Case Studies in Construction Materials 20 (2024) e02796

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Case Studies in Construction Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/cscm

High-flowable and high-performance steel fiber reinforced

concrete adapted by fly ash and silica fume
Hongmei Zhang , Lening Cao , Yuanfeng Duan *, Zizhao Tang , Fan Hu, Zhiyuan Chen
Department of Civil Engineering, College of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The incorporation of steel fibers in concrete imparts strain-hardening characteristics, significantly
Steel fiber reinforced concrete (SFRC) elevating the tensile toughness of the concrete mixture. However, this enhancement often comes
Silica fume at the expense of reduced workability and strength, posing challenges in achieving optimal
Fly ash
densification in practical engineering applications. Moreover, the improvement of the perfor­
Flowability
Compressive toughness
mance of steel fiber-reinforced concrete (SFRC) hinges on the establishment of interfacial tran­
Flexural toughness sition zone (ITZ) between steel fibers and the concrete paste. It has been established that the
Microstructure introduction of fly ash and silica fume to concrete mixtures can increase fluidity and strength.
Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) Consequently, this study investigates the impact of fly ash and silica fume on the performance
enhancement and workability of SFRC mixtures, scrutinizing both macroscopic and microscopic
aspects. Two sets of high-flowable steel fiber-reinforced concretes (HF-SFRC) incorporating silica
fume or fly ash were prepared and subjected to testing. The assessment covered mechanical
properties, including compressive strength, compressive toughness, and flexural toughness, along
with the microstructure. The microstructure provides evidence that fly ash and silica fume
reduced the voids in the concrete matrix to different degrees and that the fully hydrated dense
matrix contributed to reinforcing the bond between steel fibers and the cement matrix. The
synergistic effect among fly ash or silica fume, steel fibers, and cement in the mixture resulted in
enhanced flowability and improved mechanical properties in HF-SFRC.

1. Introduction

Recent research has substantiated the "strain-hardening" characteristics inherent in steel fiber-reinforced concrete (SFRC), wherein
the material maintains its designed strength and toughness even under substantial deformation [1–3]. The inclusion of steel fibers
plays a crucial role in averting the initiation and propagation of cracks, hindering damage development, thereby significantly
enhancing the tensile ductility of concrete [4–7], which means that the damage morphology changes from brittleness to ductility
[8–10]. Studies by Buratti et al. [11] indicate that the bonding effect of fibers also reduces crack width. The uniaxial tensile first crack
flexural strength of the interfacial bond experiences an increase when the proportion of matrix mortar mix is appropriately designed.
However, regarding compressive strength, investigations into SFRC have yielded diverse conclusions, encompassing both promoting
and weakening effects [3,12,13].
For SFRC admixtures, prevailing studies consistently point to an optimal volume content ranging between 1.5 % and 2.0 % for
achieving superior mechanical properties [3,4,14,15]. Excessive steel fiber content, notably beyond 2.0 %, adversely affects both

* Correspondence to: College of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China.
E-mail address: ceyfduan@zju.edu.cn (Y. Duan).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscm.2023.e02796
Received 2 September 2023; Received in revised form 20 November 2023; Accepted 15 December 2023
Available online 19 December 2023
2214-5095/© 2023 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
H. Zhang et al. Case Studies in Construction Materials 20 (2024) e02796

