CHAPTER 1: MEANING AND CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH

Education

It is a process of change in knowledge, skills and attitude which results into change of

behavior.

It is a deliberate attempt to acquire and to transmit the accumulated worthwhile skills,

attitudes, knowledge and understanding from one human generation to the next.

Research

 Comes from the French rechercher (to search after or to investigate)

 A careful, systematic, and patient investigation undertaken to discover or establish

facts and relationships.

 Called for when one is confronted with a question or problem that has no readily

available answer.

 Is not:

a) Mere information gathering

b) Mere transportation of facts from one location to another

c) Merely rummaging for information

d) A catchword used to get attention

Research therefore, is defined as the scientific investigation of phenomena which includes

collection, presentation, analysis and interpretation of facts that lines an individual’s

speculation with reality.

Research methods refers to the ways in which to get information

Values of Research to Man

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1. Research improves the quality of life.

2. Research improves instruction.

3. Research improves students’ achievement.

4. Research improves teacher’s competence.

5. Research satisfies man’s needs.

6. Research reduces the burden of work.

7. Research has deep-seated psychological aspects.

8. Research improves the exportation of food products.

9. Research responds to the economic recovery of the country.

10. Research trains graduates to become responsive to the economic development of the country

and to compete globally.

Characteristics of Research

1. Empirical. Research is based on direct experience or observation by the researcher.

2. Logical. Research is based on valid procedures and principles.

3. Cyclical. Research is a cyclical process because it starts with a problem and ends with a

problem.

4. Analytical. Research utilizes proven analytical procedures in gathering the data, whether

historical, descriptive, experimental and case study.

5. Critical. Research exhibits careful and precise judgment.

6. Methodical. Research is conducted in a methodical manner without bias using systematic

method and procedures.

7. Replicability. The research design and procedures are replicated or repeated to enable the

researcher to arrive at valid and conclusive results.

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Characteristics of true research:

a) Originates with a question in the mind of the researcher.

b) Cannot proceed without a clear articulation of goal.

c) Requires a specific plan of procedure.

d) Usually considers the principal area of investigation (the problem) by dividing it into more

manageable sub-areas (sub-problems)

e) Seeks direction through appropriate hypotheses based upon obvious assumptions.

f) Deals with facts and their meaning.

g) Is circular (creates more problems as avenue for the discovery of truth)

Elements of research

a) Systematic search Errors in research

b) Adequate information a) Hurriedness

c) Objective knowledge b) Inaccuracy

d) Specific topic c) Carelessness

Value of research

a. Learning to do research teaches students how to recognize a problem and how to go about

solving it.

b. Writing a research paper can teach a student far more than a teacher could.

c. Preparing a quality research paper teaches skills of observations, analysis, synthesis and

judgment.

d. The writing of a research paper helps develop character: sticking with the work in spite of

difficulties is a discipline that enhances the worth of any student.

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 e. The preparation of a research paper gives opportunity for the development of good

writing skills.

f. Satisfaction of a job accomplished and the joy of discovery.

Types of Research

1. Basic Research. This is also called as “fundamental research” or “pure research”. It

seeks to discover basic truths or principles.

Examples:

Boyle’s Law

Charles’ Law

Archimedes’ Principle

Hooke’s Law

Newton’s Law

2. Applied Research: This type of research involves seeking new applications of

scientific knowledge to the solution of a problem, such as a development of a new

system or procedure, new device, or new method in order to solve the problem.

3. Developmental Research: This is a decision-oriented research involving the

application of the steps of the scientific method in response to an immediate need to

improve existing practices.

Classification of Research

1. Library Research. This is done in the library where answers to specific questions or

problems of the study are available.

2. Field Research. Here, research is conducted in a natural setting.

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 3. Laboratory Research. The research is conducted in artificial or controlled conditions

by isolating the study in a thoroughly specified and equipped area. The purposes are:

(1) to test hypotheses derived from theory, (2) to control variance under research

conditions, and (3) to discover the relations between the dependent and the

independent.

GUIDING PRINCIPLES OF RESEARCH

I. Legal Principles

Rule1. Protection

 To protect individuals against physical, mental, or emotional harm.

 Research should not place individuals in physical danger, nor does it permit

inquiry, without advised consent of the participant involved, into personal

matters considered sensitive in nature.

Rule2. Confidentiality

 Without express permission to the contrary, the anonymity of human

participants who participate in research is to be maintained.

II. Ethical Principles

Rule 3. Beneficence

 Research is done to garner knowledge and shed light on the human condition.

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  The researcher’s aim is to increase understanding and to promote opportunity

and advancement for the population at large.

Rule 4. Honesty

 Data should be reported exactly as obtained.

