Construction and Building Materials 406 (2023) 133372

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Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Review

Fiber utilization in pervious concrete: Review on manufacture

and properties
Jie Li a, Jun Xia a, *, Luigi Di Sarno b, Guobin Gong a
a
Department of Civil Engineering, Xi’an Jiaotong-Liverpool University, 111 Ren’ai Road, Suzhou 215123, China
b
University of Liverpool, School of Engineering, Department of Civil Engineering and Industrial Design, Liverpool, UK

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Impermeable structures have replaced the original natural permeable structure, leading to frequent occurrences
Compressive strength of urban runoff, flooding, and heat island effects. To address these issues, a new type of material that can function
Flexural strength as a sponge city has been proposed - pervious concrete (PC). However, the performance of PC must be improved
Splitting tensile strength
significantly. One potential solution is to incorporate fibers into the mixture, similar to those used in conven­
Porosity
tional concrete. This review aims to identify the optimal manufacturing methods, analyze the effectiveness of
Permeability
Pore characterization different fiber types, and determine the recommended dosage of fibers for improving PC’s performance. The
Durability review focuses on fiber-reinforced pervious concrete (FPC), examining the current state of knowledge regarding
mix design, mixing procedures, compaction techniques, and curing methods for fiber integration. By analyzing
the available experimental data from published studies, recommendations are made for optimizing fiber usage in
PC, including selecting suitable fiber types, lengths, aspect ratios, and volume fractions. Additionally, the latest
findings from five distinct fiber types are summarized across five properties: compressive strength, flexural
strength, splitting tensile strength, porosity, and permeability. Finally, potential research gaps are identified to
guide future investigations.

aggregates, and pores. The forming mechanism involves aggregates

1. Introduction
An important reason for the deterioration of freshwater resources is
the impervious coverage of urban areas, replacing original permeable
natural structures [1]. The paucity of the drainage system for heavy rain
loads would cause urban flooding in impermeable areas [2]. Moreover,
the impermeable nature of these surfaces retains excessive heat, exac­
erbating the heat island effect [2,3]. The pervious concrete (PC) has
been introduced to ameliorate this phenomenon, with enough con­
nected pores to allow water to pass through [3]. The prominent
permeability of PC contributes to effective drainage and provides
beneficial effects on ’Sponge City’ concepts by promoting rainwater
management [4]. However, it would palpably deteriorate its strength
due to pores. The limited application of PC is ascribed to the checks and
balances of strength and water permeability [5]. Specifically, the porous
structure of PC can lead to reduced strength under loading conditions,
making it less suitable for high-traffic areas such as roads and highways
[6]. Despite these limitations, PC remains a viable option for low-traffic
areas like pavements and parking lots.
Pervious concrete is a three-phase material, which includes paste,
enveloped by scarce pastes and forming a pore structure. The aggregates
are bonded by the hydration of paste and provide strength in synergy.
The general porosity ranges from 15% to 30%, contributing to perme­
ability. Compressive strength is an essential factor, typically ranging
from 2.8 MPa to 28 MPa [7]. The prior research mainly focuses on
compressive strength and its relationship with permeability [8–10].
However, flexural and splitting tensile strength are equally crucial when
PC is applied in pavement design, especially in permeable bricks or
plates [11–13]. Recently, researchers were inclined to explore novel
methods to improve PC performance, and referred to fiber addition as an
effective solution. The length, aspect ratio, and elastic modulus of fibers
added can significantly affect PC properties. By considering these fac­
tors, a new strength and permeability prediction model can be devel­
oped to optimize fiber addition. [14]. Different types of fibers have been
investigated, including synthetic, natural, carbon-based, metallic, and
inorganic ones, as shown in Table 1 [15]. Each type of fiber exhibits
unique characteristics, and their incorporation into pervious concrete
can contribute to performance.
The research timeline of fibers in PC is shown in Fig. 1. This figure
illustrates the chronology of the emergence of novel fiber types.

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: jun.xia@xjtlu.edu.cn (J. Xia).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2023.133372
Received 18 June 2023; Received in revised form 2 September 2023; Accepted 15 September 2023
Available online 19 September 2023
0950-0618/© 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
J. Li et al.
Nomenclature
σ Compressive strength (MPa)
σ0 Compressive strength at zero porosity (MPa)
p Porosity
E Elasticity modulus (Pa);
γ Fracture surface energy (J/m2)
A Half-length of an internal crack (m)
K Empirical constants
fca Factor of type of aggregate
fe Factor of exposure to acidic environment
fa Factor of age
fT Factor of temperature
C The cement content of mix, expressed as fraction
rm Mean distribution radius (mm)
FM Fineness modulus (FM)
According to the published articles, the first fiber addition to PC
occurred in 2006, when Kevern’s team [16–19] proposed incorporating
polypropylene fiber (PPF) into PC. They discovered that fiber addition
increased compressive strength and contributed to permeability due to
the improvement of void continuity. Subsequent research focused on
optimizing PPF content, length, and aspect ratio in 2006–2008. It was
found that compressive, permeability, and durability could be improved
through PPF addition. After that, natural fibers were also introduced
into the PC system. In 2010–2011, Schaefer et al. [20,21] examined
cellulose microfibers in PC and found that these mixtures exhibited
excellent mechanical properties while minimally affecting permeability.
In addition, Shu and Wu [22,23] investigated the impact of poly­
propylene fibers on the abrasion resistance of PC. In subsequent studies,
new types of fibers were continuously introduced. In 2012, Rehman [24]
found that carbon fiber (CF) has superior tensile strength than PPF and
would perform better than PPF in PC.
In 2014, Bonicelli et al. [25] investigated the effectiveness of
different synthetic fibers (polyolefin fiber (PO), polypropylene fiber, and
polyethylene fiber (PE)) on the mechanical properties of PC. The study
revealed that only the 18 mm-length polyethylene fiber significantly
improved the performance of the PC. Subsequent studies by Hesami
et al. [26,27] compared three fiber types: steel fiber (STF), poly­
phenylene sulfide fiber (PPS), and glass fiber (GF), and observed that
steel fiber has enhanced compressive strength with respect to others. In
addition, GF exhibits enhancement in splitting tensile strength and PPS
improves the flexural strength of PC. In 2015, Nayak et al. [28] proposed
that polyester fiber (PEF) could also be used in PC and found that it can
improve overall mechanical properties, including compressive, flexural,
and splitting tensile strength. In addition, Kerven et al. [29] proposed
that macro polypropylene fiber has no significant effects on mechanical
properties but reduces permeability.
In 2016, novel sustainable recycled materials were introduced. Kim
et al. [30] proposed two synthetic fibers manufactured from recycled
polypropylene fiber, which demonstrated enhanced compressive
strength and slight increments in infiltration capabilities. Moreover,
Rangelov et al. [31] subsequently presented cured carbon fiber com­
posite materials (CCFCM), composed of densely interconnected carbon
fibers bonded by thermoset resin. Although these materials might
marginally impair the porosity of PC, they significantly contribute to its
mechanical properties. In 2018, Aliabdo et al. [32] conducted a
comparative study between rubber fiber (RF) and PPF, revealing that RF
decreased PC’s mechanical properties yet augmented its permeability.
Avishreshth et al. [33] experimented with diverse shapes of steel fibers
in PC and discovered that improving the mechanical properties came at
the cost of diminished permeability. Zhong and Wille [34] suggested
that polyvinyl chloride fibers (PVC) are another viable option for PC,
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Construction and Building Materials 406 (2023) 133372
dMFS Mean free spacing (mm)
dn Number averaged pore size (mm)
ϕA Area fraction of pores (%)
Sp Specific surface area of pores (mm− 1)
Γ3D Three-dimensional pore distribution density
d Aggregate size (mm)
d0 Smallest aggregate size (mm)
wc Water-cement ratio
K Permeability of pervious concrete (mm/s)
i Hydraulic gradient
g Acceleration of gravity (m/s2)
h Hydraulic load (mm)
hf Final hydraulic load (mm)
WFT Water film thickness (mm)
PFT Paste film thickness (mm)
although more research is required to assess their impact on PC’s
properties. In addition, Akand et al. [35,36] conducted a study on the
effectiveness of chemically treated PPF and determined that acid treat­
ment yielded the most promising outcomes. In 2019, Huang et al. [37]
proposed that the inclusion of polyvinyl alcohol fiber (PVA) could
enhance compressive and splitting tensile strength; however, studies
investigating its permeability were lacking.
Since 2020, various new types of fibers have been introduced. Ali
et al. [38] explored the impact of incorporating waste polyethylene
terephthalate (PET) fibers into PC. The inclusion of these fibers was
found to enhance the permeability and flexural strength of PC while
adversely affecting its compressive strength. Dai et al. [39] compared
the effects of addition with soft and hard polypropylene and basalt fiber
(BF) in PC. The study revealed that BF could increase compressive
strength but decrease the permeability of PC. Oni et al. [40] evaluated
the performance of three types of ultra-high performance fibers in
pervious concrete brick, including Kevlar fiber (KF), PVA, and ultra-high
molecular weight polyethylene fiber (UHMWPE). The results showed
that these three types of fibers could deteriorate on mechanical prop­
erties except that PVA and KF would increase the flexural strength.
Adding steel fibers significantly enhances the ultra-high performance of
concrete, as Hesami et al. observed [27]. However, it can lead to
corrosion and deterioration of freshwater resources. Therefore, copper-
coated steel fiber (CCSF) and amorphous metallic fiber (AMF) have been
introduced. Zhu et al. [41] found that adding CCSF improves mechanical
properties but reduces permeability in PC, while Park et al. [42]
discovered that incorporating AMF contributes to compressive strength
and permeability while promoting water evaporation in the pore.
In addition, Juradin et al. [43] incorporated hemp fiber (HF) into PC,
which would decrease permeability. However, the vibrated compacted
method yielded better mechanical properties than the hammer com­
pacted method. Mehrabi et al. [14] proposed barchip fibers as a type of
macro-fiber that would improve the mechanical properties, but its
impact on permeability remains unknown. Tran et al. [44] used waste
plastic fiber and found it would deteriorate the mechanical properties of
PC. Wen et al. [45] investigated that Polyacrylonitrile fiber (PANF)
improved compressive strength and permeability but decreased flexural
strength in PC. Juradin et al. [46] introduced waste cloth strips into PC
with large aggregates, which increased compressive strength while
decreasing permeability. Park et al. [47] investigated the potential of
kenaf fiber, comprising 45–57% cellulose, 22% hemicellulose, 8–13%
lignin, and 3–5% pectin, in reducing the compressive strength of PC.
Recently, Hari and Mini [48] investigated the incorporation of basalt
fiber and steel wool fiber into PC, then employing the Box Behnken
approach to evaluate its performance. It was observed that the inclusion
of fibers reduced compressive strength for PC; however, the hybrid
J. Li et al. Construction and Building Materials 406 (2023) 133372

