Editorial

The International Conference is being organized by The Institution of Engineers (India) and
hosted by it’s Karnataka State Centre in association with State Agricultural, Horticultural,
Veterinary and Animal & Fisheries Sciences Universities of Karnataka and in collaboration with
Industries, Financial Institutions Government and Non-Government Organizations to deliberate
issues and challenges and to showcase engineering and technological innovations in connection
with the Global Food Security.

The Institution of Engineers (India)-IEI, is a unique professional body of engineers, the architects
of engineering professionalism in the country and it was establishedin the year 1920 with its
headquarters at Kolkata, India. Royal Charter incorporated IEI in 1935-the only professional body
in India to have been bestowed upon this honour. IEI function amongst professional engineers,
academicians and researchers and provides a vast array of technical, professional and
supporting services to government, industry, academicians and to all the engineering fraternity
through its 122 Centresspread across the country and five overseas Chapters established at
Bahrain, Abu Dhabi, Dubai, Kuwait and Qatar. At the national front, IEI has joined hands with
several repute engineering professional organizations, namely, Consulting Engineers
Association of India (CEAI), World Energy Council-Indian Member Committee (WEC-IMC),
Institute of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineers (IETE), Computer Society of India
(CSI), Centre for Innovations in Public System (CIPS) and Indian Society for Technical Education
(ISTE). IEI is the national member of several world bodies namely, the World Federation of
Engineering Organization (WFEO), Federation International du Baton (FIB), Federation of
Engineering Institutions of South and Central Asia (FEISCA), Federation of Engineering
Institutions of Asia and the Pacific (FEIAP) and Commonwealth Engineers Council (CEC)
fostering close relation with these bodies through active participation in their meetings
workshops, seminars and conferences all over the world. IEI has bilateral agreements with as
many as 32 Engineering Institutions of neighboring countries, namely, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh,
Nepal and Pakistan. The Institution of Engineers (India) is the full member of the erstwhile
Engineers Mobility Forum (EMF) now known as “ International Professional Engineers
Agreements (IPEA)” which is one of the six International Agreements of the International
Engineering Alliance (IEA) by virtue of which IEI is authorized to create and maintain the India
Section of the Register of International Professional Engineers-Int.PE(India).

The Institution of Engineers (India) will be completing 100 years of its existence by 2020 which
is marked by its glorious contribution to nationdevelopment. At this momentous occasion IEI is
organizing five yearlong centenary celebrations commencing from 2015. The Karnataka State
Centre of the Institution of Engineers (India), under the ages of Agricultural Engineering Division
Board of IEI is organizing International Conference on “ Role of Agricultural Engineering towards
Global Food Security” during 11 to 13 th April, 2019 at Bengaluru as apart of Centenary
Celebrations of IEI.
The main impetus behind organizing this International Conference is cognizant of the
prediction of the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO)United Nations global population
8.0 and 9.6 billion by 2025 and 2050 respectively. In order to keep pace, global food production
must increase to 70 % by 2050. Though many of the resources needed for sustainable food
security already stretched, the food security challenges are huge. At the same time climate
change is already negatively impacting on agricultural production globally and locally. Food
security has always been very crucial issue to human civilization through the ages.
Agricultural Engineering is an important and broadest discipline as it witnesses its role at each
and every unit operation of Agriculture and Allied sectors for innovation and delivery of solutions
to a wide range of food security challenges. Developments in precision are already supplying
considerable insights into the variability of current production systems and the scope for more
precise smartly controlled input resources through Mechanization, Automation, Artificial
Intelligence (AI) and Internet of Things (IoT) to deliver benefits in increased productivity and
reduced resources with less environmental impacts. Existing as well as envisaged knowledge
and technologies inpost harvestengineering, food processing, environmental and management
of commodities have the potential for better conversion of agricultural raw materials to food,
feed, fibre, energy -value addition and reduction in wastage of food as well as utilization of
agri-byproducts with possible impact on economic returns and food security.
The current population in India is over 1.3 billion and will increase to 1.5 billion by 2030. The
challenge not just to produce more and more food but also with nutritional security for ever
growing population is becoming increasingly hard for a country of its size and economic growth
with available per capita resources.Food security is a complex issue encompassed with different
factors. More production of food will not satisfy the societies needs. Food storage and
preservation, logistics, distribution and delivery effectively and efficiently minimizing the
wastage and spoilage due to biotic and abiotic stress under change climate is yet another
challenge. Accessto foods and affordability of foodstuffs are also very important issues. To
provide a common-platform and to conduct interactive sessions among the National and
International Experts on the issues and challenges of global food security and solutions, three
day International Conference on “Role of Agricultural Engineering towards Global Food
Security” is being organized at The Institution of Engineers (India), Bengaluru, during 11 to
13th April, 2019. The main broad theme area covered in this three dayconference are Farm
Automation, Natural Resource Management, Food Process Engineering and Sustainability and
Strategies in Marketing.
The Conference has received over 150 research work abstracts comprising invited lead papers
and research papers across the country and overseas from the engineers, technologists,
scientists and research scholars working in reputed institutions, Industries and Universities.
The targeted delegates and audience comprising of Scientists, Engineers,
Academicians,Researchers, Students and Professionals from Agricultural Engineering &
Technology,Dairy Engineering, Agricultural Sciences, Horticultural Sciences, Animal
Husbandry, Fisheries Sciences, Food Industries, Financial Institutions, and Manufacturers ofFarm
Tractors, Implements, Equipment, Tools, Machines, Sensors, Instruments, Dairy&Food
Processing Equipment, Food Packaging, and Irrigation Systems and other farminputs.
The International Conference entitled on “Role of Agricultural Engineeringtowards Global Food
Security” Organized at the Karnataka State Centre of the Institution of Engineers (India),
Bengaluru during 11-13 April, 2019, would help all the stakeholders to deliberate issues
&challenges and to showcase engineering and technological innovations in connectionwith the
Global Food Security on common platform.

Dr. M. Chowde Gowda

Conference Coordinator
 Contents
Farm related injuries and fatalities in central india 01
Abhijit Khadatkar and R.R. Potdar

A noble study on the effects of infrared oven on the physical properties of chhanapodo 07
Abhilasha P. Afisha and Er. F. Magdaline Eljeeva Emerald

Development of casein composite films reinforced with cellulose from

coconut shell powder 18
Adarsh M. Kalla, F. Magdaline Eljeeva Emerald, Heartwin A. Pushpadass
M.H. Sathish Kumar and B. Surendra Nath

Robotic harvesters for strawberry and apple 23

Aman Mahore H.L. Kushwaha, Adarsh Kumar, K.P. Singh

Design and Optimization of Picker Wheel Type Planting Mechanism for

Tuberose and Gladiolus Corms in the Laboratory Condition 39
T.M. Ananda Kumar and T.P. Singh

Runoff distribution decision planning using Land Resource Inventory and Hydrological
parameters in Adagur Watershed of Tumkur District of Karnataka 48
6
H.G. Ashoka, N.K. Rajesh Kumar, K.S. Rajashekarappa, S. Shivaraj, Aruna K.T. and T. Chikaramappa

Assessment of climate change impact on maize (zea mays l.) in semi-arid

alfisol of southern Telangana 55
Barikara Umesha, K.S Reddy, B.S. Polisgowdar, V. Maruthi, M.S. Ayyanagoudar and U. Satishkumar

Application of machine vision system for seed planter calibration 64

Beerge Ramesh and M. Veerangouda

Innovations in refrigeration system for improving performance of milk chilling

system by applying power saving methods 69
Chitranayak, Shubham Thakare, PS Minz and JK Dabas

Application of nanotechnology in food processing and packaging 73

Dr. Dattatreya M. Kadam

Performance evaluation of weeder by number of blades per flange in maize crop 81

Devojee B., S.S. Meena, A.K. Sharma

Effect of superheated steam and microwavetreatment on drying kinetics and

quality of beetroot (beta valgaris L.) chips 88
Digia L.G., Sandhya R. Shewale and H. Umesh Hebbar

Evaluating design parameters for breakthrough curve analysis and kinetics modeling
of fixed bed column adsorption of organic pollutants using czno nano based
adsorbent coated sand filter bed for dairy industrial effluent treatment 100
Dinesha B.L., Sharanagouda Hiregoudar, Udaykumar Nidoni, Ramappa, K.T.,
Anilkumar Dandekar and Ravi M.V.

Influence of inlet air temperature of spray dryer on the encapsulation of probiotics 107
Divyasree Arepally, Sudharshan Reddy Ravula adn Tridib Kumar Goswami

Development of power operated sugarcane detrasher 113

R. Thiyagarajan, G.C. Jayashree and V.M Duraisamy
Microcontroller based planter-cum-site specific precision herbicide applicator 117
G. Anitha, A. Ashok Kumar, A. Srinivasa Rao and Ch. Someswara Rao

Studies on the effect of throat length and length at outlet on the operational
performance of venturi aerators 125
Gargi Sarma, F. Krishma Singh and Dr. Sudipto Sarkar

Energy analysis of different cucumber varieties in protected cultivation under

humid tropic condition of west coast India 137
Mathala Juliet Gupta, Paramesha V., Thangam M. and Arunachalam V.

Application of GC-MS analysis for investigating presence of an antioxidant

components in Justicia adhatoda leaf extract 143
Hanumantharaju K.N., Thangavel K. and Poornima D.S.

Development of a continuous popping and puffing machine 146

Hrishikesh A. Tavanandi, Amit K. Das, K. Venkateshmurthy and KSMS Raghavarao

Microencapsulation of bixin pigment from annatto (bixao rellana L.) 156

M. Balakrishnan, S. Gayathri and K. Thangavel

Assessment of landslides in Kodagu district using remote sensing and GIS technique 161
Ravikumar D., Shoba S., Devagiri G.M. and Babu K.

Development and evaluation of solar photovoltaic operated paddy winnower 164

M.H. Jagadale, A.G. Mohod, Y.P. Khandetod and D.S. Thorat

Development and evaluation of tractor operated onion seed drill 172

Sharanappa Jangandi, Rajashekhar D. Barker and Nageshkumar T.

Enabling food security through consumption of millets rather than carbohydrate foods 176
Jayanth D.R. and Rajesh Kumar N.K.

Spray deposition studies in cotton 193

Jayashree G.C., Anantha Krishnan D. and R. Thiyagarajan

Optimization of process parameters of spray drying for production of

pineapple juice powder 199
Abhilasha K.R., Suresha B., Babu Rajaram Mohan Ray, Mohith Kumar G.V. and Ramachandra M.

Establishment of agro- processing industries in view of startup India-stand up India 207

Dattatreya M. Kadam, P.G. Patil, P.S. Deshmukh and V.G. Arude

“Lulc and change detection and its impacts on forest ecosystem in Yellapur taluka using
geospatial techniques” 214
Arjun.G. Koppad and Malini P.J

Biosynthesis of silver nanoparticles using neem leaves (azadirachta indica)

and assessment of its antibacterial activity 225
Madke Megharaj Mahadev. Sharanagouda Hiregoudar. Udaykumar Nidoni, Nagaraj Naik and
P.F. Mathad

Physico-chemical properties of donkey milk 232

Madhusudan Nayak, C., Ramachandra, C. T., Udaykumar Nidoni, Sharanagouda Hiregoudar
Nagraj Naik and Jagjivan Ram
Effect of Crop-Machine Parameters on Energy Consumption of a Garlic Peeling Machine 239
M. Manjunatha and B.A. Anand

Performance Evaluation of Composite Peeler cum Juice Extractor for Kinnow

and Sweet Orange 244
Manoj Kumar Mahawar, K irti Jalgaonkar and Bibwe Bhushan

Soil moisture and soil temperature variation in maize (zea mays L.) as
influenced by different organic mulches and green manuring in alfisols of
eastern dry zone of Karnataka 253
Md. Majeed Pasha, K.S. Rajashekarappa, T. Chikkaramappa, K. Devaraja and Thimmegowda M.N.

Effect of packaging materials on shelf life of mango processed food products 259
Mohithkumar G.V., Chowde Gowda M., Kumargoud V. and Shankar M.

Subsurface drip irrigation anovel technology for enhancing productivity, profitability and water
use efficiency in sugarcane under cauvery command areas of Karnataka 265
Nagaraju, Ningaraju G.K., Ramachandra C., Thimmegowda P., Prakash P. and Anusha S.

Positive seed knocking device assisted vertical plate seed meter for
planting pea seeds - a comparative performance 270
P.T. Sharma and K.N. Dewangan

Study on Hydraulic Performance of Drip Irrigation System under Field Condition 275
Ajay Kumar H.P. and H.G Ashoka

Assessment of Bio Energy Technologies in Tumkur District of Karnataka State 283

Babu R.M. Ray, V. Kumargouda, G.V. Mohith Kumar and K.N. Hanumantharaju

Optimization of design and operational parameters of automatic sowing unit

for protrays used in vegetable nursery 288
Carolin Rathinakumar A. and Senthil Kumaran G.

Innovations in some fibre extraction technologies & their agri-business perspectives 295
L.K. Nayak and A.N. Roy

Performance Study of Traditional Sugarcane Crushers used in Cauvery Command area in

Karnataka 303
Prakruthi N Raj Gangadkar and M. Chowde Gowda

Technical and Institutional Barriers for Dissemination of Biogas Technology in

Urban Areas 314
Praveen P. and Priyanka U.

Enzymatic Saccharification of Alkali Pretreated Cotton Stalks for

Fermentable Sugar Production 317
Premkumari M., Veerangouda, V ijayakumar Palled and Anantachar M.

Development of Pre-Emergence Herbicide Strip Application System for

Sowing/Planting Devices 325
Potdar R.R., Tiwari P.S. and Dushyant Singh

Effect of Different Organic Mulches and in-situ Green Manuring on

Soil Chemical, Biological Properties and Weed Dynamics in Maize 333
Rajashekarappa K.S., Basavarajappa B.E., Girijesh G.K. and Somashekar K.S.

Development of Crop Water Production function for Yield and Water use
Efficiency Prediction of Drip Irrigated Okra in Konkan Region of Maharashtra 339
R.T. Thokal, P.B. Sanap, P.M. Ingle and T.N. Thorat
Optimum utilization of natural resources using chance constrained Goal programming
model to achieve food production target of Upper Krishna Project (Karnataka) 349
N.K. Rajeshkumar and P. Balakrishnan

Techniques to elevate the rate of Mass Transfer during Osmotic Dehydration of

Fruits and Vegetables 356
V. Ramya and N.K. Jain

Augmenting the heat transport competency of aqua-glycol phase change materials

using nanoparticle for dairy cold chain 362
Ravi Prakash, Menon Rekha Ravindra, M. Manjunatha and Mahesh Kumar G.

