1.

INTRODUCTION TO SURVEYING
1.1 Introduction

Surveying has been important since the beginning of civilization. Today, the

importance of measuring and monitoring our environment is becoming increasingly

critical as our population expands, land values appreciates, our natural resources

dwindle, and human activities continue to pollute our land, water and air.

As a result, the breadth and diversity of practice of surveying, as well as its

importance in modern civilization is increasing from time to time.

 Cont’d
1.2 Definition and Technical Terms

Simply stating, surveying involves the measurement of distances and angles. The distance
may be horizontal or vertical in direction. Vertical distances are also called elevations.

• Similarly, the angles may be measured in horizontal and vertical plane.

• Horizontal angles are used to express the directions of land boundaries and other lines.

There are two fundamental purposes for measuring distances and angles.

The first is to determine the relative positions of existing points or objects on or near the
surface of the earth.

The second is to layout or mark the desired positions of new points or objects, which are
to be placed or constructed on or near the surface of the earth.
 Cont’d

• Surveying is a science and an art of determining the relative locations of various

points on or below the earth surface. Or

• Surveying may be defined as the science of determining the position, in three

dimensions, of natural and man-made features on or beneath the surface of the
Earth.

• The relative positions are determined by measuring horizontal, vertical and slope
distance and horizontal and vertical angles using different types of surveying
instruments accurately.
 Cont’d

• After taking the measurements in the field computations are done and the
measurements are drawn to convenient reduced size on paper known as
maps or plans.

• These plans and maps are used for planning and designing engineering
projects, making of boundaries computation of areas and volumes, and
various other purposes.

• More precisely, Surveying can be defined as the art and Science of

determining the relative positions of various points on, above or below the
surface of the earth.
 1.2 Classification of Surveying

• Primary division of surveying are made on the basis whether the curvature of the
earth is consider or assumed to be flat plane.

• Because of the curvature of the earth’s surface the measured distance on earth’s
surface actually curved.

• However, when the distance are small as to compared to the radius of the earth;

there is no significant difference between curved distance and the corresponding

straight line distance and the curvature of the earth can be neglected.

Therefore, according to the shape of the earth primary division are of two types:
 Cont’d

1. Geodetic surveying:

 It is the type of surveying in which the curvature of the earth is taken in to

consideration and a very high standard of accuracy is maintained using geodesy.

 The main objective of geodetic surveying is to determine the precise location of a

system of widely spaced points on the earth.

 If the area is more than 1000km2, the angles measured on the surface of the earth
cannot be in a plane surface, but are in a curved surface.

Therefore, geodetic surveying must be employed to achieve precision for large

areas.
 Cont’d
2. Plane surveying:

 It is the type of surveying in which the curvature of the earth’s surface is neglected and

assumed to be a flat surface.

 All distance and horizontal angles are assumed to be projected in horizontal plane.

 A horizontal plane at a point is the plane which is perpendicular to the vertical line at that

point.

 Plane surveying can safely be used when one is concerned with small portion of the

earth’s surface and the areas involved are less than 250km2.
 Cont’d

• It is worth nothing that the difference between an arc distance of 18.5km on the
surface of the earth and the corresponding chord length is 10mm.

• Further the difference between the sum of the three spherical triangle having an
area of 200k𝑚2 on the earth’s surface and that of the corresponding angles of the
plane triangles only one second.

• In plane surveying the angles of polygon and a triangle are considered as plane
angles.
Classification of survey based on instruments used:
Based on the instruments used, the surveys can be classified as under:
1. Chain surveying: This is the simplest type of surveying in which only linear measurements are
taken with a chain or tape.

2. Compass surveying: In compass surveying, the horizontal angles are measured with the help of
a magnetic compass, in addition to the linear measurements with a chain or a tape.

3. Levelling: This is a type of survey in which a levelling instrument is used for determination of
relative elevations (levels) of various points in the vertical plane.

4. Plane table surveys: In plane table surveys, a map is prepared in the field while viewing the
terrain after determining the directions of various lines and taking the linear measurements with
telescopic alidade.