 No data are to be suppressed, no alterations made in them, and no exceptions

made in the procedures by which they are collected.

 Dishonest manipulation of data is inexcusable and renders the research

meaningless or dangerously misleading.

Rule 5. Accurate Disclosure

 Individuals selected to serve as participants in research must be informed

accurately about the general topic of research, the nature and duration of the

participants’ involvement in the study, any possible benefits and risks of the

study to the individual participants, and any unusual procedures or tasks in

which they will be involved.

 Lack of full disclosure, providing participants with all the details of the

research, would introduce the possibility of error that might render the

research invalid.

III. Philosophical Principles

Rule 6. Importance

 Research findings should contribute to human knowledge or be useful

elsewhere.

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  Research must show promise of being worth the time, effort, and expenditures

entailed.

Rule 7. Generalizability

 The findings of research can be applied, or generalized, to other individuals

and settings.

 This principle does not apply to historical research or action research.

Rule 8. Replicability

 A prime means of establishing research credibility.

 Research is made replicable (repeatable) by keeping records of exactly what

was done, and why, in each phase of the investigation.

Rule 9. Probability

 Research deals in probabilities, likelihoods, or the best answers among a

variety of possibilities.

 Research conclusions hinge not on absolute certainty but on probability.

 There must be a strong probability that if the research were repeated numerous

times, the findings would almost always be approximately the same.

IV. Procedural Principles

Rule 10. Researchability

A preliminary test of research-ability includes four questions:

 Can the scientific method be used to investigate the topic under consideration?

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  If no, can the topic be limited or reworded to make it researchable?

 If the topic statement is, or can be made, researchable through the scientific

method, is it possible to obtain required data?

 Can the topic be investigated within existing constraints of time, facilities,

distance, money, and other practical matters?

Rule 11. Parsimony

 The simpler a theory is, the better it is, provided it adequately explains the

phenomena involved.

 Research should be guided by questions or hypotheses stated as clearly and

simply as possible.

 Findings resulting from data analysis should be reported clearly and the

conclusions stated succinctly or briefly.

Rule 12. Credibility

The principle of credibility is established as follows:

 The topic selected must be significant and researchable.

 The operating principles of research must be adhered to.

 Reliable and valid data must be obtained.

 Appropriate methods must be used to analyze the data.

 Findings must be supported by the data.

 Conclusions related to research questions or hypotheses must be logically

persuasive and reported clearly and accurately.

Rule 13. Rival Explanations

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  Researchers should always anticipate that others will scrutinize their methods

and make interpretations different from their own.

 Measures to forestall criticism and other possible interpretations: following

procedures properly, accounting for undesired influences, analyzing data

appropriately, pinpointing possible bias, foreseeing and ruling out alternative

interpretations.

 If alternate possibilities cannot be explained, they can be acknowledged in

discussions of the findings.

THE VARIABLE

Meaning of Variable: A variable is defined as a quantity susceptible of fluctuation or

change in value or magnitude under different conditions.

Types of Variables

1. Independent Variable. This is the stimulus variable which is chosen by the researcher to

determine the relationship to an observed phenomenon.

2. Dependent Variable. This is the response variable which is observed and measured to

determine the effect of the independent variable.

3. Moderator Variable. This is a secondary or special type of independent variable chosen by

the researcher to determine if it changes or modifies the relationship between the independent

and dependent variables.

4. Control Variable. This is the variable that is controlled by the investigator in which the

effects can be neutralized by eliminating or removing the variable.

5. Intervening Variable. This is a variable which interferes with the independent and

dependent variables, but its effects can either strengthen or weaken the independent and

dependent variables.

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 Qualities of a Good Researcher

1. Research-oriented

2. Efficient

3. Scientific

4. Effective

5. Active

6. Resourceful

7. Creative

8. Honest

9. Economical

10. Religious

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 Characteristics of the Researcher

1. Intellectual Curiosity. A researcher undertakes a deep thinking and inquiry of the things,

and situations around him.

2. Prudence. The researcher is careful to conduct his research study at the right time and at

the right place wisely, efficiently, and economically.

3. Healthy Criticism. The researcher is always doubtful as to the truthfulness of the results.

4. Intellectual Honesty. An intelligent researcher is honest to collect or gather data or facts

in order to arrive at honest results.

5. Intellectual Creativity – A productive and resourceful investigator always creates new

researches.

TYPES OF RESEARCH

1. Categorized by Practicality

 Basic research – done to satisfy a need to know with no intention of resolving an

immediate social or personal problem. (natural sciences)

 Applied research – done to find practical solutions to pressing problems.

