Tissues, organs, and systems of living things

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Chapter 2: Cells and Tissues
Chapter 3: Animal Systems
Chapter 4: Plant Systems

Components of a microscope
Part
Function
Stage
Supports the microscope slide
Has a central opening that allows light to pass through the slide
Clips
Holds the slide in position on the stage
Diaphragm
Controls the amount of light that reaches the object being viewed
Objective lens
Magnifies the object
Have 3 possible magnifications: low power (4x), medium power (10x), and a high
power (40x)
Revolving nosepiece
Holds the objective lens
Rotates, allowing the objective lenses to be changed
Body tube
Contains the eyepiece (ocular lens)
Supports the objective lenses
Eyepiece (ocular lens)
Is the part you look through to see the object
Magnifies the object, usually by 10x
Coarse-adjustment knob
Moves the body tube up or down to get the object into focus
Is used with the low-power objective lens only
Fine-adjustment knob
Moves the tube to get the object not sharp focus
Is used with medium and high-power magnification
Is used only after the object has been located, centered, and focused under lower
power magnification using the coarse-adjustment knob
Light source
May be an electric light bulb or a mirror that can be angled to direct light
through the object being viewed

Cells and Tissues

The cell theory

All cells come from pre-existing living cells
Cells are the smallest unit of life
All organisms are made up of cells
All cells have a cell membrane, cytoplasm, and DNA.
Prokaryotes vs. eukaryotes
Prokaryotes
Eukaryotes
No nucleus
No membrane-bound organelles
Only for single-celled organisms, such as bacteria
Has a nucleus and other organelles
More advanced and complex (found in plants and animals)
In single-celled organisms such as Amoeba
In multicellular organisms such as plants and animals

Animal cell organelles

Nucleus - Controls the cell’s activities and hold the DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
Nucleolus - Produces ribosomes
Chromatin – Is the tangled spread-out form of DNA in the nuclear membrane. When
cells are ready to divide, chromatin condenses into chromosomes.
Cell membrane - Protects the cell, only lets some substances into the cell, it is a
semi-permeable membrane
Mitochondria - During cellular respiration, makes ATP molecules to make energy for
the cell. Cells that need more energy need more mitochondria.
Multiple, small vacuoles - stores water, food, and other materials
Ribosomes - Smallest part of the cell, makes proteins
Cytoplasm - Gel-like substance that keeps all the organelles in place
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) - A passageway for materials. Proteins leave the ER
through tiny vesicles (pores)
Golgi body/golgi apparatus - Receives proteins from the endoplasmic reticulum, and
folds them or ads lipids or carbohydrates to them to make teh them into usable
forms that the cells can use
Lysosomes - Contains enzymes that can break down worn-out/dead cell parts and
protect the cell from various diseases or viruses

Plant cells
Includes the cell membrane, nucleus, nucleolus, chromatin/chromosomes,
mitochondria, ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum (ER), golgi body, and lysosomes.
Vacuole - Plants contain one, large vacuole that only stores water.
Cell wall - On top of a cell membrane, the cell wall protects, shapes, and supports
the cell.
Chloroplasts - Have chlorophyll that makes plants green, where photosynthesis takes
place

Other unique structures

Cilia are microscopic hair-like projections that can move in waves which help trap
inhaled particles and expels them when you cough.

Flagella are mostly found in bacteria. They have a tail that can help the cell
move. The only human cell that has flagella are sperm cells.

What is DNA?
DNA is the abbreviation for for deoxyribonucleic acid (pronounced dee-awk-see-rybo-
nu-clay-ikk acid. DNA pronunciation
DNA is genetic information that is the cell’s instructions for how to function. DNA
is tightly packed into structures called chromosomes. Each organism has a certain
number of chromosomes. Humans have 46.
Each chromosome is made up of one molecule of DNA, which is made up of segments
called genes. The base pairs are called the code. Genes contain codes needed to
make proteins. One gene has enough code to make one protein.
Diagram of a gene
Base pairs/code

Why do we need proteins?

Functions of proteins:
Structural: Building body parts, such as muscles
Transport: Carries materials around the body
Hormones: Transport signals from one part of the body to another
Enzymes: Speed up chemical reactions in body
Antibodies: Help immune responses
The importance of cell division
Cells go through cell division so that the organism can repair, grow, and
reproduce.

What limits cell size?

The ratio of Volume to surface area. A a cell grows bigger, the volume will
increase faster than the surface area. The volume will be able to take in more
nutrients but at some point, the surface area will not be able to handle this
anymore.

Another factor that limits cell size is the transporting of cell parts and
materials in and out the cell. With a bigger cell, the materials being transported
in the cell will have to go longer distances which is less efficient. If the cell
is smaller, than materials can be transported faster through the cell. If a cell
can’t get rid of its wastes, then it will weaken and be polluted.

Osmosis and Diffusion

Osmosis
Diffusion
Is the process of moving chemicals into and out of a cell, from an area of high
concentration to low concentration
Is the process of water moving into and out of the cell, from an area of high
concentration to and area of lower concentration.
Concentration is the amount of a solute (substance) in a given solution.

The cell cycle

Phases in the cell cycle:
Interphase - Cell carries out normal cells functions except for cell division,
including copying its DNA within the nucleus
Cell division:
Mitotic phase - Where the cell splits to become two smaller cells and transfers one
copy of its DNA to the new cell. (PMAT)
Cytokinesis - Cell splits into two daughter cells.