5. Theodolite surveys: A theodolite is a very precise instrument for measuring horizontal and
vertical angles.
 Cont’d

6. Tacheometric surveys: A tacheometer is a special type of theodolite that is fitted

with a stadia diaphragm having two horizontal cross hairs in addition to the
central horizontal hair. In tacheometric surveying horizontal angles, horizontal
distances and elevations are measured with a tacheometer.

7. Photogammetric surveys: Photogrammetry is a science of taking measurements

with the help of photographs. Photogrammetric surveys are generally used for
topographic mapping of vast areas.

8. EDM Surveys: is an Electronic distance measurement used to measure distance

using electromagnetic waves (indirect distance measurements).
Classification of surveying based on nature of the field:

Surveying is classified in to three parts according to their field:

1. Land Surveying:

i. Topographical Surveying: - This kind of surveying is to show the topography of

mountain, terrain, river, water bodies, and roads. It is three-dimensional. Topographical
maps are used to select routes, crossing for bridges, canals, and dams.

ii. Cadastral Surveying: - This surveying is generally plotted to large scale than
topographical surveying. The main aim of these surveying is to fix boundary lines,
calculation of the area of land properties and preparation of revenue map for the state.

iii. City Surveying: - This surveying is carried out for the construction of roads, parks,
water supply for any developing township.
 Cont’d

2. Hydrographic Surveys: -

This survey deals with the surveying of mapping of large water bodies for the
purpose of navigation and construction of harbor works etc.

Example: Hydrographic Survey of Lake Tana.

3. Astronomical Surveys

• These Survey which are carried out for determining the absolute location i.e.
latitude of different place on the earth surface and direction of line on the surface
of the earth by making observation to heavenly bodies i.e. stars & Sun.
 1.3 PRINCIPLES OF SURVEYING
To get accurate results one should follow the two basic principles explained below:

1. Work from whole to part

 This is the ruling principle in surveying. The surveyor should first establish a sufficient numbers

of points with high degree of precision in and around the area to be surveyed. Such points are

known as primary control points.

 The gaps are then filled with a system of secondary control points at closer intervals and with

slightly less precision. Further gaps are then filled by tertiary control points at even closer

intervals and with even less precision.

 For the surveys which are of ordinary nature, the tertiary control points are used to fix detail on

the ground.
 Cont’d
 As a rule, the errors in survey details should be too small to plot, while the accuracy of the
control points used for plotting the detail must be as high as possible.

 The purpose of working from the whole to the part is mainly to localize the errors, i.e., not to
magnify and to control the accumulation of errors.

2. Fixing positions of new control points: -fixing a point/s with reference to or in relation to
point/s already fixed

 For fixing new control points with respect to already fixed points, at least two independent
processes should be followed.

 IF A and B are two already located control points and with respect to them new control point C is
to be located, apart from the minimum two measurements required, one more reading should be
taken. In this method of working from the part to the whole will get magnified error.
 1.4 Importance of Surveying
• Surveying is one of the world’s oldest and most important arts because, as noted previously, from
the earliest times it has been necessary to mark boundaries and divide land.

Surveying has now become indispensable to our modern way of life. The results of today’s surveys
are being used to:

1. Map the earth above and below sea level.

2. Prepare navigational carts for use in the air, on land and at sea.

3. Establish property boundaries of private and public lands

4. Develop data banks of land-use and natural resources information which aid in managing our
environment

5. Determine facts on the size, shape, gravity and magnetic fields of the earth and

6. Prepare charts of our moon and planets.

 1.5 Application of Surveying

• Surveying plays an essential role in the planning, design, layout, and construction

of our physical environment and infrastructure (all the constructed facilities and

systems which human communities use to function and thrive productivity).

• It is also the link between design and construction.

• Roads, bridges, buildings, water supply, sewerage, drainage systems, and many

other essential public work projects could never have been built without surveying

technology as per design work to many environmental duties.

 PHASES OF WORKS IN SURVEYING

Survey work has the following phases:

i. Planning

ii. Care and Adjustment of Instruments

iii. Field work, and

iv. Office work