flowability and mechanical properties due to insufficient interaction between the steel fiber and the polymer [3,9,16–19], which is
evident even when the volume content is below 2.0 % [3].
Silica fume (SF) and fly ash (FA) serve as auxiliary cementitious materials in the production of high-performance concrete [16,
20–22] to enhance the fresh and hardened properties, workability, and mechanical characteristics of concrete [23].
Experimental investigations have consistently demonstrated that the incorporation of fly ash contributes to the improvement of
concrete compressive strength [19,24,25]. The nucleation of fly ash stimulates cement hydration, and its active components react with
calcium hydroxide to generate a dense calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) gel. Consequently, cement containing fly ash exhibits a denser
structure compared to pure cement paste. Moreover, the spherical morphology of fly ash significantly influences the rheology of freshly
mixed slurry. Research by Long et al. [26] indicated that the fine spherical particles of fly ash enhance the packing density of cement
paste, leading to a notable improvement in slurry fluidity for cementitious materials with a low water-cement ratio. Liu et al. observed
a positive correlation between the dosage of fly ash and an increase in concrete slump [24]. Zhang et al. [27] identified a substantial
reduction in the viscosity of cement slurry when the content of ultrafine fly ash (UFA) reached 15 %. Collins et al. [28] noted a
significant decrease in the viscosity of cement slurry upon the partial replacement of cement with fly ash, contributing to improved
flowability of Ultra-High-Performance Concrete after partially replacing slag with fly ash.
Silica fume, characterized by its significantly smaller particle size (1/50–1/100 of cement particles), effectively fills the minute
voids between cement particles. This process optimizes the pore structure of cementitious materials, enhancing compactness [15]. The
amorphous silica colloidal particles of silica fume can adsorb dispersants in the surrounding environment, forming a solvent layer. This
action increases the fluidity of the casting materials. Additionally, the secondary hydration products of C-S-H gel reduces the con­
centration of Ca(OH)2 in the pore solution, thereby promoting further hydration of cement [16–18]. Studies by Ibrahim et al. reveal
that as the proportion of nSiO2 in the mix increases, the pore structure refines, leading to excellent mechanical properties [19].
Studies on concrete incorporating fly ash and silica fume have revealed enhanced micromechanical characteristics. The filling
effect of silica fume is similar to the "micro-aggregate filling effect" observed with fly ash [29]. Fly ash improves the interface bonding
effect of the matrix, resulting in a reinforcement gain of over 100 % for the fibers [25]. Silica fume enhances the dispersion ability of
steel fibers and increases the bonding effect between steel fibers and concrete [30]. Additionally, silica fume contributes to the strength
of concrete mixtures by reducing porosity and minimizing capillary reactions, albeit at the expense of decreased fluidity in cement
[31].
While the current study observes strain-hardening characteristics in SFRC, the mechanical properties and workability of SFRC are
intricately linked to the ITZ between steel fibers and cement paste. Fly ash and silica fume exhibit positive effects in enhancing matrix
densification, strength, and flowability. However, the current literature lacks a comprehensive understanding of the workability,
mechanical properties, and corresponding interface actions of steel fibers and cement paste containing fly ash or silica fume in en­
gineering applications.
To further understand the influence of fly ash or silica fume on the micro-mechanisms and macro-interaction effects of SFRC for
engineering purposes, this study formulated two sets of HF-SFRC incorporating fly ash or silica fume. The mixtures included hook-end
steel fibers with a volume content of 1.5 %. Mechanical tests were performed to assess the fluidity, tensile strength, compressive
strength, and flexural properties of the mixtures. Microstructural examinations were conducted to analyze the interface between steel
fibers and the cement matrix using Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM). Additionally, the morphology was also observed, focusing on
the debonding effect in the HF-SFRC.

2. Material and specimen preparation

2.1. Material introduction

The primary components include P.II52.5 Portland cement, basalt gravel coarse aggregate with a maximum size of 1 cm, medium
sand with a uniformity coefficient of 90.6, hook-end steel fiber, PolyCarboxylate Ester superplasticizer (PCE superplasticizer) as an
admixture, Class I fly ash, and silica fume. The details of the steel fiber, fly ash, and silica fume are illustrated in Fig. 1. The chemical
composition of Portland cement, fine aggregate, silica fume, and fly ash is provided in Table 1. The sieve analysis of the fine aggregate
is depicted in Fig. 2. The application of PCE superplasticizer aims to reduce the water-binder ratio, enhance fluidity, and improve
mechanical properties.
As depicted in Table 2, the test specimens are categorized into two groups: the fly ash group and the silica fume group. Each group
consists of specimens with and without steel fibers. The mixture proportions are detailed in Table 2. The fiber volume content was 1.5

Fig. 1. Images of raw materials.

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Table 1
Properties of Portland cement, fine aggregate, silica fume and fly ash.
Chemical analysis (%) P.II52.5 Portland cement Fine aggregate Silica fume Fly ash

SiO2 - 93.0 94.4 77.0

Fe2 O3 - 0.31 -
Al2 O3 - 4.63 -
TiO2 - 0.057 - -
CaO - 0.23 - 0.05
MgO 1.46 0.12 - -
Na2 O - 1.38 - -
K2 O - 2.18 - -
SO3 2.59 - 0.7
Loss on ignition 2.13 0.19 0.8 1.8
Fineness Percentage residue on 45 µm sieve mesh - - 1.1 9.7
Blaine fineness(m2/kg) 372.9 - - -
Setting time(min) Initial 122 - - -
Final 171 - - -

Note: The total mass fraction of SiO2 , Fe2 O3 and Al2 O3 in fly ash was 77 %.

Fig. 2. Sieve analysis of fine aggregate.

% for SFRC-S15 and SFRC-F15, utilizing hook-end steel fibers with a tensile strength of 1275 MPa, a length of 35 mm, and an
equivalent diameter of 0.75 mm. Specimen SFRC-P15 was used to be observed through SEM. The mean particle size of cement ranges
between 10–20 µm, and that of silica fume is within 0.1–0.3 µm, approximately 1/100 of the cement particle size. The specific surface
area of silica fume falls within 13,000–30,000 m2/kg [32]. In the case of fly ash, the mean particle size is within 0.4–100 µm, around
1/30 of cement particles [33].
Given that the average particle size of fly ash and silica fume is notably smaller than that of cement particles, they have the
capability to fill the pores within the cement paste, thereby enhancing its compactness. Moreover, both fly ash and silica fume exhibit

Table 2
Mixture proportion(kg/m3).
Specimen Cement Silica fume (S)/fly Coarse aggregate Fine aggregate Water Admixture (PCE Volume content
label (kg/m3) ash (F) (kg/m3) (kg/m3) (kg/m3) (kg/m3) superplasticizer) (kg/m3) of steel fiber

SFRC-S0 411 50(S) 410 1026 250 3 0

SFRC-S15 411 50(S) 410 1026 250 4 1.5 %
SFRC-F0 644 136(F) 410 963 250 4.5 0
SFRC-F15 644 136(F) 410 963 250 5 1.5 %
SFRC-P15 762 0(P) 410 963 250 4 1.5 %

Note: SFRC-P15 served solely as a control group for the SEM analysis.