Most human bodies have 46 chromosomes (tightly packed DNA and proteins) in the
nucleus of each of their cells which becomes duplicated during cell division.

The cell cycle/cell division process

Interphase is where the cell grows and carries out normal cell functions, not
including division. It prepares for cell division by replicating DNA and making
more organelles. Spindle fibers form.
Prophase is where the DNA condense into chromosomes, which is made up of 2 sister
chromatids, and a centromere which holds them together. The nuclear membrane
dissolves during this phase.
Metaphase is where all the chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell by spindle
fibers.
Anaphase is where the chromatids are pulled apart to opposite sides of the cell by
spindle fibers. They are now know as sister chromosomes.
Telophase is where the chromatids are stretched out and are no longer visible. A
new nuclear membrane forms around each one of them, the cell appearing to have 2
nuclei.
Cytokinesis is where the cytoplasm divides into 2. In plant cells, a plate is
formed between the 2 daughter cells for a cell wall, while in animal cells, the
cell membrane is pinched off.
Cell division and Mitosis video

DNA in the cell cycle

Centromere
Before replication (One chromatid)
After replication (Two chromatids)

The cell cycle/cell division process)

Checkpoints during the cell cycle

The nucleus instructs the cell to divide based on some checkpoints
If surrounding cells are telling the cell not to divide
If there is not enough nutrients to divide the cell
If the DNA in the nucleus has not been duplicated
The DNA is damaged

Cancer cells
Cancer cells sometimes form during cell division. When in interphase, the cell will
duplicate its DNA, but sometimes the copy of DNA made might have some errors. In
some cases, the cell will notice this and kill the cell to keep the organism
healthy. In other cases, the cell might not pick this up and the cell will continue
the rest of the cell cycle despite the errors in DNA. These random errors are
called mutations, that happens when physical damage is done to the DNA.
Cancer cells often can’t communicate with other cells, can’t carry out healthy cell
functions, or travel to places where they shouldn’t be. Cancer cells uncontrollably
keep dividing, unlike normal, healthy cells which know when to stop dividing.

When cancer cells stay together in a tumor and have no serious effects on tissues
near them, this is not cancerous and this is called a benign tumor.
When benign tumors continue to grow and start crowding other cells and tissues
which might affect their functions, this is called a malignant tumor.
How do cancer cells behave differently from healthy ones?

How are mutations (DNA errors) caused?

Carcinogens: Tobacco smoke, radiation (such as x-rays, UV rays from tanning beds
and sunlight), some viruses (such as HPV and hepatitis B), some organic solvents,
chemicals in plastic, etc.
Sometimes people get cancer from their parents, as they might take some DNA from
their parents who have cancer.
If a group of people are exposed to these carcinogens, some will develop cancer,
others will not, which makes it more difficult for cancer researchers since they
can’t predict who will get cancer.

Benign and malignant tumor treatment

Surgery
Benign tumors are pretty small and since all the cancer cells within them stay
together, the tumor can be physically removed.
Radiation
Radiation can be aimed at the malignant tumor to stop cancerous cells from dividing
more. However, radiation can affect other normal cells and tissues that are in the
way.
Chemotherapy
Chemotherapy uses drugs that the patient can take to stop cell division and kill
off the cells too. The drugs travel throughout the whole body through blood streams
so it can reach almost all tumors. After the tumors have shrunken enough, radiation
or surgery can be the next step. Chemotherapy can also affect normal, healthy cells
and kill some of them off.

How were the first chemotherapy drugs invented?

During WWI a type of gas used in the war was called mustard gas, which had negative
side effects on soldiers. The gas affected the bone marrow of affected soldiers,
preventing it from making blood cells. Bone marrow cells and cancer cells shared
the characteristic of dividing quickly, so scientists figured that some compounds
could affect cancer cells as they did to bone marrow cells. By WWII, they created
the first chemotherapy drugs.

The first chemotherapy drugs that are still used today are called alkylating
agents, which are injected into the bloodstream and affect all cells in the body,
but mostly the rapidly-dividing cells. Once inside cancer cells, the drug damages
the DNA in the cell, which kills the organism. because cancer cells are exposed to
alkylating metals so much, they don’t have time to repair and die quickly.

Microtubules are used during cell division and disassemble afterwards, but this can
be prevented by the drug or microtubule stabilizers. This prevents the cells form
completing cell division, leading to its death.

Reducing chemotherapy side effects

Some side effects of chemotherapy are nausea, fatigue, vomiting, and hair loss.

Some doctors use anti-nausea medications.

For hair loss, lowering the temperature around hair follicles using cold caps that
can narrow the blood vessels leading to the hair follicles, lessening the amount of
chemotherapy drugs that reach hair follicles, overall reducing hair loss.

Imaging technologies for detecting cancer

Commonly used for colon cancer, the endoscope uses a fiber optic cable, a light,
tiny camera, and a cable that sends images to another screen. Sometimes tools such
as forceps can be used. The patient can be given a sedative before the endoscope is
inserted into the colon through the rectum. The camera allows to doctor to see
abnormal growths. The forceps can be used to remove a sample of abnormal growth
(biopsy) which can then be studied under a microscope.