Table 1 summarize and compare fiber effects across various literature using
The various types of fibers with its properties. consistent sample sizes to derive comparable conclusions.
Material Type Density Tensile Modulus Ref. The aggregate sizes used in the PC typically range from 5 ~ 10 mm to
variety strength of achieve desired hydraulic and mechanical properties. Some studies have
(MPa) elasticity added larger 10 ~ 20 mm aggregate to optimize the aggregate packing
(Gpa)
[26,27,44,68,69] or introduced fine aggregates to improve the overall
Synthetic Polypropylene 900–910 300–900 3.5–11 [32] performance [14,68–70]. Graded aggregates were found to be more
fiber (PPF) beneficial to the compressive strength than single-size aggregates due to
Polypropylene 910 300–900 3.5–11 [41]
thick fiber (PPTF)
higher specific surface area, according to Dai et al. [39]. Liu et al. [71]
Polyolefin fiber 910 – – [25] discovered that adding 10–15 mm aggregates increased the average pore
(PO) size and resulted in less homogeneous pore distribution, leading to a
Polyphenylene 900 – 3.5 [26] decrease in compressive strength. Furthermore, Furkan Ozel et al. [72]
sulfide fiber (PPS)
investigated different types of aggregates, including basalt, limestone,
Polyester fiber 1380 11–15 6–18 [28]
(PEF) travertine, and pumice aggregates, and found that pumice exhibited
Polyethylene fiber 910 [25] poorer performance than the others. Additionally, using recycled ag­
(PE) gregates as an alternative approach to replace natural aggregates can
Waste 1120 – – [38] contribute towards more sustainable solutions despite potential perfor­
Polyethylene
terephthalate
mance deterioration, and design standards can still be satisfied.
(PET) fiber [32,41,44,73].
Ferro-green fiber 910 – – [30] The water-cement ratio (w/c) is also an essential factor in FPC, with
Green-net fiber 910 – – [30] studies indicating that it typically falls within the range of 0.2 ~ 0.4.
Recycled rubber 1090 [32]
– –
Hesami et al. [26] discovered that reducing the water/cement ratio
fiber (RF)
Polyvinyl 2750 4840 – [34] leads to increased mechanical strength, and optimizing the w/c at 0.33
Chloride fiber was identified. Zhu et al. [41] found that varying the w/c would
(PVC) significantly impact fiber effectiveness, while research on the influence
Polyvinyl Alcohol 1300 1050 60–120 [40] of fiber content on permeability showed different trends at different w/
fiber (PVA)
c, consistent with Liu et al. [74]. Bonicelli et al. [25] examined the w/c
Waste plastic fiber 940–1100 101 – [44]
(WPF) range of 0.27–0.35 and observed that the smaller w/c resulted in a more
Kevlar fiber (KF) 1480 1980 – [40] pronounced difference in permeability. In addition, Tang et al. [75]
Ultra-high 970 3000 – [40] employed an orthogonal test method to investigate the impact of w/c on
molecular weight
paste flow value and the compressive strength of PC. The results
polyethylene fiber
(UHMWPE) revealed a significant and higher impact compared to different fiber
Polyacrylonitrile 1180 500 – [45] contents. On the contrary, Wen et al. [45] confirmed that the signifi­
fiber (PANF) cance of w/c is lower than fiber content in the orthogonal experiment.
Waste cloth strip – – – [46] This paper seeks to synthesize existing literature on the production
Barchip fiber 900 640 12 [14]
techniques and propose optimal strategies, including mix design, mixing
Natural Cellulose fiber – – – [20]
Hemp fiber (HF) 1500 400–938 14.5–53 [43] protocols, compaction, and curing methods, for incorporating fibers into
Natural kenaf 1900 930 14.5–53 [47] pervious concrete (PC). Additionally, the study examines the impact of
fiber various fiber types on PC’s mechanical and physical properties, high­
Carbon Carbon fiber (CF) 1600–1900 1800–4300 228–238 [24]
lighting existing knowledge gaps and providing a foundation for future
based Cured carbon – – – [31]
fiber composite
investigations. The ultimate goal is to foster further research on fiber-
material reinforced PC and develop reliable prediction and correlation models
Metallic Steel fiber (STF) 7800–7850 1100–1450 200–250 [14] for its performance.
Copper-coated 7850 – – [41]
steel fiber
Amorphous 7200 1400 – [42]
2. Mixing, compacting, and curing method
metallic fiber
(AMF) 2.1. Mixing design and procedures
Inorganic Glass fiber (GF) 2460–2700 1050–3850 70–80 [26]
Basalt fiber (BF) 2650–2700 324–4840 35–115 [39]
The content of fiber addition in the PC should be specified. As shown
in Table 3, there are commonly six distinct methods for quantifying fi­
system exhibited a synergistic effect that enhanced compressive strength bers in the mix design. The predominant approach involves quantifica­
when considering the corresponding volume of fibers. tion by weight or volume fraction of PC (Type 1 and 2). Some
It is worth noting that there is yet to be a universally accepted researchers consider fiber as part of the cement paste and thus employ a
experimental test method in the literature for investigating the impact of cement replacement ratio, either by weight or by volume (Type 3 and 4).
fibers on PC. The sample size can significantly affect the results, Additionally, other researchers added fibers based on the skeleton ag­
particularly when assessing water permeability. The specimen size of gregates, thereby quantifying them according to the weight or volume of
compressive strength was 150 × 300 mm cylinders [49] or 100 × 200 aggregates (Type 5 and 6). Type 4 and 6 are preferred due to their
mm cylinders [50,51], as specified in ASTM C39 [52] for conventional consideration of fiber volume within PC.
concrete. As PC gains popularity, different countries adopt their test PC has a distinct structural composition compared to conventional
methods based on those used for conventional concrete and propose concrete, requiring specific attention during mixing to ensure uniform
corresponding sample sizes. Existing major standards could be catego­ distribution of the paste throughout the aggregate surfaces. The suitable
rized into three groups: the UK [53–56], the US [52,57–63], and the paste should have uniformity and cohesion to avoid segregation.
Chinese [64–67]. Each set of standards employs distinct sample sizes for Therefore, it is necessary to choose an appropriate mixing process.
different property testing methods. Table 2 provides a summary of the Furthermore, the presence of fibers requires slight modifications in the
sample sizes prescribed by different standards. This article aims to process to ensure even distribution for optimized effect. The literature
showed that different mixing procedures of FPC can be categorized into

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J. Li et al.
three primary options and typical duration are summarized, as shown in
Table 4 [14,16,29,32,33,37,38,40,42,44–47,70,71,73,74,76–84]: (1)
Consider Fibers in Pastes, (2) Fibers in Aggregates, and (3) Fibers as
Additives. Within these categories, fibers can be incorporated at various
stages of the mixing process and different statements, including pre-
mixing or post-mixing and dry or wet statements. The duration of the
mixing process also varies depending on the chosen technique, ranging
from approximately 2.5 min to 15 min, with the exception of the ’Fibers
in Paste’ dry method, which requires up to 30 min. Selecting the most
appropriate mixing process depends on the type of fiber and mixed
Fig. 1. The research timeline of fiber addition in PC.
4
Construction and Building Materials 406 (2023) 133372
design principles.
2.2. Compacting and curing method
The compacting techniques described in the literature are typically
conducted in a laboratory setting. The various methods employed in the
literature are listed in Table 5. Method 1 proposed by ASTM C09.49 and
UNI EN 12697–30 [85,86], which involves using a standard Proctor
hammer to control the compact energy through the number of blows
delivered, with each blow providing constant compact energy. Method
J. Li et al. Construction and Building Materials 406 (2023) 133372

