NSSCO GEOGRAPHY

PAPER 3
 CARRYING OUT RESEARCH PROJECTS (GEOGRAPHICAL
ENQUIRIES)

When we conduct geographical enquiry, we actively ask questions on a geography topic, and use
the information we get to make a statement that we can prove is true. This statement is called a
hypothesis.

THE AIM OF GEOGRAPHICAL ENQUIRY

Geography studies the people/ place interface. Everything we see around us can be investigated
as part of a geographical enquiry. To learn more about the world we live in, we need to develop
research skills for life. The skills you learn during research studies are vital for you to go on to
tertiary education or enter a job market. Setting deadlines and planning ahead are important
everyday skills.

WORDS YOU WILL USE TO DEVELOP YOUR GEOGRAPHICAL RESEARCH SKILLS

Data: facts and numbers collected, stored or displayed for a specific purpose; computer data is
usually information converted to numbers.

Equipment: tools you will need to gather data.

Hypothesis: a statement that you want to test for accuracy by gathering and using dat.

Interview: to ask another person prepared questions on the specific research topic.

Pilot survey: a small survey to get opinions from a few people or a study of a small area done
before the actual research to test cost, feasibility and time.

Presentation: how you lay out your data in a practical form so that other people can view it.

Primary source: the data you collect by doing your own observation, interviews, surveys, or
questionnaires.

Quadrat: a frame square used for selecting samples.

Questionnaire: a list of prepared questions on a form with enough space for you to write your
answers down.

Recording sheet: a form on a paper you design before you gathering data on which you write
you observations and measurements.

Sampling: selecting a small number of objects, or observations from a large area or population
to make conclusions about the area or population as a whole.

Secondary source: the information you gather from other people’s research, for example,
books, newspapers, TV, radio, internet, and so on.
 EIGHT STEPS TO CONDUCT RESEARCH
The eight steps of a research project are shown in the diagram below.

Step 1: D ecide on Step2: F orm ulate

a research topic a hypothesis
S tep3: D ecide on the
m ethods required to gather
data.
S tep 4: D esign data
collection procedures.
step 3.1: Prim ary data
step 3.2: Secondary data

S tep 5: D ata collection S tep 6: D ata analysis

and recording. and presentation.

Step 7: D raw a Step 8: A ccept or

conclusion from analysis reject the
and presentati on. hypothesis
DECIDE ON A TOPIC AND STATE THE OBJECTIVES
If you are a learner in the north of Namibia you can focus on a wet river study. Learners living
along the coast can focus on a beach study, and learners in the khomas region can successfully
complete a traffic and pedestrian counts. Use what is available in your area.

Examples of research topics related to the geographical themes covered in the syllabus include
the following:

 Both wet and dry river studies

 Distribution of pebbles on a beach
 Impact of long shore drift along the coast
 Slope studies
 Population surveys
 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

Determine what you want to achieve with your study. Most of recommended research topics
will improve your understanding of geographical concepts and processes.

Activity 1

Work in groups of four. Each group has to select three or four research topics from the list
above.
1. Go back through the themes you have studied in this course. Find as many practical
activities as you can that match up with the research topics you have selected.
2. Write down the page numbers in the textbook where you can find information on each
topic.

AIMS: To find out the causes, changes etc.

To investigate
To compare
EXAMPLE: Measure the size and shape of the bed load of a river’s length along it.
Measure the speed of flow of a river or stream.

FORMULATE A HYPOTHESIS

Asking questions about the topic will help to decide what you want to test; for example “why do
we want to count pedestrians in both the morning and the afternoon?” The questions you ask
can be formulated into a statement which you can use, for example there are more people in the
CBD in the afternoon than in the morning. This statement is what you will be testing to see if its
true or false.

Activity 2
Work in the same group as you did for activity 1.

1. The members in each group choose one research topic and think of a practical activity
involving that topic. Then write down five questions about the topic. It may help to use
these words when you ask questions; When? Where? How? What? and Who?
2. In your groups, discuss each person’s list of questions. Write down one statement
about each research topic in the form of a hypothesis that can be tested.