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pozzolanic activity, allowing them to react with the cement hydration product Ca(OH)2 to generate a C-S-H gel. This gel fills the
cement structure and enhances the microstructure of the paste, ultimately improving the mechanical properties of the hardened
material. The interaction mechanism of the fly ash and silica fume-based cement matrix is illustrated in Fig. 3.
To assess the impact of incorporating fly ash and silica fume into SFRC, three sets of samples were prepared, including samples with
silica fume, with fly ash, and plain concrete without the two mineral materials (as SFRC-S0, SFRC-F0, SFRC-P15 listed in Table 2), and
they were analyzed through SEM as depicted in Fig. 4 [34]. Fig. 4(b) reveals that silica fume and fly ash particles are embedded in the
cement substrate at different dimensions. The scale of Fig. 4(a) is 2 mm, and that of Fig. 4(b) and (c) is 10 mm. The silica fume and fly
ash particles are minute and embedded in the cement matrix. Comparative to plain concrete, the filling effect of fly ash and silica fume
on the cement matrix is substantial, as demonstrated in Fig. 4(a), (b), and (c). More notably, the homogeneity of the cement mixture for
silica fume-based and fly ash-based cement is significantly improved. In contrast to the hydrate without silica ash and fly ash, the pores
of the cement hydrate mixed with these two minerals are significantly reduced. This improvement is credited to the secondary hy­
dration generated, further minimizing microcracks and voids in the mixture. Additionally, these two minerals can mitigate the heat
generated by the hydration reaction of part of the cement, thereby preventing and reducing the occurrence of cracks in concrete.

2.2. Specimen design and testing devices

To meet the axial and lateral bearing requirements for reinforced concrete elements in the lower stories of structures, the SFRC was
designed with a focus on high compression strength and toughness, while considering workability. Two compression strength levels,
including 60 MPa and 80 MPa, were designed and formulated based on a previous study [35]. Tensile strength tests conducted by the
research group earlier demonstrated multiple cracks and a substantial improvement in tensile toughness by more than 2 % [7,36].
Silica fume and fly ash were separately added to the test specimens of SFRC-S and SFRC-F. SFRC-S0 and SFRC-F0 represented plain
concrete without fibers, serving to investigate the interaction of silica fume and fly ash with the cement matrix. Given the previous
findings highlighting the positive impact of certain amounts of fly ash or silica fume on mechanical properties, this study directs its
attention to the promotional effect on the interface between the steel bars and the cement matrix.
The cubic compression strength specimens were 100 mm in size, forming a cube. Each test group comprised three specimens. The
YAW-3000 G microcomputer-controlled electro-hydraulic servo rock testing machine, with a loading accuracy of 1 % kN, was utilized
in the test, applying load control at a rate of 0.8 MPa/s. For the prism compressive test, the loading device employed was the YAW-
10000 F multifunctional testing machine, along with the INSTRON-8805 electro-hydraulic servo fatigue device. The flexural tough­
ness test utilized a prism specimen measuring 100 mm × 100 mm × 400 mm. The loading device was the INSTRON-8802 electro-
hydraulic servo fatigue testing machine, operating in a four-point loading mode. Deflection was measured by the MILONT-F10
displacement gauge, with a maximum scale value of 10 mm and a measurement accuracy of 0.001. The displacement load control
was set at 0.2 mm/min. The loading device used in the test is depicted in Fig. 5.

3. The workability, compressive and flexible properties

3.1. Workability

The slump and slump flow characteristics of the two HF-SFRC mixes were measured to assess flowability and workability, as

Fig. 3. Mechanism diagram of silica fume and fly ash.

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Fig. 4. Microscopic structure as observed through SEM.

Fig. 5. Loading devices.

illustrated in Fig. 6. For SFRC-S15, the apparent density was 3425 kg/m3, initial setting time was 13h15min, final setting time was
15h15min, slump was 240 mm, and slump flow was 440 mm. SFRC-F15 had an apparent density of 3122 kg/m3, initial setting time of
14h55min, final setting time of 17h03min, slump of 220 mm, and slump flow of 490 mm. The slump values for the formulated SFRC
were significantly higher than the slump specified for pumped concrete in JGJ/T10–95, where a slump of 180–200 mm is required
when pumping to a height of 100 m [37], indicating the excellent workability of these two HF-SFRC mixes.