Scope for Entrepreneurship Development at Banana growing catchment through

Package of equipment for rope making from outer Sheath of Banana pseudostem 366
Ravindra Naik, SJK Annamalai and K.N. Shiva

Biodegradable Films from Modified Cassava Starch-Nano Clay Composites 377

Sajeev M.S., Jyothi A.N. and T. Krishnakumar

A study on energy use pattern and performance of biogas plants in Karnataka 384
Sampath Kumar D.V., V iresh Kumargouda, Babu R.M. Ray and G.V. Mohith Kumar

Notion Robotics Lab Brings AI and Disruptive Technology into Agriculture to

Enhance Food Production and Secure Distribution in India 390
Sandhya Rao and Sreemon Chowdhury

Adoption and Development of Tractor Operated Cassava Harvester cum Lifter 401
Dr. Senthilkumar and Dr S.J.K. Annamalai

Rural Women Empowerment through processing and value addition of Minor Millets 408
D. Shashikala Bai, K. Amaresh Kumar, G. Chaithra, and Sagar S. Pujar

Physical Properties of Foxtail Millet (Setariaitalica L): Variety- HMT100-1 414

D. Shashikala Bai, K. Amaresh Kumar, Sagar S. Pujar and Chaithra G.

Climate change risk management through Agricultural Mechanization 418

Shiddanagouda Yadachi

Biosynthesis of Silver Nanoparticles using azaedirachtaindica and its

Antimicrobial Activity 424
Smitha P.M., Sharanagouda Hiregouda*, V ijay Kumar, V idya and Shreelakshmi

Review Paper on Sugarcane Ethanol as an Anticipating Biofuel for IC Engines 431

Srikar G. Kulkarni and M.C. Navindgi

Effect of Fine Grinding on the extraction efficiency and quality of Curcumin 438
Subba Rao K.V., Laishram Satyabanta and T.K. Goswami

Numerical Modelling of Heat and Mass Transfer duringBread Baking

considering Porous Media 448
Ravula Sudharshan Reddy, Divyasree Arepally and A.K. Datta

Development and Modification of a Tractor Mounted Hydraulic Operated Ladder 452

R. Thiyagarajan and S. Tajuddin

Development and performance evaluation of manually operated

drumstick harvester for dryland horticulture 464
P.A. Turbatmath, R.V. Sanglikar, M.M. Pacharne, S.M. Nalawade

Design of Pokkali Paddy Harvester 470

Venkata Reddy H.K. and Jayan P.R.
Application of Sensors in Combine Harvester for Yield Monitoring and Mapping 484
Venkata Reddy H.K., Basavaraj and Anand B.A

Study of the Design Parameters of a Floating Paddy Harvester 493

Venkata Reddy H.K., Jayan P.R. and Anand B.A.

Utilization of Food processing Waste for Energy Generation 496

V iresh Kumargouda, Babu R.M. Ray, G.V. Mohith Kumar and Hanumantharaju K.N.

Determination of some Physical Properties of Plum (cv. Kala Amritsari) Fruits 500
V ivek Kamat, Manoj Kumar Mahawar, K irti Jalgaonkar and Jay Harendrasinh Sisodhiya

Modeling of Soil Erosion and Runoff events in Rainfed Areas of Tamil Nadu
using Artificial Neural Network 506
V ivek S. Devaranavadagi and S.S. Shirahatti

Modeling of Soil Erosion and Runoff events in Rainfed Areas of Tamil Nadu
using Artificial Neural Network 512
V ivek S. Devaranavadagi and S.S. Shirahatti

Wireless Underground Sensor Networks (WUSN) based Smart Agriculture

Monitoring System using Internet of Things 520
B. Swapna, S.Manivannan and M. Kamalahasan

Skill Development in Agriculture and Food Industry 526

Dr. C.K.B. Nair
TECHNICAL VOLUME
 Farm related injuries and fatalities in central india
Abhijit Khadatkar and R.R. Potdar
1
Scientists, ICAR-Central Institute of Agricultural Engineering, Nabibagh, Bhopal, MP
Email: abhijitnu2@gmail.com
Abstract : The purpose of the study was to know the nature, magnitude, causes and economic
impact of agricultural accidents occurred during 2012-13 in Madhya Pradesh, India. The study was
carried out in 360 villages in nine districts of Madhya Pradesh namely Datia, Shivpuri, Balaghat,
Barwani, Indore, Jhabua, Narshigpur, Satna and Bhopal. In these villages, a total of 92,793
agricultural workers participated and 21 farm related accidents were reported during survey of
agricultural acciedent using questionnaire-based data collection. The results showed that out of total
agricultural accidents only 14.3% were fatal and 85.7% non-fatal in nature. The agricultural accident
incident rate in Madhya Pradesh was found to be 0.23/1000 agricultural worker/year and 0.2/1000
agricultural machines/year. Mapping down the cause and taking preventive measure to reduce the
losses are of important concern.
Keywords: Agricultural Accidents, Risk Eestimates, Injuries, Farm Machinery, Economic Loss
Introduction: In India, agricultural workers constitute as one of the important sources of farm
power. Besides this they also operate animal drawn equipment, tractors, power tillers, self-
propelled and power operated machines. Traditional agriculture used mainly human and animal as a
power sources. However, due to advent of mechanization, mechanical and electrical powered
machines are being used extensively for various operations. The population of tractors and power
tillers has crossed the 6 and 1.5 million marks. According to Census of India (2011), the total
population of India was 1210.2 million, out of which the size of rural population was 833.1 million
(68.8%). Table 1 gives the population dynamics of Indian agricultural workers which shows that by
2020 the population of agricultural workers in the country will be about 242 million of which 50%
will be the female workers. Due to the significant role of farm workers and their involvement in large
numbers in shaping country’s agriculture, due attention needs to be given to their safety and
occupational health issues in order to have higher productivity, less accidents and minimum
occupational health problems. Also, anthopometric body dimension should should be used in the
design of gender friendly tools/equipment (Mehta et al., 2018).
In industrially developed countries, number of studies on farm machinery related accidents/ injuries
were reported (Myers et al., 2009; HSE, 2009; Mukherjee and Chang, 2008). It is very important to
note that the agriculture in developed counties is more mechanized, as the power availability per ha
in these countries is about 13.0 kW as against 1.84 kW in India (Mehta el al., 2014). On the other
hand, in developing counties, very few studies on agricultural accidents and their sources were
carried out and reported. In India, some studies on these aspects were carried out but, their scope
and application were limited to a particular problem/area (Verma et al., 1978; Tandon et al., 1988;
Mohan and Patel, 1992; Mittal et al., 1996; Lakhtakia, 2000; Patel et al., 2001; Tiwari et al., 2002;
Gite and Kot, 2003).
Table 1. Population dynamics of Indian agricultural workers (Khadatkar et al., 2018)
(No. in million)
Sl. Particulars 1991 2001 2011 2020*
1 Country’s population 846.3 1029 1211 1323
2 No. of workers as % of population 37.1 39 39.8 42.8
3 Total no. of workers 313.7 402 482 566
4 % of agricultural workers to total workers 67.1 58.2 54.6 40.6
5 No. of agricultural workers 210.5 234 263 230
a) No. of male agricultural workers 136.6 143 165.7 126.5
b) No. of female agricultural workers 73.9 91 97.31 103.5
6 % of females in agricultural workforce 35.1 39 37.2 45
* Estimated value

1
Farm mechanization has increased production and productivity of Indian farms. However,
inadvertent use of agricultural machinery without proper attention to health and safety aspects has
also caused more injuries to agricultural workers through accidents. There are some epidemiological
studies on agricultural accidents but their scope and applications are limited to a particular problem.
Briefs of studies in India are given below: An epidemiological study in nine contiguous villages in
Sonipat district of Haryana state reported a total of 576 agricultural injuries out of which 87% were
minor injuries, 11% moderate injuries and the remaining 2% severe injuries (Mohan and Patel,
1992). Maximum injuries were reported while working with spades (24%) followed by sickles (23%);
animal carts and manually operated chaff cutters (6%) and power operated chaff cutters, tractors
and diesel engines (5%). They estimated that the agricultural related activities caused about 5,000-
10,000 deaths, 15,000-20,000 amputations and 150,000-200,000 serious injuries every year in the
states of Haryana, Punjab and Uttar Pradesh alone. A study conducted by Mittal et al. (1996) in
Punjab state pointed out that out of 36 agricultural incidents causing injuries reported from twelve
villages during one-year period. The incidence rate/1000 machines/year was highest for tractors
(23.7) followed by sprayers (15.5), electric motors (7.1), threshers (5.7) and chaff cutters (2.2). Dogra
et al. (1998) reported about 38% of the total accidental poisoning cases in Faridabad district of
Haryana involved pesticides. Dewan and Saiyed (1998) reported that out of 329 pesticide poisoning
cases reported at Poison Information Centre, National Institute of Occupational Health, Ahmedabad
during 1995-97, 43% were due to agricultural pesticides. Out of these 85% were of suicidal nature
and in 15% of the cases the cause was work related exposures. Lakhtakia (2000) analysed about 110
thresher injuries reported in Medical College Hospital, Rewa during 1993-1997 where preferred
hand was injured in 88% cases. All these injuries were of crushing nature and 31% of the victims
were unable to use their injured hand. Patel et al. (2001) reported that 8.5% of total agricultural
accidents were fatal and 91.5% of non-fatal nature in accident survey of Etawah district of Utter
Pradesh. Most of the fatal accidents were due to tractors followed by snake bites during agricultural
operations. Therefore, if due attention is not given, the fatality rate in agriculture may increase
causing a great loss to our society in general and the agricultural workers in particular. The main
cause of agricultural accidents is improper design of operator’s workplace, improper design of
tools/equipment, lack of knowledge/training, ignorance, tiredness, etc.
Methods
Study design: The agricultural accident survey of Madhya Pradesh was carried out in the 360 villages
of 9 selected districts occurred during the period July, 2012 to June 2013 with the help of Directorate
of Agricultural Engineering, Madhya Pradesh, India. The information on agricultural accidents
reported was collected using the survey proforma. The survey proforma was prepared in bilingual
(English & Hindi) constituting of two parts. The Part – I was used for collection of basic information of
village and Part - II for collection of detailed information on victim and accident.
Training of the field investigators: Training to the filed investigators was provided at ICAR-Central
Institute of Agricultural Engineering, Bhopal in association with Directorate of Agricultural
Engineering, Madhya Pradesh. The method of collection of survey data for proforma Part-I and Part-II
was explained in detail.
Method of data collection: The agricultural accident survey data was collected by direct interview
method. This method allows investigator to capture the perspectives of respondent (victim), staff
(key informant) and others associated with the project. The use of interview as a data collection
method begins with the assumption that the participants perspectives are meaningful,
knowledgeable and able to be made explicit, and that their perspective affect the success of the
project. An interview, rather than a paper and pencil survey, is selected when interpersonal contact
is important and when opportunities for follow up of interesting comments are desired.
Data management and data analysis: The collected data segregated for farm related agricultural
accidents. Further, all accidents were categorized into farm machinery related, hand tools and other
sources related agricultural accidents. The data collected includes type and nature of agricultural
accident viz., total number of accidents, farm machinery related accidents, hand-tools related

2
accident and other accidents; source wise classification of accidents; classification of accidents
according to the nature of injury by accident victim; severity wise classification agricultural
accidents; etc. Data analysis was carried out for education status and age of the accident victims,
source-wise classification of agricultural accidents and economic loss due to fatal agricultural
accidents.
Results and Discussion
Village profile: The total population of nine districts were about 5.05 lakh out of which male and
female was 2.68 lakh (53.16%) and 2.36 lakh (46.84%), respectively. The major crops grown were
soybean, wheat, chickpea, cotton, maize, sorghum, red gram, pearl-millet, paddy, etc and vegetables
such as potato, onion, garlic, tomato, chilli etc. The net cultivated area and irrigated area was about
116607.2 ha and 60976 ha, respectively. There were about 1.26 lakh agricultural machinery, 3.27
lakh hand tools and 0.93 lakh agricultural workers in all the selected districts. The highest use of
agriculture machinery was in Barwani and lowest in Bhopal district, respectively. The highest use of
hand tools was observed in Barwani followed by Bhopal and lowest in Datia district. Also, the highest
use of manually operated tools was observed in Balaghat followed by Indore and lowest in Satna
district. The highest number of agricultural accidents was reported in Indore (5) followed by Shivpuri
(4), Narshingpur (4) and Datia (4) districts. The highest number of accident incidence rate per 1000
workers was reported in Shivpuri district (1.08) followed by Indore district (0.98). The overall

Fig. 1. Educational status of accident victims in surveyed villages Fig. 2. Time of occurance of the accident victims

accident incidence rate per 1000 workers per year

was observed 0.23 for all selected districts.
Education status and age of the accident victims:
The educational status of the victims of agricultural
accidents happaened during 2012-13 in surveyed
villages is shown in Fig. 1. It was observed that
about 33% of the total victims were illiterate, 29%
had primary education level, 29% completed
matriculation and 9% were graduates. This showed
that due to higher education and awareness level,
the graduates had lower percentage of accident
incidents. Most of the illiterate and primary
education level victims were from rural areas and
operating the accident-prone farm machines. Out of
the total accident incidents, about 48% of the
accidents were reported during evining time i.e. Fig. 3. Victims of agricultural accidents

3
4.00 PM to 10.00 PM, this might be due to lower visibility and hostile working conditions (Fig. 2). The
daytime accident incidents reported were about 24% and morning time about 28%. The age-wise
classification of the victims of agricultural accidents is shown in Fig. 3. Age-wise classification of the
victims revealed that the highest proportion of vistims was in the age-group 15-29 years (28%)
followed by other groups comprising of 24% of proportion each. The most of the victims in the age
group were tractor and farm machines operators.
Accidents due to farm machinery: Farm machinery related accidents in nine selected districts during
year 2012-13 are reported and the highest numbers of accident prone agricultural machines which
include thresher and tractor overturning followed by chaff cutter, Sugarcane crusher, etc. were
found in 7 districts. Based on number of accidents, the incidence rate per 1000 machines was
reported maximum in Bhopal (0.5) and Datia (0.5) district followed by Narshingpur (0.4). The overall
accident incidence rate/1000 machines/year was 0.2.
Source-wise classification of agricultural accidents:
Twenty-one accidents were reported in the 360
villages of nine districts of Madhya Pradesh during
2012-2013. Among 21 accidents, 18 were non-fatal
and 3 were fatal in nature. The three fatal accidents
were found in Datia, Narshigpur and Shivpuri
districts of Madhya Pradesh due to power thresher,
tractor trolley overturning and bullock cart wheel,
respectively. Fatal accident includes death of victim.
It was reported that out of total agricultural
accidents only 14.3 % were fatal and 85.7 % non-
fatal in nature (Fig. 4). The fatal accidents occurred,
Fig. 4. Percentage of fatal and non-fatal victims
when the victims were engaged in operation of the
tractor, thresher and crushed under bullaock cart. Most of the non-fatal accidents included the
amputation of limbs, exposure to chemical, electrocution etc. The farm machines and agents for
happning of fatal and non-fatal accidents are shown Fig. 5. The major agents for accidents were

