Ain Shams Engineering Journal 14 (2023) 102247

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Ain Shams Engineering Journal

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Effect of fly ash and waste glass powder as a fractional substitute on the
performance of natural fibers reinforced concrete
Fadi Althoey a, Osama Zaid b,⇑, Ali Majdi c, Fahad Alsharari d, Saleh Alsulamy e, Mohamed M. Arbili f
a
Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering, Najran University, Najran, Saudi Arabia
b
Department of Civil Engineering, Swedish College of Engineering and Technology, 47070 Wah Cantt, Pakistan
c
Department of Buildings and Construction Techniques Engineering, Al-Mustaqbal University College, 51001 Hillah, Babylon, Iraq
d
Civil Engineering Department, Jouf University, Sakaka, Jouf 72388, Saudi Arabia
e
Department of Architecture and Planning, College of Engineering, King Khalid University, Abha 61421, Saudi Arabia
f
Department of Technical Civil Engineering, Erbil Technical Engineering College, Erbil Polytechnic University, 44001 Erbil, Iraq

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Stockpiling and landfilling of waste glass (WG) is becoming a severe environmental issue around the
Received 16 February 2022 World as hundreds of tons of WG are dumped on the land. The present research assesses the behavior
Revised 8 February 2023 of WG in a concrete mixture as a partial replacement of sand to attain the optimal percentage of waste
Accepted 9 March 2023
glass. Due to the production of ordinary Portland cement (OPC), the natural reserves of limestone are
Available online 06 April 2023
depleting fast, and the production of OPC also leads to a high proportion of carbon dioxide (CO2), so it
is essential to utilize industrial by-products such as fly ash (FA) to replace cement partially. In the current
Keywords:
study, the WG is used as a fractional substitute of sand in different proportions (14 %, 15 %, 16 %, 17 %,
Waste glass
Fly ash
18 %, 19 %, 20 %), with 20 % FA as a replacement for OPC, with 2.5 % coconut fibers (CFs) to improve
Coconut fibers the flexural strength of concrete. Engineering properties such as compressive and flexural strength, water
Strength properties permeability, sorptivity, density, voids ratio, resistance against fire, Fourier transform infrared spec-
FTIR troscopy (FTIR) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) spectra were assessed. The outcomes showed that the M4
mixture (WG16-FA20-CFs2.5) had the utmost optimal performance, as 15.8 % and 9.57 % compression
strength and flexural strength were improved at the curing of 90 days. During exposure of samples to fire,
concrete with 16 % WG lost only 38.7 %, 44.2 % mass and compressive strength at 600 °C, which was the
most lowered among other mixtures. Because of the utilization of FA, the concrete’s matrix gets denser,
leading to improved water-related characteristics of concrete. It was observed that adding more than
16 %, WG led to reduced strength and durability properties of concrete. The current research confirmed
that the 16 % WG, 20 % FA, and 2.5 % CFs could be replaced in concrete to produce improved, eco-friendly
concrete.
Ó 2023 THE AUTHORS. Published by Elsevier BV on behalf of Faculty of Engineering, Ain Shams Uni-
versity. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/
by-nc-nd/4.0/).

1. Introduction
Using waste materials in construction is becoming increasingly
popular to reduce the environmental impact of buildings and use
materials that would otherwise go to waste [1,2]. Discarding solid
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: Osama.zaid@scetwah.edu.pk (O. Zaid).
Peer review under responsibility of Ain Shams University.
Production and hosting by Elsevier
waste materials in forests and cultivable lands has led to a massive
proportion of land pollution and other environmental harms [3–5].
One such material that has been gaining attention in recent years is
waste glass powder (WGP), which can replace fine aggregate and
ordinary Portland cement (OPC) in concrete [6,7]. The percentage
of waste glass developed yearly has increased around the globe
in recent times [8]. Presently, mostly the waste glass is discarded
in landfills in the US (a higher rate among other developed
nations), and nearly 97.3 % of discarded glass is dumped in a land-
fill in Hong Kong [9,10]. In 2018, 135 million tons of discarded
glass were produced, of which only 22 % was reutilized or recycled
[11]. If the discarded glass isn’t appropriately reprocessed for
reuse, it becomes a severe environmental issue. To resolve this
improper discarding, various procedures have been used to dump