X-rays, specifically a mammogram, is used for imaging of breast tissue. X-rays can
also be harmful to cell as they can cause DNA damage, especially to those in the
fetus. For this reason, pregnant women should not use X-rays.

Imaging technologies for detecting cancer

Ultrasound imaging uses ultra-high-frequency sound waves to produce a digital image
of certain soft tissues (e.g. heart of liver), that doctors can examine.
CT/CAT (computerized axial tomography) allows X-ray technician to be able to take
pictures at multiple angles using X-rays of the body to create some detailed
images. This technology allows doctors to see part so f the body that X-rays can’t.
MRI (Magnetic resonance imaging) makes more detailed, 3D images with radio waves
and a strong magnetic field.

Specialized cells
Specialized cells are cells that have a specific function in the organism (both
plant and animal). They have genetics that can carry out that certain task.
For example:
Red blood cells have hemoglobin that allow them to carry oxygen around the body,
they are smooth so they can move around easily
Muscle cells are organized into muscle fibers. Muscle cells contract, making the
fibers shorter and making bones move.
Fat cells have large vacuoles to carry fat molecules, allowing them to store
chemical energy

Specialized cells in animals

Skin cells are packed together tightly to prevent water loss and protect the animal
White blood cells move like amoeba, swallow bacteria, and fight infections
Nerve cells have long, thin branches that conduct electrical impulses to create
body movements
Bones cell collect calcium from food to build the bones of the body
Sperm cells have a tail to move around and penetrate egg cells to create life
Photophore cells allow animals that are active at night to create light

Specialized cells in plants

Some plant cells (Xylem) transport water and dissolved minerals throughout the body
Other cells transport dissolved sugars around the plant
Storage cells are able to store starch, which is a source of energy for plants
Epidermal cells are cells that have hairs that help to absorb water from soil
Photosynthetic cells have chloroplasts that collect energy from the Sun to make
sugars
Guard cells in the surface of leaves control water loss

Stem cells and cell differentiation

Stem cells - Raw cells that do not have any specialized tasks but can generate all
types of cells that the organism would need.
Differentiation - The process when a new organism’s first 8 (unspecialized) cells
starts to generate specialized cells.

Once a stem cells generates a specialized cell, the specialized cells can no longer
become a stem cell.
Embryonic cells

- Found in early human embryos

- Can differentiate into any specialized cell
Cell Differentiation, Specialization & Stem Cells
Adult cells

- Found in bone marrow

- Can only differentiate into red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets.
Stem cells

Stem cells
The blood found in the umbilical cord after birth has many stem cells that can be
banked to be used later in the child’s life to treat diseases such as leukemia.
Siblings can also use the stem cells.
Donors of stem cells can allow their stem cells to be put into someone who needs
it, where the stem cells will divide to form new tissues

Tissue engineering is trying to find way to regenerate body parts that do not
normally regenerate, such as nerve cells

Animal systems

The Hierarchy of Structures in Animals

The hierarchy of structures in animals is the atom, molecules, cell, tissue, organ,
body system, and organism. Hierarchies have smaller/less important things at the
bottom and bigger/more complex things at the top.
All animals perform gas exchange, eliminate wastes, sense and respond to their
environment, reproduce, and grow and repair damages.

The Hierarchy of Structures in Animals

Single-celled organisms can functions on their own without the need for other cells
In multicellular organisms, cells have to work together and depend on each other

4 main tissues of animals

Epithelial tissue
Skin
Lining of digestive system
Thin sheets of tightly packed cells covering the body and lining internal organs
Used for protection from dehydration and low friction surfaces.
Connective tissue
Bone
Tendons
Blood
Various types of cells and fibers held together by a liquid, solid, or gel called
matrix.
Used for support and insulation.
Muscle tissue
Muscles that make bone movement
Muscles surrounding the digestive tract
Heart
Bundles of long cells called muscle fibers containing specialized proteins that can
shorten or contract.
Used for movement.
Nerve tissue
Brain
Nerves in sensory organs (Eyes, ears, nose, tongue, and skin)
Long, thin cells with fine branches capable of conducting electrical impulses.
Used for sensory, body coordination, and communication within the body.

The digestive system: Ingestion

Food is broken down chemically and physically by our teeth (32 for adults and 20
for children) and our saliva that has enzymes that break down complex carbohydrates
into sugars, which is easier to digest.
Once saliva touches food, the food is called bolus. The mouth has 3 salivary glands
that produce saliva, known as the parotid, sublingual, and submandibular glands.
The uvula and soft palate work to make sure that the bolus does not go down the
nasal cavity by closing the nasopharynx.
The bolus has to pass over the epiglottis so that it does not go into the
respiratory system.
The food then goes down the esophagus by peristalsis (muscular movement of the
esophagus that forces food downwards, involuntarily), a tube connecting the stomach
and mouth. Peristalsis happens by circular and longitudinal muscles in the
esophagus.
The upper esophageal sphincter prevents air from going into the esophagus. Review
body’s defences
Before entering the stomach, the bolus goes through the lower esophageal sphincter
or cardiac sphincter. This prevents glanitary acids from the stomach to go up
through the esophagus and cause acid reflux (heartburn).