Example 2: Questions
2.1 What are the difference in river load from the source to mouth?
2.2 How does the speed/ velocity change from the source to the mouth?
Example 3: Hypothesis
3.1 Boulders/ pebbles on the bed of the stream(rivers) will increase in size towards the
river’s source.
3.2 the river channel become wider and deeper downstream and these will increase the
stream discharge and speed.
 DATA COLLECTION METHODS

There are many ways to collect data to test a hypothesis. The method or methods you choose
can include either primary or secondary data sources, or both.

 Primary data is information that you gather yourself, using questionnaires,

observations, counts or measurements.
 Secondary data is information that other people have sourced and presented in a way
that you can use.

PRIMARY DATA COLLECTION METHODS

1. CONDUCTING INTERVIEWS AND QUESTIONNIARE SURVEY

These methods of data collection are best suited to human geography enquiries such as the
study of economic, population and settlement themes.

2. MAKING AND RECORDING OBSERVATIONS

There is scope all around us to observe processes and actions that have an impact on people and
on physical geography.

3. COUNTING OBJECTS OR PEOPLE

The beach study at the end of Topic 1.5 (pages 91-93) provides ample opportunity to count
objects, in this case pebbles of different size. Topic 3.3 there is an example of a pedestrian count
and traffic count.

4. TAKING MEASUREMENTS
Measurements can relate to temperature, speed, size, volume, time taken, or many other
variables. Many of the practical activities you have done include measurements.
 ADVANTAGES AND DISDAVANTAGES OF PRIMARY DATA COLLECTION METHODS
METHOD ADVANTAGES
 Surveys are easy and in expensive,
Surveys and even when gathering data from a
questionnaires large number of people spread
over a wide geographic area.
 All respondents are asked the
same questions, which reduces
bias.
 Surveys are known to a wide
number of people.
 Some people feel more
comfortable responding to a
survey then an interview.
 Analysis of close-ended responses
is an easy and straightforward
process.
 Observation allow you to collect data
where and when an event or activity
is occurring.
Observation  It does not rely on people’s
willingness to provide information.
 You can see firsthand what people do,
or rather than relying on what they
say they do.
 Allows for practical application of
Counting objects or theory.
people  Facilitates team building
 Allows you to spot unexpected
patterns.
 Active learning aids understanding of
concepts and processes.
Taking  Improves numeracy through
measurements engaging with mathematics in real-
world situations.
DISADVANTAGES
 Survey respondents may not
always complete the survey
and data might be
incomplete.
 The respondents may not
always understand the
questions correctly.
 Illiteracy might be a problem,
especially among an older
group.
 Good survey questions are
hard to write and they take
considerable time to develop
and test.
 The observer could be biased
towards the object or people
observed
 People usually perform better
when they know they are being
observed
 Does not increase
understanding of why people
behave the way they do.
 Suitable sampling method must
be used to ensure reliable
results.
 Safety of learners may be at risk.
 Sometimes special equipment is
required, which may be
expensive or unobtainable.
 Carelessness or inaccuracy
produces false results.
 SECONDARY DATA COLLECTION METHODS

If you do not have access to the internet, you may need to use a library to get additional
information to support your geographical enquiry. Other sources of secondary data are maps,
newspapers and magazines. You can even use weather reports on the radio or television as a
source of data. You can compare secondary data with your primary data to check consistency.

A map of the area that you are going to research can help you to describe its location
accurately. It can also help you to find your way, and show where interesting features are.

INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY (IT)

- The use of computers and communications technology to collect, store and share
information, in digital format.

If you have a computer at your school, you can use the internet to get secondary information.
This is a way of using information technology. You can also use an internet search engine if
you need more information about the following:

 The topic you are researching

 Data collection methods
 Raw data such as river discharge or population figures
 Maps and street plans (a street plan of a town or part of a city can be used, for
example to plan data collection points for pedestrian or traffic counts).
 If someone has a smart phone, its map function can be used to:
 Find and describe your location.
 Obtain the geographic coordinates of a location
 Plan routes and evaluate your surroundings
 INTERVIEW

 Information is collected by asking questions written or orally.

 Questions need to be planned well in advance and must be linked to the topic or aim
of the study.
 You can also tape the interview (if necessary), but remember, some people may not
like to be taped.
 Be polite. Introduce yourself before the interview and always thank your respondents
after the interview.