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asej.2023.102247
2090-4479/Ó 2023 THE AUTHORS. Published by Elsevier BV on behalf of Faculty of Engineering, Ain Shams University.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
F. Althoey, O. Zaid, A. Majdi et al.
waste glass (WG) [12] safely. One such method is used by Ibrahim
et al. and revealed the potential approach towards using waste
glass from broken domestic windows to replace crushed stone
aggregates in the concrete mixtures. Szelag et al. [12] also showed
an optimistic result by utilizing discarded waste glass from car
vehicles as a fractional substitute for aggregates to develop con-
crete [13,14]. Also, in past studies, waste glass was utilized in
developing polymer-based concrete. In their research, Zhang
et al. [15] showed that waste glass is equally suitable for different
cementitious composites (conventional or polymer-based con-
crete). This signified that the concrete and construction sector
could reduce carbon dioxide outflow and be eco-friendlier
[16,17]. As glass is primarily composed of silica (SiO2), it could be
utilized as a fine aggregate (sand) in concrete development. The
methods mentioned earlier aim to significantly enhance the
amount of utilization of waste glass, which as a result, would lower
the atmospheric problems related to landfilling [18,19]. Zhang
et al. [20] demonstrated the behavior of concrete by adding a waste
glass (WG) of 75 lm to 4.75 mm and 10 mm as a replacement for
aggregates. The authors noted a promising result regarding
strength and durability characteristics to 20 % substitution
[21,22]. When the particle size of WG was lowered by 2 mm, the
compressive strength was observed to be enhanced at a 20 % sub-
stitution percentage; the enhancement in the compression
strength was primarily related to the pozzolanic behavior of WG.
Borhan et al. [23] observed lower compression strength at 50 and
100 % replacement ratios. Authors in other studies also observed
a reduction in the strength properties of concrete mixtures at a
replacement ratio of 7.5 %, 15, and 22.5 % [24–26]. Here, the decline
in the mechanical characteristics was generally concerned with the
kind, nature and size of waste glass (WG) utilized in these
researches [27,28]. The authors in a study also observed that the
shape of the WG has a significant influence on the characteristics
of concrete as smooth textured particles tend to have good work-
ability, but it has low strength compared to rough textured waste
glass particles [11,29].
As observed from the above literature, the implications
obtained from the alkali-silica reaction (ASR) also offered to con-
tradict results when WG was utilized in the concrete mixtures
[30]. Shao et al. [31] replaced fine aggregates with 30 % waste glass
(145 lm – 5 lm) and noticed that as the size of WG was reduced,
the impact of ASR was diminished. Xie et al. [32] observed high
alkali-silica reaction expansion when 10 % natural fine aggregates
are replaced with waste glass (greater than291 lm) in the mix-
tures as compared to (<291 lm) particles of waste glass. Hussein
et al. [33] also observed a rise in ASR reaction when a WG of 100
lm substituted fine aggregates from the river bed at replacements
of 25 % and 65 %. Gnappi et al. [34] also observed the same varia-
tion by substituting blended colored waste glass (4.7 to 2.4 mm)
with 100 % fine aggregates from the riverbed. Opposing the above
observations, Du et al. [15] noted a rise in alkali-silica reaction
when waste glass’s size (0.12 to 2.32 mm) increased with the sub-
stitution level of 24 %.
Currently, eco-friendly high-strength concrete for structural
purposes [35,36] is being developed worldwide by utilizing sup-
plementary cementitious materials (SCMs), for instance, granu-
lated blast furnace slag (GBFS), wheat straw ash (WSA), fly ash
(FA), and silica fume (SF) etc. [37,38]. Using SCMs, concrete with
excellent strength and durability can be achieved [39,40]. Fly ash,
a byproduct of coal-fired power plants, is rich in silica and alumina
and could substitute up to 30 % of OPC in concrete [39,41]. This
replacement reduces energy consumption and greenhouse gas
emissions during cement production and improves concrete work-
ability, strength, and durability [42]. In the last two decades, fly ash
in the construction section has been significantly amplified. The
use of fly ash in concrete has also been found to reduce the perme-
2
Ain Shams Engineering Journal 14 (2023) 102247
ability of concrete and improve its long-term durability, making it
more resistant to aggressive environmental conditions [43]. It has
been observed from past studies [44–46] that replacing 20 % fly ash
with the OPC has the most optimal influence on the mechanical
and physical characteristics of concrete. Pitroda et al. [47] consid-
ered different levels of FA for the mechanical characteristics of con-
crete. The FA was replaced by 10 %, 20 %, 30 %, and 40 % with the
OPC by weight. The authors noted that 20 % FA led to enhanced
characteristics of concrete than conventional concrete [48]. After
20 % FA, the strength characteristics were lowered by increasing
the level of fly ash.
Natural fibers, produced from plants such as wood and leaves
and geological processes, are often used to replace steel or syn-
thetic fibers in concrete to improve mechanical, physical and dura-
bility performance [49,50]. Bio-based natural fibers comprise jute
[51], hemp, sisal, sugar cane, cannabis, bamboo, coconut, and
banana [52]. These fibers are favored due to their low cost and
availability. Additionally, they are easy to handle in a concrete mix-
ture and can reduce project costs [53]. Coconut fiber is a natural,
renewable, and biodegradable material that can provide excellent
reinforcement for concrete. Using coconut fibers (CFs) reinforce-
ment in concrete can improve its mechanical properties, such as
its tensile strength and flexibility [53,54]. Additionally, using coco-
nut fiber reinforcement could also augment the durability of con-
crete, making it more resistant to cracking and other forms of
damage [55,56]. CFs have the maximum strength among natural
fibers, averaging 22 MPa, and have been studied for various appli-
cations [57]. Adding just 2 % of coconut fibers to silica fume-
modified concrete has been shown to improve flexural strength
by 28 %. Researchers are currently focusing on creating concrete
employing industrial by-products as a filler and incorporating syn-
thetic and natural fibers. It has also been observed that 2 % coconut
fibers can increase flexural strength by 24 % after two weeks of cur-
ing [58]. The durability of concrete materials is a significant con-
cern as they are subjected to harsh surroundings throughout
their service life [59,60]. Which is a result, it is essential to progress
long-lasting concrete that is both strong and cost-effective.
Research has shown that the water absorption with WG rises as
the amount of WG used in the sample rises. This is due to the high
porosity of WG, which affects the permeability of concrete. When
the sand was replaced with WG in increments of 25 % up to
100 %, researchers noted that the water permeability of concrete
raised as the percentage of WG was raised [29,61]. Similar results
were found when WG was introduced to mortar, increasing water
permeability [34,62,63].
Previous research has demonstrated the suitability of using dis-
carded glass to replace sand in concrete blends at different levels.
The literature review has illustrated that incorporating WG into
cement composites as a substitute for fine aggregate has led to
improvements in concrete mechanical performance in the range
of 10 %-25 %. To achieve improved performance, this study was
conducted to determine the optimal substitution ratio (14 %,
15 %, 16 %, 17 %, 18 %, 19 %, and 20 %). The waste glass’ particle size
gradation employed in this study was chosen based on previous
research [64–66], where a waste glass of this size was found to
act a vital part in enhancing the behavior of concrete.
Research Significance:
Based on the literature review, there is no clear conclusion
about the influence of different proportions of waste glass on the
strength and durability characteristics of fly ash-modified coconut
fiber-reinforced concrete. The current research aims to determine
the optimum substitution ratio of riverbed sand with waste glass
(14 %, 15 %, 16 %, 17 %, 18 %, 19 %, and 20 %) while incorporating
20 % fly ash as an OPC replacement and 2.5 % coconut fibers by bin-
der’s weight. The authors are aware of the limited research that has
thoroughly studied the properties of coconut fiber concrete using
F. Althoey, O. Zaid, A. Majdi et al. Ain Shams Engineering Journal 14 (2023) 102247

