UGC E-Pathshala

Module on Women and Development

By : Sudeshna Mukherjee,PhD
Asst Prof,Centre for Women’s Studies,
Bangalore University

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 Women and Development

1.1. Genesis:

Post Second World War, the United States and its allies recognized the need for a
programme to spread the benefits of scientific and industrial progress to the two thirds of
the world, mostly erstwhile colonies. These nations were defined as underdeveloped
countries required external intervention to improve their conditions. Developmental
initiatives began its journey. Soon foreign aid, including food aid and military aid became
a political tool used by the superpowers like USA and the USSR in a cold war
competition to influence the ex-colonial and non-aligned nations of the so called ‘Third
World’. With the collapse of the state socialist model in the USSR and Eastern Europe in
1989, the American model of neoliberal capitalism became dominant.

1.2. Growth v/s Development:

The models of development which emerged supreme following the industrial revolution
after the Second World War laid emphasis on industrialization, heavy accent on science
and technology, ruthless exploitation of natural (environmental) resources and letting
loose of market forces. These models initially captured the attention of non-western
economists and development planners, because the models sold the dream of prosperity
in bold terms and argued that once there is robust growth of the GNP/GDP, the whole
society will develop in all its segments (Srivastava, 1998).

The attractiveness of these alien westernized models of development did not last long.
The argument was raised basically was, and still is, that concept of development should
not be equated with growth alone. Growth is often not based on the principle of
distributive justice. In spite of the moderate rates of economic growth in the country, a
very large segment of our population still lives in utter poverty (Srivastava, 1998). Impact
of development (often measured by growth of GDP and GNP) is not even on entire
population.

1.3. Women and Development:

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The development process affects women and men in different ways. The after effects of
colonialism, and the peripheral position of poor countries of the south and those with
economies in transition in today’s globalizing world, exacerbate the effects of
discrimination on women. Everywhere gender (the socially and culturally constructed
form of relations between femininity and masculinity) is crosscut by differences in class,
race, ethnicity, religion and age. The much criticized binary division between ‘Western’
women and the ‘Other’, between white and black and between colonizer and colonized is
both patronizing and simplistic (Mohanty, 1984). Feminist have often seen women as
socially constituted as a homogeneous group on the basis of shared oppression. But in
order to understand these gender relations we must interpret them within specific
societies and on the basis of historical and political practice, not a prior on gender.
Women’s organizations, and the various United Nations International women’s
conferences in Mexico City, Copenhagen, Nairobi, and Beijing over the last three
decades, have put gender issues firmly on the development agenda but economic growth
and modernization is not gender neutral. The aim of gender equality recognizes that men
and women often have different needs and priorities, face different constraints and have
different aspirations. Above all, the absence of gender equality means a huge loss of
human potential and has costs for both men and women and also for development.

Prior to 1970, when Esther Boserup published her landmark book on women and
development, it was thought that the development process affected men and women in
the same way. Productivity was equated with the cash economy and so most of women’s
work was ignored. When it became apparent that economic development did not
automatically eradicate poverty through trickle-down effects, the problems of distribution
and equality of benefits to the various segments of the population became of major
importance in development theory (Momsen, 2004). Boserup’s work is often taken as
signaling the origins of the Women in Development (WID) approach by pointing to
women’s invisibility and exclusion from development (Moser, 1993).

1.4. Paradigm shift in Development: From Women as passive recipient to women as

an active agent of transformation

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In the early years of International Development programming in the 1950s, women were
regarded as passive recipients (rather than participants) whose major economic role was
child bearing and rearing. Development projects geared to address women’s practical
needs such as maternal and child health and nutrition. In 1960s and 70s, as development
policy began to focus on meeting basic needs like food, shelter, and security;
international agencies and governments recognized that women were among the poorest
of the poor. In 1970, Women’s Role in Economic Development, the ground breaking book
by economist Esther Boserup, demonstrated that women made important economic
contributions, which were being ignored by governments to the detriment of national
development efforts. Boserup also showed that development had different effects on
women and men.

