FUNCTIONS

1. Introduction

The word function is often used to suggest the relationship or the dependence of one quantity
on another.

Definition 1.1
A function f from a set D to a set Y is a correspondence (a rule) that assigns to each
element x of D a unique element y  Y .

We denote
y  f ( x), where xD .
x - independent variable,
y - dependent variable, value of the function, the image of x.
D – the domain of the function
Y - the range of the function consists of all images of elements of D

Functions can be given by graphs, diagrams, formulas or equations.

The domain of a function f is the largest set of real numbers for which the rule makes sense.
The graph of a function f is the set of points ( x, y) : y  f ( x), x  D

Example 1.1
y  x3 line with slope 1, y interception is 3

y  4  x 2 semicircumference or upper half of a circle of radius 2 and with centre in the

origin
y  x 2 parabola opens upward

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Definition 1.2
Let f be a function defined on an closed interval a, b .

(a) a function y  f (x) is said to be increasing [nondecreasing] on a, b if

f ( x1 )  f ( x2 )  f ( x1 )  f ( x2 )  whenever x1  x2 for x1 , x2  a, b .

(b) a function y  f (x) is said to be decreasing [nonincreasing] on a, b if

f ( x1 )  f ( x2 )  f ( x1 )  f ( x2 )  whenever x1  x2 for x1 , x2  a, b .

Constant function.

Definition 1.3
A function f from D to Y is one – to – one function if, whenever x1  x2 in D then
f ( x1 )  f ( x2 ) in Y.

Definition 1.4
A function f is periodic if there exists a positive number T ( T  0 ) such that
x  D , x  T  D f ( x  T )  f ( x) .

The smallest positive number T for which f ( x  T )  f ( x) is called a period of the

function f.

Definition 1.5
A function f is called an even function if f (  x)  f ( x) .

The graph of the even function is symmetric with respect to y-axis.

Definition 1.6
A function f is called an odd function if f (  x)   f ( x) .

The graph of the odd function is symmetric with respect to the origin.

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Definition 1.7
Let y  f (u) be a function defined on an closed interval  ,  and u  g (x) be a

function defined on an closed interval a, b . If the values of the function g are in the

interval  ,  then y depends on x. Thus we have a composition of functions y  f (u)

and u  g (x) .

We use the following notation

y  f  g  f ( g ( x)) .

Example 1.2

y  4  x2 , y  f (u)  u and u  g ( x)  4  x 2

y  (3x  7)5 , y  f (u)  u 5 and u  g ( x)  3x  7

Definition 1.8
Let y  f (x) be one – to – one function on an interval [a, b] and let an interval [c, d ] be a
range of this function. This implies that each element y  [c, d ] is the image of precisely one
element x  [a, b] . We can also say that each element y  [c, d ] can be written in one and
only one way in the form f ( x)  y , where x  [a, b] . We may then define a function
g ( y)  x whose domain is an interval [c, d ] . The function g given the formal name inverse

of function y  f (x) . It is usually written f 1 .

Graphs of f and f 1 .
Functions y  f (x) and x  g ( y) have the same graph. The independence variable for the
function y  f (x) is x, but for function x  g ( y) is y. Thus the independence axis for
function x  g ( y) is a vertical axis. Since points (a, b) and (b, a) are symmetric with
respect to the line y  x it is sufficient to rotate the coordinate system with y  x.

The inverse function to increasing function is increasing function and the inverse function to
decreasing function is decreasing.

How to find the inverse function?

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 1. solve the equation y  f (x) for the symbol x
2. relabel the dependence variable x as y and independent variable y as x

Example 1.2
Find the inverse function of y  3x  1 .