Table 2
The summary of different standards for different properties of PC.
Properties UK US Chinese

Porosity Standard code ISO 17785–2:2018 [53] ASTM C1754/C1754M [57] DB11/T 775–2021 [64]
CJJ/T 253–2016 [65]
Specimens size CY D100 CY D100 CU 150
H100 ~ 300 H100 ~ 300
Compressive strength Standard code BS EN 12390–3 [54] ASTM C39 [52] GT/B 50081–2019 [66]
Specimens size CU100/CU 150/ CY D150H300/ CU 100/
CU 150/
CY D160H320 CY D100H200/ CU 200
Split tensile strength Standard code BS EN 12390–6 [55] ASTM C496-17 [58] GT/B 50081–2019 [66]
Specimens size CY D150H300 CY D150H300 CU 100/
CU 150/
CU 200
Flexural Strength Standard code BS EN 12390–5 [56] ASTM C78 [59] GT/B 50081–2019 [66]
Specimens size 100*100*400 100*100*400/ 150*150*600/
100*100*500 150*150*550/
100*100*400
Permeability Standard code – ACI 522 [60] CJJ/T 135–2009 [67]
ASTM D2434 [61]
ASTM C1701 [62]
ASTM D5084 [63]
Specimens size – CY D100H150 CY D100H50

*CY: cylinder samples, CU: cube samples. Unit: mm.

3. The effects of fiber addition on mechanical and physical

Table 3
properties
The quantification of fibers in PC.
Addition In terms of Notes 3.1. Compressive strength (CS)
method

1 Volume fraction in unit It can be directly calculated by In conventional concrete, fibers are homogeneously distributed
of (m3/m3) multiplying the specific density of fibers
throughout the mixture to create a bridging effect, thereby enhancing
2 dosage weight in unit The content is directly shown
of 1 kg/m3
the strength of the entire system. However, the fiber distribution in PC
3 Weight percentage of Consider fiber belonging to paste would be affected by the pore size and distribution, resulting in varying
cement (%) degrees of enhancement compared to conventional concrete. Further­
4 Volume percentage of Consider fiber belonging to paste and more, the specimen size may significantly affect the performance. The
cement consider the volume of fibers
most commonly employed specimen sizes in this study were those
5 Weight percentage of Consider fiber belonging to aggregate
aggregates defined by ASTM C39 [52] and GB/T 50081–2019 [66], including CY
6 Volume percentage of Consider fiber belonging to aggregate D100H200, CY D150H300, CU 150, and CU 100, in which CY refers to
aggregates and consider the volume of fibers cylinder specimens while CU refers to cubic specimens. ASTM C39
stipulates that the correction coefficient should adjust samples with
length/diameter ratio (L/D) less than 1.75. The same L/D of CY
2–4 are commonly used in FPC, and different times of rodding and vi­
D100H200 and CY D150H300 and higher than 1.75. GB/T 50081–2019
bration time are combined for different numbers of layers. However,
stipulates that the specimen size is CU 150 and CU 100. Therefore,
these combinations would perform full compaction or sometimes over-
Cylinders and Cubes were separated in this article.
compacted due to excessive vibration, thus causing segregation.
The impact of fibers on compressive strength (CS) of PC varies
Method 5 is typically used in pavement construction but may lead to
depending on the mixture proportions, mixing process, curing condi­
over-compaction when applied to PC. Method 6 would be used to
tion, compaction method, and especially target porosity for PC. Figs. 2
fabricate pervious concrete bricks or blocks, providing controllable
and 3 demonstrate the improvement index for CS versus the volume
compaction energy while requiring the weighing of each material feed.
fraction for synthetic and carbon-based fiber in cubic and cylindrical
The curing method could be divided into three categories, as shown in
samples. The improvement index for compressive strength is calculated
Table 6, with the most prevalent approach being water curing at tem­
by contrasting the performance of FPC with that of PC controls. Various
peratures between 22 and 25℃ [14,26,27,70,72], and the standard
fiber quantifications were converted into volume fractions of fibers in a
method is cured in a curing chamber [16,25,41,87,88]. The moist curing
mixture for comparison.
by a film covering is typically employed for in-situ construction [82].
For synthetic fiber in PC, as shown in Fig. 2, the volume fraction
There would be steam or high-temperature steam curing in conventional
primarily ranges from 0 ~ 1.6% in cylinder specimens, with potential
concrete, but it has not been utilized in published articles due to the lack
improvements reaching up to 47% by utilizing PPS fiber with 0.27 w/c
of clarity regarding its impact on PC. However, establishing the rela­
[26]. The impact of volume fraction on compressive strength varies,
tionship between high-temperature steam and standard curing is not a
some literature shows minor effects [16,83], while others demonstrate a
pressing concern for practical PCs.
decreasing trend [20,21,44,88], an increasing trend [30,78], or an
The mixing, compaction, and curing processes significantly affect the
initial increase followed by decrease [29,68,69]. Alemu et al. [78]
properties of PC, particularly with regard to fiber quantification and
discovered that CS significantly deteriorated with PVA addition,
compactness, which determine the efficiency of fibers in FPC. Unfortu­
although the deterioration extent was mitigated with higher PVA con­
nately, there are no standardized protocols for these steps, and empirical
tents. Conversely, an increase in waste plastic fiber (WPF) content led to
criteria are often employed to evaluate the suitability of the final com­
greater deterioration extent [44]. In addition to deterioration, en­
posite material.
hancements have also been reported. Kevern et al. [29] observed that
the improvement index initially increased and then decreased with the

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J. Li et al. Construction and Building Materials 406 (2023) 133372

Table 4
The process type and process diagram for FPC.

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J. Li et al. Construction and Building Materials 406 (2023) 133372

Table 5 explored PPF addition in PC and achieved an increase of up to 112.05%

The compaction method in FPC. using the vibration compacting method. Most literature reviews indicate
Method Compacting method Advantage Disadvantage that the improvement index of compressive strength initially increases
number but then decreases as volume fraction increases [32,39,41,73,89,90],
1 Using standard Could control Not easy to implement suggesting the existence of an optimal volume fraction is influenced by
hammer referred to compacted various factors. However, Ali et al. [38] observed a gradual exacerbation
ASTM C09.49 energy in compressive strength deterioration with incremental PET fiber vol­
2 Rodding 25 times + Easy to lead to over compacted ume fraction increases.
Vibration 5–10 s for implement then segregation
three layers
There have been limited studies on carbon-based fibers. Nassiri’s
3 Vibration 5 s Easy to vibration would easily lead team used cylinder specimens to research cured carbon fiber composite
implement to segregation material (CCFCM) from 2016 to 2021[5,31,84,91,92]. Another study
4 Rodding 25 times Easy to Cannot control consistency focused on pure carbon fiber [43,93,94], using cubes specimens. In
implement for each samples
cylinder specimens, the Nassiri team explored the complete volume
5 Bar vibration Usually in in- Lead to over compacted
situ fraction distribution and four different lengths of fibers and observed
construction insignificant enhancement effects. In contrast, research on pure carbon
6 Hydraulic press Could control Cannot control the sample fiber in cube specimens showed a relatively discrete distribution with a
compacted thickness, which would volume fraction of up to 5%. Most literature demonstrated positive ef­
energy change due to different
proportions
fects, of which the highest reached 124.1% improvement with vibration
compaction [43], which is higher than 7.2% with wooden rodding.
The research on metallic fiber in PC is surprisingly limited. Studies
have shown that the volume fraction of metallic fibers in PC ranges from
Table 6
0 to 2%. Lee et al. [95] investigated the influence of volume fraction on
The curing method in FPC.
CS under various mixture proportions. The findings revealed that
Method Curing method Advantage Disadvantage incorporating only 1% of steel fibers failed to enhance CS, whereas
number
adding 2% led to a significant improvement of 50.44%.
1 water curing in 22- The same as The water tank may Incorporating inorganic fibers, primarily glass and basalt fibers,
25℃ for 28 days conventional not control
positively impacts CS enhancement. In cube specimens, the volume
concrete, easy to temperature strictly
implement fraction of inorganic fiber is distributed within a limited range of 0 ~
2 moist-cured for 28 Convenient, usually Not standard 0.5%, resulting in a maximum improvement of 102.41% with glass fi­
days by a film for in-situ bers [43]. Vibration compacting the mixture generates a denser system,
covering construction yielding a 40.5% improvement compared to using wooden rodding for
3 moist-cured for 28 Standard control The space of
compaction. Bright Singh and Murugan [89] observed that the
days in a curing curing condition chamber is limited
chamber (>95% enhancement of CS initially increases and then decreases with increased
RH. 20 ◦ C) volume fractions of glass fibers. Wang et al. [80] investigated basalt
fiber in PC with varying diameters, lengths and volume fractions,
revealing that CS improvement decreases with increasing volume frac­
PPF volume fraction increasing for two different lengths, while Schaefer tion and diameter, while increasing with length. However, Wu et al. [96]
et al. [20,21] found that the enhancement was reduced with an increase delivered contrasting results, showing that CS enhancement first in­
in volume fraction. Fiber length also affects enhancement. Schaefer et al. creases and then decreases with rising volume fractions. Comparing the
[20,21] investigated the PPF with various lengths and volume fractions data of Wu et al. [96] and Wang et al. [80], it was found that the longer
and observed a decrease in CS with increasing length, which was also basalt fibers exhibited better improvement than the shorter ones. In
noted by Dean et al. [16] and Pils et al. [68]. However, Kevern et al. [29] cylinder specimens, the highest enhancement was attained at lower w/c
observed that longer PPF lengths enhanced the CS at a medium volume [26]. Lee et al. [95] found that the proportions of paste and aggregate
fractions but led to minor deterioration in improvement at a relatively size affect the enhancement of glass fiber addition. It was observed that
higher volume fractions. In cube specimens, the volume fraction is mixtures with higher paste strength contributed to the improvement but
mainly distributed between 0 ~ 2.0%, although some studies have still delivered a decreasing trend with the volume fraction increasing.
investigated fibers with large volume fractions [32]. Juradin et al. [43]

Fig. 2. The fiber volume fraction distribution for Synthetic fibers on compressive strength a) Cylinder specimens, b) Cube specimens.