an optimal amount of WG as sand with the addition of fly ash.
Coconut fibers were chosen among other plant-based fibers
because of their high toughness. While waste glass and fly ash have
been studied separately, there has been no research on the combi-
nation of fly ash and waste glass in natural (coconut) fiber rein-
forced concrete. The research includes experiments to determine
the compressive and flexural strength, density, water absorption,
workability, water permeability, fire resistance and sorptivity with
a water-to-cement ratio of ‘‘0.500 selected. XRD spectra and FTIR
spectroscopy tests were also conducted to analyze the concrete’s
bond orientation and phase analysis.
2. Materials
2.1. Cement (OPC):
2.3. Fly ash and waste glass:
In the present research, class F (low Ca) fly ash was adopted for
use per ASTM C618 [67]. The fly ash in the dark grey color, as pre-
sented in Fig. 2a, was procured from a local supplier in Punjab. XRD
analysis (see Fig. 2b) was performed to evaluate the chemical
arrangement of fly ash (see Table 2). From XRD analysis, high peaks
of alumina and silica were observed in the fly ash. Waste glass (see
Fig. 3a) was obtained by crushing beverage bottles of a similar
color, resulting in glass powder. The powder was then screened
through a 650-lm sieve, and the material retained on a 150-lm
sieve was used for further analysis. XRD spectra (see Fig. 3b) were
performed on the waste glass to determine its crystalline structure,
as seen in Figure 3 (b). This analysis showed that the waste glass
powder mainly consisted of quartz (SiO2), making it suitable for
use as fine aggregates, as demonstrated in Table 2.

The present study used general-purpose type I ordinary Port-

2.4. Fine and coarse aggregates:
land cement per ASTM C150 [28]. The physical characteristics
and chemical arrangement of OPC are displayed in Table 1.
In the present study, the researchers utilized the conventional
fine aggregates from the river bed of the Swat river. Also, the
2.2. Coconut natural fibers (CFs): researchers used crushed dolomite stone as a coarse aggregate
from the Cherat stone quarry. Gradation of fine and coarse aggre-
The researchers sourced their coconut fibers (CFs) from a local gates and waste glass is provided in Fig. 4 (a and b). The character-
vendor in Punjab. The study utilized treated coconut fibers, as dis- istics of coarse and fine aggregates are displayed in Table 3.
played in Fig. 1. To strengthen the bond between the concrete’s
matrix and CFs, the CFs were washed with water for 15 min to 3. Mix designs
eliminate dust and other elements. To make the CFs straight, they
were combed with a steel comb. After that, the CFs were placed in The present research prepared the concrete mixtures following
an oven at 40 °C for eight mins to dry them up and cut to a size of ACI 221.1 [68]. OPC was substituted with the 20 % fly ash, and 2.5 %
20–25 mm with a diameter range of 0.15 to 0.25 mm [55]. The CFs (by wt.) was added to the modified mixtures. The fine aggre-
treated CFs had a specific gravity of 1.19 and a water absorption gates were substituted with the WG (by wt.) at different levels
rate of 0.31 %. The use of treated CFs will improve the reinforce- (from 14 % to 20 % at 1 % intervals), with the same w/b of 0.50
ment binding in concrete, ultimately leading to increased strength. for all mixtures. The complete details of all the combinations are
presented in Table 4. The terminology for all the mixes is planned
Table 1 so that the numeral after the ‘‘WG” represents the quantity of WGP
Physical characteristics and chemical arrangement of OPC. as a fractional substitute of fine aggregates, and the numeral after
the ‘‘CFs” denotes the number of natural coconut fibers. Lastly, the
Physical Characteristics Results Chemical Percentage
Arrangement numeral after the word ‘‘FA” depicts the quantity of fly ash as a
fractional replacement of OPC.
Particle Size  45 lm SiO2 26.9 (%)
Normal consistency 28 % MgO 2.3 (%)
Fineness 93 % SO3 1.9 (%) 4. Development of concrete specimens and test characterization
Initial setting time 37 mins CaO 59.7 (%)
Final setting time 465 mins Fe2O3 2.7 (%)
Specific surface 323 m2/kg Al2O3 5.2 (%) The present study used a mechanical mixer with 25 rpm to
28 Days Compressive Strength 40 MPa K2O 0.4 (%) make fresh concrete. Firstly, OPC, sand, and coarse aggregates were
Soundness 1.30 % Na2O 0.9 (%) introduced to the mixer and blended for 3 mins, and then 50 %
water was included and mixed for 2 mins. Then WG, FA and CFs

Fig. 1. Physical appearance of CFs.