The digestive system: Digestion

When the bile reaches the stomach, the stomach uses its glanitary glands to produce
acids such as hydrochloric acid (HCl) as well as enzymes to chemically break down
the food further.
A thick layer of mucus protects the lining of the stomach to protect it from its
own acids. When the mucus is thinned by bacterial infections, the stomach eats at
its own lining, causing an ulcer.
Action of the rugae muscles mix the acids with the bolus (mechanical absorption).
The bolus is then emptied into the small intestines by the pyloric sphincter.

The digestive system: Absorption and excretion

The small intensive has 3 parts, called the duodenum, jejunum, and ilium. The bile
produced by the liver that helps to break down fats enters through the first part
of the small intestine, the duodenum. The gall bladder can hold the bile between
meals. The pancreas produces insulin which regulates blood sugar levels.
Villi are on the inside of the small intestine that contain capillaries that will
absorb nutrients from the small intestine through diffusion. Villi are small hair-
like structures. The villi helps to increase the surface area of the small
intestine so that more diffusion can happen.

The foods goes through the ileocecal sphincter to get ot the large intestine. The
large intestine is made up of 5 parts, known as the cecum, ascending colon,
transverse colon, descending colon, and the sigmoid colon. The large intestine
absorbs water. Bacteria in the large intestine also produces enzymes that break
down carbohydrates. The leftover waste from the food is then excreted by going down
the rectum, and then through the anal sphincter to the anus. Most of our solid
waste is bacteria from the small intestine instead of the remains of food.

Eating disorders - GERD/acid reflux

Gastroesophageal Reflux disease (GERD), also known as acid reflux is where the
lower esophageal sphincter is weak or is open at the wrong time, allowing acids
from the stomach to go up into the esophagus, which the esophagus is not able to
handle. Symptoms include coughing, difficulty swallowing, breathing problems, sore
throat, hoarseness, and chest pain. This can be fixed/avoided by switching to a
diet that does not weaken the LES, and medications such as proton pump inhibitors
(PPIs) and H2 blockers. These don’t solve the problem completely and if left
untreated, can cause Barrett's esophagus or esophageal cancer.
Treatments:
Fundoplication surgery. Where the fundus (top part of the stomach) is wrapped
around and swenn around the base of the esophagus to support the LES. During meals,
when the stomach stretches, causing the fundus to tighten around the LES and
prevent reflux.
A endoscopic version of the treatment is also offered called incisionless
fundoplication. This is where the fundus is folded inside the stomach and tacked
into place below the LES to make a natural barrier against reflux.
Stretta therapy is where an endoscope is used to tighten and strengthen the LES and
reduce the frequency of acid reflux with radiofrequency (RF) energy.
LINX surgery is where magnets are placed around the LES. The magnets are stretched
to allow bolus to pass through the LES but closed at other times to prevent acid
reflux.

Eating disorders - Gluten and celiac disease

Gluten is a protein naturally found in some grains such as wheat. For some people,
gluten can make them feel sick because of celiac disease. This is because the
immune system is triggered by gluten to fight the small intestine, which will
damage the villi. When the villi are damaged, the body cannot get the nutrients it
needs.
Symptoms can include headaches, depression/anxiety, tirenes, bone/joint pain, and
skin itchiness and blisters called dermatitis herpetiformis for adults. In
children, the symptoms are stomach pain, nausea/vomiting, slow growth, and delayed
puberty. It can also need to weak/brittle bones, anemia, and infertility.
A diagnosis of this disease can be done by taking a blood test to look for
antibodies markers such tTGA and EMA. It can also be confirmed by taking a biopsy
with an endoscope.
Treatments:
Following a gluten-free diet is usually enough to allow the small intestine to
heal.

Eating disorders - Peptic ulcer disease

The stomach has 4 main markes, the cardiac, fundus, body, and pyloric antrum, plus
the pyloric sphincter.
The stomach makes many acids needed to break down food. The stomach’s inside is
coated with a layer of mucus, which prevent the acids from eating away from the
stomach. When the mucus layer thins, the acids start to affect the stomach and
create ulcers. The causes can include nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory medications.
One of the causes for this is H. pylori bacteria. Ulcers are hole-like, and beneath
the ulcers are blood vessels, which if the ulcers are deep enough, can bleed.
Symptoms include blenching, bloating, and vomiting.
Endoscopy can be used to diagnose it. We can put an endoscope into the stomach, and
a biopsy is done to check for any malignant tumors or h. Pylori infection.
H. pylori infections can be treated with antibiotics and acid-lowered medications.

Digestive disorders: Lactose intolerance

Lactose contains glucose and galactose. They are to be broken down by the enzyme
called lactase found in the small intestine. Usually there is enough intestinal
lactase to break down the lactose. But when a person has intestinal lactase
deficiency, this means that they do not have enough of lactase to break down
lactose, leading to fermentation, where bacteria in the large intestine breaks down
the lactose since it cannot be absorbed if not broken down. This causes stomach
pains, bloating, diarrhea, and gas.

Lactose is a sugar naturally found in dairy products.

