluid) above the area
Pressure = force/area (N/m2 or Pa)

BUT pressure acts in all directions – it is a scalar.

For example a horizontal force is exerted on a dam due to vertical

depth of water

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 PROOF

Static water (or water with velocity but ZERO acceleration)

px Δz = pn Δs sin(θ), Since Δz = Δs sin(θ) px = pn

Same for z direction.

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 • Vapour Pressure
It is the pressure at which a liquid
boils, and is in equilibrium with its
own vapour.

Its value increases with temperature

When, at a given temperature, the liquid pressure falls below

the vapour pressure, bubbles begin to appear in the liquid.
This phenomenon called ‘cavitation’.

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 Viscosity
- Property which slows down fluid motion.
- It opposes the relative motion within the fluid.
- Water is slightly viscous. Treacle is very viscous.
- When different fluid layers move at different speeds, SHEAR
force is produced.
- Shear stress is shear force / tangential area
Gravity force downhill Viscometer

flow

Retarding shear due

to viscosity
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Shear stress proportional to rate of strain
(distortion)

Newtonian fluid like water

μ is viscosity
Kinematic viscosity ν = μ/ρ 12
Boundary Layer
Because of viscosity, the fluid velocity u
is zero at a solid boundary.

This is the so-called ‘no-slip’ boundary

condition, true for any viscous fluid.

The layer across which the velocity increases from zero at the
wall to the constant free stream value is the Boundary Layer.

The velocity gradient, du/dz, usually greatest at the wall,

generates a shear stress, which opposes the fluid motion.

Boundary Layer behaviour, determined by the value of the flow

Reynolds number.
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 • Reynolds number
U and L are, respectively, the characteristic velocity and
length of a flow.

A professor of engineering at Manchester University,

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15
Compressibility

Water is slightly compressible

Air is much more compressible

When pressure is exerted on a

volume of fluid, the volume decreases.

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 Surface tension

A fluid surface or interface experiences a very small tension.

Across any line drawn on the interface there is exerted a force

of magnitude per unit length in a direction normal to the line
and tangential to the interface.
σ is surface tension force per unit
length. F = σ . ΔL

The existence of surface tension

means that there is a pressure jump
across a curved surface of fluids.

The pressure being higher on the concave side.

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 - Consider a circular liquid droplet

Apply Force Equilibrium on Each Half.

Pressure Force on Inner Side (P+ΔP)πR2
Pressure Force on Outer Side - PπR2
Surface Tension Force - 2πRσ
Force Balance
If fluid volume is small enough it forms into drops.
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For the more general case of an arbitrarily curved interface
whose principal radii of curvature are R1 and R2, a force
balance normal to the surface will show that
P

P+ΔP

When R1=R2=R, then the equation for the sphere is recovered

(Example 2 in notes).

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Contact angle
In the case of a liquid interface intersecting with a solid
surface, another important surface effect, in addition to
surface tension, is the contact angle θ.

If > 90, the liquid is non– If < 90, the liquid ’wets’
wetting. the solid.

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 - From a simple force balance:

Weigh of Water Column =

Vertical Component of S.T. Force

Weigh of Water Column: ρgπD2 h/4

Surface Tension Force: πDσ

Vertical Component of S.T. Force: πDσ cosθ

Equilibrium: πDσ cosθ = ρgπD2h/4 Thus h = 4σ cosθ / (ρgD)

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• Equation of state for perfect gas p = RρT

- T is absolute temperature (degree Kelvin, ToK = ToC + 273.16)

- R is a constant (independent of temperature).
- If M is the relative molecular mass of a gas, i.e. the ratio of
the mass of the molecule to the mass of a normal hydrogen
atom, then:

MR = 8314 J/(kg K) – the universal gas constant

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23
HYDROSTATICS
Forces due hydrostatic pressure – in a still/static fluid.
Consider a small tube in a fluid.

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Pressure with uniform density
Hydrostatic equation

Integrates to

With p+ρgz called the piezometric pressure

When z=0, p=pair

p + ρgz = pair

p = pair + ρgh

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Absolute pressure is that relative to zero pressure, i.e. a vacuum

e.g. pabsolute = pair + ρgh in the previous case

Gauge pressure is that relative to atmospheric ~105 Pa = 1 bar

pgauge = ρgh in the previous case

Vacuum pressure is that below atmospheric – negative gauge

pressure

Pressure head or head is given by h = pgauge/ ρg

Convenient as in metres of water and easy to visualise.