3
F. Althoey, O. Zaid, A. Majdi et al.
Fig. 2a. Physical appearance of Class F Fly Ash.
were added to the mixer and blended for 4 mins. The freshly mixed
concrete was introduced into uniform-size molds into 3 layers, and
every layer was tamped with a rod 25 times when the mold was
filled with the concrete. The mold was wrapped with polythene
sheets to mitigate the moisture coming into contact with the mold.
Lastly, after 24 hrs., the samples were removed from the molds and
placed in a plastic water tank for curing at room temperature.
ASTM C143 [69] was followed to assess the fresh characteristics
of concrete mixtures. For the strength behavior of concrete, for
instance, compression strength, 300 mm  150 mm cylinders were
arranged and tried at 7, 28 and 90 days per ASTM C39 [70]. For the
flexural behavior of concrete, concrete beams of
600 mm  150 mm  150 mm were arranged and tried at the cur-
ing of 28 and 90 days per ASTM C78 [71] using a universal testing
machine (UTM). ASTM C642 was followed to evaluate permeabil-
ity, water absorption, and void ratio and concrete cubes of
100 mm were used. During the permeability assessment, a sus-
tained water pressure of 0.65 N/mm2 was used for the samples
for 48 hrs. Water penetration was evaluated after the 48 hrs. water
depth. ASTM C1585 was followed to assess the sorptivity of con-
crete at 28 days using 100 mm discs. In the concrete specimens,
a variation in the water capillary was noted for one week regarding
the change in the sample’s weight. To assess the performance of
waste glass concrete against elevated temperature, ISO 834 [72]
was followed. This test was performed on concrete specimens
Fig. 2b. XRD spectra of FA.
4
Ain Shams Engineering Journal 14 (2023) 102247
cured at 90 days, and the specimens were subjected to fire from
150 °C to 600 °C at the interval of 150 °C. The change in mass loss
(%) and the residual compressive strength of the waste glass con-
crete due to the fire test were assessed. The cube size samples of
150 mm  150 mm were employed for this test. The electric plus
gas fire furnace chamber was used for this test.
Three samples for every mixture ID were tested to maintain
uniformity in research results, and their average value was consid-
ered the concluding value.
5. Results and discussion
5.1. Workability
In the present research, introducing a superplasticizer was to
maintain the required slump values for fresh concrete. The test
result for the workability procedure is presented in Fig. 5. From
Fig. 5, it could be observed that as the quantity of waste glass
increased, the workability tended to reduce with it, which can also
be observed from Table 4 as more superplasticizer was required
with rising waste glass in the samples. The decline in workability
could be ascribed to the sharp angular texture of the WG. Taha
et al. [73] noted a lessening in the slump of freshly mixed concrete
when they used WG (<5mm) as a partial replacement of fine aggre-
gates. Park et al. [74] also observed almost the same concrete per-
formance when the authors used up to 70 % of waste to replace fine
aggregates. In another study [75], the researchers noted an
increase in the workability values when they used WG; this could
be ascribed to the smooth, rounded shape and low water absorp-
tion of waste glass. The reduction in the workability of concrete
could also be attributed to the large surface area and high-water
absorption of coconut fibers, which can result in lower workability;
hence, a superplasticizer is necessary.
5.2. Compressive strength
The concrete’s compressive strength with the presence and
absence of WG is presented in Fig. 6a. From Fig. 6a, it could be
noted that as the proportion of WG was raised from 14 % to 16 %
in the mixtures, the compressive strength was noted to rise to
9.8 %, 12.6 %, and 15.8 % in the control mixtures in which the M4
mixture had the highest compressive strength at curing of 7, 28,
and 90 days. The enhancement in the concrete’s compression could
be attributed to the fine size and enhanced hydration of the
F. Althoey, O. Zaid, A. Majdi et al. Ain Shams Engineering Journal 14 (2023) 102247

