6.

Pragmatics

Eva Illes: An introduction to pragmatics for teachers

Pragmatics: a branch of language study which is concerned with what we do when we are
using language in everyday life.
Pragmatics  Semantics
- Semantics: focuses on what the words mean by themselves
- Pragmatics: studies the contextual meaning of words
Pragmaticians aim to explain how speakers get their intended meaning across where there are
multiple possible pragmatic meanings, and how is it possible for the hearer to interpret the
message the way the speaker originally meant it.

Speech Act Theory: when we exploit language, we do not only say words but also do things
with words. (‘Can you pass the salt?’ – not a question (I know you can), but a request to
perform an action)

A: That’s the telephone. (request the hearer to answer the phone)

B: I’m in the bath. (excuse by explaining why the speaker cannot comply with the request)
A: OK. (accepts B’s excuse and undertakes to perform an action)

Recognition of functions the sentences fulfill is made easier by the traditional sequence of
exchanges (request  acceptance or refusal/excuse)
Traditional ways of interpreting speech acts may vary from culture to culture (‘How are you?’
– greeting, not an inquiry about someone’s health in English speaking cultures)

Grice’s Cooperative Principle (1975): in conversational exchanges participants co-operate

with each other.
The Four Maxims
- The maxim of Quantity (interlocutors make their contribution as informative as
required)
- The maxim of Quality (participants do not say something which they believe to be
false or for which they lack evidence)
- The maxim of Relation (speaker and hearer are to the point and what they say is
relevant to the situation)
- The maxim of Manner (requires participants to be clear, brief and orderly)
Cooperativeness and the degree of the maxims are relative to the situation, and may vary from
context to context. What’s considered as sufficient information may vary + cultural
differences also occur.
Maxims are not rules, but rather guidelines and basis for the general assumption by the
participants that there are certain regularities in interaction which are observed unless there
are indications to the contrary.

Politeness (manner that is acceptable to the addressees and renders the intrusion into their
private space least harmful)
Language users wish to be independent and free from imposition (negative face); they also
have a desire to be accepted, connected and to belong to a group or community of people
(positive face).
Ideas about politeness differ from one culture to the next.
Knowledge of the world (speakers rely heavily on their knowledge of the world and of how
conversation works)
When taking part in communication, we quickly realise in what type of speech event we are
engaged and behave accordingly. Scripts for actions (e.g. going to cinema, eating in
restaurant, etc.) constitute patterns which present what is normally true, typical and accepted
at these places; they also have stages, i.e. sequences of action (e.g. restaurant: entering,
ordering, eating, leaving).

Yule: Pragmatics – Politeness and interaction

politeness factors:
- external: calling someone Mr Addams instead of Joe
- internal: degree of friendliness

Politeness:
- within an interaction  first, concept of face
- face: public self-image of a person: emotional and social sense of self that we expect
others to recognize
- politeness in an interaction: showing awareness of another person’s face: respect or
deference

Face wants:
- people behave as if their face wants (expectations regarding their public self-image)
will be respected
- face threatening act: someone says something that is a threat to another person’s
expectations about their self-image
- face saving act: saying something to lessen the possible threat

Negative and positive face:

- negative face: the need to be independent, to have freedom of action and not to be
imposed on by others
- positive face: the need to be accepted, liked by others, to be treated as a member of the
same group
- negative politeness: when you do a face saving act for someone to emphasize their
independence. “Sorry to bother you, but can I ask for a pen or something?”
- positive politeness: showing solidarity. “You take a lot of notes, too. Do me a big
favor and let me use one of your pens.”

Scenarios:
You need a pen.
- You look for it, and wait till someone sees your problem and offer a pen on their own.
- You can make an off-record statement: “I forgot my pen”, and they’ll give you one
without you asking.
- Directly asking: on record. Types:
o Bald on record: give me a pen. Mitigating devices to soften the demand:
please, would you.
o Imperative form (without commanding): Have some more cake.
o Direct command: Don’t touch that!
Strategies:

- solidarity strategy: using positive politeness forms, emphasizing closeness between

speaker and hearer. “Let’s go to the party. We’ll have fun.”
- deference strategy: emphasizing the hearer’s right to freedom. “There’s going to be a
party, if you can make it.”

Pre-sequences:
- pre-request: “are you busy? -no -can you check this?”
- pre-invitation: What are you doing this Friday?
- pre-announcements: Guess what happened.