The evolution of thinking about women’s development parallels the changing pattern of
women’s development programs, as shown on the chart below. Women’s Welfare
remains the central concern in women’s development. Each general goal incorporates the
preceding goals.

Table-1 Evolution of Women’s Development

CONCEPTS
PROJECT GOAL POTENTIAL DEVELOPMENT
AND TIME OF CONCEPT OF THE CONCEPT OF THE INTERVENTION
INTRODUCTION PROBLEM SOLUTION

 Women’s poverty  Provide support  Maternity, health clinics

Welfare  Women’s special services of  Immunization campaigns
(1950) needs health, nutrition,  Feeding programs
 Women as vulnerable childcare, etc.
group
 Women as  Promote self-  Income generating projects
Economic Self- underemployed, reliance and for women
Reliance (1960) unproductive, independence,  Women’s
dependent, lacking in provide savings/investment/produc
productive skills productive skills, tion groups
encourage
enterprise
 Women as previously  Identify women’s  Increase women’s access
overlooked resource in actual productive to credit and marketing
Efficiency development planning roles and facilities, technology
(1970)  Women as recognize the
underdeveloped gender division

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 human capital, in need of labor
of skills training and  Improve
improved access to women’s access
resources to skills training,
technology and
resources
 Structure of inequality  Implement equal  Affirmation action to
Equality (1985)  Discrimination against opportunity for promote equal
women in schooling, women in opportunities, equal
credit, access to land, schooling, access participation
etc. to the factors of  Adopt and enforce equal
production, pay opportunity laws.
 Unequal gender power  Expand women’s  Grass root projects that
Empowerment relations participation in recognize women’s roles
(1985)  Male Dominated the development  Projects concerned with
Society process to advocacy,
 Social and political achieve gender democratization, and
resistance-both male equality in political action
and female control over
productive
resources
 Use strategies of
conscientization,
mobilization for
collective action

Source: http://pages.uoregon.edu/aweiss/Intl640/CEDPA_Week2_2.pdf

1.5. Various Approaches to Women’s Development:

1.5.1. Women in Development (WID) Approach:

The Women in Development (WID) movement, which grew out of Boserup’s work,
aimed for more efficient, effective development through incorporating women- specific
projects into existing development processes. The strategies that were developed
included:

 Adding women’s projects or project components.

 Increasing women’s income and productivity.
 Improving women’s ability to look after the household

However the WID approach did not address gender discrimination – the root cause
preventing women’s full participation in their societies.

1.5.2. Criticisms:

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 1. WID approach had in some cases , the unwanted consequence of depicting
women as a unit whose claims are conditional on its productive value,
2. It made mistake of associating increased female status with the value of cash
income in women’s lives (Razavi, 1995).
3. Although the WID advocated for greater gender equality, it did not tackle the
unequal gender relations and roles at the basis of women's exclusion and gender
subordination.
4. It did not address the gender stereotyped expectations of men (Bradshaw, Sarah,
1998).
5. Moreover, the underlying assumption behind the call for the integration of
the Third World women with their national economy was that the women were
not already participating in development thus by downplaying women's roles in
household production and informal economic and political activities (Koczberski,
Sarah, 1998).
6. The WID was also criticized for its views on the fact that women's status will
improve by moving into “productive employment”, implying that the move to the
“modern sector” need to be made from the “traditional” sector to achieve self-
advancement,
7. This further implies that “traditional” work roles often occupied by women in the
developing world were inhibiting to self-development (Koczberski,, 1998).

1.6. Women and Development (WAD) Approach:

In the late 1970s the Women and Development (WAD) In India the Sixth Five Year Plan
(1980-1985) can be taken as a
perspective developed in reaction to omissions in WID.
landmark for the cause of women.
WAD proponents argued that: since then the concept of women
and development was introduced
 Women were already integrated into development for the first time in India.

processes but on unequal terms.