(education)

2. Differentiated by Methodology

 Qualitative research – relies on narrative data (verbal descriptions and opinions)

 Quantitative research – relies on numerical data (scores and measurements)

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  Experimental research – shows a cause-effect relationship that enables us to

predict and control events.

 Non-experimental research – used to depict people, events situations, conditions

and relationships as they currently exist or once existed; evaluate products or

processes; and develop innovations.

3. Defined by Questions Addressed

 Ethnographic research – documents and explains social behavior within groups;

explores behavior holistically within a social setting of customs, values, and styles

of communications; data sources are people, objects, environments, and

communication patterns inherent in the context under study; findings are usually

presented in narrative form, sometimes enhanced by graphic illustrations;

nonexperimental, largely qualitative, and is heavily dependent on investigator

perception and skill in making observations and interpretations.

 Historical research – explores conditions, situations, events or people of the past;

nonexperimental and may be qualitative, quantitative, or a combination of the

two; typically guided by research questions and uses as sources of data original

documents, newspaper accounts, photographs and drawings, historical records,

locales, objects, and people who have some knowledge of the time and place

under investigation; findings are normally presented in narrative form illuminated

by numerical, categorical, and graphic illustrations.

 Descriptive research – depicts people, situations, events, and conditions as they

currently exist; nonexperimental and can be either qualitative, quantitative, or a

combination of the two; research questions and hypotheses are frequently used;

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 major sources from which information is obtained are physical settings, records,

documents, objects, materials, and people directly involved; additional

information may be obtained from newspaper accounts, photographs, and people

who possess knowledge of the situation but were not directly involved; findings

are presented in narrative form enhanced by numerical, categorical, and graphic

illustrations.

 Correlational research – explores the degree of correlation between two or more

variables; data are obtained from the individuals serving as participants in the

study; quantitative and nonexperimental; may strongly suggest cause-effect

relationships; correlations give us the valuable ability to predict one of the

variables from the other.

 Action research – done to improve conditions, within a particular setting, without

concern to apply the findings elsewhere; identifies the specific problems,

formulates possible solutions, applies those solutions, and evaluates the results.

 Evaluation research – done to make judgments about the quality of particular

programs, procedures, materials, and the like; data collected are compared against

a set of criteria used to indicate quality.

 Causal-comparative research – explores the influence of a preexisting condition

on a variable; can suggest causality more persuasively than correlational research;

nonexperimental and quantitative and uses data obtained from the people

involved.

 Experimental research – uses two groups, control and experimental; quantitative

and focuses on independent and dependent variables, called cause and effect,

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 respectively; indicates cause-effect relationships more convincingly than any

other type of research. To learn about something one has never had a chance to

study. The best research answers difficult questions in areas with which one is

familiar.

Specific Considerations in Choosing a Problem

1. Workability

 Is the contemplated study within the limits of your resource and time constraints?

 Will you have access to the necessary sample in the numbers required?

 Is there reason to believe you can come up with an answer to the problem?

 Is the required methodology manageable and understandable?

2. Critical Mass

 Is the problem of sufficient magnitude and scope to fulfill the requirement that motivated

the study in the first place?

 Are there enough variables? Enough potential results? Enough to write about?

3. Interest

 Are you interested in the problem area, specific problem, and potential solution?

 Does it relate to your background? To your career interests?

 Does it enthuse you?

 Will you learn useful skills from pursuing it?

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 4. Theoretical Value

 Does the problem fill a gap in the literature?

 Will others recognize its importance?

 Will it contribute to advancement in your field?

 Does it improve upon the state of the art?

 Is it publishable?

5. Practical Value

 Will the solution to the problem improve educational practice?

 Are practitioners like to be interested in the results?

 Will educational management be changed by the outcome?

 Will your educational practices be likely to change as a result?

You are interested in practicality and payoff in choosing a research problem to pursue.

Practicality means that the study is neither too big for your resources and schedule nor too

small to satisfy the requirements for which it is being done.

Some Questions to be Answered Before Deciding on the Thesis Topic:

1. Do I have the necessary sources to do this research?

2. Am I qualified to do this research? (thorough knowledge of a specific area)

3. Do I have enough time to complete the research of this topic by the due date?

4. Does this research demand finances I do not have?

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 Luke 14:28 – “For which one of you, when he wants to build a tower, does not first sit down

and calculate the cost, to see if he has enough to complete it?

The following situations may manifest a problem:

1. When there is an absence of information resulting in a gap in our knowledge.

2. When there are contradictory results.

3. When a fact exists and you intend to make your study pursue it.

Characteristics of a good problem:

1. The topic should be of great interest to you.

2. It is useful for the concerned people in a particular field.

“What is the most important contribution of your study to the field?”