Antacids
Antacids are medications that are aimed to help pains in the stomach such as
heartburn. The antacids have a pH level of 10 while the stomach’s acids of a pH
level of 1. When they react together, they produce a pH level of 7, which is
neutral on the pH scale. The higher the number on the pH scale, the less acidic it
is. Because acid reflux causes the stomach acids to go up into the esophagus which
cannot handle these acids, antacids help to relieve the symptoms.
Antacids contain chemicals such as calcium carbonate (CaCO3), sodium bicarbonate
(NaHCl3), magnesium hydroxide(Mg(OH)2), and aluminum hydroxide(AL(OH)3). Each one
of these chemicals contain either bases carbonate ions (CO3) or hydroxide ion (OH).

The circulatory system

The heart is made up of 4 chambers and 4 valves. The four chambers are called the
right atrium,right ventricle, left atrium, and the left ventricle.
The 4 valves are called the tricuspid valve, pulmonary valve, the mitral valve, and
the bicuspid valve. Blood passes through each one of these chambers by going
through each valve (check diagram).
The chambers on the right bring oxygen-poor blood to the lungs through the
pulmonary arteries, and the blood comes back oxygenated through the pulmonary
veins. Chambers on the left bring oxygenated to all the tissues in the body through
the the aorta and descending aorta. After the oxygenated blood gives its oxygen to
the tissues in the body, the oxygen-poor blood returns through the superior vena
cava.
Red blood cells have hemoglobin, which allows the cells to carry oxygen. The blood
cells get oxygen from the lungs, specifically in the alveoli, which are tiny air
sacs. Through the process of diffusion, the oxygen received in the lungs/alveoli,
will join the red blood cells and the oxygen from the red blood cells will go into
the alioli for the lungs to excrete out the body. All cells/tissues need oxygen to
function.
Lumen in the inside of any tube in the body, including blood vessels. Lumen comes
from latin, meaning, “an opening”. The septum is a wall the separates the right
side of the heart from the left side of the heart.

Structure of veins and arteries

Arteries:
Have three layers. On the outside, connective tissue, smooth muscle, and then
endothelial cells
They do not have valves
Blood travels through the arteries under high pressure
They are abundant in oxygen, except the pulmonary artery
Larger lumens due to the high blood pressure
Veins:
Has the same layers as arteries, but the walls are thinner, with a larger lumen
Veins have valves to prevent blood from flowing backwards
Veins are not as flexible as arteries
Larger lumens due to lower blood pressure

The 2 main types of circulatory systems

Closed circulatory system
Blood remains inside the heart or blood vessels at all times as it is more
efficient
Humans have this type of circulatory system

Open circulatory system

Blood is let out into the body cavity instead of blood vessels
Circuit of vessels in incomplete
The heart pumps to get the blood to get back to the vessel

Parts of the circulatory system

Blood - Made up of red blood cells (containing hemoglobin that can carry oxygen),
white blood cells (that find and fight diseases and have a nucleus), platelets
(helps with blood clotting), and plasma (protein rich and carries the blood cells)
Heart - Made up of Cardiac muscle tissue (only found in the heart and contracts to
make the heart move blood), nerve tissue, and muscle tissue. Also covered with
epithelial tissues to protect it and reduce friction and let the blood run
smoothly.
Blood vessels - Arteries carry blood toward the heart, veins carry blood away from
the heart, and capillaries are tiny, thin, blood vessels that deliver oxygen and
nutrients to cells and tissues, in exchange for carbon dioxide. Coronary arteries
are blood vessels that provide blood for the heart tissues as well.

Disorders in the circulatory system

Coronary arteries are blood vessels that provide blood for the heart tissue itself.
When they become blocked with plaque (buildup of fat, cholesterol, and calcium) or
blood clots because of factors such as a poor diet, little exercise, or smoking.
Coronary arteries can become completely blocked, leaving the heart tissues to stop
receiving oxygen and nutrients they need to funcion, leading to the the heart to
stop pumping, the heart tissues start to die. Called a heart attack, symptoms
include chest pain, dizziness, nasua, shortness of breath, or sweating, and can be
diagnosed with a blood test (determines what proteins remain when the heart tissues
die) and an electrocardiogram (ECG, measures the electrical signals created by the
beating heart as signals from damaged heart tissues are not the same a healthy
ones).
Coronary heart disease is the same except blood vessels are only partially blocked.
Symptoms include tiredness, dizziness, and a burning sensation in the arms or
chest. Can be diagnosed by an special X-ray called an angiogram. Fluorescent dye is
injected into the bloodstream which shows up on the angiogram. Angioplasty
(widening the blocked part of the arteries with an inflated balloon and inserting a
metal piece) or long term medication treatment (reduces risk factors such as high
cholesterol).
High blood pressure can affect the heart, blood vessels, kidneys, brain and eyes.
This happens when blood vessels harder, get scarred, or less elastic, so it can get
blocked by the blood cells. This can also happen because the arteries’ walls
thicker from cholesterol and fat buildup (known as atherosclerosis). Less room for
the blood cells to travel, causing the heart to pump harder to get blood moving.
The heart cannot be moving this much as it could make the heart stretch out and get
bigger, and make some blood cells stay in the heart without exiting (congestive
heart failure). This can cause strokes and bleeding in the brain. Kidneys lose
their ability to function when they don’t receive the substances it needs. The
retina is where he eye receives visual images and the blood vessels there can
rupture, leading to impaired vision and blindness. People can get heart attacks,
strokes, or kidney failure from high blood pressure.
Stroke is where the blood supply to the brain is cut off, causing the brain cells
to get damaged or die. There are 2 types, ischemic stroke, where a blood vessels in
the brain forms a blood clot, becoming narrowed. TIA is temporary and you might
just get slurred speech or confusion. The hemorrhagic stroke is less common, when a
blood vessel ruptures, causing bleeding in the brain that will permanently damage
surrounding brian cells. Some people can get a clot busting drug, but some may need
throbecthronmy to remove the blood clot or to restore blood flow. Symptoms include
tiredness, memory loss, muscle weakness, etc. MRI machines or CT scans can be used
to take pictures of the brain to see if there is any bleeding or damaged brain
cells in the brain,