Fig. 5. Agricultural accidents due to farm machines

4
tractor and tresher followed by electric pumsets, chaff cutter, sprayers etc. The threshers, chaff
cutters and cane crushers are included in the dangeraous machines act.
The primery events involved for happening of the accidents (Fig. 6) revealed that the most of the
accidents were due to cut slip (33%) followed by overturning (24%), crushing (24%) and hit (9%).
Conclusion
The agricultural accident survey was conducted in 360 selected villages of nine districts of Madhya
Pradesh in India. The total 21 number of agricultural accident incidents were reported during the
year 2012-13. It was observed that out of total agricultural accidents only 14.3% were fatal and

Fig. 6. Eventwise agricultural accidents victims

85.7% non-fatal in nature. The agricultural accident incident rate in Madhya Pradesh was found to be
0.23/1000 agricultural worker/year and 0.2/1000 agricultural machines/year.
Limitations of the study
The data was collected by direct interview method with a twelve month recall period. Due to this,
the key informants were unable to recall the small incidences of injuries like cuts, slips etc. which
were not reported. As a result, the detailed information on accidents caused due to hand tools and
other sources, could not be gathered.
Acknowledgements
The authors are thankful to the Director, Directorate of Agricultural Engineering, Madhya Pradesh;
Director, ICAR- CIAE, Bhopal; Project Coordinator, AICRP on ESA and Head, AMD and other staff of
ESA for providing cooperation, assistance and facilities for carrying out this work.
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Mohan, D. and Patel, R., 1992. Design of safer agricultural equipment: application of ergonomics and
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6
 A noble study on the effects of infrared oven on the physical properties of
chhanapodo
Abhilasha P. Afisha and Er. F. Magdaline Eljeeva Emerald
Department of Agricultural Processing and Food Engineering
College of Agricultural Engineering and Technology
Orissa University of Agriculture and Technology, Bhubaneswar, Odisha-751003
Email:-abhilashaparamesh@gmail.com
Abstract: Chhana podo is milk based baked sweet product popular in eastern part of India. It is
prepared by blending chhana, sugar and semolina , toukir as key essential ingredients. Baking is an
important step in the preparation of Chhana podo that involves simultaneous heat and mass
transfer, inducing physicochemical changes in the product. The chhana podo was analyzed for
different quality attributes at regular intervals of time during baking. It was found that baking
temperatures and Infra-red application had pronounced effects on the quality attributes of the
product. Moisture content of the product decreased with increasing baking temperature from an
initial average value of 60% to around 25% at the end of baking. Color index was determined using
Image analyzer and it was found to show an increasing trend as the baking parameters increased.
Keywoeds: Infrared baking, chhanapodo, physical properties, moisture loss, specific volume.
Introduction: India is among the world’s largest and fastest growing market for milk and milk
products. Over half of India’s total milk production is consumed in urban India. The urban population
is projected to cross the 400 million mark by 2011. Production of milk in India is very widely
scattered in the rural areas and at vast distances. In India most of animals are milked either at the
houses of farmers or community milking centers. At the community milking centers, milking is done
at milk collection centers. Premises which is collected and transported to the centers. (Alka et al.,
2009). About 50-55% of milk is converted into variety of indigenous dairy products, using processes
like heat and acid coagulation, heat desiccation and fermentation. The rest 46% of the milk produced
in India is consumed as liquid milk. Roughly 7% of total milk is converted into heat-acid coagulated
products like chhana, paneer, etc. Approximately 1,200,000 tonnes of chhana, valued at Rs. 6,000
million, is produced in India (www.indiadairy.com).Traditional dairy products like variety of milk
sweets are produced in India, most of which are region specific. Eastern India, particularly West
Bengal is the home of Rasagolla and Sandesh. Chhana is mainly used for the preparation of sweets
like Rasagolla, rasmalai, sandesh etc. One such chhana based product is chhana podo. It is probably
the only milk based indegineuos product that is prepared by baking Chhana, Sugar and Semolina as
an essential ingredient. It is the traditional chhana based delicacy, originated in Orissa and finds its
popularity in the eastern states of India (Ghosh et al., 1998). Chhana Podo has pleasant cooked flavor
and paneer rich taste. The important characters to be considered in the final product are texture,
Color, porosity, grain characteristics and moisture content. Optimizing these characters would give
cake like body and texture to the chhana podo. Baking is the key step in the preparation of chhana
podo. It is a complex process in which the physical, chemical and biochemical changes occur
simultaneously throughout the process. Similarly, simultaneous mass and heat transfer, involving
convective, radiative and conductive modes or their different combinations from the oven cavity
toward the product surface, and followed by an internal heat and moisture diffusion either as liquid
or vapour (Sakin et al., 2007).
Materials and Methods
Experimental plan: Preparation of chhana podo includes collection of raw materials. Preliminary
analysis was carried out. Chhana podo was then prepared according to the procedure outlined by
Ghosh et al. (1998) with some modifications. Chhana podo was baked at different treatment as
follows (Table 2.1). It was analyzed for its physical quality attributes like moisture loss, specific
volume, weight loss, color.
Raw Materials: Fresh raw milk, sugar, baking powder and semolina are the major ingredients in the
preparation of chhana podo. Fresh raw milk was collected from cattle yard , Sugar and Baking

7
powder were bought from star bazar supermarket. It was ground using the mixer and strained using
sieve with small pores (Mesh number 70). The other materials required were thermometer, muslin
cloth, citric acid, distilled water, stainless steel vessels, beakers etc.
Table.2.1 Experimental plan with different temperature treatment
Heater 120°C + Fan ON + intermittent application every 10 min T1

Heater 120°C + Fan ON + from 80min IR ON 200V T2

Heater 130°C + Fan ON + from 70min IR ON 200V T3

Heater 120°C + Fan ON + from 60min IR ON 180V T4

Heater 130°C + Fan ON + from 60min IR ON T5

Preliminary test for milk:- Determination of fat content in milk:The principle behind Gerber method
(BIS, 1981) is when milk is mixed with sulphuric acid and iso amyl alcohol, there occurs the
dissolution of protein and release of fat. Then the fat layer is separated by centrifugation. Exactly
10ml of sulphuric acid was taken in a butyrometer tube. To this 10 ml of milk (270C) was added along
the sides of the tube. 1ml of amyl alcohol was added to the above solution. The butyrometer was
closed at the open end with the stopper. The butyrometer was shaken well until all the coagulated
particles of milk gets dissolved and homogenised. Then butyrometer was centrifuged at 1000rpm for
5 minutes. The butyrometer was removed from the centrifuge and the percentage of fat was
observed on the graduated scale of butyrometer by adjusting the level of fat separated. When
readings were being taken it should be held straight to the eye level. The percentage of fat obtained
is noted.
Determination of SNF content in milk: Solid Non Fat content in the milk was determined by CLR
(Corrected Lactometer Reading) method (BIS, 1982). The cylinder was filled with milk at 270C and
lactometer was dipped in the milk. When the lactometer stands still the readings were noted and
SNF content was calculated using the formula,

Where, CLR= Corrected lactometer reading i.e, when the temperature is more or less than 270C
(i.e., ±270C), temperature co-efficient should be added using the corrective value table which gives
CLR value.
Standardization of milk: From the freshly collected whole milk sample, fat and SNF (Solid Non-Fat)
percentage in the raw milk was determined by Gerber centrifuge method and CLR (Corrected
Lactometer Reading) method respectively. The fat content was adjusted to 4.0% and SNF content
was adjusted to 8.5%. The milk is standardized by addition of cream and skim milk in required
quantities.
Preparation of Chhana: Known volume of fresh raw milk was filtered through muslin cloth to remove
foreign particles. The milk was standardised to 4% fat and 8.5% SNF. It is important to standardise
the milk to get chhana of good and same texture throughout the study. Then indirect heating was
given to milk till it reaches 900C with continuous stirring followed by cooling to 850C. 2% citric acid
(Himedia laboratories Pvt. Ltd. Mumbi, India) solution was added slowly with constant stirring until
complete coagulation of milk takes place. The solid particles like casein along with entrapped fat and
water soluble components of milk (lactose, whey proteins, minerals and vitamins) get precipitated
due to action of acid. The coagulum was filtered through muslin cloth to drain off the whey. The
chhana was kept hung for 45 minutes. Then weight of chhana obtained was noted. Moisture content
of the chhana was determined.

8
The preparation of chhana podo was followed according the steps shown below:
Fresh Raw whole milk

Straining

Standardization of milk (4% fat & 8.5% SNF)

Indirect heating till it reaches 90°C followed by cooling to 85°C

Addition of 2% citric acid solution

Coagulation

Draining of whey

Hanging for 45 min to remove excess moisture content

Chhana (M.C. 48-58% in dry basis)

Kneading with ingredients

(Chhana, sugar, semolina, baking powder)

Adjustment of moisture content of dough

Filling (185 g) in aluminium casseroles (10.4×7.4×2.6 cm dimension)

Baking

Chhana podo
Fig 2.1 Steps involved in the preparation of chhana podo

Draining of whey Hanging (45 min)

9
 Chhana Dough filling

Baking Chhana podo

Fig.2.2 Various stages of chhana podo preparaion

Preparation of Dough: The dough was prepared by mixing the chhana, sugar, and semolina weighing
according to the experimental plan. The amount of baking powder added was 1% by total weight of
chhana taken. The ingredients were kneaded in a dough blender with a hook type beater for 7
minutes. The dough should be smooth and sugar crystals should be completely mixed to give good
texture. Exactly 185g of dough was weighed in aluminium dishes (10.4×7.4×2.6 cm). The dough was
spread uniformly with hand in the dishes to get the product with uniform surface and attractive
appearance after baking.
Baking the dough: Baking can be defined as the process which transforms dough basically made of
flour/semolina, water and leavening agents in a high quality product with unique sensorial features.
Baking of chhana podo dough was carried out in an IR assisted baking oven. The aluminum casseroles
containing dough were labeled and kept in stainless steel trays and the trays were kept in an oven.
Baking was done according to condition applied .There was a rise in the dough volume during baking
and the volume decreases as the baking proceeds. The volume of the final product will be more than
the initial dough. The completion baking can be identified by the change of surface colour of chhana
podo to brown or golden yellow colour. After baking is complete, the chhana podo was allowed to
cool to room temperature for 45 minutes. The weight of each sample was noted and analysed for
different quality attributes.
Analysis of quality attributes of Chhana Podo: In order to optimize the level of ingredients or
combination of ingredients to get a product of good quality, the different quality attributes for each
sample were analysed. The properties which affect the quality attributes of chhana podo such as
moisture content, specific volume, weight loss, crumb and upper crust color were measured.
Determination of moisture content of crust and crumb: Crust and crumb of each sample was taken
and crushed using pestle and mortar. Approximately 2g of ground samples were taken in a dry pre-
weighed petri dish. Few drops of distilled water were added and the sample was spread uniformly in
the petri dish. The petri dishes were kept in a preheated oven at 102oC for 5 hours. The petri dishes
were then kept in the desiccator for 20 minutes. The desiccant absorbs all the moisture content and
then the sample was weighed again. The moisture content was determined using the formula,

10
Where, W1 = weight of empty petri dish in grams
W2 = weight of petri dish + sample in grams
W3 = weight of petri dish + sample after drying in grams
Determination of Weight loss: The initial weight of the dough taken and final weight after baking
was noted. The percentage weight loss was determined using the formula

Determination of specific volume: The specific volume was determined after baking process using
volume displacement method in which mustard seed was used instead of rapeseed. The specific
volume was calculated as
m3/g)
Determination of specific volume is as followed;
Determination of density of seed ( ): A 500 mL graduated cylinder was weighed and filled with
mustard seeds up to 500 mL mark. It was weighed again. The average of three readings was taken.

Volume measurement by mustard seed displacement method: Rape seed displacement method is a
common method used in volume determination of irregular solids (Anu Kumari, 2013). The empty
weight of casserole (Mcasserole) was noted. Then the casserole was filled with mustard seeds and the
top surface was levelled using glass rod. It was weighed and noted. The weight of chhana podo with
the casserole (Msample) was also noted after cooling the product. The casserole containing the product
was filled with mustard seeds and the surface was levelled using glass rod. It was weighed and
readings were noted as Mtotal. The volume of sample (Vsample) was calculated using the following
equations.