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J. Li et al. Construction and Building Materials 406 (2023) 133372

Fig. 3. The fiber volume fraction distribution for Carbon-based, Metallic and inorganic fibers on compressive strength a) Cylinder specimens, b) Cube specimens.

On the contrary, PC containing large aggregate sizes displayed an
increasing trend of CS improvement index with growing fiber volume
fractions.
Previous studies on natural fibers have indicated their unsuitability
for PC systems [20,21,43,47]. These studies did not delve into the spe­
cific characteristics of these fibers, such as their fiber length, aspect
ratio, or composition.
In summary, most types of fibers have a negligible effect on
compressive strength in PC, with enhancement ranging from 0 to 40%.
Inorganic fibers are optimal for improving CS because they can achieve
better enhancement at a small volume fraction. Further research is
needed to explore the size and shape effects of FPC across different
specimen types.
3.2. Flexural strength (FS)
According to ASTM C78 [59] and BS EN 12390–5 [56], 100 × 100
mm specimens with a minimal 350 mm span were selected for investi­
gation. The addition of fiber has almost positive effects on flexural
strength (FS), except for some inorganic and synthetic fibers whose
tensile strength is weak. Fig. 4 illustrates the effect of fiber volume
fraction on FS enhancement for each type of fiber.

Fig. 4. The fiber volume fraction distribution on flexural strength a) Synthetic, b) Carbon-based, c) Metallic, and d) Inorganic fibers.