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
 It provides more detailed answers  Its time consuming
 Gives provision for follow up  Covers less population
questions
NB: Do not ask questions which are too personal such as questions about sex, age
or income.
 Wear your school uniform
 Greet the people first
 Be polite
 SAMPLING

Once you have chosen a data collection method, you need to decide how much data to
collect. It is not possible to interview every person you see or to collect every object
for a physical geography investigation. You can select only a limited group of people
or object as a sample to represent all the others.
 Random sampling works on the basis of selecting samples by chance.
During a shopping survey it will be the next person passing through the door,
or on the beach it will be the pebble next to your foot. This method is easy but
is open to bias, for example if you choose only young people for your survey,
or if you pick up only the most colorful pebbles.
 Ordered or systematic sampling is a very ordered system. During this
sampling method you decided to ask for example, every twentieth person or
pick up every fifteenth pebble.
 Stratified or layered sampling involves dividing the sampling area or
population into sub-groups that each has different properties (for example
young or old, male or female). Out of these sub-groups you will choose your
sample randomly.
For example, you will ask seven older males, seven younger males, seven
older females and seven younger females the same question. The individual
people, however, will be chosen randomly. In the beach enquiry, you will
select pebbles from pre-selected distances along a transect line.
 Clustered sampling involves dividing the population or sampling area into
sub-groups that have similar properties before randomly selecting one or two
groups to sample. This can be economical than doing a random sample of the
entire population area.

Fig. 1 Sampling involves choosing certain individuals for your study.

 SAMPLING METHODS
Method of sampling Advantages
1. Random  Every person has a
Sampling completely equal chance of
being selected.
 It is quick/ saves time/ it is
simple and easy.
 Statically sound, which opens
up for further analysis.
2. Systematic/  Better coverage of a sample
Ordered group.
sampling  No bias
 Simple to understand and
carry out.
 Easy and quick to do.
 Prevents clustering.
 Reduces bias associated with
pragmatic sampling.
 It is representative.
3. Stratified/  It ensures no significant
Layered aspect is missed.
Sampling  It provides an equal
representation of the people/
area.
 A wide range of samples can
be gained.
 It eliminates the chance of
“freak” sample sites.
4. Cluster Sampling  It saves time.
- interviewing one age  Easy to use.
group of people such as  Cover a larger group of
adults/ old people/ young people.
people.
Disadvantages
 Can achieve misleading
results if used in small
population.
 Misleading if used over
larger area.
 Much time and energy if
used in the field.
 All points do not have an
equal chance of being
selected.
 May over stress or miss an
underlying pattern e.g.
male / female.
 May pick up inadvertently
a regularity and bias e.g.
Every 5th person may be a
female.
 May be difficult to
identify the correct strata.
 It generally provides less
precious than either simple
random sampling or
stratified sampling.
 DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURES AND EQUIPMENT PREPARATION

When you have decided which method you will use to collect data, you can move to step 4-
design your procedure. This includes preparing all your equipment and planning who will do
which tasks. Each case will be different because it will depend on what you are investigating.

QUESTIONNAIRE AND RECORD SHEET DESIGN

The sheet of paper you prepare to record observation or interview data is vitally important to
the successful outcome of your equity. Write or type your questionnaire neatly. Where
possible, use closed questions with blocks that respondents can tick to show the answers.
This makes data collection quicker and helps later when you record your data.

Open-ended questions give the person being interviewed the chance to give unstructured
answers that take much longer to record and are difficult to analyse.

KEY WORDS
......................................................................................................................................................

Information Technology the use of computers and communications technology to collect,

store and share information, in digital format.

Closed questions are questions with straightforward, right or wrong answers; can often be
answered by ticking the box.

Respondents: people who answer a questionnaire or supply information for a survey.

Open-ended questions: questions that have no fixed answer, answers often include personal
opinions and long explanations.
......................................................................................................................................................

When you draw up a record sheet, keep the hypothesis in mind. Also think about how you are
going to present the information you record. Make sure you allow space to fill in the data,
place, time and names of recorders. Give clear instructions about the task that each one must
perform.
Once a questionnaire or recording sheet has been drawn up, it is vital to do a pilot survey to
test how user-friendly your questionnaire or recording sheet is. Ask the following questions
before deciding on final format:

 Will people understand the questions, even if English is not their home
language?
 Is it easy to answer each question, or will it take long?
 Is there enough space on the sheet to record all the data for the survey?
 QUESTIONNAIRES

 Are a set of pre-planned questions, to which the answers are written on a specially
prepared form.
 They are the most widely used primary data source in human geography.