The respiratory system

The respiratory system breathes in oxygen, for blood from the circulatory system to
pick up and provide for cells in the body, take carbon dioxide from those cells to
the lungs, for you to exhale.
Air enters through the mouth/nose, then through the pharynx (throat), down the
trachea, then into branches called bronchi (or bronchus), then to the lungs. The
Bronchi in the lungs branch again and again into bronchiole, ending in tiny air
sacs called alveoli, surrounding by capillaries.
Gas exchange happens in alveoli through the process of diffusion.
Upon inhalation, the diaphragm contracts and flattens, and upon exhalation, the
diaphragm relaxes, returning to its dome-like shape.

Respiratory system disorders

Tuberculosis comes from Mycobacterium tuberculosis (TB), a kind of bacteria, travel
into our airways and infect our lungs. Immune cells, called macrophages, rush to
the infection site to try to break down the bacteria. While the immune cells are
usually able to kill the bacteria, but not in people who may have HIV, diabetes, or
pregnancy. This can cause the bacteria to use cell-degrading enzymes to destroy the
infected tissue, making people with this to cough up blood or have chest pain. The
bacteria can then travel to other systems to infect them, such as the skeletal or
digestive system , causing other pains. In 1921, scientists created a vaccine for
TB. However, some people don’t get symptoms of TB, so it is hard to diagnose.
Vaping is where someone uses a vape pen, which contains a vaporizer along with a
small container e-juice, which contains nicotine – an addictive chemical that keeps
people smoking/vaping – cannabis compounds, and other chemicals with different
flavouring. A heating coil is powered by a tiny battery that will heat up the e-
juice into a vapour that can be breathed in by the lungs. People think that vaping
is healthy since it does not burn tobacco and lowers one’s cannabis use. 2
chemicals, tetrahydrocannabinol, and chemical contaminants are being examined to
see how they affect the lungs.
Diagnostic Bronchoscopy is a test where a stick with a small camera is inserted
into the mouth to examine the airways and collect samples. It can be done when the
patient is sedated and awake or when they are under anesthesia. Just before the
area that the doctor requires a sample of, salt water is injected and then taken
back in. A small brush or forceps (like tweezers) can also be used to remove
samples. Sometimes taking samples from the lung tissue itself is needed when a
disease is identified. DOesn’t usually take more than 15 minutes.

Respiratory system disorders

Cancer in the lung, known as lung cancer, can be caused by carcinogens, such as the
chemicals found in cigarettes. Smoking and secondhand smoking can be avoided to
prevent this. If a tumor is formed, it can be treated with surgery, chemotherapy,
or radiation therapy, as discussed in the first section of this unit.
Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) is where people infected with is
experience high fevers, shortness of breath, dry cough, nad sore throats. A
gioanoses is made on these symptoms, an X-ray showing results of pneumonia, and
cell samples are taken from the patient to be examined and should get a positive
lab result.

The Musculoskeletal system

The skeleton consists of:
Cartilage (Gives low-friction protection for joints)
Ligaments (Connects bone together)
Bones (Containing bone marrow where blood cells are produced)
Tendons (Connect bones to the muscles)
Bones have joins in between them. There are 3 types of joins, ball and socket
(shoulder), hindle joint (elbow), and pivot (leg)
The muscular system:
Muscle cells contain specialized proteins that allow the muscle to contract, making
the muscles shorter and thicker. When the muscles relax, they stretch back,
becoming longer)
Skeletal (Voluntary), smooth (involuntary), and cardiac (involuntary) muscle are
the three types of muscle tissues
Muscles work in pairs, one muscle pulls and contracts while the other relaxed and
stretches

Problems in the musculoskeletal system

Osteoporosis: Affects older people and women. When the body loses bone tissue and
the bones become brittle and weak. Linked to a lot of calcium in the bones, but
exercise can decrease the risk.
Muscle injury: Symptoms of muscle injury include pain, tenderness, redness,
bruising, limited motion, muscle spasms, swelling, muscle weakness.
Fracture: A medical term for a broken bone. Displaced fractures are where the bone
snaps into two pieces and move so that they are not lined up. If the bone is in
multiple pieces, it is called a comminuted fracture. If the bone snaps all the way
or part of the way and moves but is still aligned, it is called a non-displaced
fracture. A fracture in which there is no wound or cut in the skin is called a
closed fracture. If there is a wound, it is called an open fracture.
Concussion: When the brain moves back and forth within the skull as a result of the
head hitting something hard.
Rheumatoid arthritis: An autoimmune disease where the body attacks the joint
lining, resulting in fluid accumulating around the joints which causes inflammation