Determination of oven spring: Oven spring was determined by recording the height of the dough
and height of the baked chhana podo samples. The thickness or height of the chhana podo was
measured using digital Vernier Callipers (Model: CD- 6” CSX, Mitutoya Corporation, Kawasaki, Japan).
4 readings were taken from different sides of chhana podo for ach sample and the average thickness
was noted. Oven spring was determined as the difference in the dough height and baked chhana
podo height (Shittu et al., 2008). The determination of oven spring is helpful in determining the raise
in the level of product after baking for each variability.
Colour measurement: Colour of the upper crust was determined by using the scanned images of
chhana podo in adobe Photoshop. The channa podo was removed from the casserole and scanned
using Epson perfection V33 scanner such that the upper crust region is clearly visible. This scanner
has 400 dpi resolutions. The scanned image is saved in TIF format. Then the scanned image opened
in adobe photoshop, 7.0 version software. The width and height were set as fixed size. The image
mode selected was Lab colour. The histogram of the image was opened from the image icon. The lab
value, standard deviation and mean values were noted from the histogram window. The standard
deviation value should not be more than 10.
The colour parameter ‘L*’ is the measure of lightness or luminance, which ranges from 0 to 100
[L*= 0 (black) and L*=100(white)] and ‘a*’ and ‘b*’ are the two chromatic components, which range

11
from -120 to 120 [a* = -120 (green) and a*= 120 (red)] and [b*= -120 (blue) and b*=120(yellow)]. The
colour parameters were determined using following equations;

Results and Discussion

Quality Attributes of Chhana Podo: The changes in quality parameters of chhana podo during baking
such as moisture content of chhana, crust and crumb, specific volume, cooking loss, and colour are
discussed below.
Moisture content of chhana, crumb and crust at different treatment: Moisture content of chhana
was found to be around 45%, (Fig.3.1). At T1, T2, T3 and T4 moisture content was 45.05%, 47.42%,
47.17%, 48.5% and 48.7% respectively. Bhattacharya (2001) reported that the moisture content of
chhana was about 54- 57% during the preparation of chhana from cow milk. The crumb moisture
content of chhana podo decreased with baking time (Fig.4.B). It decreased exponentially from 45%
(w.b.) in chhana to around 30% (w.b.), During baking. Moisture content of crumb at T1, T2, T3, T4
and T5 was found to be 30.06%, 28.44%, 24.72%, 26.82%, and28.16% respectively. T2 had highest
crumb moisture content; whereas T3 treatment was having lowest crumb moisture content. Similar
decreasing trend of crumb moisture was reported by Gundu et al. (2012) and Das et al. (2012) for
bread. Similar trends were reported by kumar (2013), before baking, fresh dough had 67.92%
moisture (d.b.), which decreased to 55.76, 53.45 and 45.27% (d.b.) after baking respectively at 120,
135 and 150°C for 120 min. The moisture content of crust decreased with increase in baking time and
temperature (Table. 3.1).Before baking, chhana had 45% moisture (w.b.), which decreased to around
15% (w.b.) during baking at different treatment. Moisture content of crust at T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5
was found to be 15.88%, 12.64%, 11.34%, 17.76% and 23.1% respectively. T3 had a lowest crust
moisture content of 11.3%, it decreased from 45% moisture (w.b.) to12.46,11.34, 8.69and
8.22%(w.b),respectively in podo after baking at 80ºc 90ºc, 100ºc and 110ºc. 23.1% was the highest
crust moisture content found at T5. Similar trends were reported by kumara (2013) the moisture
content of crust decreased exponentially from 68.35% (d.b.) in dough to 20.85, 16.91 and 10.65%
(d.b.), respectively in podo after baking at 120, 135 and 150°C. Moisture loss occurred due to the
vapour pressure gradient between air in the oven and the moist product. Internal heating increased
the internal vapour pressure of water leading to pressure driven flow, which further accelerated the
moisture loss (Sumnu et al., 2007). Thorvaldsson and Skjöldbrand (1998) reported that during baking
of bread, the denaturation of proteins released water while the gelatinisation of starch absorbed
water.
Table: 3.1. Changes in crust moisture content of chhana podo during baking
TIME T1 T2 T3 T4 T5
80 15.88±0.91 15.43±1.18 12.46±0.90 17.76±0.34 19.01±0.66
90 14.86 12.64±0.71 11.34±1.66 16.34 18.00
100 13.85±3.38 12.01±0.65 8.69±1.65 14.93±0.18 17±2.03
110 13.66 11.73±0.83 8.22±3.74 12.90±0.41 14.5
120 13.48±0.05 _ _ 10.66±0.129 12±1.96
140 12.46±1.79 _ _ _ _
160 11.82±3.76 _ _ _ _
Because chhana podo is rich in proteins, it is similarly hypothesized that during baking protein
denaturation and dewatering occurred, which was adsorbed by starch for gelatinization. These
physicochemical processes brought-about the change in distribution of water content. Also due to

12
the temperature rise at the surface and heat transfer towards center, diffusion of water occurred.
The moisture content of crumb was much higher than that of the crust because the crust acted as a
barrier to moisture evaporation.

Fig.3.1. Moisture content of chhana before baking

Fig.3.2. Crumb moisture content of chhana podo during baking

60
moisture content,%wb

50

40
chhana
30
crust
20
crumb
10

0
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5
Treatment

Fig.3.3. Effect of treatments on the moisture content

Effect of treatment on specific volume: The changes in specific volume of chhana podo during
baking are depicted in Fig. ( 3.4). The specific volume at T1, T2, T3, T4, and T5 was found to be 1.044

13
cm3/g, 1.1 cm3/g, 1.06 cm3/g , 0.97cm3/g, and 0.93cm3/g respectively. Specific volume at T2 found
to be highest. At T2 the specific volume, after 80 min of baking, increased from 0.9 cm3/g in fresh
dough to 1.00, 1.1 and 1.2 cm3/g at 90, 100 and 110°C, respectively. Similar trends were reported by
AnuKumari (2013) i.e the specific volume, after 120 min of baking, increased from 0.94 cm3/g in
fresh dough to 1.09, 1.24 and 1.35 cm3/g at 120, 135 and 150°C, respectively.
Similar trends were reported by Keskin et al. (2004) and Das et al. (2012) during baking of bread. The
variation in specific volume at different temperatures could be due to the differences in the rate of
gas (vapour) evolution and the extent of starch gelatinization at different baking times and
temperatures (Shittu et al., 2008). Till 60 min of baking, the specific volume of chhana podo
remained unchanged at all five baking temperatures treatment. However, after 60 min, higher
baking temperature increased the specific volume (expansion) in chhana podo.
Effect of treatment on Weight loss: The weight loss in chhana podo baked at all five treatment
increased with baking time (Fig. 3.5). The weight loss was found to be 14.50, 14.50, 16.22, 11.35 and
14.59at T1, T2, T3, T4, and T5, respectively. Weight loss was found to highest at T3, i.e. the weight
loss was up to 83.78, 76.22 and 75.68% at 90, 100 and 110°C respectively. Similar trends were
observed by Kumari (2013) i.e the weight loss was up to 13.61, 19.02 and 23.78% at 120, 135 and
150°C, respectively. Similar trends were observed by several researchers for bread (Shittu et al.,
2007; Purlis and Salvadori, 2009a) and wheat dough (Pérez-Nieto et al., 2010). The weight loss of
product was highest at 150°C. Increase in temperature led to increase in vapour pressure inside the
product, which favoured diffusion of moisture to result in higher weight loss. Increase in
temperature led to increase in vapour pressure inside the product, which favoured diffusion of
moisture to result in higher weight loss. Thredthai et al. (2002) reported that the free water
molecules evaporated from the outermost layer of product during baking, leading to weight loss.

Fig.3.4. Specific volume of chhana podo during baking

14
 Fig.3.5. Weight loss of chhana podo during baking

Fig.3.6. Color index at different treatment

Oven spring:The initial thickness of all the dough samples was the same. The oven spring occurred
when the temperature reached 100°C and evaporation of water occurred from the crust. Oven spring
increased with baking time and temperature. Oven spring at T1,T2,T3,T4 and T5 was 26.6, 23.03,
24.99, 22.3 and 24.22 respectively (Table.3.2). Oven spring was minimum at the highest baking
temperature due to the collapse of the product in the final stages of baking. Similar observation was
reported by Sumnu et al. (2007) for bread. Pérez-Nieto et al. (2010) reported that the increment of
wheat dough height occurred in three stages namely a fast expansion rate, a slow expansion rate and
a very slow negative expansion rate in the last stage of baking. During the slow negative expansion
stage, a significant increment in dough temperature, promoting starch gelatinization, protein
denaturation, as well as sudden increment in viscosity and storage modulus occurred. The increment
Table 3.2 Oven spring of chhana podo
TIME T1 T2 T3 T4 T5
80 26.56 21.96 20.74 22.73 24.225
90 25.08 23.03 24.99 23.52 29.68
100 25.39 23.64 25.80 26.40 30.29
110 24.49 26.25 27.00 29.13
120 27.22 30.41 25.58 26.08 29.29
140 27.09 23.18 24.06 24.74 29.16
160 25.53 _ 25.61 26.85 _
in the storage modulus is related to a decrement in the elasticity of the cell walls which helps in the

15
setting of the crumb, while at the surface of the sample, a drying process could be gradually taking
place, resulting in low rate shrinkage process.
Effect of treatment on Browning index: As expected, the BI increased with baking time and
temperature. BI was found to75.08, 81.52, 105.2, 86.20 and 102.94 at T1, T2, T3, T4, and T5
respectively. T3 treatment had highest browning index, it increased from the initial value of 34.79 to
a maximum of 101.1, 105.25 and 110.7 at 90, 100, 110°C, respectively.BI of chhana podo for 0 and 20
and 40 min was statistically same but for rest of the time differences it was significantly different.
After 60 min, BI of chhana podo was significantly different at all temperatures. Similar trend was
reported by Kumari(2013), It was increased from the initial value of 15.67 to a maximum of 95.35,
101.49 and 112.08 at 120, 135 and 150°C, respectively. Browning occurred only after 60 min of
baking when surface temperature of the product exceeded 100°C. Broyart et al. (1998) found a
temperature range of 105-115°C for the on-set of browning in crackers. Wählby and Skjöldebrand
(2002) stated that browning of bun crust began when the temperature was greater than 110°C while
Purlis and Salvadori (2009b) reported that browning started when the surface temperature of bread
exceeded 120°C. This variation in temperature could have been due to the varying product
composition and baking temperatures used. development of golden brown colour in the crust
occurred due to non-enzymatic browning in chhana podo. This Maillard reaction is complex (Ames
and Benjamin, 2003) and normally occurs in food during high temperature processing. The crust
colour development was evaluated in terms of lightness (L*), a*, b* are the two chromatic
components and browning index (BI). The temperature dependency of crust colour parameters was
explained using the Arrhenius relationship. It is observed that the lightness of the upper crust of
chhana podo decreased with increasing temperature and time during baking. The samples became
darker as baking progressed. Similar observations were reported in other baked products such as
bread (Zhang and Datta, 2006; Purlis and Salvadori, 2009), cookies (Shibukawa et al., 1989; Gökmen
et al., 2008). The colour change is expected because of the increase in the rate of brown pigment
formation and caramelization of lactose with increase in temperature and time (Shittu et al., 2007).
Conclusion
Crust moisture content decreased from the initial value of 45%to 30% (w.b.) at during baking at
different treatment. Crumb moisture content decreased from the initial value of 45% (w.b.) in
chhana to around 15% (w.b.), during baking at different treatment. Specific volume of chhana podo
was found to be 1.044 cm3/g, 1.1 cm3/g, 1.06 cm3/g, 0.97cm3/g, and 0.93cm3/g respectively at T1,
T2, T3, T4, and T5. Weight loss of chhana podo deccreased considerably with baking time and
temperature in all the experiments. It was found to highest at T3 treatment. Browning index
increased with baking time and temperature and T3 treatment had highest browning index.
References
1. Anukumari. (2013). Evaluation of physico-thermal and textural properties of chhana podo and
optimization of its baking process using response surface methodology. Krishikosh .
2. Ames, J.M. and Benjamin, C. (2003). Browning: Nonenzymatic. Encyclopedia of Food Sciences &
Nutrition, pp. 665-672.
3. Alka Bani Agrawal, R.K. Dave and Vipin Shrivastava.(2009). Replacing harmful refrigerant R22 in
bulk milk cooler. Indian Journal of Science and Technology Vol.2 No. 9 (Sep 2009) ISSN: 0974-
6846.
4. Broyart, B., Trystram, G. and Duquenoy, A. (1998). Predicting colour kinetics during crackers
baking. Journal of Food Engineering, 35(3): 351-368.
5. BIS (1981) (SP:18). ISI Handbook of Food Analysis. Part XI: Dairy Products. Bureau of Indian
Standards, New Delhi, India.
6. BIS (1982) (IS:10083). Method of Test for Determination of SNF (Solids-Not-Fat) in Milk by the
Use of Lactometer. Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi, India.
7. Das, L., Raychaudhuri, U. and Chakraborty, R. (2012). Effect of baking conditions on the physical
properties of herbal bread using RSM. International Journal of Food, Agriculture and Veterinary
Sciences, 2(2): 106-114.

16
8. Gökmen, V., Açar, Ö.C., Arribas-Lorenzo, G. and Morales, F.J. (2008). Investigating the correlation
between acrylamide content and browning ratio of model cookies. Journal of Food Engineering,
87(3): 380-385.
9. Ghosh, B.C., Rao, K.J. and Kulkarni, S. (1998). Chhana podo- Baked indigenous delicacy. Indian
Dairyman, 50(1): 13-14.
10. Gundu, R., Thorat, I.D., Jagtap, D.D., Datta, A.K. and Jayashree, G.C. (2012). Optimization of cup
bread baking in household electric oven. Global Advanced Research Journal of Food Science and
Technology, 1(5): 74-80.
11. Kumar, R. (2013). Technology of dietetic chhana podo production. M. Tech. Thesis, National Dairy
Research Institute, Bangalore, India.
12. Keskin, S.O., Sumnu, G. and Sahin, S. (2004). Bread baking in halogen lamp-microwave
combination oven. Food Research International, 37(5): 489-495.
13. Purlis, E. and Salvadori, V.O. (2009b). Modeling the browning of bread during baking. Food
Research International, 42(7): 865-870.
14. Pérez-Nieto, A., Chanona-Pérez, J. J., Farrera-Rebollo, R. R., Gutiérrez-López, G. F., Alamilla-
Beltra, L., and Calderón-Domínguez, G. (2010). Image analysis of structural changes in dough
during baking. LWT – Food Sci. Technol. 43: 535–54
15. Par-Baked Bread Technology: Formulation and Process Studies to Improve Quality. Available
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Baked_Bread_Technology_Formulation_and_Process_Studies_to_Improve_Quality [accessed Jan
06 2019].
16. Sakin M, Kaymak EF, Ilicali C. Simultaneous heat and mass transfer simulation applied to
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International, 40(2): 280-290.
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convection on browning of cookies at baking. Journal of Food Science, 54(3): 621- 624.
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properties of breads baked using various heating modes. Journal of Food Engineering, 78(4):
1382-1387
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baking. Journal of Food Engineering, 55(1): 41-48.
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Engineering, 75(1): 78-89.