3. It possesses novelty. Avoid unnecessary duplication.

There are some topics that are over studied and others which have not been penetrated

thoroughly enough—need to be explored more extensively.

4. A good problem is one which invites more complex designing.

5. A good problem can be completed in the allotted time desired.

6. A good problem does not carry ethical or moral impediments.

Once a viable topic is chosen, a good part of the battle is won.

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A thesis must be an original contribution to knowledge. The selection of a topic must be made

in close communication with the Research Methods lecturer and the department chair or the

coordinator of the MEd program.

RESEARCH TITLE

The Title Functions:

1. It draws, in summary form, the content of the entire investigation.

2. It serves as a frame of reference for the whole study.

3. It enables the researcher to claim the title as his own.

4. It helps other researchers to refer to the work for possible survey of theory

 Must be clearly and specifically written.

Title of the Study

1. Since the title is intended as a descriptive designation of the content, it should be clearly

related to the proposal content.

2. Brevity is usually desired; as such, avoid superfluous lead phrases.

3. If a long title cannot be avoided, consider a main title and a subtitle.

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 4. The title should not exceed 20 words and should contain keywords to help future users

locate this document.

THE RESEARCH PROPOSAL

Having selected your research topic, the next stage is to begin designing and planning your

research project. You are required to produce a research proposal prior to setting out on your

thesis or research project.

This can vary from a simple statement of intent to a full-blown assessment, which might include

things like:

1. a working title, encapsulating the aims, scope and strategy of your study

2. a critical literature review of your research area, out of which you may be expected to

derive research questions

3. a short statement of your overall research perspective or strategy

4. specific aims and objectives for your study

5. how you would intend to gain access to appropriate sites, data or informants for your

study

6. the methods of data collection you intend to use and a justification of their

appropriateness, strengths and weaknesses in relation to your study, including relevant

references to the literature

7. how you would construct your sample frame and an outline of your sampling strategy

8. an indication of what type of analysis you would wish to perform on your data

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 9. any problems you might anticipate (e.g. in access or sampling, etc.) and how you might

resolve these

10. a consideration of any ethical or professional issues raised by your proposals

11. a research timetable or timeline

General advice on writing proposals:

1. you should avoid making your research ideas too vague as this generally leads to too

wide a range of issues to cover - your overall task will probably be to present a coherent

review which should enable you to refine your possible research ideas into specific and

viable research questions

2. just because you do not yet have a clear idea of what you want to do does not mean you

cannot write a clear research proposal, you can still present a coherent plan which should

enable you to address your questions realistically

3. though it may be impossible for you to accurately predict levels of access available to

you and consequently to determine a precise sample frame, you should still be able to

propose what kinds of access would be needed and rough estimates of the ideal sample

frame and sampling strategy needed in order to collect the kind of data you propose

A research proposal should contain three chapters with the following elements:

1. INTRODUCTION

Background of the Study

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 Statement of the Problem

Research Questions (or Objectives)

Hypotheses (Optional, depending on your research questions)

Assumptions (optional)

Significance of the Study

Justification (or Rationale) of the Study

Theoretical/Conceptual Framework

Scope

Limitations

Definition of Terms

2. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Research Design

Population and Sampling Techniques

Research Instruments

Data Gathering Procedures

Statistical Treatment of Data

Ethical Considerations

REFERENCES

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 APPENDICES

Questionnaires/Interview Schedule/Observation Checklist

Timetable and Financial Budget for Research

INTRODUCTION

Background of the Study

1. This section is the introductory part of your proposal and should provide sufficient

information about the background and key ideas/concepts contained in the problem

statement.

2. The introduction may be viewed as a "funnel" with the last paragraph being the small end

of the funnel and leading the reader logically to the problem statement.

Statement of the Problem

Always state the problem in a complete grammatical declarative statement with as great an

economy of words as possible. Absolute honesty and integrity is assumed in every statement

that a scholar makes. Say precisely what you mean.

1. There is no one standard way to state a problem; generally the simple way is the best

way.

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 2. As a general rule, the problem statement should express a relationship between two or

more variables or differences between/among groups.

3. Ensure that the problem statement implies the possibility of testing (the variables must be

measurable).

4. Each word in the statement should be meaningful, definitive, and clear; that is, avoid

verbage and meaningless words/phrases.

5. After writing the statement, check it for common errors: Is it too broad? Is it conditional?

Does it deal with "how" rather than "what"? If a broad question or declarative statement

is used, does it foreshadow the specific research questions to be answered or hypotheses

to be tested? Is it in "cause-effect" form? If so, will the planned design/procedures

provide a cause-effect answer?