 They pointed out that development projects increased the demands on women
without increasing access to resources or decision making power and,
 In effect, worked against women’s interests.
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WAD argued that class structures were more oppressive than gender and that poor,
marginalized women had more in common with men of their class than with women of
another class.

1.6.1. Criticisms:

1. Under WAD, according to critics the women-only development projects would

struggle, or ultimately fail, due to their scale, and the marginalized status of these
women.
2. Furthermore, the WAD perspective suffers from a tendency to view women as a
class, and pay little attention to the differences among women (such as feminist
concept of intersectionality), including race and ethnicity, and prescribe development
endeavors that may only serve to address the needs of a particular group.
3. WID, WAD fails to fully consider the relationships between patriarchy, modes of
production, and the marginalization of women. It also presumes that the position of
women around the world will improve when international conditions become more
equitable.
4. Additionally, WAD has been criticized for its singular preoccupation with the
productive side of women’s work, while it ignores the reproductive aspect of
women’s work and lives. Value is placed on income-generating activities, and none is
ascribed to social and cultural reproduction (Rathgeber, 1990).

1.7. Gender and Development (GAD) Approach

In the 1980s, the Gender and Development (GAD) movement brought a revolutionary
new way of thinking. With WID, the dominant rationale for women’s development
programs was increased efficiency, mostly what women can do to accelerate
development. But GAD emphasized on what development can do for women.

 GAD refocused emphasis on gender from women. The new focus on gender
grew out of observations that women’s development projects had not been
successful in improving women’s conditions.

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  This approach pointed out that women have been systematically
subordinated and assigned secondary or inferior roles to men and their needs
have been considered in isolation from the larger contexts.
 They sought to make women an integral part of every development strategy.
 It was thought that development projects would become more efficient by
decreasing women’s reproductive workload (lightening household
responsibilities through better access to water, fuel) and increasing their
productive efficiency (income-generation, mainly in traditional women’s
activities, access to training, credit).
 With GAD, the rationale for conducting women’s development programs
began to shift from efficiency to equity and empowerment.
 Development affects men and women differently, and women and men will
have a different impact on projects. Both must be involved in identifying
problems and solutions if the interests and wellbeing of the community as a
whole are to be furthered.
 Development started addressing Strategic Gender Needs rather than mere
Practical Needs.

1.7.1. Practical Gender needs (PGN)

Under the concept of practical gender needs women are identified in their socially
accepted roles in society. PGNs do not challenge, although they arise out of, gender
divisions of labor and women’s subordinate position in society. PGNs are a response to
immediate perceived necessity, identified within a specific context. They are practical in
nature and often address inadequacies in living conditions such as water provision, health
care and employment. They are needs shared by all household members yet identified as
PGNS of women who assume responsibility for meeting these needs.

Practical Gender Need Includes:

 Water Provision
 Heath Care
 Income earning for household provisioning

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  Housing and basic services
 Family food provision
1.7.2. Strategic Gender Needs (SGN)

Strategic gender needs are the needs women identify because of their subordinate
position in society. They vary according to particular contexts, related to gender divisions
of labour, power and control; may include such issues as legal rights, domestic violence,
equal wages, and women’s control over their bodies. Meeting SGNs assists women to
achieve greater equality and change in existing roles, thereby challenging women’s
subordinate position.

Strategic gender needs include:

 Abolition of Sexual division of labour

 Alleviation of the burden of domestic labour and child care
 The removal of institutionalized forms of discrimination such as rights to
own land or property
 Access to credit and other resources
 Freedom of choice over child bearing
 Measures against male violence
 Participation in decision making

1.7.3. Criticisms of GAD approach

1. GAD has been criticized for emphasizing the social differences between men and
women while neglecting the bonds between them and also the potential for
changes in roles.
2. GAD does not dig deep enough into social relations and so may not explain how
these relations can undermine programs directed at women.
3. It also does not uncover the types of trade-off that women are prepared to make
for the sake of achieving their ideals of marriage or motherhood.
4. Another criticism is that although GAD perspective is theoretical distinct from
WID, but in practice, a program seem to have the element of the two. Whilst

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 many development agencies are now committed to a gender approach, in practice,
the primary institutional perspective remains as WID (Reeves, Hazel, 2000).
5. There is a slippage in reality where gender mainstreaming is often based in a
single normative perspective as synonymous to Women. Development agencies
still advance gender transformation to mean economic betterment for women
(Reeves, Hazel, 2000).