17
 Development of casein composite films reinforced with cellulose from
coconut shell powder
Adarsh M. Kalla*, F. Magdaline Eljeeva Emerald, Heartwin A. Pushpadass, M.H. Sathish Kumar and
B. Surendra Nath
Southern Regional Station, ICAR-National Dairy Research Institute, Bengaluru
*
Email: adarshkalla002@gmail.com
Abstract: Novel biocomposite films based on casein and cellulose extracted from coconut shell
powder (CSP) were prepared. Before film formation, the CSP (177 µm) was subjected to
mercerization and bleaching to obtain cellulose. After chemical treatment, the size of cellulose fibers
reduced significantly to 30-50 µm indicating the removal of hemicellulose and lignin. The crystallinity
index of the extracted cellulose was analyzed using XRD. The XRD diffractogram displayed a sharp
peak at 2θ value of 22.4°, with a crystallinity index of 65.9%. The FTIR spectroscopy was used to
determine the functional groups of cellulose. Casein and cellulose were blended at 6:3 ratio and the
films were prepared by solution casting method and dried at 40ºC. The pre-conditioned films (27ºC
and 65% RH) were evaluated for their moisture content, thickness, and tensile properties such as
tensile strength, tensile strain and modulus of elasticity. The mean thickness of casein film was 0.214
mm and was lower compared to cellulose reinforced casein film (0.287 mm). Addition of cellulose
increased the tensile strength and elastic modulus from 4.980 to 8.609 MPa and 9.99 to 105.18 MPa,
respectively as compared to casein films. However, the tensile strain decreased from 51.64 to 8.74%.
The moisture content decreased with addition of cellulose from 18.90 to 15.71%. The whiteness
index and transparency too decreased with addition of cellulose.
Keywords: Bio-composite; Coconut shell powder; Cellulose; Bleaching; mercerization
Introduction : Plastics derived from the fossil-fuelshave brought many benefits to human-beingsand
have a higher share as packaging material in all fields.However, their non-degradability,growing
concern towards environmental issues, rising expenses and gradual depletion of petroleum are some
of the serious problems of using petroleum based packaging material.Therefore, there is a paradigm
shift in packaging material from petroleum based to bio-based polymers derived from natural
renewable resources.Bio-composites in recent years received greaterattention in research and
industrial area due to their sustainability, biodegradability and environment friendly features.
However, biopolymer films have the draw-backs of poor moisture barrier and mechanical properties
[13] and could be overcome by reinforcement or chemical modification of the films. Casein, which is
a milk protein has great potential for producing biodegradable films[8].Films could be easily formed
because of its random coil structure and for its capability to form hydrogen,hydrophobicand
electrostaticbonds[15].Casein filmshave good barrier to oxygen permeability when compared to films
from polysaccharides and lipids, due to their polar functional groups[16]. However, commercial use
of casein films is restricteddue to their high moisture sensitivity and low mechanical properties[5].
Therefore, barrier and mechanical properties of casein film need to be improved by reinforcement of
cellulose into the casein. Cellulose, being an abundant natural biopolymer, hasa long molecular
chaincomprisingof β (16) D-glucopyranoseunits in mostlycrystalline state [9]. The polymeric chains
associated with hydrogen bonds could form fibrils, containing ordered (crystalline)and disordered
(amorphous)regions [6]. Cellulose has outstanding characteristics like high flexibility,
biocompatibility, high mechanical strength,good thermal and chemical stabilities.The fibrous nature
ofcellulose couldalign and orient along matrix axis with improvement inmechanical properties when
compared to clay based fillers[10].Alain and Vignon [7] reported that the water resistance property
of starch-based plastics could be improved by adding cellulose fibers up to 15% (w/w).Several
researchers have manifestedthe use of cellulose as reinforcing material in thermoplastic matrices.
Coconut shell, the non-food part of coconut is one of the hard lignocellulosic agro- wastes. Coconut
shell constitutes15–20% by mass of coconut [11].The cellulose extracted from coconut shell powder
(CSP) can be used as filler in bio-composites which contributes high strength to biodegradable
composite films.The aimof this workwas to develop the casein composite films reinforced with

18
cellulose from CSP and to investigate itsphysic- mechanical properties.
Materials and Methods
The CSPprocuredfrom market was sieved using sieve shaker (Model:Retsch, Germany)and was
subjected to chemical treatment (Fig.1).The extraction and removal of non-cellulosic components
from CSP was performed by the delignification and mercerization processes. The delignification was
performed to prepare holocellulose by a beaching process which mostlyremoved lignin[2].Initially
CSP was washed with water (50ºC) and thenair-dried.Subsequentlyit was bleached by acidified
sodium chlorite solution (pH adjusted to 3.0- 4.0 by glacial acetic acid) at 70°C for 5 h to remove
lignin. The cellulose obtained was holocellulose and was filteredand rinsed with distilled water. The
holocellulose was againtreated with aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide (5%) for 24 h at room
temperature to obtaincellulose [1]. The cellulose was then filtered and washed until the cellulose
residue was no longer acidic and finally oven dried at 70ºC.The surface microstructure of the
cellulose was examined by scanning electron microscopy- Energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy
(SEM-EDS) (Model: Zeiss, Germany). The crystallinity index of the extracted cellulose was analyzed
using X-ray diffraction (XRD) (Model: RigakuSmartLab. Tokyo, Japan). The functional groups of
cellulose were determined by using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) (Model: Perkin
ElmerFrontier, Singapore).
Preparation of Casein Composite Films : Casein films were prepared by casting method as described
by Wagh[19]. Casein film solution was prepared by dissolving exactly 9 g of casein in 200 mL of warm
distilled water. 2 N NaOHsolutionwas added to adjust the pH to 7. Then thesolution was stirred and
heated at 85ºC for 15 min on a hot plate (Model: CMAG HS7, IKA, Germany). The plasticizer (glycerol)
was added, and heating was continued for5 min. Potassium sorbate(0.2 %)was then added, and the
solution temperature was brought downto 40-45ºC. The solution was then poured onto the glass
moulds (290 x 200 x 4 mm) stuck with polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)sheet and was dried at 40ºC for
96 h to get the film of desired thickness.For the preparation of cellulose reinforced casein composite
film, 3% of cellulose was used. The cellulose was added to casein solution in the above mentioned
procedure at the time of addition of glycerol.Finally, the casein composite films and the casein films
were peeled off from the mouldand keptin a desiccatorholdingsaturated potassium iodide solution at
27ºC (65% RH) for 48 h before testing.
Characterizations of Films : Thickness of the films was measured with a caliper (Model: CD-6"CSX,
Mitutoyo Corp., Japan) at five different random locations of the film. Tensile properties of the film
samples such astensile strain,tensile strength and Young’s moduluswere determined[4] using texture
analyzer (Model: TA.XT Plus, Stable Micro Systems, Godalming, UK). The film samples were cut into
rectangular strips of dimensions 25 x150 mm and mounted between the jaws of the machine. The
test speed and distance were set to 0.5 mm/s and 100 mm, respectively.Eight measurements were
made on each sample and the mean values were calculated.The moisture content of the films was
measured gravimetrically [3]. The films were cut into 2×2 cm and weighed in aluminum dishes. They
were dried in hot air oven at 105ºC for 24 h and the weight loss was determined. Colour parameters
of the films were obtained using image analysis method. The film samples were cut into circles of 50
mm diameter. A circle of 50 mm diameter was cut on A4 size matt black sheet and was placed over
the scanner glass so that the light exposure on scanning happens only in the cut out area on which
sample was placed. The scanned images were acquired in photo mode using IJ Scan Utility software
and was analyzed using Adobe Photoshop CS5. The image was converted into Lab mode and the
parameters lightness (L) and chromatic parameters (‘a’ and ‘b’) of the image were acquired by
Histogram method. These values were converted into CIELAB parametersto determine whiteness
index.The transparency of casein and composite films were measured using UV-VIS
spectrophotometer (Model: UH5300 Hitachi) [12]. The film samples were cut into rectangles of 10 ×
40 mm and placed in the cuvette. The transparency was calculated using Eq. (1) by measuring the
percent transmittance (%T) of the film samples at 600 nm.

19
Transparency 
 log %T  (1)
t
where,‘t’ is the film thickness (mm).
Results and Discussion
The yield of cellulose was about 27.5% after delignification and mercerization treatment (of initial
weight). Delignification and mercerization resulted in removing of cementing components and
defibrillation of fiber bundles into individual cellulosic micro fibrils. The lignin and hemicellulose
removed was about 30 and 42.5%, respectively.From the SEM micrographs it was observed that after
the chemical treatment the size of cellulose fibers reduced from 177µm to mean width of 30-50 µm.
The SEM-EDS results revealed that the cellulose contained small amount of impurities with 0.54 wt%
sodium and 0.42 wt% chlorine along with the main components carbon 34.84% and oxygen 46.08%.
The XRD diffractogram displayed a sharp peak at 2θ value of 22.4°, with a crystallinity index of 65.9%.
The FTIR spectra showed a broad absorption peak around 3400-3100 cm-1 which indicated stretching
and bending bands of O-H groups in cellulose. The peaks around 2900, 1651 and 1431 cm-1 were
attributed to stretching of C-H groups, stretching of O-H groups representing the adsorbed water in
carbohydrate and bending of CH2 groups representing presence of cellulose in carbohydrate,
respectively.
Characterization of the Films : The casein film obtained was homogeneous and flexible withan
average thickness of 0.214 mm.However, thethicknessand transparency of casein films were affected
by addition of cellulose. The thickness of the film increased with the addition of cellulose (0.287
mm). This increase in thickness of film with cellulose addition was in agreement withnanocellulose
incorporated whey protein isolate film by Zeinab and Kadivar [14].The mechanical properties (tensile
strain,tensile strength andYoung’s modulus) of the casein and casein composite films are
summarized in Table 1. By the addition of cellulose, the tensile strength and Young’s modulus
increased. This increase couldbe due to good dispersion and interaction between cellulose and
casein and strong hydrogen bonds in cellulose. The tensile strain value of composite film decreased
significantly from 51.64 to 8.74% as compared to casein film. The decrease in tensile strain with
addition of cellulose could be attributed to rigid nature of cellulose. Generally, the films containing
cellulose were stiffer and hard. The results were in accordance with other films such as
WPI/nanocellulose [14], starch based composites[6] and starch/brichcellulose films[17].Moisture
content of casein films decreased slightly with the addition of cellulose. The moisture content of
casein films was 18.90 % which decreased to 15.71% in casein composite film. The decrease in
moisture content could be due to the intermolecular interaction between protein and cellulose in
the casein composite film. The polar groups in protein have a tendency to bind water molecules; the
hydroxyl group in cellulose could form strong hydrogen bonds with the polar groups of casein thus
restricting them to bind with water molecules which led to decrease in the moisture content and
improve the cohesiveness of the biopolymer matrix. The results obtained were in alignment
withWPI/nanocellulose[14] and starch/brichcellulose films [17].The casein film had L*, a*, b* values of
85.02, 2.0 and 11.83, respectively and casein composite film had 69.90, 3.79 and 19.14, respectively.
The data revealed that the casein films were whiter than casein composite films. The results revealed
that whiteness indexdecreased from 80.81 to 64.13 with incorporation of cellulose into casein
matrix. In general, the casein composite film reinforced with cellulose showed a more yellowish tint
and less whitish appearance when compared to casein film.Transparency of film affectedthe
appearance of packaged product andprovidedinformation of the size of dispersed particles in
polymer matrix. The particle size larger than the wavelength of visible light would obstruct light
leading to lower transparency of films. The transparency of casein composite films was low
(1.56AU.nm) whencompared to casein film (7.26AU.nm). The addition of cellulose reduced the
transparency of casein composite film. The negative impact of cellulose on the film transparency
could be attributedto the non-soluble form of cellulosic fiber which could not form a homogeneous
solution. When light reached the interfaces between the cellulose and casein polymer light scattering

20
occurredand transmission was reduced which in turn reduced the transparency of the film. The
decreasedfilm transparency with incorporation of cellulose was also found by different researchers
in films prepared from starch-spruce cellulose [6], polylactic acid-microcrystalline cellulose [10] and
starch-chitosan-cellulosic fiber [18].
Conclusions
Cellulose could be isolated from CSP, which is an agro-waste material. The incorporation of cellulose
as reinforcing material in casein changed the film properties. The film obtained hadoptimum
thickness, good tensile strength and Young’s modulus. Thus, cellulose could be used as a
reinforcement material for the production of bio-composite films and has greater potential to be
used as packaging and wrapping material for several food products.
Table 1. Tensile properties of casein and composite film
Films Tensile strain (%) Tensile strength Young’s modulus
(MPa) (MPa)
Casein film 51.64 4.980 9.99
Casein composite film 8.74 8.609 105.18

CSP (177µm) Sieved CSP (63µm) Cellulose (35-45µm)

Fig. 1 Cellulose extraction from CSP

Casein film Casein composite film

Fig. 2 Photograph showing casein and casein composite films

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Materials, USA, (1977)
2. ASTM D1104-56, Method of test for holocellulose in wood, American Society for Testing and Materials,
USA, (1978).
3. ASTM D1576-90, Standard test method for moisture in wool by oven-drying, American Society for
Testing and Materials, USA, (1995).
4. ASTM D882-97, Standard test method for tensile properties of thin plastic sheeting, American Society
for Testing and Materials, USA, (2000).
5. L.M. Bonnaillie, H. Zhang, S. Akkurt, K.L. Yam, P.M. Tomasula, Casein films: The effects of formulation,
environmental conditions and the addition of citric pectin on the structure and mechanical properties.
Polym. 6(7), 2018-2036 (2014)

21
6. R. Bodirlau, C.A. Teaca, I. Spiridon, Influence of natural fillers on the properties of starch-based
biocomposite films. Composites Part B. 44(1), 575-583 (2013)
7. A. Dufresne, M.R. Vignon, Improvement of starch film performances using cellulose microfibrils.
Macromolecules, 31(8), 2693-2696 (1998)
8. K. Dangaran, P.M. Tomasula, P. Qi, Structure and function of protein-based edible films and coatings.
In Edible films and coatings for food applications. Springer, New York, NY. pp. 25-56 (2009)
9. M.K.M. Haafiz, A. Hassan, Z. Zakaria, I.M. Inuwa, M.S. Islam, M. Jawaid, Properties of polylactic acid
composites reinforced with oil palm biomass microcrystalline cellulose. Carbohydr. Polym. 98(1), 139-
145 (2013)
10. F.P. La-Mantia, M. Morreale, Z.A.M. Ishak, Processing and mechanical properties of organic filler–
polypropylene composites. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 96(5), 1906-1913 (2005)
11. N. Gontard, S. Guilbert, J.L. CUQ, Edible wheat gluten films: influence of the main process variables on
film properties using response surface methodology. J. Food Sci. 57(1), 190-195 (1992)
12. M. Pereda, G. Amica, I. Racz, N.E. Marcovich, Structure and properties of nanocomposite films based
on sodium caseinate and nanocellulose fibers. J. Food Eng. 103(1), 76-83 (2011)
13. Z. Qazanfarzadeh, M. Kadivar, Properties of whey protein isolate nanocomposite films reinforced with
nanocellulose isolated from oat husk. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 91, 1134-1140 (2016)
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Afinidad, 74(577), 26-29 (2017).
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and modified casein. J. Agric. Food Chem. 51(3), 634–639 (2013)
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modified starch microparticles/plasticized starch bio-composite films. Carbohydr. Polym. 93(1), 307-
315 (2013)
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protein films and their application for packaging of Cheddar cheese. J. Food Sci. Technol. 51(12), 3767-
3775 (2014)