Table 2 the sample’s matrix at the ITZ level. An identical research was con-
Chemical Arrangement of Fly Ash and Waste Glass. ducted by the researchers [78] and noted that for 16 % substitution
Chemical Arrangement Fly Ash (%) Waste-Glass (%) of fine aggregates with a waste glass of 3.5 mm to 195 lm. The
MgO 2.3 1.55 researchers noted the improvement in the strength was due to
SO3 0.2 0.4 the pozzolanic nature of waste glass, which improved their con-
Al2O3 26.8 3.42 crete compression strength by 6.4 % more than the control mixture.
Fe2O3 7.3 2.60 In another research, the researchers used fly ash to replace OPC.
K2O 1.5 0.79
CaO 3.1 11.59
They noted that due to the introduction of FA, the concrete’s
SiO2 58.7 70.09 microstructure gets dense, leading to improvements in the com-
Na2O 0.1 9.56 pression strength of the concrete.
With the inclusion of 17 % waste glass (M5 mixture), the com-
pressive strength was reduced by 1.04 %, 1.26 % and 1.14 % than the
M4 mixture, but the compressive strength of the M5 mixture was
still higher at all curing levels. Fig. 6a also shows that by introduc-
ing 20 % WG in the M8 mixture, the compressive strength of con-
crete was reduced by 9.9 %, 13.1 %, and 16.49 % than the control
sample at 7, 28, and 90 days. The decrease in the strength behavior
of concrete can be credited to the reason when the percentage of
WG gets higher than 16 %. Some irregular and smooth surface tex-
ture of waste glass also enters the concrete matrix, averts the pos-
itive impacts of the WG to perform in the matrix, such as WG’s
pozzolanic behavior and filling capability. In another research, it
was noted when more than 18 % WG was added as a substitute
for fine aggregates in self-compacting concrete, the compressive
strength gets reduced significantly [66]. This lowers the adhesive
characteristics of the WG between the binder’s paste and the
matrix. The lessening in the compression strength is also attributed
to the development of voids, which could have formed owing to
the finer size of the WG.
Fig. 3a. Physical appearance of Waste Glass. Fig. 6b shows that the void ratio increases with the WG’s con-
tent. Up to 16 % of WG, the filling effect of WG is taking place effec-
tively, and adding WG of more than 16 % resulted in the
mixture because of the presence of fly ash which offers a filling development of voids. In the present research, the M4 mixture
effect in the matrix. The enhancements in the compression (WG16-FA20-CFs2.5), due to the improved pore filling and poz-
strength at 14 % to 16 % of waste glass could also be ascribed to zolanic behavior of WG and FA, effectively hydrating the matrix
the pozzolanic nature of waste glass and FA, as observed by other render the M4 mixture to be the optimal mix among others.
researchers [76,77]. The pozzolanic reaction amid SiO2, which is
present in the waste glass, fly ash, and Ca (OH)2, which exists in
the OPC, instigates the development of a dense gel of calcium- 5.3. Flexural Strength:
silica-hydrate, which results in enhanced compression strength.
This could be credited to the introduction of fly ash reducing the The influence of waste glass and FA on coconut fibres reinforced
density of impervious pores in the matrix, which ultimately aug- concrete’s flexural strength (FS) is presented in Fig. 7a. In the M4
ments the concrete’s compression strength. The rise in the com- mixture (WG16-FA20-CFs2.5), the flexural strength was improved
pression strength could be due to the dense microstructure of by 7.73 % and 9.57 % at the curing of 28 and 90 days. Improvement

Fig. 3b. XRD spectra of WG.

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F. Althoey, O. Zaid, A. Majdi et al. Ain Shams Engineering Journal 14 (2023) 102247

Fig. 4. Gradation of; (a) Fine aggregates and waste glass, (b) Coarse aggregates.

Table 3 compounds developed from the chemical reaction of WG and FA

Physical characteristics of fine and coarse aggregate.
with Ca (OH)2, which augments the interfacial transition zone
Physical Properties Fine Aggregates Coarse Aggregates between the fine aggregates and microstructure at the binder’s
Fineness Modulus 2.59 4.25 matrix. The tensile cracks in the samples are averted and con-
Particle Size (mm) < 4.7 mm < 20 mm trolled by the random spread of the coconut fibers in the binder’s
Bulk Density 1570 kg/m3 1582 kg/m3 paste. Due to the presence of the CFs, the growth and propagation
Moisture Content 1.75 % 1.15 %
of the tensile cracks were mitigated. The existence of the fibers
Absorption Capacity 4.10 % 2.85 %
mitigated the flexural and shear cracks and, eventually, the FS. In
the M8 mixture, the FS lowered by 6.9 % and 14.21 % more than
the control mixture at curing 28 and 90 days. The reduction in flex-
in the FS can be attributed to the augmented bonding in the bin- ural strength is primarily ascribed to the development of cracks
der’s matrix due to the FA at the ITZ level, crack bridging behavior created due to the sharp edges of WG. This instigates a weak bond
of CFs and the filling effect of the WG. The researchers in a study amid the particles of WG and the binder’s paste at the ITZ level. The
observed that a rise in the FS is due to the pozzolanic influence above discussion shows that the M4 mixture is an optimal combi-
of FA in the binder’s matrix at the curing of 90 days. The enhance- nation among others. The lowered flexural strength past the opti-
ments in the FS can be attributed to the additional binder mal mix (M4 mixture) could be ascribed to the non-uniformity of
6
F. Althoey, O. Zaid, A. Majdi et al. Ain Shams Engineering Journal 14 (2023) 102247

Table 4
Mix design of all combinations (kg/m3).