Nervous system
Nervous system function: To instruct the body to move, react the changes inside or
outside the body, Central nervous system - Consists of the brain and spinal cord
(core of nervous system)
Sits in cerebrospinal fluid to protect it from injuries, to transport chemicals,
and remove wastes produced by the brain.
Spinal cord has all the information the brain needs to function
Peripheral nervous system - Nerves that carry signals between the brain and nervous
system
Nerves for voluntary movement
Nerves for sensory organs (Eyes, touch receptors, taste buds, ears)
Nerves for involuntary functions (digestion, heartbeat, breathing)

The Central Nervous System

The brian is split up into 6 main sections called the cerebrum, cerebellum,
diencephalon, midbrain, pons, and the medulla oblongata.
The cerebrum is the main part of the brain, being split into the right and left
hemisphere, but can also be divided into frontal (for reasoning and thought),
parietal (integrating sensory information), temporal (processing auditory
information from the ears), occipital (processing visual information from the eyes)
lobes.
The cerebellum is for balance, muscle tone, coordination, and movement.
The diencephalon secion is the processing center of sensory impulses.
The midbrain fi fro visual and auditory reflexes. The pons are responsible for
certain reflex actions. The medulla oblongata is needed for regulating processes
in the body such as digestion, swallowing, coughing, and others.

The spinal cord is made up of 4 segments know as the cervical, thoracic, lumbar,
and spinal nerves.
The peripheral nervous system is responsible for body coordination, body movement,
processing sensory information, and other functions.

Nerve structure
Neurons (nerve cells) send electrical impulses to other neurons and parts of the
body though very thin wires called axons.
Electrical impulses are prevented from passing through the wrong neutrons because
of the insulating myelin sheath that covers axons.
Nerves contain bundles of neurons surrounded with connective tissue.
Each neuron has a nucleus in the middle, which has smaller fibers branching off of
it called axon, and even smaller fibers that branch off more called the dendrites.
–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
Perception: Interpreting information
The spinal cord is also used for quick reflexes, actions that don’t require the
brain (e.g. moving your hand away from a hot surface).

Body Atlas notes - Digestive system

Digesting food takes 10% of our daily energy requirements, 70% is spended in
running the processes that keep the body alive, 20% for activities during the day
Food goes down the esophagus in about 3 seconds
Pepsin, an enzyme, breaks proteins down into their basic molecules, called amino
acids
Food is called chyme in the stomach, food is in the stomach for about 2-6 hours
About 3 hours after eating the food will reach the small intestine
Vili make the surface area of the small intestine 10X bigger than the surface area
of your skin
Our bodies only need 40 different nutrients
Water makes up 60% of the human body
⅔ of the water in chyme is extracted by the large intestine
The kidneys filter waste from the blood in the body. Urine, the remaining waste
then goes down ureters and to the bladder

Body Atlas notes - Respiratory and circulatory system

Mucus in our nose traps dust

Blood takes a minute to go all around the body when we are relaxed. It can take
just 10 seconds during physical activity
The heart beat 70 time per minute when resting

Organ Transplantation
Organ transplantation is when an organ or tissue is taken from one’s body whether
they are alive of dead, and put into another’s body to replace the failing organ
that they might already have.
In some cases, someone’s immune system may recognize that someone else’s organ has
been brought into the body and might try to destroy it. Someone can take
medications sometimes to prevent this.
For Kidneys and lungs, a person can only donate one of each, and live the rest of
their life with only one kidney or lobe of lung.
For liver, people can donate one lobe to another person. Liver is able to make and
generate new tissue if a part of someone’s liver is missing.
Xenotransplantation is transplanting body parts from one species to another,
different species.
Living transplantation is taking healthy organs/tissues from a living donor to
replace a damaged organ/tissue in another person. This has limits as the living
person cannot give certain organs such as the heart.
Deceased transplantation is where healthy organs/tissues from a dead person to
replace a damaged organ/tissue in another person that is alive. There are less
limits as the donor is dead and no longer needs any of their organs.

Frog systems for frog dissection

Determining the gender of the frog: Female frogs are larger than male frogs, and
male frogs have thick pads on their thumbs.
A frog has a dorsal side which is the back side of the frog.
The ventral side of the frog is usually the front side of the frog.
A frog has 2 hind legs with 5 fingers that are webbed to help the frog swim and 2
forelegs with 4 fingers.

Face of the frog and mouth

Tympanic membranes are circles to the sides of the eyes that help the frog to hear.
Nictitating membrane: A clear membrane that is attached to the bottom of the eye
which protects the eyes of the frog while it swims. It is the third eyelid of the
frog
Teeth: There are 2 set of teeth, vomerine teeth that are at the top of the edge of
the mouth and maxillary teeth are at the top of the mouth. Teeth are not used for
chewing, they are used to hold prey in the frog’s mouth
Tongue: The tongue is used to catch prey such as flies and is located at the front
at the mouth
Internal nares: These are 2 openings at the top of the mouth that are nostrils
External nares: that are on the outside between the mouth and eyes
Eustachian tube: To the sides of the jaw, there are tubes that are equalize
pressure in the ears while swimming
Esophagus: An opening in the back of the mouth where food goes down
Glottis: A flap over the esophagus that helps the breathe and vocalize