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 Pressure measurement 1

piezometer
p = pair + ρgh
ρgh = p - pair
ρgh = pgauge
h = pgauge/ ρg

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Pressure measurement 2

U tube manometer – two fluids

ρA < ρB

Static so pressures at X-X same

p + ρA gh1 = pair + ρB gh2

Relative to atmospheric

pgague = ρB gh2 - ρA gh1

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Differential manometer

Pressures at X-X same

p1+ρAg (x+y) = p2+ ρA g y

+ ρBg x

p1 – p2 = (ρB – ρA) g x

Head loss: (p1-p2)/ (ρAg) = (ρB/ ρA – 1) x

This head loss is due to wall friction.

A bigger downstream pressure is required
to drive water upstream .

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Inclined tube manometer for measuring small
pressures

Measuring l thus gives pressure

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Hydrostatic force on a plane surface

Force per unit width = ∫p.1.dh = ∫ ρ g h dh = ρ g (h22-h12)/2

= area under pressure diagram

= (ρ g (h2+h1)/2) × (h2-h1)
= pressure at centroid × surface length
In general force = average pressure × area = ρ g hCG A 32
Inclined rectangle has same formula where h1 and h2
are still the vertical distances below the surface at the
top and bottom of the rectangle

F = b.d.ρ.g.hCG

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(a)

(b)

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NORMAL Force on an element = p × dA = ρ g h dA
Force on surface F = ∫ dF = ∫ p dA = ∫ ρ g h dA = ρ g ∫ ℓ sin α dA
= ρ g sin α ∫ ℓ dA = ρ g sin α ℓ CG A = ρ g hCG A
pressure at centroid = ρ g hCG
Force normal to surface = area × pressure at centroid
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Where does the pressure force act?
NOT through centroid but through CENTRE OF PRESSURE

Take moments about O

M = F. ℓCP - definition of ℓ CP = hCP/sin(α)

Moment of dF = p. dA× ℓ = ρ g h ℓ dA
= ρ g ℓ sin(α). ℓ.dA

Total moment = ∫ ρ g ℓ sin(α). ℓ.dA = ρ g sin(α) ∫ ℓ2.dA

F = ρ g sin(α) ∫ ℓ.dA = ρ g sin(α) ℓCG A
M = ρ g sin(α) ℓCG A ℓ CP = ρ g sin(α) ∫ ℓ2.dA

ℓCP = ∫ ℓ2.dA / (A lCG) I =∫ ℓ2dA = 2nd Moment of Area

ℓCP = [second moment of area about O,IO] / (A ℓCG)

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How to calculate second moment of area

Use parallel axes theorem to relate 2nd Moment of area

about axis through centroid, ICG, to that about another
parallel axis
I≡∫ ℓ2.dA = ICG + A ℓ CG2 = ℓ CPA ℓCG (from before)

∫ ℓ 2.dA /(A ℓCG) = ℓCP = ℓCG + ICG/(A ℓCG)

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Hydrostatic force on a curved surface

FH = ∫ p. ds. cos(α) = ∫ ρ g h dh = ρ g hCG AV

Acts through centre of pressure AV – projected area
As for plane surface

FV = ∫ p ds sin(α) = ∫ ρ g h dx = ρ g V ……dx = ds sin(α)

FV equals weight of water above surface and acts through
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the centre of gravity of volume V.
Buoyancy
Consider a solid of rectangular shape submerged in a liquid

The vertical pressure forces on the upper and lower horizontal

surfaces, FU and FL are:
FU = b.c ρgy1 FL = b.c.ρ.g (y1+a)
Net vertical force, FB:

FB = FL - FU = b.c [ ρg(y1+a)] - b.c ρgy1

FB = a . b . c . ρ.g = ρ.g .Volume

Archimedes principle: A solid body

experiences an upward force equal to
the weight of the fluid it displaces.

NOTE: The above also applies to a body of any shape

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Solution
-Vertical Force FV, weight of water in
virtual volume above gate.
-Horizontal force FH, force on
vertical surface of height h and width
3.5 m at 2 m below the free surface. 41
 h = R sin(α) = 5 sin(30) m = 2.5 m
FH = ρ g (2m+h/2) (h 3.5m )
FH = 1000 x 9.81 x (2+2.5/2) x2.5
x 3.5 N
FH = 279 kN

Vol1 =3.5m x 2mx {R-[R2-h2]1/2} Vol2 = 3.5m {πR2(α/360)-

h[R2- h2]1/2/2}
Vol1 = 4.69 m3
Vol2 = 3.97 m3

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FV = ρg(Vol1+Vol2) = 1000 x 9.81 x (4.69+3.97) N
FV = 85 kN
Resultant Force FR = {FH2+FV2)1/2 = 291.6 kN
Angle with horizontal θ = atan (FV/FH)
θ = atan (85/279) = atan (.295) = 17o

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