Every problem can be broken down into smaller discrete units, the sub-problems which are

stated in a form of questions. Divide and conquer!

Research Questions (or Objectives)

1. Within each research question (sub-problem), interpretation of the data must be apparent.

2. The sub-problems must add up to the totality of the problem. See to it that:

a. Nothing in excess of the coverage of the main problem is included.

b. You have no omission, so that all significant areas of the main problem are

covered by the several sub-problems.

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There are two types of research questions: descriptive research questions and inferential

research questions. The descriptive research questions merely describe or summarize data,

without trying to generalize to a larger population of individuals, and are hypothesis-free. These

questions are answered by analyzing data using descriptive statistics such as frequencies,

percentages, means and standard deviations. The inferential research questions are either

difference research questions or associational research questions. The difference research

questions compare scores (on the dependent variable) of two or more different groups, each of

which is composed of individuals with one of the values or levels on the independent variable.

This type of question attempts to demonstrate that groups are not the same on the dependent

variable. The associational research questions relate two or more variables. This approach

involves an attempt to see how two or more variables co-vary (e.g., higher values on one variable

correspond to higher, or lower, values on another variable for the same persons) or how one or

more variables enables one to predict another variable. The inferential research questions require

hypotheses and are answered by analyzing data using inferential statistics.

Research questions should guide your:

1. formulation of a research plan or proposal

2. literature search

3. decisions about the kind of research design to employ

4. decisions about what data to collect and from whom

5. analysis of your data

6. writing up of your project

7. direction (i.e. stop you from going off in unnecessary directions and tangents)

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Research questions should:

1. be clear. They must be understandable to you and to others.

2. be researchable. They should be capable of development into a research design, so that

data may be collected in relation to them. This means that extremely abstract terms are

unlikely to be suitable.

3. connect with established theory and research. This means that there should be a literature

on which you can draw to help illuminate how your research questions should be

approached. Even if you find a topic that has been scarcely addressed by social scientists,

it is unlikely that there will be no relevant literature (for example, on related or parallel

topics). Making connections with theory and research will also allow you to show how

your research has made a contribution to knowledge and understanding.

4. be linked to each other. Unrelated research questions are unlikely to be acceptable, since

you should be developing an argument in your dissertation. You could not very readily

construct a single argument in relation to unrelated research questions.

5. have potential for making a contribution to knowledge. They should at the very least hold

out the prospect of being able to make a contribution-however small-to the topic.

6. be neither too broad nor too narrow. The research questions should be neither too large

(so that you would need a massive grant to study them) nor too small (so that you cannot

make a reasonably significant contribution to your area of study).

Remember that:

1. we cannot answer all the research questions that occur to us

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 2. we therefore have to select from the possible research questions at which we arrive

3. we should be guided by the principle that the research questions we choose should be

related to one another

If you are stuck about how to formulate research questions (or indeed other phases of your

research), it is always a good idea to look at journal articles, research monographs or past

dissertations to see how other researchers have formulated them. Also, look at:

Marx's sources of research questions

 Intellectual puzzles and contradictions

 The existing literature

 Replication

 Structures and functions

 Opposition

 Social problems

 The counter-intuitive

 Deviant cases and atypical events

 New methods and theories

 Social and technical developments and trends

 Personal experience

 Sponsors and teachers

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Relation to research areas/topics/ideas/problems/questions

These should reflect the sources from which your interest is derived e.g.:

a. an area or topic in which you have an interest

b. ideas or issues which you wish to explore in detail

c. problems detected and needing a solution in practical or theoretical terms

d. questions arising from experience, reading the literature, etc.

e. you should clearly state the nature of the problem etc. and its known or estimated

extent

f. if possible you should locate your questions within the context within which it is

to be studied

Hypotheses

A hypothesis is a testable statement of a potential relationship between two or more variables or

a potential difference between two or more groups. These are formulated after a thorough

review of the literature.

Hypotheses may be stated in one of two forms: alternative and null. The alternative hypothesis

is the "difference" or “relationship” form of stating the hypothesis in terms of the operations

necessary to test it. The null hypothesis is the "no difference" or “no relationship” form of the

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hypothesis stated in the specific operational terms required to test it. Quantitative research

requires the statement of the null hypothesis for every inferential research question and for the

purpose of inferential statistical testing.

Characteristics of a hypothesis:

1. It should be reasonable. It should be stated in definite terms: cause and effect,

correlational or measure of difference.

2. It should be testable.

3. It should follow the findings of previous studies.

Research hypothesis – as established in the literature.

Null hypothesis – testable hypothesis.