POINTS TO REMEMBER ABOUT QUESTIONNAIRES

 Questionnaires are mostly used in Human Geography
 Must state the aim or purpose of the questionnaire
 Questions must be in line with the aim(s) of the study
 Should be kept short and simple
 Questions must not be too personal
 Put easy questions at the beginning and difficult / probing questions at the end.
Note:
a) Some respondents may not have time to complete the questionnaire at that moment, so be
considerate, e.g. make an appointment with them at the time that suit them
b) Language barrier may occur. If they cannot read or write, interview them orally.

CLOSED-ENDED AND OPEN-ENDED QUESTIONS

Closed-ended questions are questions that limit the respondents with a list of answers choices
from which they must choose from.

EXAMPLES OF CLOSE ENDED QUESTIONS:

1. How did you travel here? / How did you get here?
Walk
Private car
Taxi

2. How long did it take you to travel to get here?

0-5 minutes
5-10 minutes
10-15 minutes
15 and more

3. How often do you shop?

Daily
Every second day
Weekly
Monthly

4. How much money do you usually spend on shopping?

Less than N$ 50
N$ 50 –N$ 100
N$ 100 –N$ 200
More than N$ 200
 ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
 All answers are relevant to the  Do not allow the respondents to
research explain what they do not understand
 The results are easy to analyze about the question or do not have an
 Easy using graphs and tables opinion on the issue.
 Easy to answer  Limit of the answers
 Saves time  People just tick up the answer they
see is closest to what they are
thinking rather than putting down
what they are actually thinking.

OPEN ENDED QUESTIONS

Open ended questions are those which require more thought and more than a simple one-
word answer. They do not provide response options. Open ended questions begin with such
as, what, why, how, describe.

EXAMPLES OF OPEN-ENDED QUESTIONS

1. How did you travel here? / How did you get here?
_____________________________________________________________________
2. How long did it take you to travel to get here?
_____________________________________________________________________
3. How often do you shop?
_____________________________________________________________________
4. Why do you shop?
_____________________________________________________________________

ADVANTAGES
 Allows the respondents to include
more information, including feelings,
attitudes and understanding of the
subject.
 Responses are easy to code and
interpret
 Cross- questioning
DISADVANTAGES
 Difficult to compare the meanings of
the responses, due to own wording.
 The response rate is lower with
surveys that use this kind of
questions, compared to closed ended
questions.
 If open ended questions are analyzed
quantitatively, the qualitative
information is reduced to coding and
answers tend to lose some of their
initial meaning.
 PILOT SURVEY

This is basically a test/ trail/ preliminary study that is carried out before data collection.

WHY IS PILOT SURVEY IMPORTANT?

 It is important that you test your data collection forms to ensure that you ask
all the right questions.
 To add or to leave out questions.
 To make sure that the questions (language) is understandable. Risk
assessment.
 To make sure that the information that is collected is what you want for your
survey.
 Time analyses
 To ensure that everyone in your sample not only understands the questions,
but understands them in the same way.
 You will be able to find out how long it takes to complete the survey in real
time.
 Check the reliability and validity of the results.
 Check that the instructions are comprehensible.
 Check that investigators and technicians are sufficiently skilled in the
procedures.
 Check the wording of a survey/ check for mistakes/ errors
 Check the statistical and analytical processes to determine if they are officious.
 CHECK TECHNICAL EQUIPEMENT

Never assume that the equipment you need will be available and in good working order. Allow
enough time to get what you need, and then ensure that everything is working. Remember to
test the equipment you will need. If you discover when you are far from school that you had
forgotten something, you may not be able to complete your research study.

EQUIPMENT TO MEASURE TIME AND SPEED

 A watch or other equipment that show time: you need this to start and end your
study at the correct time, and to get back to school at a specific time.
 Stopwatches: You need a stopwatch, for example to test wave frequency or the speed
of a river. Many mobile phones have built-in stopwatches.

EQUIPMENT TO MEASURRE SLOPE

 Rope: you can use a rope to mark a transect.
 A tape measure: You will need this for most studies to measure distance and/or height,
for example the distance between each place along the transect line where you need to
put your quadrate.
 Ranging poles: These poles are used in pairs, and are exactly the same length. You can
mark them at intervals at the same heights. They are held vertically to identify each
element of a slope.
 Clinometer: You use this to measure the angle of a slope. If a Clinometer is not
available, you can use a protractor and a weighted thread.
 Pantometer: This consists of two vertical poles joined by cross-bars. You can use a
pantometer instead of ranging poles, and a Clinometer to measure the angle of a slope.