8
J. Li et al.
For synthetic fiber, the volume fraction distribution is concentrated
at 0–2%, with the highest enhancement up to 175.3% in mid-span ul­
timate displacement. Synthetic fibers generally positively impact FS,
except for WPF [14,44,70] and rubber fiber [32], which have lower
tensile strength. Different proportions of PC mixture can cause changes
in the optimal volume fraction of fiber for the same type of fiber. The
improvement index first increases and then decreases with an increase in
volume fraction [41,68,69,89]. In addition, similar trends are observed
when using waste PET and PVA fibers [38,73]. Hesami et al. [26]
discovered that w/c affects FS improvement and observed that proper
w/c could realize the full potential of fibers. In addition, the highest
improvement index was 69% at the optimal rice husk ash (RHA) level.
Fiber length is another critical factor for the same type of fiber. Zhao
et al. [79] compared different fiber lengths ranging from 6 mm to 12 mm
and observed that 12 mm fiber has slightly better enhancement than 6
mm on flexural strength.
Natural fibers have received less attention in this regard, with only a
limited number of studies investigating their addition and impact on
PC’s flexural and splitting tensile strength. The volume fraction of
carbon-based fiber ranges from 0 to 5%. Carbon fibers are high-
performance materials, but research lengths are typically limited to
12 mm. Bright Singh and Murugan [93] explored an incremental in­
crease in the volume fraction of carbon fiber, delivering a trend of initial
increase and then decrease. Nassiri et al. [84,91,92] conducted
comprehensive research on CCFCM with volume fractions ranging from
0 to 5% and lengths up to 12 mm. It was observed that the smaller the
fiber length, the higher the FS improvement. In addition, the volume
fraction of CCFCM fibers had little effect on the improvement index.
For metallic fiber, a maximum improvement of 115.7% for FS was
achieved [72]. The volume fraction ranges from 0 to 2%, with an
improvement of up to 70%. Similarly, there are few studies on fiber
length and aspect ratio on comparison transversely, most of which focus
on the volume fraction of fiber. Zhu et al. [41] investigated the CCSF and
observed a positive correlation between increasing volume fraction and
improved performance, which aligns with Ozturk and Ozyurt’s [69]
research findings. Lee et al. [95] explored SF in paste with different
strengths and particle sizes, finding that normal-strength paste exhibited
more significant improvement than compared to high-strength paste
when using SF. Furthermore, it was observed that as the volume fraction
increased, the enhancement in FS decreased for mixtures containing
large aggregate sizes. Avishreshth et al. [33] highlighted the importance
of fiber shape in enhancing mechanisms, noting that hooked-end steel
fibers outperformed crimped steel fibers. However, at higher volume
fractions, the improvement index decreased for hooked-end fibers due to
their tendency to agglomerate.
The volume fraction of inorganic fibers is distributed between 0 ~
0.5%, and an optimum improvement of 64% has been achieved [26].
Lee et al. [95] found that adding GF in different proportions of PC can
result in varying effects, even when using fibers with the same length
and volume fraction. The FS improvement would increase with
increasing volume fraction of fiber addition (VF) in high-strength paste,
but it is the opposite in normal-strength paste. It is suggested that the
ideal fiber volume fraction may vary depending on the mixture
composition.
To summarize, incorporating fiber in mixtures enhanced the flexural
strength of PC, with an improvement index between 0% and 100%. Both
synthetic and metallic fibers demonstrated a remarkable contribution to
the flexural strength of PC, even with a small volume fraction. Therefore,
these types of fibers are suitable for improving the flexural strength of
PC.
3.3. Splitting tensile strength (STS)
BS EN 12390–6 [55] and ASTM C496 [58] regulate that the standard
sample size is CY D150H300. For cylinders, the results with the different
sizes perform no difference. Therefore, the cylinder samples were
9
Construction and Building Materials 406 (2023) 133372
selected for investigation and a few articles that used cube specimens
was also explored. There is comprehensive research on carbon-based
and synthetic fiber about its volume fraction, whereas the focus on
inorganic fibers remains limited. Fig. 5 illustrates the impact of fiber
volume fraction on splitting tensile strength (STS) improvement for each
type of fiber.
For synthetic fibers, improvements range from 0 ~ 50%, with most
research concentrated between 0 and 1% of fiber volume fraction.
Similarly to FS findings, the optimal volume fraction of fibers varies
depending on paste proportions. Bagaria and Juneja [90] found that the
improvement index of initially increases and then decreases with the
PPF volume fraction increasing. Kevern et al. [29] compared two fiber
lengths with three contents and found that longer PPF (56 mm) showed
a more significant improvement (47.06%) than shorter ones (38 mm).
Therefore, a trend indicates that longer synthetic fibers enhance better
than shorter ones. Furthermore, Pils et al. [68] discovered that adding
PPF can reduce the STS, possibly due to its high diameter and low aspect
ratio.
For carbon-based fiber, the enhancement in STS is comparable to
that in FS. The maximum improvement of CF in STS has been reported to
be up 39.39% [43]. In addition, Bright Singh and Murugan [93]
observed a similar trend and extent of enhancement on STS with FS due
to carbon fiber additions. Nassiri’s team [31,84,91,92] also focused on
STS and found that CCFCM enhanced STS with varying volume frac­
tions, lengths, and aspect ratios. Notably, the impact of fiber length on
STS differs from its influence on FS, and a longer length does not
necessarily deteriorate the improvement of STS.
For metallic fiber, the volume fraction distribution ranges from 0 ~
2%. Most research focuses on fibers measuring 30–60 mm in length,
particularly those studied by Hesami et al. [26], which showed a
maximum increase of 41% with a w/c of 0.27 at RHA optimum levels.
The shape of the fiber would also affect its enhancement. Avishreshth
et al. [33] found that hooked-end steel fibers outperformed crimped
ones but were more prone to agglomeration at higher volume fractions.
The research scope for inorganic fibers is relatively limited, with a
volume fraction distributed between 0 and 0.4%, and its length is
distributed between 6 and 12 mm. Juradin et al. [43] explored glass
fiber with a smaller volume fraction of 0.18% resulted in 62.121%
enhancement in STS using the vibrating compacted method. In addition,
it can also affect the optimal volume fraction of fibers due to variations
in their tensile strength and elastic modulus. Hesami et al. [26]
demonstrated that glass fiber performed optimally at w/c of 0.4, which
differs from polypropylene and steel fibers.
In the cube sample, inorganic fibers were extensively investigated
with varying volume fractions, lengths, and aspect ratios. Wang et al.
[80] analyzed the impact of different volume fractions, fiber lengths,
and diameters of basalt fibers on STS and utilized the entropy method to
predict the optimum percentage of basalt fiber. The study revealed that
the enhancement of STS increased with increasing volume fraction and
length of the fiber until it reached the optimal value, and then there was
a decrease in the STS improvement index.
In conclusion, fibers generally enhance the splitting tensile strength
of PC, with exceptions for certain synthetic fibers. Inorganic, synthetic,
and metallic fibers exhibit effective enhancement at low dosages;
however, inorganic fiber demonstrates superior improvement for both
cylinder and cube specimens.
3.4. Freeze-Thaw resistance
In addition to mechanical properties, resistance to freeze–thaw
damage is crucial for PC. Compared to conventional concrete, the
presence of pores within PC leads to significant internal stress when
water in it freezes. According to Song et al. [97], the weak interfacial
transition zone (ITZ) and expansion stress cause degradation of aggre­
gate and cement interface, leading to deterioration of PC under the
freeze and thaw (F-T) conditions. Taheri et al. [98] noted that PC is
J. Li et al.
Fig. 5. The fiber volume fraction distribution on splitting tensile strength a) Synthetic, b) Carbon-based, c) Metallic, and d) Inorganic fibers.
nearly saturated when wet, so it lacks the potential energy to bear the
volume expansion during water freezing. Various approaches have been
proposed to enhance the freeze–thaw resistance of PC, such as replacing
some cement with supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) [99],
adding sand [18], using air-entraining agents (AEAs) [100], latex
[83,100], or fibers. Kevern et al. [18] demonstrated that incorporating
sand into a mixture can improve durability by reducing the amount of
water absorbed. Additionally, mixing fly ash and silica fume into the PC
creates a denser microstructure and enhances its durability [101]. Bilal
et al. [99] found that sand addition and SCM replacement with proper
compaction enhanced the durability of the PC. Adding air-entraining
agents to conventional concrete maintains a void spacing of around
200 µm, enhancing its freeze–thaw resistance [102]. Wu et al. [100]
showed that adding AEAs to pervious concrete results in better unifor­
mity and improved performance due to their ability to reduce the for­
mation of ice crystals.
Fiber addition was an effective strategy to enhance F-T resistance in
concrete. The effectiveness of fiber addition may be influenced by
various factors such as volume fraction, type of fiber, and fiber prop­
erties. Wu et al. [100] demonstrated that incorporating PPF into con­
crete improves cracking resistance and reduces F-T damage. Similarly,
Brown et al. [103] utilized cellulose fibers in PC and reported a
remarkable enhancement in splitting tensile strength and F-T resistance
due to their ability to resist thermal expansion and contraction and
minimize fiber agglomeration issues by adding smaller fibers. Wu et al.
[82] investigated hooked steel fiber and basalt fiber enhancement on F-T
resistance and observed an improvement between the cementation layer
and aggregates due to fiber addition. Han [104] compared carbon fiber,
10
Construction and Building Materials 406 (2023) 133372
glass fiber, and polypropylene fiber additions in PC bricks, finding that
glass fibers exhibited superior improvement in F-T resistance attributed
to stronger bonding forces between glass and cementitious materials.
Additionally, fiber length and volume fraction were identified as influ­
ential factors affecting durability. Kevern et al. [29] discovered that
short PPF (38 mm) had minimal or no impact on durability at lower
dosage rates but performed better at higher dosages. Adding long PPF
(50 mm length) improved freeze–thaw resistance by around 30%.
Dean et al. [16] focused on the effects of PPF with short and long
lengths and sand addition on durability. It is observed that fiber addition
with 0.03% or 0.1% by volume enhanced freeze–thaw resistance, which
is comparable to a mixture containing sand. However, there is no sig­
nificant difference between the effects of long and short fiber additions
on durability. Wang et al. [83] compared the freeze–thaw resistance of
mixtures containing sand, latex, and PPF at various volume fractions,
observing an increase in F-T resistance due to fiber addition; however,
this enhancement decreased as the volume fraction increased but
remained higher than control mixes. Furthermore, 7% sand provided
exceptional improvement, while introducing 10% latex exhibited a
decreasing trend. Nassiri et al. [84] explored the effects on the durability
of PC with CCFCM addition and observed that 1% and 2% volume
fractions of CCFCM enhanced F-T resistance, with 2% performing better.
The impact of fiber on durability varies with different proportions of
paste. Zhong and Wille [34] examined fiber effects on the durability of
PC in three different matrices and observed that appropriate content of
fiber addition improved the durability for ultra-high-strength matrices
(UHSM) but minor enhancement for normal strength (NSM) and high-
strength matrices (HSM). It may be attributed to the fact that fiber
J. Li et al.
reinforcement did not effectively mitigate the deterioration of PC caused
by freeze–thaw (F-T) damage in NSM and HSM. Regarding crack growth,
some researchers have employed 3-D laser scanning techniques to
analyze local cracks. Liu et al. [71] demonstrated that incorporating
basalt fibers with a length of 20 mm into PC enhanced its resistance
against freeze–thaw cycles due to the bridging effects exerted by fibers,
which effectively delayed crack propagation.
Furthermore, mixtures containing fibers exhibited a more uniform
distribution of pores. Zeng et al. [105] illustrated the effect on crack
permeability and crack surface topography of PC under freeze–thaw
damage by camera recording and 3-D laser scanning. It defined the crack
roughness by computational method to explore the effects of steel fiber
addition. The mechanism of enhancement on freeze–thaw resistance due
to steel fiber addition was observed: bridging cracks by fiber, reducing
crack width, and reducing the damage due to freezing water by
increasing closed pores volume. A predictive model was also established
to estimate crack permeability based on material permeability param­
eters and roughness numbers associated with the crack surface charac­
teristics. Yang [106] examined PPF incorporated into PC systems and
found that they enhanced material toughness, thus producing more
effective bonding between the fibers and the paste. Another explanation
is that multidirectional fibers created extensive pathways for water
escape to avoid water retention.
Fig. 6. The fiber volume fraction distribution on porosity a) Synthetic, b) Carbon-based, c) Metallic, and d) Inorganic fibers.
11
Construction and Building Materials 406 (2023) 133372
3.5. Pore characterization
Adding fiber to PC affects its pore structure, including shape, char­
acteristic sizes, size distribution, porosity, connectivity, and tortuosity.
This mechanism is more complex compared to conventional concrete
due to the presence of macro pores.
When fibers are mixed into PC as additives, they enhance the
strength of the paste, thereby strengthening the bond between the
aggregate and the paste interface. However, it can disrupt the pore
structure, affecting the properties of the PC. Rehder et al. [88] proposed
that the improvement of fibers would be better at higher porosity
because an increased number of pores reduces the spacing between them
and increases the possibility of pores being bridged by fibers. Liu et al.
[71] observed that adding fibers reduced average pore size in samples,
while Tran et al. [44] illustrated that pore volume and size decreased
due to trapped fibers between coarse aggregates covered with paste.
Fiber shape also affects its pore structure. Kim et al. [30] found that
twisted fibers of PC had more pores than flat ones, while incorporating
basalt fibers led to a more uniform distribution in the study of Liu et al.
[71]. The reason may be that adding fibers prevents segregation within
pastes, thereby obtaining uniformity in their porous structures[78]. In
addition, Wen et al. [45] mentioned that the fiber dispersed in the paste
could fill and reduce capillary pores to obtain a more uniform material.
J. Li et al.
3.6. Porosity
Most of the existing research has adopted ASTM C1754 to measure
open porosity. The addition of fiber has two distinct effects on porosity.
One is that fiber would intrusion the distribution of aggregates, which
contributes to the pore enlarging. The enlargement is usually related to
the elasticity of the modulus of fiber. On the other hand, adding fiber
may occupy the void space and reduce the porosity. The existence of
these two possibilities causes the fluctuating impact of fiber addition on
porosity. Fig. 6 summarizes the relationship between the volume frac­
tion for each type of fiber and compressive strength enhancement.
Regarding synthetic fiber, the volume fraction ranges from 0 ~ 2%,
the fiber length varies between 0 ~ 60 mm, and the aspect ratio is
mainly distributed between 0 ~ 600. Schaefer et al. [20,21] used fiber
with a volume fraction of 0.099%, resulting in a reduction of approxi­
mately 35.889% in PC’s porosity, but porosity increases with VF
increasing. Nassiri [84] explored the PPF with similar lengths as
Schaefer’s study and found that 0.5% PPF would lead to a 64% increase
in porosity. There was a significant positive correlation between 40 mm-
long waste PET fiber volume fraction and porosity [38]. Hence, the
porosity would increase with the increasing volume fraction of PC with
the same fiber length. Dean et al. [16] incorporated 19.1 mm and 50 mm
long PPF and concluded that the porosity initially increased and then
decreased as the fiber volume fraction with the same length increased,
revealing an optimum volume fraction. In addition, it was observed that
the porosity increased with fiber length increasing when the volume
fraction was at a lower level of 0.033%. On the contrary, the porosity
decreased with fiber length increasing when the volume fraction was at
a higher level of 0.099%. Similarly, PPF with 38 mm and 56 mm lengths
also has the same trend [29].
There are a few related literature for carbon-based fiber, and the
main types are pure carbon fiber and CCFCM. Bright Singh and Murugan
[93,94] incorporated carbon fibers into PC and observed reduced
porosity, which further decreased with increasing volume fraction of
fibers. Nassari’s team [31,91] investigated CCFCM reinforced PC with
various volume fractions, lengths, and aspect ratio ranges. Their findings
indicated that CCFCM with short length had a detrimental effect initially
but eventually contributed to porosity with volume fraction increasing,
which is different from synthetic fiber.
For metallic fiber, Mehrabi and Toghroli [14,70] evaluated the
porosity of PC with 35 mm SF at 1% and 2% addition and observed that
the porosity increased with the volume fraction increases. Three
different PC proportions mixed with 1% and 2% of 30 mm long SF also
showed similar conclusions [95]. However, SF with 50 mm and 60 mm
lengths have opposite conclusions [33]. Hence, it can be inferred that
the porosity increases with increasing VF for relatively shorter fiber
lengths, while it decreases with increasing VF for relatively longer fiber
lengths.
Inorganic fibers generally have an adverse impact on porosity.
Studies on basalt fiber have concluded that porosity decreases with
increasing VF [80,93,96]. In addition, Wang et al. [80] investigated
various lengths and diameters and observed that the porosity increases
with fiber diameter and length. Similarly, research on glass fiber addi­
tion has yielded similar conclusions [89]. However, Lee et al. [95]
investigated glass fiber with three different proportions, and the results
showed that the porosity increased with VF increasing for the pro­
portions with a maximum particle size of 3.64 mm, which differed from
PC with 3.03 mm aggregates. Therefore, it can be inferred that the in­
fluence of fiber addition on porosity would be the combined action of
fiber properties and another factor, such as aggregate size.
3.7. Permeability
Permeability is a unique characteristic of pervious concrete that is
different from conventional concrete, allowing water to flow through
the material to reach the bottom layer in a unit of time. Various testing
12
Construction and Building Materials 406 (2023) 133372
methods rely on specimens with different shapes and sizes. The
permeability testing method can be categorized into three types: con­
stant head method (CHM), falling head method (FHM) in the laboratory,
and infiltration method in the field. The FHM is a practical option for
engineering applications. Zhang et al. [107] pointed out that the
permeability obtained from the FHM would usually be 100%~300%
higher than that from the CHM. It has better fitting with porosity and
costs less time than CHM but has less accuracy due to the rapid drop in
water level, which is manually recorded. On the contrary, Sandoval et al.
[108] compared the advantages and disadvantages of the two methods
and found that FHM could not detect significant differences between the
studied materials, resulting in increased time consumption. In addition,
it cannot assess actual hydraulic potential as accurately as CHM.
Although CHM has superior accuracy when used in the laboratory,
actual engineering tends to use the FHM. Abdelhady et al. [109] sum­
marized the permeability of 549 samples that used the CHM, but the
difference in specimens’ size was not considered. Therefore, this article
summarizes the literature results using different testing methods rather
than different sample dimensions.
Fiber has different effects on the permeability results obtained by
different methods. Juradin et al. [43] investigated four types of fiber
addition and their impact on permeability using CHM and FHM, finding
that the permeability coefficient obtained by CHM was approximately
16% lower than that from FHM. Furthermore, the enhancement due to
fiber addition detected by FHM is more significant than CHM, resulting
in distinct permeability values depending on the measurement method
employed. Therefore, the results revealing fiber addition effects are
summarized for CHM and FHM in Fig. 7.
In CHM, the impact of fiber on permeability is primarily minor or
unfavorable. The volume fraction of synthetic fiber ranges from 0 to
0.4%. Xiao et al. [73] examined the permeability of PC with PVA fiber
and found that it had a minor effect on permeability. It also observed
that the permeability initially decreased and then increased with the
volume fraction increasing. Tran et al. [44] revealed that WPF addition
reduced permeability with increased volume fraction. Zhu et al. [41]
explored thick and thin PPF with varying lengths and concluded that
thick PPF increased permeability while thin PPF decreased it with
increasing volume fraction. Furthermore, Juradin et al. [43] emphasized
the importance of the compaction method in their study of PC specimens
containing different types of fibers, such as PPF, HF, CF, and GF. It was
observed that denser systems exhibited more deterioration in terms of
permeability due to added fibers. Adding fibers produces a significant
enhancement in the permeable brick. Oni et al. [40] investigated KF
with 6 mm, PVA with 18 mm, and UHMWPE fiber with 12 mm and
observed a significant enhancement in permeability, which is up to
211.29%, 17.742%, and 94.355%, respectively. For inorganic fiber, the
impact on permeability is primarily unfavorable. Basalt fiber was stud­
ied by Wu et al. [96], and it was observed that a reduction of perme­
ability as the volume fraction increased from 0.075% to 0.302%. Similar
findings were examined in the research of Wang et al. [80]. The
permeability of PC with basalt fiber would decrease as the fiber volume
fraction increases and increases with the fiber’s length and diameter
increase. In addition, Liu et al. [71] added 0.2% BF with 20 mm in PC,
slightly contributing to permeability.
In FHM, the influence of fiber addition is a minor positive on the
permeability of PC. For synthetic fiber, Kevern et al. [16] found that
minor changes in volume fraction led to significant deviations in
permeability, initially increasing and then decreasing. Additionally,
longer fibers resulted in lower permeability than shorter ones at the
same volume fraction level. Similarly, Zhao et al. [79] explored PPF with
3, 6, and 12 mm lengths and observed that increasing fiber length had a
detrimental effect on permeability increase in PC. Ali et al. [38] inves­
tigated waste PET fibers with various volume fractions and observed a
maximum increase of 70.02 % in permeability with highest volume
fraction of 2%. Similarly, Pils et al. [68] concluded that permeability
increased with the volume fraction increasing. The volume fraction is
J. Li et al. Construction and Building Materials 406 (2023) 133372