22
 Robotic harvesters for strawberry and apple
Aman Mahore1, H L Kushwaha2, Adarsh Kumar3, K P Singh4
1
Ph.D. Scholar, ICAR-CIAE, Nabi Bagh, Bhopal-462038
2
Senior Scientist, Agricultural Engineering, IARI, New Delhi
3
Principal Scientist, Agricultural Engineering, IARI, New Delhi
4
Principal Scientist, Principal Scientist, AMD, ICAR-CIAE, Bhopal
*Correspondence author E-mail: aman.mahore.95@gmail.com
Abstract: India is the second largest producer of fruits (90 million tons in 2015-16), the third largest
producer of apple in the world (2.9 million tons in 2015-16) whereas strawberry production is around
0.5 million tons (2015-16). Manual harvesting of these fruits is a labor-intensive job. Nearly 25% and
50-70% of total working hours are required for strawberry and apple harvesting respectively. The
bending and squatting posture during manual harvesting causes musculoskeletal disorders to the
workers. Apple trees are tall so the harvesting work has to be conducted using steps, which makes
manual harvesting dangerous and inefficient. Considering the problems related to harvesting of
strawberry, a strawberry harvesting robot (manipulator with 6 degrees of freedom) was built for the
elevated-trough culture. It has successfully picked 86% fruits taking 31.3 seconds for each picking. The
average error in position of fruit is 4.6mm, whereas 6mm error results in the harvesting failure. Also, a
robotic device consisting of a manipulator (5 degrees of freedom), end-effector and image-based
vision servo control system was developed for harvesting apple. The mean time for picking was 15.4
second and the picking success rate was 77 percent. In spite of more time required for picking single
fruit, these robots can be used for harvesting of apple and strawberry. There is a need to improve the
vision system to recognize all the fruits successfully. Improving the mechanical structure of the robot
can enhance the configuration. It would increase its versatility and promote its commercialization.
Keywords: Robotic harvester, robotic arm, machine vision system, end-effector, manipulator
Introduction: India is the 2nd largest producer of fruits (92 million tons in 2016-17) in the world
followed by Brazil, USA, Spain, Mexico, Italy and Indonesia (China is the 1st).Strawberry production in
India is 0.5 million ton in the year 2015-16. The harvesting of mature strawberries has been a hard
and heavy task in a long time. To protect the taste and appearance of the fruits, strawberry
harvesting has to be done at a cool time of the day by hand (Qingchunet. al., 2012). Strawberry
production is heavily dependent on human labor, with working hours exceeding 20000 working
hours/ha, which is over 60 times higher than those for rice production in Japan (Shigehikoet al.,
2010). During harvesting, human operators have to sit in a half-sitting posture from early morning.
Harvesting work continues for about six months every year, and improper posture of the working
condition causes load and fatigue on workers. working posture not only reduces the harvesting
efficiency but also adds fatigue to workers (Rajendra, et al., 2008). Strawberry production in India is
0.5 million ton in the year 2015-16. Apple is one of the most widely cultivated tree fruits. India is the
3rd largest producer of apple in the world having 2.9 million tons production in the year 2015-16.
The fruit trees are tall, harvesting work has to be conducted using step ladders, which makes manual
harvesting dangerous and inefficient. Apple harvesting requires nearly 50-70% of total working
hours, still it is done manually in India.
Table 1:Apple production in the different states of India (1000 Metric Tons)
States/ 2012-13 2013-14 2014-15 2015-16
UTS
J&K 1348.15 1647.69 1368.63 2003.07(69%)
HP 412.40 738.72 625.20 753.35(26%)

UK 123.23 77.45 106.10 106.14(3.7%)

Others 31.60 33.82 33.91 34.03(1.3%)

Total 1915.38 2497.68 2133.84 2896.59

23
 Fig.1:Trend of Apple production in India
Problems in manual harvesting of apple and strawberry:there are several problems associated with
the manual harvesting of apple and strawberry. Some of these problems are as follows:
Labor intensive:Apple farmers, on average, have to spend eight hours for three months for
harvesting every year. Strawberry production is heavily dependent on human labor, with working
hours exceeding 20000 working hours/ ha, which is over 60 times higher than those for rice
production in Japan (Shigehikoet al., 2010).
More skilled labors are required: The pericarp of a strawberry is so soft that workers must harvest
the fruits carefully to avoid damage. workers need to select mature red fruits from among the many
fruits that have set. So, the proper skilled labors are required for harvesting of strawberries.
Improper working posture:During harvesting of strawberry, human workers have to sit in squatting
or half-sitting posture from early morning. They have bend to carry the fruits as well as to pick the
fruits.
Load and fatigue on workers: workers have to carry the harvested fruits to the end of the rows.
Improper posture and load carried adds fatigue to the workers. The weight of the bucket for carrying
apple may go over 25kg, which they have to carry to the storage.
Ladder required for tall trees: Apple trees are tall, so harvesting work has to be conducted using step
ladders, which makes manual harvestingdangerous and inefficient.
Lower efficiency and higher cost:During manual harvesting of strawberries and apples, worker has to
recognize the mature fruit, pick that mature fruit, keep that safely and carry that to the end of the
row or carrier. Also, the improper working posture whether squatting, bending or standing on the
ladder adds load and fatigue. Due to these reasons the harvesting efficiency is much lower as well as
higher harvesting cost is required in manual harvesting. The labor cost on harvesting contributes
more than 1/4 of the total production cost. Therefore, there is a strong desire to mechanize
harvesting of apple and harvesting. But there are certain challenges to overcome for the
development of harvesting robots for strawberry and apple. These are as follows:
Challenges for fruit Harvesting Robot
Human-like perceptive capabilities: it should have capability to differentiate between fruits and
background. Also, it should be able to find the fruits behind the leaves and branches.
Avoiding collision: It should not collide with branches and fruits to avoid the damage to the robot
and the fruits.
High work efficiency and success rate: harvesting should be done in the minimum time with highest
accuracy. Also, the success rate of fruit recognition and picking should be maximum.
Variable lighting and environment condition: it should be capable of doing the job in the variables
environment conditions as variables lights, wind velocity etc.
Picking without damaging the fruits:the skin of strawberry fruit is very soft and susceptible to
damage. Apples are also susceptible to damage and scratch due to mechanical harvesting. The taste,
texture, colour and odour of the fruit should be retained after harvesting.

24
Assessment of maturity level:Robots should be able to detect a high percentage of mature fruits. To
achieve this goal, it is important to overcome basic existing difficulties such as occlusion and
illumination variation. Robots must be able to differentiate between mature and immature fruits.
Also, the detection of fruit cluster and background is required.
Calculation of fruit position:Fruit position is the most important thing for harvesting. Position of the
in the space is required for the movement of the picking arm. It must be able to get the accurate 3D
position of the fruit so the picking arm can hold the fruit in proper position to harvest.
Strawberry Harvesting Robots :Because of the nice taste and high yield, strawberries are widely
grown all over the world. It is a highly profitable and lucrative crop in agricultural production. Japan
and China are the leading producers of strawberries. Due to labor insufficiencies and tedious work
for human labor to harvest them spending hours in bending or squatting posture, some of the
researchers developed robotic harvesters for strawberry.
Qingchunet al., constructed a harvesting robot to meet the requirements mentioned above. It mainly
consists of six components:
1. Four-wheel mobile platform
2. 6-DOF manipulator
3. Harvesting end-effector
4. Binocular vision unit
5. Fruit container
6. Controller
Four-wheel mobile platform: The mobile platform is a four-wheel-drive vehicle, which makes the
robot move with strong loading capacity and perfect mobility on the uneven terrain of the
greenhouse at a speed of 0.3 m/s. Sonar sensors and a camera play the role of active perception
device in the autonomous navigation. When the robot moves among the cultivation shelves, sonar
sensors fixed on both sides of it will detect the distances between the vehicle and the iron-sheet on
the shelves and help the control system to keep the vehicle moving forward in a straight line. The
camera in the front of the mobile platform will capture the color guide line on the ground and lead
the robot to turn around when coming to the end of a crop line. The moving trajectory of the robot is
shown in Figure 3. Due to the hybrid sensing strategy of sonar sensors and a video camera, the robot
can move independently without other devices.

Fig.2:Strawberry harvesting robot

25
 Fig.3:Moving trajectory of harvesting robot
6-DOF manipulator:It is fixed on the vehicle 500 mm high from the groundand is used as an arm for
positioning the end-effector during harvesting operation. Its bottom joint can rotate in an angle
range of 0-345° and the working space looks like a hemisphere with the diameter of 650 mm, which
is feasible to handle the fruits on both sides of the robot. The manipulator has 6 degrees of freedom
(6-DOF), and can carry 5 kg max-load (heavier than our end-effector designed) with steady-state
accuracy of ±0.02 mm. Besides the rotation-joint mode structure satisfies the requirement well for
working in the limited space between crop and robot.
Harvesting end-effector:End-effector contains two fingers forming a pneumatic gripper for
peduncle-grasping, a suction cup for fruit-holding and an electrical heating knife for peduncle-
cutting. When the end-effector approaches the fruit target, the bellows-shaped suction cup will be
pushed out 100 mm to hold the fruit by vacuum, and then pull it back to make the peduncle stay
between two fingers. The fingers are closed to grasp the peduncle, and the elastic urethane layers
pasted on fingers are used to prevent pinching off the peduncle. The electrical heating cord and the
cutting board are respectively fixed above the two fingers. As the two fingers are closed, the cord is
electrically heated to 200℃ to cut the peduncle. Heat-cutting kills viruses at the cutting surface and
prevents plants from disease infection.

Fig.4:End effector and cutting device of the harvesting robot

Binocular vision unit:The Point Grey Bumblebee2 binocular camera is employed to recognize and
locate the mature strawberries. The commercial vision unit is proved to be practical for reducing the
developing cost, while meeting the demands on target detection the camera was mounted on the
manipulator between the third and fourth joint, and acquire the targets image of both sides at the
appropriate height. It has a resolution of 1024 (H) × 768 (V) pixels and a focal length of 6 mm. At the
average distance of 700 mm between the camera and the strawberries, the view field of camera has
a width of 670 mm and a height of 500 mm.

26
Fruit container: It is mounted over the robot to store the harvested strawberries in the container.
when the tray became full during harvesting, it went back to the stacker handling filled trays and the
next empty tray was prepared. Once the whole area was harvested, the tray was returned to the
stacker handling filled trays.
Controller:The system controller executes the processes of navigation, target recognition,
manipulator motion and end-effector control, which compose the robotic harvesting task schedule. A
reasonable schedule is important to make the automatic operations high-performance and
cooperative.
Operational flow of harvesting: After startup and initialization, the telecontrol instruction sent from
people will make the harvesting system move ahead independently. Once the moving time reaches
two seconds, the navigation system will stop moving. After that the vision unit begins to identify and
locate the ripe strawberries in its view field, and the 3D position data of the available fruits is sent to
the manipulator. The end-effector is positioned to the target, and separates the strawberry from
plants with the operation of suck, grasp, and cut. Finally, the fruit will be carried above the container
and released. At the moment, a single pick cycle is finished. After all the ripe fruits in the left side are
harvested, the bottom joint of manipulator will turn 180°to the right side to pick fruits.
When completing the harvesting operation in both sides, the robot will move ahead to pick other
fruits in the front, till receives telecontrol instruction for stop. If a fruit is not successfully separated
from the plant because of position error or collision, it will still exist in the same area of the view field
when the manipulator returns to the initial gesture after a harvesting cycle is completed, the robot
will attempt for five times before giving up to harvest another one.

Fig.5:Task sequence of the harvesting operation

Classification of Strawberries:Rajendra, et al., conducted study for development of algorithm for
robot to harvest strawberries. They had classified strawberries in five different categories according
to their surfacevisibility as follows:
General flow of harvesting:The harvesting procedure is as follows: First, the robot searches for the
red strawberry, and in this study, the HIS method was used for color conversion. Second, the depth
of the fruit is calculated. Third, maturity of the fruit is calculated, and if maturity is greater than 80%,
then the robot moves towards the fruit. Fourth, the robot captures the center camera image,
correcting deviations between the fruit and the robot and calculating peduncle angle inclination.
Fifth, the wrist joint is rotated in the direction of peduncle and the fruit is harvested. If fruit is not
present in the vacuum pad in such case, the robot will come back to its base position. If fruit is
harvested successfully, then the fruit will be kept in the tray sequentially, and the robot comes back
to its base position to harvest other strawberries.

27
Color Conversion by the HSI Method:A cylindrical model was used for color conversion. To detect
peduncles for the month of March the following values were used
20 < Hue < 45, 63 < Saturation < 250, 80 < Intensity<200
These values for the color detection change with season. For example, in May-June, the color of
peduncles will be brownish green. In such case the values need to be adjusted to detect the color of
peduncles.
Depth Calculation: The following equation is used for depth calculation;

In Equation we have disparity and ε as the variable parameters, which are inversely proportional to
the depth. To obtain the optimized depth, first disparity will be calculated and later it will be
multiplied with the optimized ε factor to obtain the corrected disparity. The ε factor was optimized
by the golden section method. We assumed that the optimum value of ε factor lies between 0.0-0.5.
Maturity Calculation:First, one hundred Type “A” fruits of different maturity levels were selected.
Second, the maturity levels of strawberries were decided by humans. Third, the same strawberry was
kept in front of the machine to calculate the maturity. In this study, maturity of the fruit is calculated
using the left camera. The equation used for maturity calculation is shown below,
Where, and
R is the Red Pixels, U is the non-red pixels, p represents the total red pixels and q represents the total
non-red pixels.

Here, M is maturity in percentage, A is the area of the red pixels in the fruit and B is the total pixels of
the fruit.