Functions of a hypothesis:

1. A hypothesis introduces the researcher’s thinking at the start of the study.

2. The hypothesis structures the next stages or procedures of the study.

3. The hypothesis helps the researcher provide the format for the presentation, analysis and

interpretation of data in the thesis.

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The hypotheses are not necessary unless the research is intended to study the applicability of

some theory and in the absence of any theory, to support the inferential questions. That is, when

the research questions are stated where the intent of the research is to determine differences

and/or relationships. If "theory-derived" hypotheses are stated, the reader should be provided an

exposition of the theory from which the hypotheses were derived.

There should be a logical and clear relationship between each of the stated hypotheses, the

problem statement, and the procedures and methods. That is, the reader should be able to discern

quickly the logical progression from one of these proposal elements to the other.

Assumptions

1. Assumptions are what the researcher takes for granted or accepts for purposes of

conducting the study. To the extent that the assumptions are open to questions, the results

of the study are subject to challenge. Thus, the student should ensure that he/she

understands the assumptions basic to the proposed research.

2. Many assumptions are self-evident (e.g., where a questionnaire is used in a survey it is

assumed the respondents can read it), or dealt with elsewhere in the proposal. If the basic

assumptions being made are not self-evident or made clear in some other part of the

proposal, they should be stated in the assumptions section.

3. Some assumptions made in business research are value-laden and not subject to

validation by the research process; however, many assumptions are subject to such

validation. If appropriate, evidence in support of the assumptions being made should be

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 offered. Such support is often presented in the procedures and methods section and/or the

review of literature.

4. Use of an introductory sentence and a listing is often appropriate or, in some instances,

paragraph form may improve readability.

Significance of the Study

1. There are at least four interrelated lines of argument that may be used to establish the

significance of a study. All arguments are made in terms of the potential usefulness of the

results for various audiences. First, the study may advance knowledge in the applicable

field of study; that is, it revises or creates new knowledge (e.g., the results will extend

what is known about the applicability of a theory, the results are widely generalizable).

Second, it may contribute to the solution of a practical problem faced by managers.

Third, it may demonstrate a novel use of a procedure/technique. Fourth, it is part of a

programmatic research effort; that is, when the results of the study are considered in

relation to other concurrent and/or sequential studies there may be theoretical and/or

practical applications of major proportions. Each line of argument that is applicable

should be pursued.

2. Ensure that there is a clear demonstration that the study will be more than a counting or

clerical activity. That is, show that the study will be more than reporting characteristics,

quantities, opinions, and so on.

3. Organize carefully the case for the significance of the study. For example, in the opening

paragraph state in brief sentences or phrases the reasons why the study should be

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 conducted, provide detail for each reason in the next several paragraphs, and close with a

crisp summary statement.

Justification (or Rationale) of the Study

This section is intended to answer the questions about "why" this particular study is being

proposed in relation to other work completed in the field. Assuming a student is seeking a

favorable judgment from his/her faculty committee and other interested readers, this part of the

proposal should be developed with great care. It is a statement of why the particular variables or

treatments of interest in this study have been chosen over competing alternatives. Support the

arguments presented with reference to other research and/or authoritative opinion that may be

described in detail elsewhere in the proposal (e.g., in the review of literature).

Theoretical/Conceptual Framework

The “Theoretical/Conceptual Framework” justifies the rationale behind the investigation. It gives

the reason for searching for new data and for analyzing, interpreting and synthesizing these data.

The framework also cites the theory(ies) on which the study is premised in order to establish the

relationship among the variables in the study.

Some disciplines require the presentation of a paradigm in order to explain how the theory (ies)

is/are going to be operationalized in the study. In this discussion, pertinent concepts or new ideas

are cited for clarification.

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In many fields, theories and propositions about a concept or concepts and relationship have been

formulated. In such fields, the researcher may be interested in ascertaining or testing a particular

theory or frameworks. The theoretical framework explains how the study in question is related

to such theory. A theoretical framework is generalization about a phenomenon based on some

amount of evidence and continued verification. A theory develops from studies over a period of

time which tend to show that the described phenomenon is true. The theoretical framework

shapes the justification of the research problem in order to identify the key concepts that are used

in the study for better understanding of the role of theory in research. An investigation is

required to formulate existing theories which link the study because theories are useful devices

on interpreting, criticizing and unifying established scientific laws and facts that guide the

discovery of new generalizations.

A conceptual framework is that part of research related to but different from the theoretical

framework. It is the detailed presentation of the variables to be observed in the current study, the

concepts defined in a way the researcher wants. The constructs used in the conceptual

framework are derived from the theoretical framework and linked with the current study and

followed by a paradigm that links the variables by giving the direction of how the researcher will

operationalize the variables by relationships or comparison.