Fig. 7. The fiber volume fraction distribution on permeability for each type of fiber a) Constant head test method (CHM) b) Falling head test method (FHM).

distributed between 0.5% and 2.0% for metallic fiber, with lengths
ranging from 0 to 60 mm and aspect ratios distributed between 40 and
70. The effects of steel fiber addition are generally minor for the
permeability of PC [14,33,70]. Additionally, Lee et al. [95] found that
the contribution of fiber addition varies depending on the strength of the
paste and particle size, with higher contributions for high-strength
pastes and larger aggregate sizes. The shape of steel fiber does not
affect permeability when the volume fraction remains constant, and its’
permeability decreases with the volume fraction increasing [33]. In
contrast to steel fibers, inorganic fibers exhibit an increase in perme­
ability with an increase in fiber volume fraction, and high-strength
pastes typically lead to different conclusions compared to those
derived from PC with lower-strength pastes [95].
4. Correlation between physical and mechanical properties
Prior investigations have shown that porosity is the essential factor
affecting strength, and the two are inversely related [110]. Based on
such a relationship, predictive models have been proposed. The math­
ematic laws used in these empirical models are either linear, power,
exponential, or logarithmic. Roy and Gouda [111] proposed that the
strength of porous materials limitations could be described by the
following equations:
σ = σ 0 exp( − bp)
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
2Eγ
σ=
πA
in which,σ is the compressive strength (MPa); σ 0 is the compressive
strength at zero void (MPa);b is the constant parameter; p is the void
ratio or porosity (%); E is the the elasticity modulus (Pa); γ is the fracture
surface energy (J/m2); and A is the half length of an internal crack (m).
Empirical models have been proposed, and a viable fitness has been
obtained based on Eq. 1 [112,113]. In addition, the theoretical models
have been extended by considering the critical stress of brittle material
that incurred crack propagation, as shown in Eq. 2. Based on that, more
accurate theoretical models were obtained by exploring the relationship
between elasticity modulus and fracture surface energy and porosity
[114–116]. These proposed models are further improved to summarize
empirical prediction equations under specific conditions, encompassing
various factors and theories shown in Table 7, such as w/c ratio,
aggregate size, aggregates/binders ratio, the internal pore structure, and
binder strength [110,117,118].
In addition, the permeability of PC is also affected by porosity [119],
although most of these models are empirical, as shown in Table 8
[120–127]. It has been proved that paste film thickness (slurry layer
thickness) is a determining factor [127]. The correlation between these
variables may be altered due to fiber addition and thus warrants further
exploration.
4.1. Porosity & strength
The incorporation of fiber in FPC has been found to influence the
relationship between porosity and compressive strength. Dai et al. [39]
reported that the correlation becomes more potent due to the inclusion
of single or multiple admixtures, including fiber, probably due to more
homogeneous and dense fresh cement paste created with admixtures.
(1)
Mehrabi et al. [14] explored mixtures with recycled aggregates and
additional additives such as nano-clay and pumice powder. Two
(2) different volume fractions and three types of fibers were examined. The
enhancement of STF was observed to be higher than WPF, while MF
deteriorated the compressive strength at the porosity, ranging between
20% and 25%. Five basic mathematic laws that govern the relationship
between porosity and compressive are plotted, and it is observed that the
most accurate model is the Mixed equation, as shown in Fig. 8 a). The
inclusion of fiber altered the upper and lower limits of the model. As

Table 7
The prediction model of compressive strength for pervious concrete.
Equations Mathematic Law Factor R2 Year/Reference