Table-2 Gender needs assessment

Women’s role Gender need met

recognized
Type of intervention R p CM PGN SGN

1.Employment policy
a) Skill training
Cooking X X
Dressmaking X X
Masonry/carpentry X X X(1)
b) Access to credit
Allocated to household X X
Allocated to women X X X(2)
2 .Human settlement policy
a) Zoning legislation
Separates residence and work X

Does not separate residence and work X X X

b) House ownership
In man’s name X
In woman’s name X X X X(3)
3. Basic services
a) Location of nursery
Located in community X X X X
Mother’s workplace X X X
Father’s workplace X X X X(4)

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b) Transport services
Only peak hours bus service X X
Adequate off-peak service X X X X
c) Timing of rural extension meetings
In the morning X X
In the afternoon/evening X X X X

R = Reproductive P = Productive CM = Community managing

PGN = Practical gender need SGN = Strategic gender need

1.8. Alternative approaches

An alternative way of viewing development has evolved out of grassroots experiences.

This alternative view is based on interactions at the local level. Ideas and policies are
shaped by everyday practice rather than by the dominant development theory. Being
aware of their interests and needs the local people are capable of promoting their own
development if their initiatives are recognized and supported. There are many examples
that clearly show that these grassroots movements result in empowerment for poor
women. The local NGOs have created space for women’s voices to challenge and change
the development plans that are biased against women. Women should be the agents of
development (Gurung, 2004, pp16).

Other approaches with different paradigms have also played a historically important role
in advancing theories and practices in gender and development. The structuralist debate
was first triggered by Marxist and socialist feminists. Marxism, particularly through
alternative models of state socialist development practiced in USSR, China and Cuba,
challenged the dominant liberal approach over time. Neo-Marxist proponents focused on
the role of the post-colonial state in development in general and also on localized class
struggles (Mies, Bennholdt, 1998).

Table-3 Strategies to Improve Equity

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 TOP-DOWN STRATEGIES BOTTOM-UP STRATEGIES
promote gender equity in institutions and are directed at women and support their entry
agencies through: into the mainstream of society through:

 Awareness: international conferences  Access: removing international and

that include gender issues national legal and social barriers

 Advocacy: campaigns to convince  Empowerment: efforts enabling women

agencies about the importance of to take the initiative for involvement in
gender development

 Tools: gender analysis, frameworks,

guidelines
 Structures: staff appointments,
financial allocations, internal
mandates, gender training
 Support: financial and technical
assistance to women’s groups to give
women access to and control over
technology, money, credit, training and
education

Source:http://pages.uoregon.edu/aweiss/Intl640/CEDPA_Week2_2.pdf

1.9. Capability Approach:

Capability approach is an approach to welfare economics, conceived in 1980’s. Amartya

Sen brings a range of ideas that are excluded from traditional approaches. The core focus
of the capability approaches is on what individuals are capable of doing (Sen, 1985).The
approach emphasizes functional capabilities i.e., is ability to live to old age, engage in
economic transactions, or participate in political activities, these are construed in terms of
the substantive freedoms people have reason to value, instead of utility (happiness,
desire-fulfillment or choice) or access to resources (income, commodities, assets). This
approach emphasized on the human wellbeing and the importance of freedom of
choice, individual heterogeneity and the multi-dimensional nature of welfare (Sen,
2001).Sen’s Concern for the capability approach is that the individuals can differ greatly
in their abilities to convert the same resources into valuable functioning (beings and
doings). For example, those with physical disabilities may need specific goods to achieve
mobility.