1 1
This is a function y  x .
3 3

2. Limit of a Function
Concept of limit for real-valued functions of real variable.

We are interested in the values f (x) of function f when x is very close to x0 , but not

necessarily equals to x0 . This is very important in cases when x0 is not in the domain of the f.
So, we ask the following question:
if x gets closer and closer to x0 (but x  x0 ) does f (x) get closer and closer to some
number g?
If so, we say that the limit of the function f (x) , as x approaches x0 , equals g and the

following notation lim f ( x)  g is used.

x  x0

Definition 2.1 ( by Cauchy)

Let f (x) be defined in some deleted neighbourhood of x0 .

lim f ( x)  g    0   0 x [a, b] such that 0  x  x0    f ( x)  g  

x  x0
.

Example 2.1
1
lim x sin 0 because of
x 0 x
1 1
x sin  0  x sin  | x | 
x x
1
If x is in deleted neighbourhood of 0. However the function f ( x)  sin has no limit at 0.
x

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One–Sided Limits
It is possible that x approaches x0 from the left (then x  x0 ) or from the right (then x  x0 ).
In such cases we have so-called one-sided limits which are defined as follows:

Definition 2.2 ( by Cauchy)

Let f (x) be defined in an open interval ( x0 , b), x0  b . The function f (x) has right-

hand limit g as x approaches x0 if

lim  f ( x)  g    0   0 x such that 0  x  x0    f ( x)  g   .

x  x0

We define left-hand limit in the same way lim  f ( x)  g .

x  x0

The function f (x) , defined in deleted neighbourhood of x0 (on the left-hand and the right-

hand of x0 ), has the limit, as x approaches x0 , if and only if both one-sided limits at x0
exist and are equal.

lim f ( x)  g  lim f ( x)  g and lim f ( x)  g

x  x0 x  x0  x  x0 

Example 2.2
|x|
Function of the form f ( x)  has left-hand limit  1 , at x0  0 , and right-hand limit
x
+1, but it has no limit at 0 because left-hand limit and right-hand limit are not equal.

Limits at infinity

Definition 2.3
We say that f (x) approaches limit g , as x approaches  , if f is defined on an open interval
(a, ) and for each   0 there is a number   0 such that for x   values of function are
very close to g.

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 lim f ( x)  g    0   0 x such that x    f ( x)  g  
x

Similarly we define limit when x approaches   .

Limit Theorems.

Theorem 2.1.
Let f (x) and g (x) be defined on the same interval and have limit at x0

lim f ( x)  f lim g ( x)  g ,
x  x0 x  x0

then 1. lim ( f ( x)  g ( x))  f  g ,

x  x0

2. lim ( f ( x) g ( x))  f g ,
x  x0

f ( x) f
3. lim  , if g ( x)  0 and g  0.
x  x0 g ( x) g

Theorem 2.2. ( Sandwiching Theorem )

If f (x) , g (x) and h(x) are functions for which
1. f ( x)  g ( x)  h( x) for all x  x0 in an open interval that contains x0

2. lim f ( x)  lim h( x)  g ,
x x0 x x0

then lim g ( x)  g .
x  x0

Infinite limits

Definition 2.3
We say that f (x) approaches  as x approaches x0 from the left and write

lim f ( x)  
x  x0

if f is defined on an open interval (a, x0 ) and for each number M  0 exists a number   0

such that for x   values of function are bigger then M .

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 lim f ( x)    M  0   0 x such that 0  x0  x    f ( x)  M
xx0

Similarly we can define infinite right-hand limits and infinite limits at infinity.

Here is one of mentioned definitions

Definition 2.4

lim f ( x)    M  0   0 x such that x    f ( x)  M

x

Remark 2.1
Limits of some functions.
x
sin x  1
lim 1 lim 1    e
x0 x x 
 x

lim 1  x  x  e
1
lim a x  1
x0 x 0

Example 2.3
Find the limit:
x2  4 1 x 1  2 1
1. lim   3. lim 
x 3  3 x  2 x 2 2 x5 x 5 4
x2  4
2. lim  4
x2 x  2

3. Continuity.
Another two problems are connected with limits. The first one is continuity of a function, the
second is asymptotes, but asymptotes will be discussed later.
When we consider limits, we draw our attention to points at which function is undefined.
Now let us turn our attention to the case in which x0 is in the domain of f.