Mixture ID Mixture Description OPC FA Sand WG CFs CA Water W/B CF SP

ratio
M1 Mixture WG0- FA0-CF0 (Control) 425 0 680 0 8.5 1100 212.5 0.5 0.90 1.4
M2 Mixture WG14- FA20-CF2.5 340 85 584.8 95.2 10.62 1100 212.5 0.5 0.90 1.45
M3 Mixture WG15- FA20-CF2.5 340 85 578 102 10.62 1100 212.5 0.5 0.90 1.5
M4 Mixture WG16- FA20-CF2.5 340 85 571.2 108.8 10.62 1100 212.5 0.5 0.90 1.55
M5 Mixture WG17- FA20-CF2.5 340 85 654.4 115.6 10.62 1100 212.5 0.5 0.90 1.65
M6 Mixture WG18- FA20-CF2.5 340 85 557.6 122.4 10.62 1100 212.5 0.5 0.90 1.7
M7 Mixture WG19- FA20-CF2.5 340 85 550.8 129.2 10.62 1100 212.5 0.5 0.90 1.80
M8 Mixture WG20- FA20-CF2.5 340 85 544 136 10.62 1100 212.5 0.5 0.90 1.90
OPC – Ordinary Portland Cement, FA – Fly ash, WG – Waste glass, CFs – Coconut fibers, CA – Coarse aggregates, W/B ratio – Water to binder ratio, CF – Compaction
factor, SP – Superplasticizer

Fig. 5. Workability of fresh samples.

Fig. 6a. Compressive strength of concrete.

7
F. Althoey, O. Zaid, A. Majdi et al. Ain Shams Engineering Journal 14 (2023) 102247

Fig. 6b. Void ratio of concrete.

Fig. 7a. Flexural strength of concrete.

the concrete mix because of adding high content of the waste glass.
Fig. 7a presents the statistical co-relation between compression
and flexural strength at the curing of 28 days. A firm co-relation
is noted between compression and flexural strength, with the
value of R-square (98.78 %) approaching the unity, which shows
the accuracy of experimental results.Fig. 7b.
5.4. Hardened Density:
Fig. 8 presents the influence of introducing WG, CFs and FA on
the concrete’s (bulk and apparent) density. Fig. 8 shows that the
M4 mixture (WG16-FA20-CFs2.5) has the highest density among
other mixtures, which signifies a low number of pores. The M4
8
mixture had 6.3 % and 8.1 % more bulk and apparent density than
the control specimen. The improvement in the concrete’s hardened
density signifies impervious packed pores, which improves the
compression strength of concrete. Adding more than 16 % WG,
the density gets to reduce slowly, as the M5 mixture (WG17-
FA20-CFs2.5) had 1.91 % and 2.36 % less bulk and apparent density
than the M4 mixture, but it was still higher than the control mix-
ture. Among all the mixtures, the M8 mixture (WG20-FA20-CFs2.5)
had the lowermost density with 5.62 % and 7.74 % less hardened
(bulk and apparent) density than the reference mixture (WG0-
FA0-CFs0). The reduction of concrete’s hardened density due to
adding higher WG than the optimal amount is also ascribed to
the specific gravity (SG) of waste glass particles, as the SG of WG
F. Althoey, O. Zaid, A. Majdi et al. Ain Shams Engineering Journal 14 (2023) 102247

Fig. 7b. Relation between flexural and strength.

Fig. 8. Hardened Density of samples.

is 2.39, which is lower than the sand’s SG (2.64). The researchers in
research [25] observed that introducing more WG led to concrete
blocks with continuously low density as due to the addition of
WG, their concrete density lowered by more than 7.41 % than
the control mixture. A similar trend of reduced density of cement
mortar was also observed in another research [79], in which waste
glass from different sources was utilized as a replacement for sand;
the authors credited the lowered density to low specific gravity
and low-density particles of waste glass.
5.5. Water absorption
Fig. 9a presents the influence of introducing WG, CFs and FA on
the concrete’s water absorption. Fig. 9a depicts that as the amount
of WG increased, the specimens’ water absorption also raised. For
9
the M8 mixture (WG20-FA20-CFs), the water absorption increased
to 5.56 % from the control specimen, though the control specimen
had a water absorption of only 2.21 %. The increase in the water
absorption could be credited to the high surface area of FA, the por-
ous nature of coconut fibers and rounded particles and the smooth
texture of WG, which instigates the opening and propagation of
cracking and develops voids in the concrete’s matrix. This could
lead to a reduction in the bonding among the aggregates, WG
and binder’s paste. The high proportion of voids and cracks in
the matrix make channels for outside water or chemicals to infil-
trate the concrete’s specimen. The statistical co-relation between
water absorption and voids ratio is presented in Fig. 9b. from
Fig. 9b, it can be observed that voids ratio and water absorption
are closely co-related. Their regression coefficient value (R-
square) is near 1, showing the test outcomes’ accuracy.
F. Althoey, O. Zaid, A. Majdi et al. Ain Shams Engineering Journal 14 (2023) 102247

Fig. 9a. Water absorption of concrete samples.

Fig. 9b. Statistical analysis between water absorption and void ratio.

5.6. Permeability of concrete:
The concrete’s permeability was assessed in respect of the
depth of water penetration. In Fig. 10a, the values of concrete’s per-
meability due to the introduction of CFs, FA, and WG are present. It
can be observed from Fig. 10a that by introducing waste glass from
14 % to 20 %, infiltration of the depth of water increases from
45 mm to 63 mm to the control mixture; the control mixture
had a penetration of water of 23.5 mm. The increased permeability
in the concrete with more WG can be attributed to the develop-
ment of voids amid the interface of WG and the binder’s paste,
which allows the water to pierce into the specimen of a large
capacity. The statistical analysis among permeability, water
10
absorption and voids ratio are presented in Fig. 10b. A strong co-
relation in Fig. 10b among the above parameters was observed
with the value of R-square more than 84 % and 99 % for water
absorption and void ratio, respectively. This result conforms with
the past study, where the researchers utilized WG as sand in a
cementitious composite and observed similar permeability results
due to the addition of waste glass.
5.7. Behavior of waste glass concrete against elevated temperature:
The WG concrete’s mass loss after being subjected to heating
conditions up to 600 °C is presented in Fig. 11a. Stability in the
mass loss was observed for WG concrete up to 300 °C, while the
F. Althoey, O. Zaid, A. Majdi et al. Ain Shams Engineering Journal 14 (2023) 102247

Fig. 10a. Water Permeability of Concrete.