28
 Fig.6:General flow of the harvesting process
Cluster Detection:Most of the strawberries during the experiment were found to be cluster type.
Type C, D and E strawberries are known to the machine as single fruits. In this study, one method
based on the gradient of the vectors was applied to detect the C type strawberries. For non-linear
functions, the gradient vector at points (X1, X2) and (Ẋ1, Ẋ2)were calculated as follows:

Following equation was used to check the convexity breakout of the external boundary at point (X1,
X2 )

where, Ẋ1 = X1– Τ and Ẋ2 = X2 – ς, Τ and ς are the arbitrary constants with smallvalues.
If (X1, X2) <0, then in that particular case, theconvexity breakout is present in the detected region
ofinterest.
Position Correction:This was accomplished by improving the deviation by capturing the center
camera image at 100 mm from the target fruit. They processed the image and determined the
strawberry which was nearest to the center of the image. After implementing this method, we
observed that the robot could harvest fruits with a precision of ± 5mm deviational error.
Peduncle Recognition:First, the region of strawberry is detected, then, in the upper portion of the
region, fret diameter restriction is imposed to the object. If the fret diameter is less than 0.6 then it is
considered as the peduncle; otherwise the existing object is a leaf, immature fruits, stems of the
strawberry or stems of the leaf. However, the proposed method fails for certain conditions. For
example, if the two peduncles are attached, the calyx is highly curved, or if a small green strawberry
is attached with the peduncle.

29
 Fig.7:Peduncle Recognition
Maturity Calculation:In the study by Rajendra, et al.,(2008) 100 strawberries were chosen randomly
to understand the maturity detection of the machine. First, the maturity was decided by humans,
and then the same strawberry was shown to the machine to get the maturity by the machine. Fig.
shows the relationship between the maturity detected by humans and the machine. It was observed
that maturity calculation depends on two major factors. The first is the distribution of light source
and the second is the visibility of different surfaces of the same fruit.

Fig.8:Comparison of maturity by humans and the machine

The fruits above 80% maturity is considered as mature. Robot had recognized larger range of
strawberries then human judgement. It is due to the narrow band of red colour which causes the
recognition of pinkish strawberries as matured one. So, the width of the red color band should be
increased to capture the pinkish portion and green color band for the unripe portion of the
strawberry.
Success rate of peduncle recognition:As discussed earlier the five different types of strawberries
were classified. They had conducted study for the recognition of peduncle in the three different
months and the result is shown in the table below:
Table 2:Success rate of peduncle recognition
Type of fruits
Month
A B C D E
March 91% 72% 57% 48% 0%
April 95% 77% 56% 69% 0%
June 71% 73% 60% 60% 0%
The results clearly show that the recognition of single strawberry (A) was very high. But the
recognition of strawberry having exposure below 50% (E) was found to be zero. Shigehikoet
al.,(2010) had conducted study on harvesting of strawberry with suction picking and non-suction
picking of strawberry. In the suction picking vacuum pressure is applied to the target fruit and
compressed air is blow to keep other adjoining fruits away. This way the error in position calculation

30
and obstacles in between are avoided.

Fig.9: (A) Suction and (B) Non-suction Picking

(A) Suction Picking

(B) Non-suction Picking

Fig.10:Comparison of the harvesting Performance of suction picking and no-suction picking
operations
These graphs (Fig. 10) show the comparison between suction and non-suction picking of strawberry.
It clearly indicates that the successful harvest in tray is 72% in case of suction picking against 62% in
non-suction picking.

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 Table 3:Execution time of each motion
Average execution
Operation
time, s
Picking fruit 7.7
Placement into the way 3.8
Preparation of the tray 16.0
Changing the tray 15.0
Travelling for 200mm 1.0
In harvesting tests in the field, the overall SHRs were 41.3% for suction picking and 34.9% for no-
suction picking, but they were still far from the numerical target of 60 percent. The execution time
for harvesting a fruit, including its placement in a tray, was 11.5 s; the obtained execution time was
estimated to be 2.5–3 times longer than the time required during human harvesting (Shigehikoet. al.,
2010). Qingchunet al., (2012) had built a robot based on the sonar-camera sensor, an autonomous
navigation system and a six degree of freedom manipulator. Experimental results showed that all the
100 mature strawberry targets were recognized automatically in the harvesting test. The success
harvesting rate was 86%, and the success harvesting operation cost 31.3 seconds on average,
including a single harvest operation of 10 seconds. The average error for fruit location was less than
4.6 mm as shown in figure:

Fig.11:Results of Strawberry harvesting with robot (Qingchun et al., 2012)

Apple Harvesting Robot
The apple tree is in the rose family best known for its sweet, pomaceous fruit, the apple. It is
cultivated worldwide as a fruit tree. The apple is a deciduous tree, generally standing 1.8 to 4.6 m (6
to 15 ft) tall in cultivation and up to 12 m (39 ft) in the wild. Harvesting is one of the problem in the
tall trees as it requires larger number of labors and ladders to reach there. So, the apple harvesting
robot can be one of solution to the problems. Zhao et al., (2011) had developed A robotic device
consisting of a manipulator, end-effector and image-based vision servo control system was
developed for harvesting apple. The manipulator with 5 DOF PRRRP structure was geometrically
optimized to provide quasi-linear behavior and to simplify the control strategy. The spoon-shaped
end-effector with the pneumatic actuated gripper was designed to satisfy the requirements for
harvesting apple. The harvesting robot autonomously performed its harvesting task using a vision-
based module.
Major Components of Apple harvesting robot:-A prototype model of the apple harvesting robot was
designed for both efficiency and cost effectiveness. It mainly consists of an autonomous vehicle, a 5
degree of freedom (DOF) manipulator, an end-effector, the sensors, the vision system and control
system.

32
 Fig.12:Apple Harvesting Robots

The autonomous mobile vehicle: A crawler type mobile platform was selected as the mobile vehicle.
It carried the power supplies, pneumatic pump, electronic hardware for data acquisition and control,
and the manipulator with the end-effector for cutting the fruit. Global position system (GPS)
technology was used for autonomous navigation of the mobile vehicle, whose typical speed was 1.5
m/s.
The manipulator: a harvesting robot manipulator with 5 DOF prismatic revolute- revolute-revolute-
prismatic (PRRRP) structure to be mounted on autonomous mobile vehicle was designed. The first
DOF was used for uplifting the whole manipulator. The middle three DOF were for rotation, among
which, the second driving arm was designed to rotate around the waist, and the third and fourth
ones were rotation axes to move the terminal operator up and down. This DOF allowed the end-
effector to move towards an arbitrary direction in the work space. The fifth, and last, DOF was
flexible and used for elongation, which made the end-effector reach the target location according to
the robot control commands, thus achieving the harvesting of fruit.
The end-effector: A spoon-shaped end-effector (shown in Fig. 3) is designed according to biological
characteristics of spherical fruit, which are picked by means of cutting off the stalk. The end-effector
contained the following parts: a gripper to grasp the fruit and an electric cutting device to separate
the fruit from the stalk. The opening and closing of end-effector gripper was determined by some
pneumatic devices, whose quick action, fast response characteristics were suitable for the switching
control of the end-effector.
The sensors on end-effector: The layout of sensors on end-effector, which includes a vision sensor, a
position sensor, a collision sensor and a pressure sensor, is shown in Fig. 4. The vision sensor, which
uses high pixel colour charge coupled devices (CCD) video camera with universal serial bus (USB)
interface and the video for windows (VFW) capture technology to form image acquisition system,
plays a key role in completing image acquisition, fruit search and recognition. To obtain a wide
visible-field and not influenced by end-effector, the position of the vision sensor is in an eye-in-hand
mode. The photoelectric sensors are used in pair. They were used to determine the fruit position
with respect to the end effector position. The collision sensor was used for obstacle avoidance during
the process of harvesting. The function of pressure sensor is to determine the holding pressure of
fruit. It helps in avoiding the damage to the fruit during harvesting.
The control system: At the centre of the control system was the host computer, which integrates the
control interface and all of software modules to control the whole system. The sensor signal
acquisition system and image acquisition system constituted the input section which was used to
collect external environment information for the harvesting robot. The output section included a
servo driven motor, air pump and end-effector.

33
 Fig.13:(A) Layout of sensors on end-effector and (B) Layout of sensors on minor arm.

Fig.14:Hardware structure of apple harvesting robot control system (Zhao et al., 2011)
The vision systems: recognition is the separation of the object of interest (the fruit) from the
background (leaves, branches, sky, soil). This is an image processing procedure called segmentation.
When the colour of the fruit is different from its background, a colour video camera is often used for
recognition. Colour is an effective descriptor to enhance an object in an image thereby simplifying
object identification and extraction from an image. The machine vision system was composed of a
colour charge coupled device camera to capture apple images, and a personal computer to process
images for recognizing and locating the fruit. The fruit image was enhanced using the red colour
difference because results showed that the fruit had the highest red colour difference among the
objects in the image (Bulanonet al., 2002).
Apple recognition tests in different conditions
Bulanonet al., (2002) conducted apple recognition in four different natural lighting conditions:
a. Full sun, front lighting
b. Full sun, back lighting
c. Full sun, fruits in the shade
d. Cloudy conditions

34
The colour properties used in this model are: luminance Y; red colour difference CR; green colour
difference CG; and blue colour difference CB. The following equations converted RGB data to
luminance and colour difference signals:
Y = 0.3R + 0.6G + 0.1B
CR = R – Y, CG = G – Y&CB = B – Y

Fig.15:Flowchart of the recognition algorithm

Where, R, G and B were the red, green and blue colour intensity values ranging from 0 to 255,
respectively. Since the colour of the Fuji apple was red, only luminance and red colour difference
were used. luminance was plotted against red colour difference and this was named the luminance
and colour difference (LCD) space.

Fig.16:Example of a bimodal histogram

Where, CR is the red colour difference and k is optimal threshold. After the red colour different
calculation CR histogram is made as shown in figure 17. The lowest point in the graph shows the

35
optimal threshold value.

Fig.17: Apple recognition using optimal threshold

It is very evident from the spaces that the fruit has higher red colour difference than the background
in all the lighting conditions. Hence, it is easier to separate the fruit from the other two portions
using the red colour difference than the luminance. Table shows that the thresholds used to segment
images under different lighting conditions are different. Images under front lighting conditions had
the highest values of threshold, followed by those in the cloudy conditions; fruits in the shade; and
the back-lighting conditions. This indicates that the algorithm automatically adjusted to the type of
condition.
Table 4:Performance of the recognitionalgorithm (Bulanon et al., 2002)
Condition Success, % Error, %
Full sun, front lighting 92.2 1.5
Full sun, back lighting 89.1 18.2
Full sun, fruit in shade 88.6 1.3
Cloudy 95.4 0.9

Zhao et al., (2011) performed laboratory test and field test for the recognition and harvesting of the
apples. The picking success rate was observed 77% and the mean time for picking was 15.4 seconds.

Figure 19: Results of apple harvestingrobot (Zhao et al., 2011)

Conclusion
Harvesting of apple and strawberry using robots is challenge for the researchers. The most difficult
part in this field is the recognition of the fruits in the tree and their maturity calculation. After that
the determination of the position of fruits in the tree from the manipulator and end-effector requires
mathematical and imaging techniques which is shown in the studies. Many of the works are
successful in the initial phase of the recognition in the laboratory studies encourages the researchers
to work for real-time challenges. Future research needs to be focused on the following three aspects
for practicability and the commercialization of the robot: (1) optimization of the existing software
programs and algorithms to reduce computation. At the same time, improving the speed and

36
accuracy of picking for the blocked or swinging fruits thereby increasing the practicality of the robot;
(2) considering the complexity and unknown nature of working environment, the further research
should be focused on real-time obstacle avoidance, improving picking success. (3) improving the
mechanical structure of the robot to enhance the configuration. For example, by replacing the
manipulator and end-effector with different systems or using different freedom degrees to pick fruit
with different shapes and sizes, to achieve all-purposes of the robot. This would increase its
versatility, lower its overall cost, and promote its commercialization.
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38
 Design and Optimization of Picker Wheel Type Planting Mechanism for
Tuberose and Gladiolus Corms in the Laboratory Condition
T. M. Ananda Kumar1 and T. P. Singh2
1
Ph.D. Research Scholar and 2Professor, Dept. of Farm Machinery & Power Engineering
College of Technology, GBPUA&T, Pantnagar, Uttarakhand, India
Email : anandmtech4086@gmail.com
Abstract: The manual planting of tuberose and gladiolus corms is a tedious work which requires
proper placement of corm at proper depth and spacing.Hence it is required to develop the suitable
metering mechanism for planting both tuberose and gladiolus corms. The picker wheel type
metering mechanism was developed and evaluated in the laboratory condition for tuberose and
gladiolus at three levels of nominal spacing i. e. 15, 20 and 25 cm and four levels of forward speed of
1.5, 2.0, 2.5 and 3.0 km/h. The evaluation parameters like miss index, multiple index, quality of feed
index, precision, CP3 values and coefficient of uniformity was determined. Thelaboratory
resultsindicated maximum quality of feed index as 85 % for gladiolus corms at the forward speed of
1.5 km/h and 86.20 % for tuberose bulbs at the forward speed of 2 km/h for the nominal spacing of
25 cm.The quality of feed index, coefficient of uniformity and CP3 values showed decreasing effect
with increase in forward speed.
Keywords: Picker wheel, Gladiolus, Tuberose, Planter
Introduction:Government of India has identified floriculture as a sunrise industry and accorded it
100% export oriented status. Owing to steady increase in demand of flower, floriculture has become
one of the important commercial trades in agriculture.Gladiolus (Gladiolus dalenii)andTuberose
(Polianthestuberosa L.)are the two most important tropical ornamental bulbous flowering plants that
are cultivated for their long lasting flower spikes. In India, commercial cultivation of these flowering
plants is popular in West Bengal, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Assam,
Rajasthan, Gujarat, parts of Uttar Pradesh and Punjab. The Tuberose is popularly known as
Rajanigandha or Nishigandha. The total area under tuberose cultivationin the country is about 16190
ha. The production of loose and cut flowers is estimated to be 0.107million MT and 8929million
respectively. The bulbs are planted at a recommended spacing of 30 x 20 or 20 x 20 cm requiring
about 40,000 - 50,000 bulbs per acre. The total area under gladiolus production is 11660 ha in the
country with an estimated production of 1060million cut flowers (Anonymous, 2017). Gladiolus can
be grown in wide range of soils varying from light sandy to clay loam soils. It is propagated by its
corms that are planted in ridge and furrow system with a distance of 30 cm between furrows and 20
cm between plants within the furrowat a depth of 7-10 cm. At the mentioned spacing, about 167000
corms would be required for planting one hectare of land. In general, the bulbs/corms of these
flowering plants are planted manually requiring 220 man-h/ha(Zoltan and Singh, 2016) which is very
tedious and time consuming operation. Also due to non-availability of agricultural laborers, during
the peak season, farmers face difficulty in timely planting of these crops. Hence mechanizing of this
operation is very necessary. Many researchers have developed precision planting mechanisms for
small and medium sized seeds but very little have been done for planting of corms/bulbs. Singh and
Gautam (2015) developed the four-row gladiolus planter for planting of corms and evaluated at four
levels of forward speeds of 1, 1.5, 2.0 and 2.5 km/h for 3 nominal spacing i.e. 15, 20 and 25 cm. The
authors reported highercoefficient of uniformity and quality of feed index for wider spacing and
lower forward speed. The missing percentage was observed to increase with increase in forward
speed of planter. Jinqinget al. (2016) designed and tested an air suction potato seed metering device.
The optimized results indicated multiple index as 1.1%, miss index as 0.8 % and quality of feed index
as 98.9% for conventional tubers. Zoltan and Singh (2016) developed a 6-row tractor drawn
automatic planter with a cup chain metering mechanism for gladiolus corms, The quality of feed
index have been reported nearly 99 % with no visible damage to the corms. Kang et al. (2017)
optimized the design of an electrical cup chain potato metering device.The missing index was
reported to increase with the increase in chain speed.Review indicates that till date very little work