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Definition 3.1.
A function f (x) which is defined at some neighbourhood of x0 is continuous at number

x0 if lim f ( x) exists and lim f ( x)  f ( x0 ) .

x x0 x  x0

Not continuous = discontinuous (has a discontinuity at x0 )

Intuitively we can say that the function is continuous at x0 when its graph can be sketched
without lifting pencil from the paper which means there is no breaks in the graph.

Definition 3.2.
A function f (x) is continuous on an open interval (a, b) if it is continuous at every
number in (a, b) .

Theorem 3.1.
Let f (x) and g (x) be defined and continuous on an interval (a, b) , then so are the sum
f
( f  g ), difference ( f  g ), product ( f  g ) and quotient ( ) for such numbers
g
where g  0 .

Theorem 3.2.
The composite of two continuous functions is continuous.

Theorem 3.3.
The inverse function of the continuous function is continuous.

One–sided continuity.
Examples of discontinuity.

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 4. Asymptotes.
As it was mentioned earlier, limits are useful in sketching graph of a function, as well.

Definition 4.1.
The line x  a is a left – hand vertical asymptote for the graph of function f if
lim f ( x)   or lim f ( x)   .
x a  x a 

We define right- hand vertical asymptote in the same way.

Definition 4.2.
The line x  a is a vertical asymptote for the graph of the function f if it is both left –
hand vertical asymptote and right- hand vertical asymptote .

Definition 4.3.
The line y  ax  b is a slanting asymptote for the graph of the function f in  if
and only if
lim  f ( x)  (ax  b)  0 .
x 

If the slope a  0 , the asymptote is called a horizontal asymptote.

Similarly, we define asymptote in   .

Theorem 4.1.
The line y  ax  b is a slanting asymptote for the graph of the function f in  if and
only if

b  lim  f ( x)  ax  .
f ( x)
a  lim and
x  x x 

Example 4.1. Determine all asymptotes for the function:

x
1. f ( x)  , vertical: x  1, horizontal: y  1 in   and   ;
1 x

x3  8
2. f ( x)  , vertical: x  2, slanting: y  x in   and   .
x2  4

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 5. Basic Functions.
I. Polynomial function.

Definition 5.1.
A function f (x) of the form

f ( x)  a0 x n  a1x n 1  ...  an 1x  an ,

where the coefficients a0 , a1 ,..., an1 , an , n N , are real numbers and a0  0

is called a polynomial function of degree n.

e.g. a polynomial function of degree 1 – linear function f ( x)  a0 x  a1 , a0  0

a polynomial function of degree 2 – quadratic function f ( x)  a0 x2  a1x  a2 , a0  0

II. Rational function – quotient of the polynomial functions

A function of the form
P( x )
f ( x)  , where P( x), Q( x) are polynomial functions is called a rational function.
Q( x)
Its domain consists of the set of all real numbers except those numbers for which Q( x)  0 .
1 x 1
e.g. y , y
x x3  8
b B ax  b
graphs of y , y , y
x x2 cx  d

A function is called to be algebraic if it can be expressed in terms of sums, differences,

products, quotients or roots of polynomial functions. Functions that are not algebraic are
termed transcendental e. g. trigonometric, exponential, logarithmic.

III. Exponential Function.

y  ax, a  0, a 1

D  R, Y  R

a 1  y  ax increasing

0  a 1  y  ax decreasing

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Special case - exponential function with base e - y  e x sometimes we write y  exp(x) -
it is called natural exponential function

IV. Logarithmic function (inverse of exponential function).

y  log a x, a  0, a  1,

D  R , Y  R,
Special cases: y  ln x natural logarithm,
y  log x common logarithm (logarithm with base 10)

V. Trigonometric Functions.
y  sin x, D  R, Y  [1,1] , T  2 ,
y  cos x, D  R, Y  [1,1] , T  2 ,

 
y  tan x, D  R \   k , YR , T  ,
2 
y  cot x, D  R \ k , Y R, T  ,

Radius measure of an angle.