Fig. 10b. Statistical Analysis of Permeability of concrete, water absorption, and void ratio.

control mixture had a significant loss in mass. This can be ascribed
to the low water absorption capability of WG at the initial with-
drawal of capillary water forms the waste glass concrete denser;
hence it led to the stability of mass loss in waste glass concrete
than the reference mixture. The loss in concrete’s mass due to tem-
peratures higher than 300 °C is ascribed to the chemically trapped
water because of the weakening of hydration products. The highest
loss in mass was observed in the M8 mixture, with a 61.2 % loss in
mass at 600 °C; due to the heterogeneity of concrete samples from
the high amount of WG. Cooling concrete specimens to ambient
surroundings prior to the determining mass could alter the charac-
teristics of WG from being dense and soft to solid form. This leads
to a low loss in the mass at 600 °C at even 14 % to 20 % of WG.
Fig. 11a shows that the sample with 16 % WG had the most
improved performance when subjected to fire, which shows the
optimal behavior of the M4 mixture.
The change in the compressive strength for the presence and
absence of waste glass in concrete after being exposed to fire at
different temperatures (150 °C, 300 °C, 450 °C, and 600 °C) is pre-
sented in Fig. 11b. It was noted that the concrete with WG
showed improved performance after being subjected to fire. Up
to 300 °C, all the concrete mixtures had a low loss (<20 %) in
compressive strength. At 450 °C and 600 °C, the compressive
strength of concrete was lost up to 36.7 % and 53.9 %, with the
M4 mixture having the lowest loss in compressive strength with
only 27.6 % and 44.2 %, respectively. Fig. 11c shows the speci-
mens’ visual appearance after fire exposure. The low reduction
in the compressive strength at the M4 mixture is credited to

11
F. Althoey, O. Zaid, A. Majdi et al. Ain Shams Engineering Journal 14 (2023) 102247

Fig. 11a. Loss in mass after exposure to elevated temperature.

Fig. 11b. Residual compressive strength of waste glass concrete.

Fig. 11c. Visual appearance of concrete specimens after being subjected to elevated temperature.

the low water absorption of WG; thus, more entrapped water is strength after being subjected to elevated temperature was still
available to fight against the heat up to a specific limit, which higher at all temperatures than the control mixtures. This could
leads to the development of a low quantity of pore pressure inter- be attributed to the melting of WG, which shifts its state from
nally. In all the waste glass concrete mixtures, the compressive solid to soft.

12
F. Althoey, O. Zaid, A. Majdi et al. Ain Shams Engineering Journal 14 (2023) 102247

Fig. 12. Sorptivity of concrete.

5.8. Sorptivity of concrete:

For the sorptivity test, oven-dried specimens were performed

with the presence and absence of WG. The results of the sorptivity
are provided in Fig. 12. Fig. 12 depicts that the extent of capillarity
of water draw is reliant on time. The increase in the proportion of
capillarity of water suction was assessed for the specimens with
the presence of WG and then contrasted with the control mixture.
The increase in the capillarity of water suction is credited to the
water absorption through capillaries and coconut fibers’ and
WG’s porous nature. It could also be observed from Fig. 11a that
the percentage of voids also increases with increasing the quantity
of WG. The rise in the rate of voids could be ascribed to the angular
shape and even surface texture of WG. The researchers in a study
noted an increase in the concrete’s water absorption over the
action of capillaries as the quantity of waste glass increased from
0 %  100 % for the samples.

5.9. Fourier transom infrared spectroscopy

FTIR analysis was conducted to assess the bands of the molecu-

lar group present in the concrete specimens with and without WG
at curing of 28 days, as depicted in Fig. 13. The spectrum of Fourier
transom infrared spectroscopy is divided into four segments. These
segments were observed in the range of 3520–1815, 1485–1270,
1175–980, and 875–490 cm1. These sets are characterized as hav-
ing molecular sets of hydroxyl ions (OH), other silica particles (O-
Si-O), Ca (OH)2 and (CO32–). It is simplified from Table 5 that the

Table 5
FTIR Wave Numbers of the specimens.

Molecular Group 0% 14 % 16 % 18 % 20 %
Band of water (OH–) 3520.21 3518.17 3515.22 3510.13 3507.13
1728.74 1728.17 1738.34 1741.19 1745.42
O-Si-O 890.25 890.21 891.22 897.13 918.36
798.34 798.02 798.87 799.51 783.66
482.26 482.25 482.25 482.25 482.87
CASAH 1110.3 1110.1 1111.34 1111.45 1111.26
CO2–
3 1528.17 1517.25 1514.21 1534.67 1534.45
Portlandite 3521.24 3529.71 3551.72 3548.17 3548.17
Fig. 13. FTIR analysis of specimens with various levels of waste glass.
13
F. Althoey, O. Zaid, A. Majdi et al. Ain Shams Engineering Journal 14 (2023) 102247

sets of molecular sets are almost boundless regarding their
wavenumber for with and without WG in the concrete specimen,
excluding Ca (OH)2. With the increase in the proportion of WG as
fine aggregates, additional accessible water is reduced because of
the water absorption, which concedes the development of hydra-
tion products. The development of hydration products resulted in
the formation of calcium hydroxide, which raised the rate of addi-
tion up to the optimal rate (M4 mixture), as illustrated in Table 5.
The formed calcium hydroxide altered more into the gel of CSH
with the same extent of polymerization. This instigated a packed

Fig. 14. XRD analysis of concrete specimens: (a) M1 mixture (Control), (b) M2 mixture, (c) M4 mixture, (d) M6 mixture, and (e) M8 mixture.