EQUIPMENT TO SAMPLE OBJECTS

Litter surveys and river or beach studies require that you select samples of objects that you
have to count and measure. Over a large area, you can select samples either at random or in a
pattern.

Mark a transect line across a study area to show where you will sample items. The transect can
be a line of sight from one point to another, it can be drawn on the ground with a sharp stick, or
it can be marked with a rope.

 A Quadrat: this is a square frame, usually made from wood and measuring 1m by 1m.
You use it to mark off a sampling area. The number of objects you counted can be
described per square meter. You can place the quadrat anywhere, or use it along a
selected transect line to get a stratified sample

Key word
 Stratified sample
A sampling method in which you divide the total area into smaller sections and take
samples from each section.

OBJECT MEASURING EQUIPMENT

Once you have gathered your samples, you need to measure them. Sometimes quite specialized
equipment is required.

 Rulers: You can use rulers to measure objects, but they are not as accurate as clippers.
 Calipers: A vernier caliper is used to measure objects, for example pebbles, which have
an irregular shape.
 Key word
 Vernier Caliper
A precision instrument that measures very small distance very accurately.

 Pebble meter: This is another piece of equipment you can use to measure the size of
gravel, stones or pebbles. You can make one out of cardboard by measuring different
sizes circles and cutting out the holes.
 Roundness chart: You can use this to divide pebbles into six classes of roundness.
Observe and feel each pebble and compare it to the chart. Decide into which class it
should be placed.

EQUIPMENT TO MEASURE FLOW

There are various enquiries relating to rivers and streams that you can do. The equipment will
vary depending on which hypothesis you are testing.

 Flow meter: this is an instrument that measures the speed at which water flows. A
small propeller at the bottom of a pole is turned by the force of the water and its speed
is read on a dial at the top of the pole.
 Float: Afloat is also used to measure flow. It can be made from natural material such as
wood that has been brightly painted. If you do not have a float, you can use oranges for
short distance.
 SAFETY
Safety is always a first consideration when conducting a research study. Ensure that everyone is
confident of the task they must perform. Practice approaching people in the safety of the class
before conducting a survey. Inform parties involved, such as shop owners, when you will be
conducting a survey to prevent misunderstandings. Wear school uniform when dealing with
public, especially tourist. Tourists are already in an unfamiliar place and may be fearful or react
negatively when approached by strangers. Once people realize that you belong to a specific
school they are often friendlier.

If going into a rural area to conduct fieldwork for physical geography you should practice
emergency procedures before leaving school, in case a learner gets lost or hurt. Remember to
always carry a cell phone and have your teacher’s cell phone number in case you need to make
an urgent call.
 DATA ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION

Once the study has been completed and the data collected, you can start to analyze the data.
Statistics often need to be applied to the measurements you have recorded to establish the
range of the data and to calculate an average (mean), median, or mode.

If you have access to computers, you can produce spreadsheet programs, to analyze data in
spreadsheets. You can use Microsoft excel, or other spreadsheet programs to analyze data in
spreadsheets.

Sometimes the data will need to be arranged in a specific order, for example according to the
date or season. Present the data visually, using graphs, in ways that make it easier to draw
conclusions from the data. Think of how the secondary data you used was presented by other
researchers.

Keywords

Statistics: the collection, analysis and interpretation of number data.

Range: the difference between the highest and the lowest values in the data.
Average (mean) : the figure you get when you add all the values you measured and divide by
the total number of values. For example 32+ 24 =56/2 =28.
Median: the middle value in a series of numbers arranged in order, for example 12 in the series
of 20, 17, 12, 8,4.
Mode: the value that appears the most in a list of values, example the number 11 in the list
11,14,9,11,15,11,8.
 DATA PRESENTATION METHODS
With new developments in the information technology sector, different ways of presenting data
are freely available.

GRAPHS
You can get examples of different graphs and methods to present data from the internet. The
graph should be easy to present, easy to understand and should show the comparisons and
results clearly.

Table1. Gives a summary of different data presentation techniques.