3.2. Compressive property

3.2.1. Cube compressive test

The cube compressive strength and toughness were tested using 150 mm × 150 mm × 150 mm cube specimens. The compression
strength of the three specimens from each group, including the 7-day cube compression strength and 28-day strength, is shown in
Table 3.
As demonstrated, the average 28-day cubic strength of SFRC-S15 was 85.23 MPa, which was higher than that of SFRC-S0 by
2.60 MPa, representing a 3.1 % increase compared to the non-fiber sample. The strength of SFRC-F15 was 72.44 MPa, which exceeded
that of SFRC-F0 by 6.98 MPa (10.7 % higher). The 7-day strength of SFRC-S0, SFRC-S15, SFRC-F0, and SFRC-F15 was 88.91 %, 88.91
%, 91.05 %, and 86.24 % of the 28-day strength, respectively. The compression strength of the fiber-reinforced silica fume-based
sample and fly ash-based sample, compared to non-fiber samples, showed a 7-day strength improvement of 3.2 % and 4.8 %. Both
the 7-day and 28-day compression strength of silica fume-based and fly ash-based SFRC are enhanced.

3.2.2. Prism compression test

In the prism compression test, the specimens of the SFRC-S group were tested using 150 mm × 150 mm × 300 mm specimens on
the YAW-10000 F multifunctional testing machine. As obtaining the descending branch was challenging, the specimens of the SFRC-F
group were then prepared as 100 mm × 100 mm × 300 mm samples and tested using the INSTRON-8805 electro-hydraulic servo
fatigue device. The strain measurement device for the specimens was an NCS YYU-5/100 extensometer with a 50 mm measurement
gauge length and a maximum range of 5 mm. The measurement accuracy was 0.001, and the loading rate was 0.2 mm/min.
The stress-strain curve obtained from the prismatic compressive test is illustrated in Fig. 7. SFRC-S0 and SFRC-F0 exhibited a sharp

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Fig. 6. Diagrams of slump expansion.
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Table 3
Compression strength (MPa).
Specimen label 7-day strength Average 7-day strength 28-day strength Average 28-day strength

SFRC-S0 74.10 70.22 76.10 73.47 81.12 86.20 80.56 82.63

SFRC-S15 77.11 76.23 74.02 75.79 88.10 82.33 85.27 85.23
SFRC-F0 57.98 61.23 59.55 59.59 61.28 66.11 68.98 65.46
SFRC-F15 61.45 63.51 62.46 62.47 72.11 70.20 75.02 72.44

decrease in strength after the peak strength, while SFRC-S15 and SFRC-F15 showed a gentler decline. Examining the relationship
between peak strength and the strength corresponding to a strain of 0.0105 (3 times the average failure strain of SFRC-S0 samples),
SFRC-S15 maintained at least 57 % of the peak strength. Similarly, the curve for SFRC-F15 indicated that the strength remained at least
48 % of the peak strength at a strain of 0.0155 (5 times the average failure strain of SFRC-F0 samples). The failure strain of SFRC-S15
and SFRC-F15 was at least 3.79 times higher compared to plain concrete samples.
The compressive test results, including compression strength (f c ), elastic modulus (Ec ), stress and strain at the failure point (f f and
εf ) for SFRC-S and SFRC-F are summarized in Table 4. εc,85% and εc,50% are the strains when the stress degrades to 85 % and 50 % of the
maximum stress. Fig. 7 and Table 4 demonstrated that the compression property of SFRC-S15 and SFRC-F15, which were not weakened
compared to that of the plain concrete SFRC-S0 and SFRC-F0. In other words, the addition of steel fibers did not negatively impact the
compressive strength of the concrete with silica fume or fly ash.
Fig. 8 depicts the ultimate damage appearance of the specimens. In the case of plain concrete SFRC-S0 and SFRC-F0, the damage
pattern was brittle, resulting in complete fragmentation along the cracks with direct penetration through the coarse aggregates. In
contrast, SFRC-S15 and SFRC-F15 maintained integrity even after damage, with visible short cracks appearing on the surface. The steel
fibers could be observed pulling out, and the cracks gradually expanded, eventually connecting to form continuous cracks.

3.2.3. Compressive toughness

The toughness of SFRC is generally defined by energy consumption, intensity, energy ratio, and characteristic point (using the
toughness index) [38]. The compressive toughness of SFRC was quantitatively calculated in this study regarding the definition of the
compressive toughness index specified by Chinese CECS 13–1989 [39]. According to the specification, the compressive toughness of
SFRC can be quantified by the toughness indices ηc5 and ηc10 , as shown in Fig. 9, and the toughness indices were calculated as:
ηc5 = SOACD /SOAB (1)

ηc10 = SOAEF /SOAB (2)

The reinforcement of steel fiber on concrete under axial compression was mainly reflected in the descending branch, and the
strengthening effect was more obvious as the strain increased. Apart from ηc5 , there was no more compressive toughness for specimens
in SFRC-S0 and SFRC-F0. As Table 5 demonstrated, the toughness indices of ηc5 and ηc10 of the SFRC-S15 is 4.69 and 8.24, and the
value of SFRC-F15 are 4.56 and 8.84. Compared with ηc10 , SFRC-S15 and SFRC-F15 are 1.75 and 1.93 times of ηc5 . This leads to an
understanding that the compressive toughness of SFRC-S15 and SFRC-F15 is significantly improved than that of SFRC-S0 and SFRC-F0.