Some studies may use either the theoretical framework or the conceptual framework only and

others may use both depending on the nature of the study.

Scope and Limitations

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Use of introductory sentences and listings are often appropriate or, in some instances, paragraph

form may improve readability.

Scope

What the researcher intends to do is stated in the problem; what the researcher is not going to do

is stated in the delimitation or scope. Delimitation is narrowing down the topic.

Scope or delimitations define the parameters of the investigation. The scope will frequently deal

with such items as variables considered, population/sample, treatment(s), setting, and

instrumentation to emphasize that the study has external validity. External validity deals with

the extent to which the results of a study can be generalized to different subjects, settings,

experimenters, and so on. However, there are many threats to external validity which cause the

results of a study to be specific to some limited group of people and/or set of conditions. These

threats are (a) those dealing with generalizations to populations (What population of subjects can

be expected to behave in the same way as did the sample subjects?), and (b) those dealing with

the "environment" of the study (Under what conditions, i.e., settings, treatments, experimenters,

dependent variables, and so on, can the same results be expected?).

Limitations

The limitations set forth reservations, qualifications, or weaknesses inherent in the design.

Generally, these will reflect anticipated inadequacies in regard to internal validity of results. A

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study has internal validity if the confounding variables have been converted to either controlled

or randomized variables and if the research is designed in such a way that it is possible to

estimate the size of the random variation so that the "experimental" variation may be compared

to it for significance. The goal is to recognize inherent threats to internal validity in the study

plan.

Definition of Terms

This is a section of the report in which definitions are given for words, acronyms, abbreviations,

names, labels, and the like that are central to the study.

1. conceptual or constitutive – given in dictionaries; academic or universal meaning

attributed to a word or group of words.

2. operational or functional – stated the way the concept is measured in the investigation.

In designing the study or experiment, operational definitions of all relevant variables must be

transformed into a specific methodology and a specific set of measuring devices or techniques.

1. Unless there is a standard, accepted meaning (e.g., random sample), define any technical

term that is essential to reader understanding of the problem statement, hypotheses, and

procedures and methods of analysis. Do not define terms used in general academic

speech that retain their meaning in this study; do not define terms found in general

textbooks in the field.

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 2. Often both constitutive and operational definitions will be needed. A constitutive

definition defines a construct with other constructs(e.g., intelligence is the ability to think

abstractly). An operational definition specifies the activities or means necessary to

observe or measure the construct (e.g., intelligence as used for the study will be the score

achieved on the XYZ Mental Abilities Test).

3. Even though the key terms may be defined as they are introduced, it is expected that a

"definitions" section with the key terms alphabetized and identified as paragraph side

headings.

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

As soon as you have chosen a topic for your thesis, you should look for a theory linking your

topic to an available body of knowledge.

Theory is a set of interrelated constructs (concepts), definitions, and proposition that presents a

systematic view of phenomena by specifying relations among variables, with the purpose of

explaining and predicting the phenomena.

Function of the Review of Literature: to look again (re-view) at the literature (the reports of

what others have done) in a related area, an area not necessarily identical with but collateral to

your own area of study.

Main Purpose of the Review: to assist you in attacking your problem for research.

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 When you know what others have done, you are better prepared to attack the problem

you have chosen to investigate with deeper insight and more complete knowledge.

Purposes of the Review

1. Discovering important variables

 Research problem formulation – to select variables to study that are within the

scope of your interests and resources and that will extend the field in meaningful

ways.

 The literature often provides helpful ideas about defining and operationalizing key

variables.

2. Distinguishing what has been done from what needs to be done

Many studies conclude with a section on suggestions for further research.

3. Synthesizing and gaining perspective

The literature uncovers the status of work in a field in terms of conclusions and potential

hypotheses.

4. Determining and supporting meanings and relationships

To do a meaningful study, prior relationships between variables in the chosen area must

be explored, examined, and reviewed in order to build both a context and a case for a

subsequent investigation that has potential merit and applicability.

5. Establishing the context of a problem

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 The context of a problem is the frame of reference orienting the reader to the area in

which the problem is found and justifying or explaining why the problem is, in fact, a

problem.

6. Establishing the significance and justification of a problem

The statement of a problem should ordinarily be enhanced by a theoretical justification,

an applied justification, or both. The researcher may use literature citations in support of

the justification.

Benefits of the Review

1. It can reveal investigations similar to your own and it can show you how the collateral

researchers handled these situations.

2. It can suggest a method of dealing with a problematic situation that may also suggest

avenues of approach to the solution of similar difficulties you may be facing.