Martha Nussbaum’s account of capability differs from Sen’s and is motivated by a

concept of human dignity. Access to these capabilities is required by human dignity, but
this does not mean that a life lacking in any of these, whether from external deprivation
or individual choice, is a less than human life. Choice and deprivation are different

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however. If someone lacks access to these capabilities, for example, to be well nourished
(bodily health), that reflects a failure by society to respect her human dignity. If someone
chooses not to take up her opportunities to certain capabilities, for example, to adopt an
ascetic life-style and fast for religious reasons at the expense of her bodily health,
respecting that choice is also an aspect of respecting her dignity.

1.9.1.The Human Development Index (HDI) and Gender Development Index (GDI)
Amartya Sen’s capability approach paved the way for one of the most comprehensive
development indicators “The Human Development Index (HDI)” developed by
Pakistani economist Mahbub ul Haq. It is a composite statistic of life, education, and per
capita income indicators, which are used to rank countries into four tiers of human
development (http://hdr.undp:org/en/humandev).

1.9.2.“Gender-related Development Index (GDI)” is an index designed to measure of

gender equality. GDI together with the Gender Empowerment Measure (GEM) were
introduced in 1995 in the Human Development Report written by the United Nations
Development Program. The aim of these measurements was to add a gender-sensitive
dimension to the Human Development Index (HDI). It addresses gender-gaps in life
expectancy, education, and incomes.

1.10. Millennium Development Goals :

The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) are eight international development goals
that were established following the Millennium Summit of the UN in 2000,to mitigate
gender imbalance and to usher in a just world order by 2015. These are again rephrased
under 17 sustainable development goals. They are:

1. To eradicate extreme poverty and hunger

2. To achieve universal primary education
3. To promote gender equality
4. To reduce child mortality
5. To improve maternal health
6. To combat HIV/AIDS, malaria, and other diseases

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 7. To ensure environmental sustainability
8. To develop a global partnership for development

1.10.1. The Post-2015 Development Agenda have proposed 17 Sustainable

Development Goals which are as follows:

1. End poverty in all its forms everywhere;

2. End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition, and promote
sustainable agriculture;
3. Ensure healthy lives and promote wellbeing for all at all ages;
4. Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning
opportunities for all;
5. Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls;
6. Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all;
7. Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all;
8. Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and
productive employment, and decent work for all;
9. Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable industrialization,
and foster innovation;
10. Reduce inequality within and among countries;
11. Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable;
12. Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns;
13. Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts (taking note of
agreements made by the UNFCCC forum);
14. Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for
sustainable development;
15. Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably
manage forests, combat desertification and halt and reverse land degradation, and
halt biodiversity loss;
16. Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development, provide
access to justice for all and build effective, accountable and inclusive institutions
at all levels;

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 17. Strengthen the means of implementation and revitalize the global partnership for
sustainable development. (http://www.undp.org)

1.11. Sustainable development:

The term Sustainable development was brought into common use by the World
Commission on Environment and Development (The Brundtland Commission) in its
seminal report (1987) called “Our Common Future”. According to the Brundtland
Commission: “Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the
present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs
(World Commission, 1987:8)”.This definition contains within it two concepts:(1) the
concept of ‘needs’, Especially the essential needs of the world’s poor to which overriding
priority should be given; and (2) the idea of limitations imposed by the state of
technology and social organization on the environmental ability to meet present and
future needs (World Commission on Environment and Development , 1987:43).

1.11.1. Salient features of sustainable development are:

 It is an alternative design for development, which, by definition should be
environmentally benign and eco-friendly.
 The present generation should meet its needs without com-promising the ability
of future generations to meet their needs to ensure that the productive assets
Available to future generations are not unfairly diminished.
 Those who enjoy the fruits of economics development today must not make future
generations worse off by excessively degrading the earth’s exhaustible resources
and Polluting the earth’s ecology and environment.
 There is a symbolic relationship between consumerist human race and producer
natural systems.
 Environment and development is not mutually exclusive. It is essential to
sustainable development and healthy economy.
 Sustainable development has two major aspects- internally sustainable
development and externally sustainable development-without both, no real
sustainable development would exist.