(1) σ = σ0 exp( − bp) Exponential porosity – 1973/[111]

(2) (1 − p) Linear In-situ, aggregate type, environment, age and temperature – 2003/[114]
σ = Kfca fe fa fT C √̅̅̅̅̅
rm
(3) σ = 152e− 0.084p Exponential Water reducer and superplasticizer 0.96 2008/[112]
(4) σ = σ0 exp[− (0.1962 − 0.0174FM)p] Exponential Binder strength/Aggregate size – 2009/[113]
] (ϕ )− 1
(5) [ln(d
MFS )
Power Pore structure – 2010/[117]
σ = α0 + α1 + α2 A + α0 ln(Γ3D )
ln(dn ) Sp
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
̅
(6) σ = B (1 − p) e m − np Mixed Young’s Modulus/Fracture energy 0.84 1983,2011/[115,116]
(7) ( d )n Linear Aggregate size, binder strength and Aggregate/Binder ratio – 2016/[118]
σ = σ0 (1 − mp)
d0
( )
(8) σ = − 57.4 +301.8 × wc − 581.9 × wc2 ln(p) + 83.4 Mixed w/c ratio 0.951 2021/[110]

13
J. Li et al. Construction and Building Materials 406 (2023) 133372

Table 8
The prediction model of permeability coefficient for pervious concrete.
Equations Mathematic Law Factor R2 Year/Reference

(1) k 3 2
= 0.00129p − 0.02769p + 0.32165p Power Target porosity 0.999 2013/[120]
(2) k = − 2.27762 + 0.16315p Linear Target porosity 0.978 2017/[121]
(3) k 1 √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ Linear Based on Darcy’s and Bernoulli’s Law 0.96 2019/[122]
= 2g(h − hf )
p i
(4) k = 0.2259e0.1092p Exponential Void ratio and density 0.753 2020/[123]
(5) k = 0.004p2.036 Power Interconnected porosity 0.846 2020/[124]
(6) k = 1.373e0.080p − 1.666 Mixed Interconnected porosity/Unsubmerged or submerged 0.987 2021/[125]
k = 1.322e0.089p − 1.526 0.993
(7) k = e[(− 0.395− 18.35WFT)+(− 2.81− 14.5WFT)PFT] Exponential Water film thickness/Paste film thickness 0.959 2022/[126]
(8) k = 16.17 − 20.6PFT Linear Slurry layer thickness 0.997 2022/[127]

Fig. 8. The relationship between porosity and compressive strength for different types of fibers [14] a) Fitting for plain group b)Exponential fitting for three types of
fibers with two different volume fraction.

shown in Fig. 8 b), the findings demonstrate a positive influence on
compressive strength due to STF and WPF addition, and this contribu­
tion is independent of the porosity of the PC. Within the same porosity
range, the amount of fiber added to the mixture influenced the
compressive strength of the PC. In addition, STF possessed better
improvement than WPF. Notably, mixtures with varying fiber contents
exhibit significant disparities for a given type of fiber. Specifically,
introducing 1% volume fraction of STF contributes favorably to the
fitness of correlation, while increasing it to 2% significantly impairs
goodness-of-fit. Excessive fiber dosages lead to agglomeration and un­
even distribution, thereby diminishing fitting quality. Conversely, WPF
demonstrates greater consistency with mixtures and contributes posi­
tively to correlation due to its less intrusive nature.
Bright Singh and Murugan [89,93,94] explored the four types of fi­
bers and observed that they all enhanced compressive strength, and
carbon fiber exhibited an excellent reinforcing effect. The compressive
strength decreases with VF increasing while the porosity increases.
Furthermore, a more pronounced correlation between porosity and
compressive strength was observed in mixtures incorporating basalt
fiber and glass fiber, suggesting relatively stable paste distribution for
these two mixtures containing inorganic fibers (Fig. 9). Furthermore,
collaborating with different aggregates resulted in distinct correlations,
revealing that the pore structure formed by each aggregate affected fiber
distribution, leading to varying trends, as shown in Fig. 9 a) and b).
Different types of fibers exhibit varying effects on the correlation
between porosity and compressive strength, as illustrated in Fig. 10. The
fitting curve of PET fiber with an increased VF [38] demonstrates
excellent conformity while adding PVA fibers resulted in a poor corre­
lation [73]. The effect on compressive strength is due to the combined
action of porosity and fiber enhancement. Specifically, adding 12 mm
PVA fibers reduces the porosity of PC, but porosity increases with the
increased fiber contents. However, 40 mm long PET fibers improved
porosity and continuously increased with increased fiber contents.
Therefore, the relationship between porosity and compressive strength
exhibits contrasting trends for these two distinct lengths.

Fig. 9. The relationship between porosity and compressive strength for four types of fibers a) small size aggregates b) large size aggregates [89,93,94].

14
J. Li et al.
Fig. 10. The relationship between porosity and compressive strength for Ali
[38] and Xiao [73]’s research.
4.2. Porosity & permeability
The incorporation of fibers can influence the permeability of PC [30],
and there are two primary explanations. Some researchers claimed that
fiber addition filled a portion of macro pores, thus decreasing the
permeability [74,96]. Liu et al. [71] found that the incorporation of fi­
bers filled some tiny pores and occupied part of the large pores between
the coarse aggregates, reducing the average pore size and inter­
connected porosity and reducing permeability. Similarly, Tang et al.
[128] proposed that PVA fiber extends into pores, occupying part of the
pore space and decreasing permeability. On the other hand, the interface
between fiber and paste would become a flow path when fiber volume
fraction is relatively high. Zhu et al. [41] proposed that the adhesion
between the fiber and the cement substrate is relatively poor, therefore,
water can easily enter the interface between the fiber and the paste
under pressure, increasing the connected porosity. Tang et al. [128]
investigated that the PVA fiber cannot be completely wrapped at a high
volume fraction, which leads to the decreased bond strength between
fibers and other phases, forming a permeable pathway in the PVA-
Fig. 11. The Mehrabi’s research [14] on relationship between porosity and permeability.
15
Construction and Building Materials 406 (2023) 133372
Aggregates and PVA-Cement.
The incorporation of fibers affects both the porosity and the micro­
structure of the pore system, potentially altering the relationship be­
tween porosity and permeability. Mehrabi et al. [14] examined mixtures
with two different volume fractions of the three types of fibers and
observed that Equations (2) and (5) in Table 8 provided appropriate
empirical relations. Fiber additions have relatively limited effects on the
porosity–permeability relationship. However, certain experimental re­
sults exceeded the limitations of these two proposed models, as shown in
Fig. 11. Therefore, a new prediction model is necessary.
Wu et al. [23] investigated the impact of latex and PPF addition on
PC properties with two aggregate groups having different gradations, as
shown in Fig. 12 a). Findings revealed that a mixture with fiber dis­
played a stronger positive correlation between permeability and
porosity than a mixture without fiber, indicating a more homogeneous
and dense paste. However, Rodin et al. [91] explored varying fiber
volume fractions and found that the mixture with low VF presented a
higher correlation between permeability and porosity than the control
mix. In contrast, the correlation decreased with increasing VF, even
lower than the control mix at the highest dosage. It might be attributed
to the rise in fiber content, leading to enhanced possibility of fiber
agglomeration, disrupting the uniform distribution of the paste.
Moreover, Hesami et al. [26] noted that the correlation between
porosity and permeability would be affected by w/c of mixtures, as
Fig. 12 b) shows. In addition, PC incorporating different fiber types
performed distinct results due to various w/c. The correlation extent
decreased with w/c increasing for PPS and Glass fiber, and it exhibited
an opposite trend for steel fiber. It can be attributed to the fact that
mixtures with PPS or Glass fiber have reached an optimum state for fiber
distribution, and there would be low viscosity of paste and segregation
due to water addition. On the contrary, the mixtures with steel fiber
need more water to reduce the viscosity of paste and distribute fiber
well, thus contributing to raising correlation.
4.3. Permeability & strength
Some articles have studied the interplay between compressive
strength and permeability when adding fibers, revealing a direct rela­
tionship between these two parameters, as shown in Fig. 13. Ali et al.
[38] demonstrated a linear correlation between compressive strength
and permeability as the volume fraction of fibers increases. However,
J. Li et al. Construction and Building Materials 406 (2023) 133372

Fig. 12. The correlation between porosity and permeability a) Wu’s research [23] b) Hesami’s research [26].

Fig. 13. The correlation between permeability and a) Compressive strength b) Flexural strength [38,73].

the permeability and flexural strength correlation are rather scattered.