3.3. Flexural property

3.3.1. Damage pattern and stress-strain relation

The stress-strain curve of the flexural property was tested by the four-point flexural test on the 100 mm × 100 mm × 400 mm
specimens, and the diagram of the testing device is shown in Fig. 10. As Fig. 11 shows, the bending damage modes of SFRC-S0 and
SFRC-F0 were brittle and completely broken into two partitions from the main crack. SFRC-S15 and SFRC-F15 were still connected at
the upper area with an irregular cracking section, and there is steel fiber across the section. This character is important for life safety
under catastrophic disasters.
Fig. 12 shows the load-deflection curve of the flexural test for each specimen. The average peak load of SFRC-S0, SFRC-S15, SFRC-
F0 and SFRC-F15 was 18.59 kN, 33.48 kN, 14.08 kN, and 32.94 kN, respectively. Flexural strength f ftm can be calculated as:
Fl
f ftm = η∗0.85∗ (3)
bh2
/
η = 1 + αtm ρf lf df (4)

Where η is the equivalent coefficient of flexural strength of steel fiber, and the purpose is to consider the influence of steel fiber on
the flexural strength of concrete; αtm is the influence coefficient, which can be obtained by checking the specification; ρf is the per­
centage of steel fiber; lf is the length of steel fiber (mm); df is the equivalent diameter of steel fiber (mm); 0.85 is the size conversion
factor because the test is performed on non-standard specimens; F is the peak load; b, l, h are the width, length, and height of the
specimen as Fig. 10 shows, respectively. According to Eqs. (3) and (4), the flexural strength of SFRC-S0 and SFRC-S15 was 4.74 MPa
and 15.07 MPa, respectively, and SFRC-S15 increased 218 % than that of SFRC-S0. The flexural strength of SFRC-F0 and SFRC-F15
were 3.60 MPa and 14.83 MPa, respectively, and SFRC-F15 increased 312 % more than that of SFRC-F0. The flexural strength

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Fig. 7. Compressive stress-strain curve.
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Table 4
Compressive test results of prism compression test samples.
Specimen label fc (MPa) εc,85% εc,50% Ec (MPa) ff (MPa) εf
SFRC-S0-1 76.57 0.0033 0.0037 32321 17.51 0.0039
SFRC-S0-2 75.54 0.0029 0.0032 35540 16.82 0.0033
SFRC-S0-3 79.31 0.0030 0.0032 33352 17.24 0.0034
Average 77.14 0.0031 0.0034 33738 17.19 0.0035
SFRC-S15-1 70.14 0.0044 -* 40327 40.00 0.0148
SFRC-S15-2 74.32 0.0045 0.0134 29276 35.64 0.0147
SFRC-S15-3 78.83 0.0063 0.0131 29883 30.95 0.0148
Average 74.43 0.0051 0.0132 33162 35.53 0.0148
SFRC-F0-1 53.25 0.0027 0.0029 27871 1.01 0.0032
SFRC-F0-2 53.40 0.0030 0.0030 25257 1.34 0.0031
SFRC-F0-3 54.33 0.0026 0.0028 28930 2.15 0.0031
Average 53.66 0.0028 0.0029 27353 1.50 0.0031
SFRC-F15-1 50.99 0.0056 0.0174 24059 8.68 0.0370
SFRC-F15-2 52.22 0.0044 0.0140 25417 9.46 0.0264
SFRC-F15-3 50.75 0.0051 0.0187 24375 15.16 0.0297
Average 51.32 0.0050 0.0167 24617 11.10 0.0310
*
Note: The stress corresponding to the maximum compressive strain of SFRC-S15–1 is 57 % of the maximum stress, so there is no εc,50% in this
specimen.

Fig. 8. Prismatic failure models of compressive toughness test.

improved substantially with the addition of the steel fiber.

From the flexural load-deflection curves shown in Fig. 12, SFRC-S0 and SFRC-F0 were brittle damaged immediately beyond the
peak point, and the deformation curve dropped steeply. For the SFRC-S group, the deflection corresponding to the peak load of SFRC-
S15 was 2.67 times that of SFRC-S0, the maximum deflection of SFRC-S15 was 8.33 times that of SFRC-S0, and the ultimate deflection
(the corresponding load is 85 % of the peak load) was 2.23 mm, which was 3.86 times that of SFRC-S0. For the SFRC-F group, the
deflection corresponding to the peak load of SFRC-F15 was about 3.60 times that of SFRC-F0, the maximum deflection of SFRC-F15
was 27.48 times that of SFRC-F0, and the ultimate deflection was 1.05 mm, which was 7.50 times that of SFRC-F0. Both the two kinds
of HF-SFRC showed significantly enhanced flexural toughness.

3.3.2. Flexural toughness

The flexural toughness evaluation index as ASTM C1018 of the United States and CECS 13–2009 of China are not accurate in
determining the initial cracking point, which induces a great deviation of the flexural toughness index [40,41]. Moreover, when the
steel fiber volume content is low, the load-deflection curve of the bending specimen has an unstable phase. Gao [42] proposed an
improved evaluation method using the initial flexural toughness ratio and the residual flexural toughness ratio to avoid the

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Fig. 9. Schematic diagram of the calculating method for compressive toughness.