3. It can reveal to you sources of data that you may not have known existed.

4. It can introduce you to significant research personalities of whose research efforts and

collateral writings you may have had no knowledge.

5. It can help you to se your own study in historical and associational perspective and in

relation to earlier and more primitive attacks on the same problem.

6. It can provide you with new ideas and approaches that may not have occurred to you.

7. It can assist you in evaluating your own research efforts by comparing them with related

efforts done by others.

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How to begin a search for related literature

1. Go to the indexes and abstracts.

2. Data base access to the literature (computer)

3. The treasury of government publications

4. Go to the library armed with data gathering tools.

5. Make as many copies of the bibliographic item as necessary.

6. Be systematic and thorough.

7. Relate your references to your problem.

Reading the Existing Literature

1. Start with references in bibliographies from books and journal articles and move on to

using online sources for your literature review

2. In some areas of research, there are very many references

a. try to identify the major ones and work outwards from there

3. Take good notes, including the details of the material you read

a. it is infuriating to find that you forgot to record the volume number of an article

you need to include in your Reference section

4. You will be able to revise and refine your research questions in the process of reviewing

the literature

5. A competent critical review of the literature can affirm your credibility as someone who

is knowledgeable in your chosen area

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Critical Reading Skills

1. Your literature review should be critical rather than merely descriptive, so it is worth

recording relevant critical points as you take notes

2. Developing a critical approach is not necessarily one of simply criticizing the work of

others

3. It entails moving beyond mere description and asking questions about the significance of

the work:

a. How does the item relate to others you have read?

b. Are there any apparent strengths and deficiencies - perhaps in terms of

methodology or in terms of the credibility of the conclusions drawn?

c. What theoretical ideas have influenced the item?

Issues to Identify in the Existing Literature

1. What is already known about this area?

2. What concepts and theories are relevant to this area?

3. What research methods and research strategies have been employed in studying this area?

4. Are there any significant controversies?

5. Are there any inconsistencies in findings relating to this area?

6. Are there any unanswered research questions in this area?

How to Write the Section on the Related Literature

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 1. Get the proper psychological orientation.

2. Have a plan. Begin with the classic studies. Begin your discussion from a

comprehensive perspective, broad end first. Then you can deal with more and more

specific or more localized studies that focus more and more on your specific problem.

3. Emphasize relatedness. Point out precisely what the relationship is.

4. Review the literature, don’t reproduce it.

a. Present your own discussion.

b. Paraphrase.

c. Use short, direct quotations, if necessary.

d. Long quotations are a last resort. Use them only for a very good reason.

5. Summarize what you have said. Write a synthesis of related literature at the end of the

discussion.

Important points to consider:

1. The review provides the researcher and the reader an understanding of how the problem

is related to previously-completed research in the area and the applicable theoretical

constructs, the researcher assistance in stating and delimiting the problem, the researcher

as basis for making decisions about procedures and methods, and, after the study is

completed, a frame of reference for the researcher and the readers to interpret the results.

In view of these functions, it is obvious that an adequate review is basic to answering the

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 "what", "why", and "how" questions. As such, even though it may not be "written up",

the student should have a thorough understanding of the relevant research and

authoritative opinion before he/she begins to write his/her proposal.

2. Avoid such statements as "no studies relating directly to the study proposed were found".

Such statements are often taken to mean that the student was not thorough in his/her

literature search or that the topic has not been considered worthy by others in the field.

3. Assuming the review to be selective, have a specific reason(s) for each previous study or

expression of opinion included (e.g., historical significance, relevant theoretical

construct, applicable finding/conclusion, germane procedure/method of analysis,

representative of a different viewpoint) and write about the study/opinion in terms of the

reason(s) for its inclusion.

4. Decide on the basic structure of the review (e.g., by topic, by method, by time periods)

and outline the review before beginning to write.

5. Include an introductory paragraph(s) stating what is included in the review and how it is

organized and presented. As a general rule, the introduction is in the present tense and the

body of the review in the past or present perfect tense.

6. If two or more studies or expressions of opinion are essentially alike in terms of the

reason for their inclusion, use the most recent or prominent and note the existence of the

other(s).

7. Make extensive use of transition words, phrases, and sentences to maintain the flow of

thought and watch the use of adjectives and adverbs (e.g., "Smith (1980) completed a

most interesting study...").

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 8. Works that are generally or peripherally relevant should not be described in detail. Those

studies most directly related to the current investigation should be described more fully;

i.e., sample sizes, instruments, methods of analyses, etc.

9. End the review with a 1-2 page summary and/or critique in which the total review is

synthesized and/or evaluated in relation to the problem under consideration.

10. Use primary sources and ensure that the text citations and reference list are complete and

congruent.

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