Star Formation: Observations

Star Formation Theory

Class 0 Class I Class II λFλ “0” “I” “II”

1 10 100 1000 1 10 100 1000 λ(µm) 1 10 100 1000

BHR71 IRAS 04302+2247 TW Hydrae

t ~ 104 yr t ~ 105 yr t ~ 106 yr

R ~ 104 AU R ~ 10 AU 3 Rd ~ 100AU
M ~ 10−8 M / yr

M ~ 10 − 6 M / yr


−5


M ~ 10 M / yr 


M env ≈ 0.2 − 3M 
M env ≈ 0.02 − 0.3M 
M env ≤ 0.03M Padgett et al. 1999 Krist et al. 2000
Bourke 2001
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Star formation and protoplanetary discs

Near-IR HST Images Planets form within protoplanetary discs around young stars.
Understanding the formation and evolution of these discs is
central to a theoretical understanding of extrasolar planets.
Rotating molecular Optically visible Classical T Tauri
cloud core star + protoplanetary disc + (possibly)
jets or outflows. If not optically visible
due to too much remaining
dust - a Class 1 source.
Angular momentum
conservation
Disc dispersal
+ planet formation

Cartoon for low mass stars. Much

less is known about high mass
star formation. Star + planetary system
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Disc Formation Disc Formation

• Molecular cloud contains some angular momentum J • Consider sphere of radius 1pc, mass 1 Msun
– Unlikely to be zero, lots of bulk motions
• Angular velocity 1 x 10-14 rad/sec
• Angular momentum conserved during collapse • Solid body rotation
J = Ωr 2
• Specific angular momentum:
J = r ×v
 

Ω2 Rcloud
4
J2
– During collapse: r decreases: thus vrot increases
rcent = = ≈ 6 × 1015 cm ≈ 400AU
• Centrifugal (rotational) barrier GM GM cloud
– At some point v increases sufficiently to halt collapse
• Disc sizes : ~ hundreds AU
J v 2 GM J2
v= 

≈ 2 

rcent = – Angular momentum sets disc radius

r r r GM • What happens to the bulk of the cloud material?
– Collapse halted perpendicular to J: disc formation

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 Initial masses Disc Masses
• How much of the gas falls directly onto the star? – Centrifugal barrier:

4Ω 2 Rcyl Rcloud
– Need centrifugal radius < radius of star! 2 2

Rcyl rcent = ≤ Rstar ≈ 1011 cm

– Consider cylinder in centre of sphere:
3GM tot
– radius: Rcyl
– Rcyl: 1 x 1015 cm ~ 60 AU ~ 10 000 Rstar
– Mass: π ρ Rcyl2 Rcloud – Mcyl : 8 x 10-4 Mtot = 8 x 10-4 Msun

= 3Mtot Rcyl2 /4Rcloud2

• centrifugal barrier is • The majority of the cloud does not fall onto protostar
• Instead, it forms a disc around protostar
Ω 2 Rcyl 4Ω 2 Rcyl Rcloud
4 2 2
– Needs to lose angular momentum to accrete onto star
rcent = = – Disc Accretion
GM cyl 3GM tot • Most of a star’s mass is processed through a disc
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Protoplanetary discs
Disks, Disks, Disks… Nearest major star forming regions (eg Taurus) are at ~150 pc
Solar system (extending to ~30 AU) subtends < 1 arcsecond
at that distance -> high angular resolution needed to
study protoplanetary discs.
Initial evidence for discs was indirect - especially infra-red excess
attributed to inner, relatively hot parts of the disc. HST and mm
wavelength interferometers now resolve discs directly:

Note: this image shows

scattered light from the
disc well-away from the
midplane. Dust in the edge-on
disc obscures the star
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Disc properties Spectral energy distribution

(1) Mass: if most of the mass lies at large r, where the disc is optically
thin at mm wavelengths, this can be estimated from the mm Flux Optical
Near, mid-IR
flux. Most common measurements based on continuum, which
is produced by dust -> need to assume something about dust
properties. Typically: Stellar
contribution Disc
10-3 Msun < Mdisc < 0.1 Msun contribution

(2) Radius: best measured for silhouette discs in Orion seen against
bright nebula background. Of the order of 100 AU, though
larger structures are also seen.
(3) Lifetime: estimates of young stellar ages are uncertain. But
typical disc lifetimes seem to be ~ 3-5 Myr around low mass
stars in regions such as Taurus.
Wavelength
Disc luminosity is a sum of:
• Reprocessed stellar flux (+ scattered light in optical)
• Accretion luminosity if gas in the disc is flowing inwards
and dissipating gravitational potential energy.

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