Table 5
Compressive toughness index.
Specimen label ηc5 ηc10
SFRC-S15-1 4.08 7.32
SFRC-S15-2 4.57 8.05
SFRC-S15-3 5.41 9.35
Average 4.69 8.24
SFRC-F15-1 5.16 9.53
SFRC-F15-2 4.27 9.00
SFRC-F15-3 4.25 8.00
Average 4.56 8.84

Fig. 10. The diagram of the four-point flexural test.

determination of the initial cracking point.

As shown in Fig. 13, the flexural toughness of the specimen before the deflection corresponding to the peak load δp is characterized
using the initial flexural toughness ratio Re, p , which is calculated according to the following equation:
/
Re, p = f e, p f ftm (5)

Ωp L
f e, p = (6)
bh2 δp

The flexural toughness ratio Re, k of the specimen after the deflection δp corresponding to the peak load is:
/
Re,k = f e, k f ftm (7)

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Fig. 11. Prismatic damaged specimens of the four-point flexural test.

Ωp, k L
f e, k = (8)
bh2 δp, k

δp, k = δk − δp (9)

where Re,p , Re, k is the initial flexural toughness ratio and flexural toughness ratio corresponding to the mid-span deflection δk ; δp
denotes the peak load corresponding to the mid-span deflection (mm); f e,p , f e, k is the equivalent initial flexural strength and equivalent
flexural strength (MPa); Ωp , Ωp, k denotes the enclosed area of the load-deflection curve corresponding to δp to δk (N-mm); f ftm stands
for the SFRC flexural strength (MPa); b and h are the width and height of the specimen section, respectively.
Accordingly, the flexural toughness level of SFRC can be more truly reflected when k is 500, 300, 250, 200, and 150 [38]. The Re, p
calculated by Eqs. (5) and (6) can reflect the flexural toughness of SFRC before reaching the peak load, and it is proportional to the
flexural toughness of the specimen. The Re, k calculated by Eqs. (7–9) can reflect the residual flexural toughness of SFRC.
The flexural toughness ratios and equivalent flexural strength values for each specimen are provided in Table 6. Specifically, the
equivalent initial flexural strength of SFRC-S15 increased by 2.74 times compared to SFRC-S0, and SFRC-F15 showed 2.34 times
increase compared to SFRC-F0. As the mid-span deflection increased, the equivalent flexural strength and flexural toughness ratios for
HF-SFRC specimens exhibited a gradual decrease, indicating improved residual bearing capacity even at large deflection stages. For a
value of k equal to 150, the f e, 150 of SFRC-S15 specimens was 9.04, with Re, 150 for SFRC-F15 specimens was 7.92, with an average
Re, 150 of 0.53. Notably, brittle fracture occurred in SFRC-S0 and SFRC-F0 at this particular stage.

4. Discussion

4.1. Workability and micro-interaction mechanism

The rheological, fiber dispersion, and mechanical properties of the matrix are interconnected. The rheological properties of con­
crete have an important effect on fiber orientation [43]. Improved rheological properties of the matrix lead to increased axial
orientation of the fibers, enhancing the effective utilization ratio of the fibers and ultimately resulting in superior mechanical prop­
erties post-hardening [44]. Optimal workability in concrete, coupled with fiber orientation aligned with tensile stress, significantly
enhances fiber performance. Conversely, inadequate fiber orientation in concrete with poor workability diminishes the contribution of
fibers to the bending properties of the specimen [44]. The distribution of fibers plays a crucial role in influencing both the fresh and
hardened properties of concrete. Achieving excellent dispersion stands as the pivotal factor in fully harnessing the reinforcing and
toughening effects of fibers [44,45]. The fiber distribution is predominantly contingent on the properties of the mixture, alongside
factors such as volume fraction and length-diameter ratio [45]. Fly ash and silica fume serves to fill the voids between cement particles
and promote cement hydration, producing the hydration product C-S-H gel. On the other hand, fly ash enhances the fluidity of the
concrete mixture through the ball lubrication effect of its glass micro-beads [46]. The steel fibers exhibit uniform dispersion
throughout the substrate, and no signs of instability or modulation of steel fibers are observed. The mortar composites incorporating
silica fume and steel fibers, as well as those with fly ash and steel fibers, demonstrated commendable fluidity and workability as
evidenced by slump and slump tests. Notably, their workability surpassed the standard requirements for pumped concrete, under­
scoring the beneficial impact of silica fume and fly ash in enhancing the dispersibility of steel fibers. Consequently, the secondary
hydration of silica fume or fly ash plays a crucial role in ensuring optimal flowability and concrete strength in mixtures characterized
by low water-cement ratios.
Moreover, owing to its significantly smaller particle size (approximately 1/100th of cement), silica fume acts as an effective void
filler, reducing water requirements and enhancing cementation to impart higher strength to concrete. Silica fume transforms detri­
mental Ca(OH)2 into C-S-H gels, filling the gaps between cement hydrates and bolstering slurry strength. Simultaneously, the reaction
between silica fume and Ca(OH)2 accelerates the hydration rate, contributing to the early strength improvement in concrete.

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Fig. 12. Load-deflection curve of the four-point flexural test.
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Fig. 13. Schematic diagram of flexural toughness ratio for concrete.