Xiao et al. [73] examined mixtures with different volume fractions of
PVA fiber and observed a similar trend with Ali but has a large slope. The
flexural strength was also highly related to permeability. Furthermore,
the fiber shape would also affect the correlation between properties.
Avishreshth et al. [33] discovered that mixtures with crimped steel
exhibited a stronger correlation than hooked-end steel fiber due to dis­
tribution difficulties for hooked-end fiber.
Fiber type is an essential factor influencing the correlation between
permeability and strength. Different fiber types with various elastic
modulus affect the fiber distribution in PC. Bright Singh and Murugan
[89,93,94] investigated the effects of BF, CF, PPF, and GF on PC prop­
erties, as shown in Fig. 14. The study revealed that adding carbon fiber
and PPF resulted in a lower correlation between permeability and
compressive strength, likely due to the heterogeneity of these fibers in
the mixture. In contrast, basalt fiber and glass fiber showed a relatively
high correlation between permeability and compressive strength, indi­
cating a more uniform distribution of fibers in the mixture. These find­ Fig. 14. The correlation between permeability and compressive strength for
ings suggest that the type of fiber used can significantly impact the four types of fibers [89,93,94].
correlation between PC properties.
In summary, the correlation between properties of PC would be
5. Enhancement mechanism of fibers in pervious concrete
affected by fiber addition, either decreasing it due to fiber confusion in
mixtures or increasing it because of the homogeneous and dense paste.
Wen et al. [129] categorized fiber-reinforced concrete into two types
This effect is primarily attributed to variations in fiber properties.
based on the modulus of elasticity of fibers relative to the matrix. In
Further research about the influence of fiber properties on correlation is
conventional concrete, fibers with higher moduli of elasticity contribute
needed.
to the initial hardening phase, while those with lower moduli contribute
after cracking [129]. However, the enhancement for PC would be
different due to the existence of pores. Besides the distribution of fiber

16
J. Li et al. Construction and Building Materials 406 (2023) 133372

and interlocking force between fiber and matrix, the interference to Table 9
pores would be considered, which is a crucial factor affecting the PC’s The optimum range on properties of PC for each type of fibers.
mechanical and physical properties. Properties Synthetic Carbon- Metallic Inorganic
The range for fiber lengths and aspect ratios has been identified for based
five main types of fibers: synthetic, carbon-based, metallic, inorganic, Compressive 0–1% 0–1.5% 0.5–2% 0.1–0.5%
and natural fibers, as shown in Fig. 15, based on prior research. strength 0–20 mm 6–12 mm 30–36 mm 10–25 mm
Although the other four types have a wide coverage range, natural fiber Flexural 0–1% 3–5% 0–2% 0–0.5%
requires more investigation. According to the data summarized in strength 6–12/ 0–12 mm 0–60 mm 12–36 mm
50–60 mm
published literature, the optimum range of each type of fiber for five Splitting tensile 0–0.5% 0–5% 0–2% 0–0.5%
basic properties of PC could be identified. Table 9 summarizes the op­ strength 10–16/ 2–12 mm 6–60 mm 6–12 mm
timum range of fiber, regarding fiber volume fraction and fiber length, 50–60 mm
on different properties for all four types of fibers. In addition, the best Porosity 0–2% CCFCM: Almost Almost
increasing increasing decreasing
scenario for each type of fiber is also identified, as shown in Table 10,
Pure CF: 0–2% 0–1%
including the best scenario’s limitations and existing research gaps. decreasing
0–60 mm 2–12 mm 12–36 mm 6–36 mm
6. Conclusion Permeability – 0.2–0.5% Decreasing No Almost
constant head 0.2% significant decreasing
method increasing
Pervious concrete (PC) is a promising material for water resource 0–0.15% 0.075–0.3%
management due to its unique characteristics. However, the limited 12–20 mm 6 mm 30 mm 6–24 mm
application range, caused by the presence of pores, has led to the Permeability – No Decreasing No 0.25–0.5%
development of fiber-reinforced pervious concrete (FPC) to enhance its Falling head significant significant
method decreasing decreasing
performance. A standardized approach or comprehensive theoretical 0–2% 1–2%
framework is required to elucidate the improvement mechanisms. Based 19.1–50 mm 12 mm > 6 30 mm 36 mm
on an extensive literature review and analysis, the following conclusions mm
can be drawn:

CCFCM is relatively comprehensive, there are few studies on CF,

1) The appropriate mix design scheme should be determined for spe­
which only focus on shorter fibers and lower volume fractions. In
cific applications to ascertain whether the fiber is classified as part of
addition, there needs to be more research on natural fiber.
the paste, an additive, or belonging to the aggregate skeleton in the
4) Fiber addition would interfere with the pore structures of PC and
system. It is imperative to ensure uniform distribution of fibers
affect their properties.
within the paste or among aggregates.
a) Adding fiber would affect the average pore size and pore distribu­
2) It is recommended to use a standard hammer compacting specified
tion, thus affecting the properties of the PC. The added fibers in PC
by ASTM C09.49 to control the compacted energy each time and
may intrude on the distribution of aggregates and occupy the void
avoid paste segregation.
space, resulting in fluctuations in the porosity variation.
3) Synthetic fibers are more commonly used in FPC than metallic fibers,
b) The effects of fiber addition on PC properties vary depending on
despite metallic fibers offering better performance. It may be
factors like water-cement ratio, proportion, compaction method,
attributed to their corrosive properties and potential to contaminate
fiber shape, fiber volume fraction, and fiber length.
water sources. The volume fraction of inorganic fibers in FPC re­
c) Inorganic fibers are primarily employed to enhance compressive
mains relatively low, typically between 0% and 0.5%. The distribu­
strength and splitting tensile strength in PC with remarkable results
tion of its fiber length range is relatively wide. The research scope of
achievable even at lower volume fractions. Conversely, metallic and
carbon-based fiber is relatively limited. Although the research on

Fig. 15. The fiber length and aspect ratio distribution for research range.

17
J. Li et al. Construction and Building Materials 406 (2023) 133372

Table 10
The summary of research for each types of fibers.
Fiber types E TS The range based on collected articles Limit Best scenario Research Gap

Volume Length Aspect

fraction ratio

Synthetic 3.5–18 101–900 0 ~ 5% 0–40 mm 0–100 1) w/c = 0.27 ~ VF = 0 ~ 1% 1) Lack of comparison on different length
0.33 and aspect ratio
300–750 2) Dense Length = 0 ~ 20 2) Lack of high aspect ratio of fiber
compaction mm
Carbon- 228–238 1600–1900 0 ~ 5% 0–12 mm 0–100 w/c = 0.24–0.27 Pure CF: 1 ~ 5% 1) Lack of comparison on different length
based 700–800 CCFCM: VF = and aspect ratio
0–1.5%
1700–1800 Length = 6 ~ 12 2) Lack of high length of fiber
mm
Metallic 200–250 1100–1450 0 ~ 2% 40–60 0–150 High strength VF = 0.5 ~ 2% Lack of comparison on different length and
mm matrix Length = 30–36 aspect ratio
mm
Inorganic 95–115 3300–4500 0 ~ 0.5% 5–40 mm 0–120 w/c = 0.25–0.3 VF = 0.1 ~ 0.5% 1) Lack of comparison on different length
and aspect ratio
600–1600 Length = 10–25 2) Lack of high volume fraction studies
mm
Natural 14.5–53 400–938 0.2% 0–10 mm 0–20 N/A N/A 1) Lack comprehensive research on Natural
fiber
2% 2) Lack of comparison on different length
and aspect ratio

synthetic fibers are optimal for improving flexural and splitting
tensile strength of PC. Unlike conventional concrete where fibers are
fully utilized throughout the matrix, some fibers may be exposed to
pores or external environments within concrete. Fibers’ elastic
modulus relative to the matrix and chemical stability in an aqueous
environment must be considered to distinguish between different
fiber types. Based on existing literature, an optimal fiber addition
scheme can be determined for each type of fiber.
5) Fiber serves as an additive to enhance the strength of the paste.
However, its impact on the strength of the PC can vary. On one hand,
fiber inclusion can increase strength by bridging pores. On the other
hand, it may decrease strength due to increased pore formation and
additional defects.
6) Fiber incorporation can reduce permeability by filling a portion of
macro pores and decreasing average pore size and interconnected
pores. Nevertheless, weak bonds between fiber and paste may create
flow paths that increase permeability.
7) The correlation between porosity & permeability and porosity &
strength would be affected by the fiber type, water-cement ratio, and
fiber volume fraction. It depends on the homogeneity of the mixtures
due to fiber addition. Excessive fiber content leads to uneven dis­
tribution of paste, while adding a small amount is beneficial for
increasing viscosity and preventing segregation.
In response to these conclusions summarized from the existing
literature, future research should focus on the following aspects:
1) Conducting comprehensive research on the fiber volume fraction and
number of fibers, defined by fiber length and aspect ratio, to inves­
tigate their impact on the properties of pervious concrete (PC).
2) It is enhancing the prediction model to provide a more practical
design reference.
3) Further exploration of hybrid fiber systems is warranted, which
combines the advantageous properties of existing fibers.
4) It is considered to propose optimization strategies for aggregate
skeleton in fiber-reinforced pervious concrete (FPC) systems.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Jie Li: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Visuali­
zation, Methodology, Investigation, Data curation, Conceptualization.
Jun Xia: Writing – review & editing, Visualization, Supervision,
Methodology, Investigation, Conceptualization. Luigi Di Sarno: Writing
– review & editing, Supervision, Methodology, Investigation. Guobin
Gong: Writing – review & editing, Supervision, Methodology,
Investigation.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare the following financial interests/personal re­
lationships which may be considered as potential competing interests:
[Jun Xia reports financial support was provided by Xi’an Jiaotong-
Liverpool University.].
Data availability
The data that has been used is confidential.
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