Autonomy in the frog

Heart: The frog has 3 chambers, a left and right atrium and ventricle
Lungs: There is a left and right lung
Fat bodies: Yellow, spaghetti-shaped structures that store fat as chemical energy
Peritoneum: A spider web-like membrane that covers many of the organs
Liver: Has 3 lobes, the left anterior lobe, left posterior lobe
Conus arteriosus: A large vessel extending from the heart
Gallbladder: A green, round structures under the liver, stores bile
Stomach: A j-shape structure where chemical digestion happens
Pyloric sphincter: A pinkish valve at the end of the stomach
Large intestine: The small intestine widens into the large intestine, the last
section of the large intestine is called the cloaca where waste goes
Spleen: Dark spherical object that hold the blood and and ins involved in the
immune system of the frog
Esophagus: Find the stomach and follow it upwards. Where it is thinner is where
the esophagus is located

Frog urogenital system (reproductive + excretory system)

Kidneys: Dark bean shaped located near at the lower back of the frog. Filters
wastes from the blood.
Testes: Only in male frogs, they are located at the top of the kidneys and are pale
and round
Oviducts: In female frogs, curly structure that produces the eggs ro the females.
Males have this but it serves no purpose, so it is called the vestigial oviducts
Bladder: Stores urine, at the lowest part of the body cavity
Cloaca: Unirne, spearms, and eggs exit here
Some differences between human systems and frog systems
Frogs are able to breathe through their skin when they are underwater because their
skin has capillaries so that oxygen can diffuse into the. In humans, we have to
breathe through our nose and mouth
Frogs have 3 chambers with only one ventricle, humans have 4 chambers with 2
ventricles
Frogs have a tongue at the front of their mouth while humans have their tongue at
the back of their mouth
Frogs use their teeth to hold food in their mouth and do not chew on their food,
but humans use their teeth for physical digestion of food so that they do not
swallow their food as a hole

Plant systems

Structure for all plants

Structure for all plants

The root system is made up of one or more separate roots.
The shoot system consists of the stem, leaves, and flowers (when present).
In addition to the plant’s two main body systems:
The dermal tissue system - Tissues making up the outer surfaces of plant parts.
The vascular tissue system - Tissues specialized for the transportation of water,
minerals, and nutrients throughout the plant.
Ground tissue system - Makes up all of the other structures within a plant.

Root and shoot systems

The root system:
The literal roots (with dermal tissue cells) that reach beneath the ground for
water, nutrients, and minerals, that a plant can use to grow
The shoot system:
Conducts photosynthesis
Produces flowers for reproduction
Made up of the flowers, the leaves, and the stem

Leaves, flowers, and stems in detail

The leaves:
Tissues in the leaves do photosynthesis (turn carbon dioxide, water, and sunlight
into glucose and oxygen for cellular respiration)
The flowers:
Male reproductive structures have pollen grains
Female reproductive structures have eggs (After being fertilized by pollen, the
female flower parts from seeds (sometimes found in fruit)
Pollinated by insects, birds, and bats. Nectar, smell, and appearance can attract
these animals.
Grasses and some trees and wind pollinated. They produce pine cones containing
seeds instead.
The stems (or trunks, in the case of trees):
Mainly made to transport materials with vascular tissues. Some stems are
specialized for food storage, reproduction, protection and photosynthesis. They are
also used for medicines, paper products, etc.

Dermal Tissue System

Includes the epidermal (layer of cells covering stem, leaves, and rots) and
periderm tissues (for wood-like plants the forms bark on stems and large roots)
Some epidermal tissues have:
Epidermal root cells that have root hairs to absorb moisture and nutrients.
The ability to produce a wax to waterproof leaves.
Some have fine hair with chemicals that will cause irritation to animals that touch
it so that no animals eat the plant.

Vascular Tissue System

Is like a network of tubes that comes from the roots, up through the stem, and
leaves.
Xylem (Zye-luhm)
Phloem (Flo-um)
Transports water and dissolved minerals up the roots, stem, and through the leaves
Once fully formed, they will have no organelles, allowing water to travel through
them easily
Transports sugars, dissolved nutrients, and plant hormones (up and down the plant)
Sometimes transports food materials downward from photosynthesizing leaves to the
stem and roots.

Ground Tissue System

Everything other than the vascular and dermal tissue system.
Makes up most of younger plants.
In green parts of a plant, they make nutrients by photosynthesis, store carbs in
the roots, and in stems they provide storage and support.

How photosynthesis works

Sunlight + carbon dioxide + water —chlorophyll—> Glucose + oxygen
How do plants obtain:
Sunlight
Water
Carbon Dioxide
Larger leaves have more surface area than smaller leaves so they absorb more
sunlight
Chlorophyll is a pigment making plants green that actually absorbs sunlight
Palisade layer is where most sunlight comes, the cells are tightly packed to
collect more sunlight
Spongy mesophyll has cells that are looser so that gasses can move
Vascular tissues (with phloem and xylem) are arranged at bundles from root to stem
Long, thin epidermal cells on the roots, called root hairs absorb water from the
surrounding soil with osmosis
Enters through openings in leaves called stomata, guarded by “guard cells”
Guard cells bend outward results in stomata opening
Guard cells bend inward close stomata
Can move around in spongy mesophyll to reach more photosynthetic cells