Table 6
The flexural toughness ratio.
Specimen label fe, p Re, p fe, 250 Re, 250 fe, 200 Re, 200 fe, 150 Re, 150

SFRC-S0 2.68 0.56 - - - - - -

SFRC-S15 7.33 0.49 - - 9.38 0.62 9.04 0.60
SFRC-F0 1.64 0.48 - - - - - -
1.74 0.45 - - - - - -
1.50 0.43 - - - - - -
SFRC-F15 7.15 0.49 8.59 0.59 8.26 0.57 7.67 0.53
6.54 0.44 8.98 0.61 8.57 0.58 7.93 0.54
6.13 0.40 9.32 0.62 8.96 0.59 8.15 0.54

Consequently, the 7-day strength of cement containing silica fume or fly ash exceeded 86.00 % of the 28-day strength.
To further illustrate the impact of silica fume and fly ash on the fluidity and strength of SFRC, the article conducts SEM observations
on the fiber-concrete matrix microstructure of SFRC mixed with fly ash. The incorporation of these two minerals in SFRC results in a
robust interfacial bond between the steel fibers and the concrete substrate. Fig. 14 presents the ITZ between steel fibers and cement
paste both with and without fly ash in this study. Without fly ash, the steel fibers are inadequately enveloped in the matrix, and the
cement hydration products adhere to the surface of the steel fibers, leaving gaps between the fibers unfilled and the outer steel fibers
poorly bonded to the hydration products. Hence, a bonding deficiency emerges between the steel fiber and cement hydrate products,
leading to a reduction in concrete strength. In contrast, fly ash expedites cement hydrate production, bridges the ITZ between cement
paste and steel fibers, thereby mitigating defects between the fibers and cement hydrates. Notably, both silica fume and fly ash
particles are significantly smaller than cement particles, enabling them to fill the pores in the ITZ. Leveraging their pozzolanic activity,
they promote cement hydration, resulting in a more uniform and denser ITZ, thereby reinforcing the effective bond between steel fibers
and the concrete substrate. A similar scenario is observed in mixtures containing silica fume.
The introduction of steel fibers into the concrete matrix has the potential to elevate weak interfaces. However, this drawback can be
mitigated by the incorporation of silica fume and fly ash, effectively infilling the ITZ. This process enhances the bonding between the
steel fibers and the cement matrix, consequently elevating compression strength and impeding crack propagation. Notably, the peak
strength of SFRC-S15 exceeded that of SFRC-S0 by approximately 10 %, which can be attributed to the filling and secondary hydration
effects of silica fume. This is evident in the ITZ between the cement paste and steel fibers, where silica fume and C-S-H gel contribute to
filling and secondary hydration.

4.2. Macroscopic mechanical properties and fiber reinforcing effects

This study revealed a substantial enhancement in the flexural strength of Steel Fiber-Reinforced Concrete (SFRC) through the
incorporation of silica fume or fly ash. The flexural strength increased by 218 % for HF-SFRC with silica fume and 312 % for HF-SFRC
with fly ash. However, the effect on compressive strength improvement was less apparent. Prism compressive strength tests indicated
that stress-strain curves for SFRC-S15 and SFRC-F15, featuring steel fibers, exhibited flatter degradation branches compared to SFRC-
S0 and SFRC-F0. The average strains corresponding to 85 % and 50 % of the peak load in the decreasing branch were 0.0031 and
0.0034 for SFRC-S0 and 0.0051 and 0.0132 for SFRC-S15, respectively. For SFRC-F0, the values were 0.0028 and 0.0029, and for
SFRC-F15, they were 0.0050 and 0.0167, respectively. The average failure strain of SFRC-S and SFRC-F is 3 times and 5 times of their
respective plain concrete specimens, namely 0.0105 and 0.0155, respectively. At these strains, their residual strengths are at least 57 %
and 48 % of their corresponding peak strengths. Compressive toughness indices, denoted as ηc5 and ηc10 , for SFRC-S15 have mean
values of 4.69 and 8.24, respectively. The corresponding indices for SFRC-F15 are 4.56 and 8.84. In contrast, both toughness indices for
SFRC-S0 and SFRC-F0 are insufficient to attain those values, indicating that both mineral-based SFRC exhibit significantly higher

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Fig. 14. The ITZ between steel fiber and cement paste observed by SEM.

toughness.
Flexural toughness ratios were employed as indicators to assess the flexural toughness of the specimens. The results revealed that,
at values of k equal to 200 and 150, the flexural toughness ratios for SFRC-S15 were 0.62 and 0.60, respectively. Similarly, for SFRC-
F15, the corresponding ratios were 0.58 and 0.54. In contrast, the flexural toughness ratios for SFRC-S0 and SFRC-F0 were too brittle to
achieve, underscoring significant residual load-carrying capacity under large deflection for these specimens as well.
In the mechanical property tests of SFRC, the enhanced compressive and flexural toughness can be attributed to the debonding
effect of the steel fibers during concrete cracking. The tensile or shear stresses generated during the debonding process of the steel
fibers, coupled with the steel fibers intersecting the cracks, facilitate the transfer of internal stresses to the concrete matrix on both
sides of the fractured crack. This mechanism effectively prevents the further expansion of concrete cracks by dispersing stress from the
concrete to the steel fibers. Achieving this stress dispersion necessitates an efficient interfacial transfer between the concrete matrix
and the steel fibers. The substantial enhancement of compressive and flexural toughness in concrete attributed to steel fibers relies on

Fig. 15. The morphology of steel fibers in damaged SFRC: (a) represents one of the failure modes observed in the compressive toughness test; (b)
close-up details of cracks; (c) highlights the tensile, shear, and hoop-enclosing morphology exhibited by the steel fibers.