14
F. Althoey, O. Zaid, A. Majdi et al.
Fig. 14 (continued)
medium that finally raised the density of hardened concrete, as
illustrated in Fig. 13. This can be the motive behind the higher
strength behavior of specimens. Furthermore, after 16 % of WG,
the calcium hydroxide gets absorbed in the instigation of
calcium-silicate-hydrate gel, which results in the shortcoming of
calcium hydroxide, as provided in Table 5.
5.10. X-ray diffraction analysis
Fig. 14a presents the XRD spectra noted among intensity and
two-h degrees of the reference mixture and the specimen formed
with FA, CFs and various quantities of waste glass. A reduction in
15
Ain Shams Engineering Journal 14 (2023) 102247
the highest values of gypsum, C3S, C2S, C2A, and C3A was present
in the reference mixtures. This decrease in the peak values is
ascribed to the formation of hydration products such as calcium
hydroxide, CASAH, and lime from the hydration of the binder.
The peaks could be ascribed to CASAH, which are determined in
a low quantity because of the shapeless nature of fly ash and
WG. Waste glass concrete presented XRD results with high peaks
compared to the control mixture, as illustrated in Fig. 14 (b to e).
This shows the presence of waste glass didn’t delay the hydration
of binder compounds. The research conducted on the reactive
behavior of WG in cementitious composites has observed that
the waste glass hydrates efficiently because of the shapeless nature
F. Althoey, O. Zaid, A. Majdi et al.
of WG. From Fig. 14 (c), it can be observed that the M4 mixture
(WG16-FA20-CFs2.5) has the highest peaks among others, while
the M1 mixture (control) had the lowermost peaks among others
due to the absence of waste glass powder and fly ash.
6. Conclusions
The current study explores the influence of FA as a fractional
replacement of OPC and WG as a fractional replacement of sand
in natural fiber-reinforced concrete. The subsequent conclusions
are drawn from the current research:
 Due to the high surface area of fly ash and the sharp and angular
texture of waste glass, the workability of samples was reduced.
 The maximum compression strength of concrete was 48.52 MPa
at curing of 90 days in the M4 mixture (WG16-FA20-CFs2.5),
which was 15.8 % higher than the control specimen.
 Because of the presence of CFs, and fly ash, the flexural strength
was enhanced by 9.57 % in the M4 mixture owing to the
improved hydration of fly ash in the concrete’s matrix and crack
mitigation behavior of coconut fibers.
 Owing to the low specific gravity of WG, the bulk density of the
specimens was lowered as the quantity of WG was increased.
 A rise in the water absorption, concrete’s sorptivity, and the
water permeability of WG concrete was observed more than
in the control mixture. The fine size of WG and the existence
of CFs led to the development of permeable pores, which raised
the concrete’s water-related characteristics.
 Penetration of water in the concrete was in the acceptable range
of average permeability value.
 FTIR spectra signified the creation of no new elements. It was
noted that the creation of CSH gel is almost identical for the
entire concrete mixture. There was a minor increase in the crys-
tallization of calcium hydroxide, which might be the reason
behind the enhanced crystallization.
From the above points, it is entirely understood that the M4
mixture (WG16-FA20-CFs2.5) was the optimal combination, con-
firming the addition of 16 % WG and 20 % FA with 2.5 % CFs led
to improved concrete with excellent engineering properties.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
to influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgement
The authors are thankful to the Deanship of Scientific Research
at Najran University for funding this work under the Research Pri-
orities and Najran Research funding program grant code (NU/NRP/
SERC/12/5). The authors extend their appreciation to the Deanship
of Scientific Research at King Khalid University for funding this
work through Small Groups Project under grant number
RGP.1/116/43.
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F. Althoey, O. Zaid, A. Majdi et al. Ain Shams Engineering Journal 14 (2023) 102247

Fadi Althoey, Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Fahad Alsharari, Assistant Professor, Civil Engineering
Engineering, Najran University, Najran, Saudi Arabia Department, Jouf University, Sakaka, Jouf 72388, Saudi
Arabia

Osama Zaid, Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, Saleh Alsulamy, Assistant Professor, Department of
Swedish College of Engineering and Technology, 47070, Architecture and Planning, College of Engineering, King
Wah Cantt, Punjab, Pakistan Khalid University, Abha 61421, Saudi Arabia

Ali Majdi, Research Director, Department of Buildings and Mohamed M. Arbili, Senior Lecturer, Department of
Construction Techniques Engineering, Al-Mustaqbal Technical Civil Engineering, Erbil Technical Engineering
University College, 51001 Hillah, Babylon, Iraq College, Erbil Polytechnic University, 44001, Erbil, Iraq

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