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  Sustainable development is accountable to the poor, and hence, it should ensure
that the poor should have adequate access to sustainable and secure livelihoods.
 Women’s close proximity with nature often victimizes them during
environmental degradation as often they are the primary provider for the family.
Due to this often women took the leadership in ecological movements. Women’s
participation in Narmada and Chipko movement proves that.

Table-4 Important Schemes and Programmes for the Development of Women by

Indian Government

Programmes Year Objectives

Central Government Health 1954 To providing comprehensive medical care facilities to Cent
Scheme (CGHS) Government employees, pensioners and their dependents residing
CGHS covered cities
Integrated Child Development 1975 To raise the health and nutritional level of poor Indian childr
Services (ICDS) below 6 years of age.
To provide nutritional food to the mothers of young children & a
at the time of pregnancy period.
To provide health and nutritional information and education
mothers of young children to enhance child rearing capabilities
mothers in the country of India.
To reduce instances of mortality, malnutrition and school dropo
among Indian children

To make credit available for lower income women in India.

RashtriyaMahilaKosh 1993 Its purpose is to provide lower income women with access to loa
to begin small businesses.

1999 The SGSY aims at providing self-employment to villagers throu

Swarnajayanti Gram the establishment of self-help groups.
SwarojgarYojana (SGSY)

SarvaShikshaAbhiyan 2000- The programme aimed at the universalisation of elementa

2001 education.
The goals of 2015 are:
Open new schools in areas which do not have them to expa
existing school infrastructures and maintenance.
Address inadequate teacher numbers, and provide training
development for existing teachers
Provide quality elementary education including life skills with
special focus on the education of girls and children with spec
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 needs as well as computer education

It aims to decrease the neo-natal and maternal deaths happening

JananiSurakshaYojana 2005 the country by promoting institutional delivery of babies.
This is a safe motherhood intervention under the National Ru
Health Mission

Mother and Child Tracking 2009 The programme monitors the health care system to ensure
System (MCTS) mothers and their children have access to a range of servic
including pregnancy care, medical care during delivery, a
immunizations.
Indira Gandhi
MatritvaSahyogYojana 2010 To help ensure the good health and nutrition of the recipients
(IGMSY), Conditional
Maternity Benefit (CMB)
SwavalambanYojana To provide pension scheme to the unorganized sector in India.
2010- will be applicable to all citizens in the unorganized sector who jo
2011 the National Pension System

Priyadarshini 2011 It provides access to self-help groups

National Rural Livelihood To reduce poverty by enabling the poor households to acc
Mission 2011 gainful self- employment and skilled wage employm
opportunities resulting in appreciable improvement in th
livelihoods on a sustainable basis, through building strong a
sustainable grassroots institutions of the poor.
Swabhiman 2011 To make banking facility available to all citizens and to get 5 cro
accounts opened by Mar 2012

Rajiv Gandhi Scheme for
Empowerment of Adolescent
Girls – Sabla
SukanyaSamridhiYojana (Girl
Child Prosperity Scheme)
Udisha
2012 To help young women become self-reliant, including nutritio
supplementation and education, health education and services, a
life skills and vocational training
The scheme primarily ensures equitable share to a girl child
2015 resources and savings of a family in which she is genera
discriminated as against a male child
--- It aimed at quality improvement in child training. It is intended
specify the criteria to establish the necessary outline for all chi
care functionaries and caregivers and to develop methods to be us
to ensure improvement in the quality of early childhood care
survival, growth, and development.

1.12.Conclusion:
In India development is both challenge and possibility. Real struggle for a developing
country lies in balancing development, environmental sustainability and gender justice. A
gender just sustainable development model depends on:

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 Women’s empowerment and capacity building through access to resources, credit
and technology
 Making development more participatory, responsive to the women’s needs
through recognition of their differences.
 Addressing strategic gender needs to reduce gender disparities in the society.
 Holding more environmental sensitive ,sustainable approach towards
development

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