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their effective bonding with the concrete matrix, allowing for optimal utilization of the high tensile strength and deformation capacity
of the steel fibers. As depicted in the microstructure shown in Fig. 14, the concrete matrix in the specimen group incorporating fly ash
exhibits a more secure bond with the surface of the steel fibers. This enhanced bond facilitates improved transmission of internal forces
exerted by the concrete matrix through the steel fibers, resulting in a macroscopic increase in flexural strength and toughness. In
Fig. 15, the steel fibers are observed traversing through the cracked concrete matrix during compression tests. The morphology of these
steel fibers, evident in the exposed cracks, reveals a configuration characterized by tensile, shear, and hoop-enclosing features. This
implies that the steel fibers effectively distribute tensile and shear stresses in the concrete during compression. Furthermore, the steel
fibers crossing through the cracks actively impede the expansion of the concrete.
This evidence indicates a notable enhancement in compressive toughness for silica fume or fly ash-based SFRC. These two types of
small particle mineral-based concrete contribute to the reinforcement of the cement matrix with steel fibers through their filling action,
dispersion and secondary hydration. This, in turn, mitigates the strength loss resulting from initial defects and amplifies the debonding
ability between steel fibers and the matrix. Additionally, the well-interfaced bonded steel fibers play key roles in tensile, dowel, and
hoop-enclosing functions during compressive damage of the concrete, contributing to the observed increase in compressive toughness.

5. Conclusions

In this paper, the mechanical properties and toughness enhancement mechanism of SFRC with silica fume and fly ash additions are
investigated in terms of the working performance, mechanical properties, deformability and microstructural observation. The
following conclusions can be drawn:

(1) Excellent workability of the two HF-SFRC were observed; SEM observations substantiated that concrete containing certain
content of silica fume or fly ash displayed improved homogeneity and reduced porosity compared to conventional concrete; the
ITZ between steel fibers and cement paste in SFRC with fly ash demonstrated a more robust bond; The workability and flow­
ability, as evidenced by the slump and slump extension, were commendable for both fly ash and silica fume-based SFRC;
(2) The incorporation of fly ash and silica fume, leading to filling, dispersing, and secondary hydration, enhances both the matrix
and interface of SFRC; the improvement is evident in the enhanced mechanical performance of the two HF-SFRC; the flexural
strength increased by 218 % for SFRC-S and 312 % for SFRC-F; when the compression strength decreases to 85 % of the peak
value, the corresponding strain for SFRC-S15 is approximately 3.86 times that of SFRC-S0, and for SFRC-F15, it is about 7.50
times that of SFRC-F0; the toughness index ηc10 for SFRC-S15 and SFRC-F15 is approximately 1.8 times that of ηc5 .
(3) Interaction effects in HF-SFRC (eg. SFRC-S15) were evidenced through morphological observations derived from the prism
compression test. The results showed steel fibers displaying tensile, shear, and hoop-enclosing behaviors, indicating their active
engagement with the concrete matrix. This active participation contributes to the comprehensive enhancement of the me­
chanical performance of HF-SFRC.

Funding information

National Key R&D Program of China, Grant/Award Number: 2019YFE0112600; National Natural Science Foundation of China,
Grant/Award Number: 52078459, 52378540, 52378318; National Natural Science Foundation of Zhejiang Province, Grant/Award
Number: LZ22E080005.

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Hongmei Zhang: Conceptualization, Design, Experiment, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing, Approval of the final
version. Lening Cao: Experiment, Validation, Writing. Yuanfeng Duan: Methodology, Writing – review & editing. Zizhao Tang:
Experiment, Validation, Writing – original draft. Fan Hu: Experiment. Zhiyuan Chen: Experiment.

Declaration of Competing Interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to
influence the work reported in this paper.

Data availability

Data will be made available on request.

Acknowledges

The authors express sincere gratitude to Wen-Cheng Liao of Taiwan University for preparing the SFRC and in the process of writing
papers to provide valuable advice and suggestions. The research described in this paper was financially supported by the National Key
R&D Program of China (Grant Nos. 2019YFE0112600), the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant Nos. 52078459,
52378540, 52378318), and the National Natural Science Foundation of Zhejiang Province (Grant No. LZ22E080005).

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Hongmei Zhang, College of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China.

Lening Cao, College of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China.

Yuanfeng Duan, College of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China.

Zizhao Tang, College of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China.

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Fan Hu, College of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China.

Zhiyuan Chen, College of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China.

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