Numerical values of trigonometric functions.

Basic trigonometric identities (fundamental identity)

Double Angle Formulas
cos 2 x  cos2 x  sin2 x ,
sin 2 x  2 sin x cos x

Half Angle Formulas

sin 2 x 
1
1  cos 2 x  ,
2

cos 2 x 
1
1  cos 2 x 
2

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From Factoring Formulas
𝛼+𝛽 𝛼−𝛽
sin 𝛼 + sin 𝛽 = 2 sin cos
2 2
𝛼+𝛽 𝛼−𝛽
sin 𝛼 − sin 𝛽 = 2 cos sin
2 2
𝛼+𝛽 𝛼−𝛽
cos 𝛼 + cos 𝛽 = 2 cos cos
2 2
𝛼+𝛽 𝛼−𝛽
cos 𝛼 − cos 𝛽 = −2 sin sin
2 2
we get Product Formulas
1
sin 𝛼 sin 𝛽 = [cos(𝛼 − 𝛽) − cos(𝛼 + 𝛽)]
2
1
sin 𝛼 cos 𝛽 = [sin(𝛼 − 𝛽) + sin(𝛼 + 𝛽)]
2
1
cos 𝛼 cos 𝛽 = [cos(𝛼 − 𝛽) + cos(𝛼 + 𝛽)]
2

VI. The Inverse Trigonometric Functions.

  
y  arc sin x, D  [1,1], Y   ,  ,
 2 2
y  arc cos x, D  [1,1], Y  [0,  ] ,

  
y  arctan x, D  R, Y   ,  ,
 2 2
y  arccot x, D  R, Y  (0,  ) ,

For inverse trigonometric functions there are some identities like for trigonometric
functions e.g.
 
arc sin x  arccos x  arctan x  arccot x 
2 2

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 VII. Hyperbolic Functions.

e x  e x e x  e x
The exponential expressions and occur frequently in applied
2 2
mathematics and engineering. In many ways their behaviour is similar to that of sin x and
cos x . So, they are called hyperbolic sine and hyperbolic cosine and are used to define other
hyperbolic functions.

e x  e x
y  sinh x  , D  R, Y  R, odd
2
e x  e x
y  cosh x  , D  R, Y  [1, ) , even
2

e x  e x
y  tanhx  x , D  R, Y  (1,1) , odd
e  ex
e x  e x
y  coth x  x  x , D  R \ {0}, Y  (,1)  (1, ) , odd
e e

One can prove that for hyperbolic functions the following equivalences are true:
cosh 2 x  sinh 2 x  1,
cosh 2 x  cosh2 x  sinh2 x ,
sinh 2 x  2 sinh x cosh x .

VIII. The Inverse Hyperbolic Functions.

Hyperbolic functions except for hyperbolic cosine are one–to–one functions in their
domain (hyperbolic cosine we consider in an interval [0, ) ). So, we can define
inverse hyperbolic functions:

y  arcsin h x  ln( x  x 2  1), D  R, Y  R,

y  arccos h x  ln( x  x 2  1), D  [1, ) , Y  [0, ) ,

1 1 x
y  arctanh x  ln , D  (1,1) , Y  R,
2 1 x
1 1 x
y  arccoth x  ln , D  (,1)  (1, ) , Y  (,0)  (0, )
2 x 1

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 IX.
Definition 5.2.
The greatest integer function („entier” ) [ x]: R  R is defined as follows:
[ x]  k , k  x  k  1, k Z .

Definition 5.3.
Function „the sign of” x is defined by the formula
 1 x0

sgn x   0 x0.
1 x0


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