39
has been done on the planting machines for gladiolus and tuberose corms. Hence, keeping this in
view, an attempt has beenmade to develop a planting mechanism for both tuberose and gladiolus
corms.
Materials and methods
The picker wheel type metering mechanism was fabricated in the workshop of department of Farm
Machinery and Power Engineering, College of Technology, GB Pant University of Agriculture and
Technology, Pantnagarfor planting of both gladiolus corms and tuberose bulbs. The picker wheel
type metering mechanism consists of circular disc, finger,corm carrier, hopper, delivery pipe, shaft,
and frame.Circular disc is made of mild steel having a diameter of 600 mm and thickness of 4 mm. On
the periphery of this circular disc, fingers and corm carrier is placed with nut and bolt system. It is
mounted on the frame with the help of shaft and ball bearings. Finger consists of finger rod, finger
rod holder, MS flat and torsional spring.It is made of mild steel with a total length of 160 mm and
bent to 90 ° at 90 mm length and it is hold by finger rod holder.Finger rod is held in tension with the
aid of torsional spring mounted on the rod. Finger rod holder is mounted on the periphery of circular
disc with a nut and bolt. This holder is a made of mild steel flat having size of 100mm length, 30 mm
width and 3 mm thickness. Flat is bent to U-shape at 30 mm either side, i.e. actual length of flat is 60
mm after making it into U-shape. Torsional springs of bicycle braking system are fixed in between U-
shaped flat and another flat. The mild steel flat is welded to finger rod on one side and which is
having size of 65mm length, 20 mm width and 4 mm thickness.Corm carrier is fabricated based on
considering the engineering properties of tuberose and gladiolus corms (Table 1). It is consists of
corm carrying rods and base plate. The base plate is mounted on the periphery of circular disc with
the help of nut and bolt. Size of base plate is 109 mm length, 20 mm width and 4 mm thickness. On
one side of base plate the three corm carrying rods of 4 mm diameter 55 mm length are welded with
a gap of 15 mm each other. The hopper unit has been provided with a capacity of 4 kg. It was made
by using 2 mm thick mild steel sheet. Shape of hopper is kept like trapezoidalwith wall inclination of
2 sides 45° for easy flow, one side is supported by circular disc and 2 mm thick mild steel sheet and
other side of hopper was kept like curvature as the circular disc (Fig 2).Delivery pipe is made of
circular pipe of 76.2 mm diameter was attached to the frame to deliver the corms directly to the
furrow. Size of the pipe was selected in such a way so that the corms have straight fall without
striking with inner wall (Singh and Gautam, 2015).Shaft of 25 mm diameter made of mild steel was
used to give rotational drive to circular disc. The shaft was mounted on frame with the help of ball
bearings. Frame is made of mild steel angle of size 30x30x3 mm and which is rectangular shape when
viewed from top. The whole setup of metering unit is mounted on the frame.
Working principle of metering mechanism
The circular disc gets drive from ground wheel with a suitable chain and sprocket system.
The fingers were pressed against the circular disc on one side, while the spring loaded rods with
sleeves on the other side. As the disc rotate, the finger bars will get pass through the bars at the
bottom of hopper and tuberose bulbs or gladiolus corms will get into finger bars. As soon as the
finger passes through hopper bottom suddenly the finger will get release from tension of torsional
springs and hold the corms by rod which will carry to other side of the disc where the corms will get
released when the finger touches the cam and the flat which is fixed with torsional spring will be
under tension.
Performance evaluation in laboratory condition: The developed picker wheel type metering
mechanism was evaluated at four levels of forward speeds (1.5, 2.0, 2.5 and 3.0 km/h) and three
levels ofnominal spacing (15, 20 and 25 cm) because usually tuberose and gladiolus corms are
planted at these depending up on the geographical locations. The following indicators were used to
determine its performance.

40
 Fig. 1 Schematic diagram of Finger of picker wheel

mechanism
All dimensions are in mm
Fig. 2 Schematic diagram of picker wheel type planting mechanism
Table 1. Engineering properties considered for the development of metering mechanism
Sl. Properties Tuberose Gladiolus
No. Values (SD) Values (SD)
1 Major diameter 54.82(3.77) 43.48(3.74)
2 Intermediate diameter, mm 19.42(2.44) 34.46(2.90)
3 Minor diameter, mm 16.17(2.71) 25.74(2.96)
4 Geometric mean 29.6(2.17) 33.91(1.08)
5 Sphericity 0.435 (0.051) 0.77(0.04)
4 Bulk density, g/cc 0.656(0.023) 0.58(0.05)
5 Angle of repose, Degree 37(2.24) 32.00(3.54)
6 Coefficient of friction (MS) 0.56 (0.013) 0.54(0.018)

Multiple Index: It is the percentage of spacing that are less than or equal to half of the targeted
spacing in cm. Multiple index = n1/N where n1 is number of spacing ≤0.5 times targeted spacing, N is
the total number of observations recorded.
Miss Index: It is the percentage of spacing greater than 1.5 times the targeted spacing in cm.
Miss Index = n2/N where n1is the number of spacing >1.5 times the targeted spacing
Quality of feed Index: It is the percentage of spacing that are more than half but not more than 1.5
times the targeted spacing in cm.

41
 Quality of feed index = 100 – (Miss Index + Multiple Index)
Co-efficient of Uniformity:The average value of observed corm spacing was determined and the
corresponding value of coefficient of uniformity was calculated using the following equation
 (X - X) 
Coefficien t of uniformity (C u )  1     100
 NX 
 
Cu= Coefficient of uniformityX = sum of absolute value, cm X = Nominal spacing, cm
N = number of observation
Coefficient of Precision (CP3):known as3cm mode range. It was determined to be a better
representation of performance of metering device to space seeds or plants near the targeted spacing
than the combination of average spacing and standard deviation (Yazgi and Degirmenciglu, 2014).
Precision:Precision (C) is a measure of the variability in spacing after accounting for variability due to
both multiples and miss.
C =S2 /Xref
Where,S2 = Sample standard deviation of the n3 observations i.e. Spacing between 0.5 to 1.5
times the theoretical spacing, Xref = Theoretical spacing.
Visible damage:The percentage ofvisible damage of the corm or bulbs caused by the metering unit
wascalculated by observing the visible damage of the corm after passing it through the metering
device. The corms dropped in furrow was collected and observed for any physical visible damage and
the data related to this were recorded.The percentage of corm damage was calculated using the
following relationship.

Visibledamage,% = × 100
Results and Discussion
The developed picker wheel type metering mechanism was evaluated for 3 nominal spacings (15, 20
and 25 cm) and at four forward speeds (1.5, 2.0, 2.5 and 3.0 km/h) in the laboratory condition and
the performance indices like miss index, multiple index, quality of feed index, coefficient of
uniformity, CP3 values, precision and the physical damage were determined. Statistical analysis of
the data was also carried out. The results are presented as under.
Multiple Index:The percentage of multiples of corms or bulbs for all three nominal spacing and four
forward speeds of operations were determined from 15 meter long test run in soil bin during the
laboratory test and the results have been depicted in Fig. 3. In case of gladiolus corms, the minimum
multiple index was found as 2.36 % for 25 cm nominal spacing and at the forward speed of 3 km/h
whereas maximum value was found as 15.87 % for same nominal spacing and at 2.5 km/h of forward
speed. For tuberose bulbs, the minimum multiple index was observed as 3.23 % for 15 cm nominal
spacing, at the forward speed of 3 km/h whereas maximum was found as 10.15 % for same nominal
spacing at the forward speed of 1.5 km/h. It is also evident from the figure that the multiple index
decreased with increase in forwards speed for gladiolus corms Similar results were observed by other
researchers namelyTaghinezhadet al (2014): Shaban et al (2009) and Grewal (2014), no significant
effect of nominalspacing on multiple index for tuberose bulbs was observed while the forward speed
showed the significant effect on multiple index at 1 % level of significance (Table 2). Multiple index
was observed to decrease with decrease in nominal spacing for gladiolus corms whereas maximum
values were observed for 15 and 25 cm nominal spacing as compared to 20 cm nominal spacing, i.e.
the trend is not same as for gladiolus corms.
Miss Index: It is observed from the Fig. 4, that the miss index increased with increase in forward
speed for both gladiolus and tuberose bulbs. For gladiolus corms the minimum value of miss index
was found as 2.65 % for nominal spacing of 25 cm and at the forward speed of 2 km/h whereas
maximum value was found as 28.57 % for 15 cm nominal spacing and at 3 km/h of forward speed.For
tuberose bulbs the minimum value of miss index was observed as 5.58% for nominal spacing of 25
cm at the forward speed of 1.5 km/h whereas the maximum value was observed as 25.27 % for

42
nominal spacing of 15 cm at the forward speed of 3 km/h.In generally it was observed that the miss
Table 2 Statistical Analysis of various parameters (F-Values)
Tuberose Gladiolus
Miss Multiple QFI CoU CP3 Miss Multiple QFI CoU CP3
21.75*
Speed (S) 25.0** 2.15* 13.6** 16.1* 3.52* * 5.79** 11.5* 10.6* 3.76*
28.2*
Spacing (W) 9.3* 0.78NS 5.1* 15.5* -- * 5.3** 21.3** 44.7** 3.73*
Interaction
(SxW) 0.01 0.1 0.18 0.02 0.3 0.57 0.98 1.01 0.91 0.77
Std. Dev. 4.24 3.39 4.39 3.42 8.84 5.39 4.15 4.12 2.63 6.47
Mean 12.6 7.06 80.3 71.1 23.4 12.92 8.27 78.8 75.9 20.6
CV% 33.5 47.9 5.4 4.8 37.7 41.7 50.1 5.23 3.46 31.3
** Highly Significant at P≤0.01, * Significant at P≤0.05 NS Not Significant
index increased with increase in forward speed for both gladiolus and tuberose bulbs, because the
time available for picking the corm was less with the increase in forward speed. Similar results were
reported by Singh and Gautam (2015). It is also evident from the figurethat the miss index decreased
with increase in nominal spacing for gladiolus corms whereas for tuberose bulbs the minimum values
of miss index was observed for 15 and 25 cm nominal spacing as compared to 20 cm spacing.
Statistical analysis indicated significant effect of forward speed and nominal spacing on miss index
for both gladiolus and tuberose bulbs (Table 2).
Quality of Feed Index: It is observed from the Fig. 5, for gladiolus corms, thatthe maximum quality of
feed index is 85.03 % for the nominal spacing of 25 cm at the forward speed of 1.5 km/h whereas
minimum value was found as 67.72 % for the nominal spacing of 15 cm at the forward speed of 3
km/h. For tuberose bulbs, the maximum quality of feed index was found as 84.96 % for the nominal
spacing of 25 cm at the forward speed of 1.5 km/h whereas minimum value was found as 71.51 % for
the nominal spacing of 15 cm at the forward speed of 3 km/h. In general it was observed that the
minimum values of quality of feed index were found at higher forward speeds for lower nominal
spacings and vice-versa. This indicates that the maximum quality of feed index values were occurred
at where the time availability for picking up the corms is more. Also statistical analysis showed that
there is a significant effect of speed and nominal spacing on quality of feed index. It is also observed
that the quality of feed index decreased with increase in forward speeds for both gladiolus and
tuberose bulbs and increased with increase in nominal spacing for gladiolus corms whereas in case of
tuberose, the maximum values were found for nominal spacing of 15 and 25 cm as compared to
nominal spacing of 20 cm. Statistical analysis showed that forward speed for gladiolus and nominal
spacing for tuberose was significantly affects the quality of feed index at 5 % level of significance
whereas nominal spacing for gladiolus and forward speed for tuberose was significantly affects the
quality of feed index at 1% level of significance (Table 2).
Precision:The relationship between forward speed and precision has been illustrated in the Fig. 6. It
is observed that there is no significant effect of forward speed whereas nominal spacing showed
significant effect on precision for both tuberose and gladiolus corms.It was observed that the lower
precision values for lower nominal spacing as compared to higher nominal spacing for gladiolus
corms, whereas for tuberose bulbs, it is observed that there are lower precision values for higher
nominal spacing (25 cm) as compared to 15 cm and 20 cm nominal spacing. This indicates that the
metering device achieves lower precision values at lower peripheral speeds of metering device for
tuberose bulbs.
Coefficient of Uniformity: The coefficient of uniformity indicates the evenness of corms or bulbs
falling in the furrow. The relationship between forward speed and coefficient of uniformity has been
illustrated in Fig. 7, which indicated higher coefficient of uniformity for higher corm to corm spacing
at lower speed of operation.This may be due to the fact that the fingers of metering unit gets

43
sufficient time for picking and vice versa. It is observed from the Fig. 7, that the maximum coefficient
of uniformity for gladiolus corms was found as 79.4% for the nominal spacing of 15 cm at the forward
speed of 1.5 km/h whereas minimum value was found as 65.30 % for same nominal spacing at the
forward speed of 3 km/h. For tuberose bulbs, the maximum value of coefficient of uniformity was
found as 77.04 % for the nominal spacing of 25 cm at the forward speed of 1.5 km/h whereas
minimum value was found as 61.17 % for the nominal spacing of 15 cm at the forward speed of 3
km/h. It is evident from the Fig 7. that the lower values for both gladiolus and tuberose bulbs were
obtained at same nominal spacing (15 cm) and forward speed (3km/h). This may be due to the fact
that the movement of metering unit was not uniform at higher speed with more vibration compared
to lower speeds. The statistical analysis (Table 3) showed significant effect of forward speed and
nominal spacing on coefficient of uniformity for both gladiolus and tuberose bulbs.
Coefficient of precision (CP3): It is observed that, the maximum CP3 values for gladiolus corms was
found as 25 % for the nominal spacing of 15 cm at the forward speed of 1.5 m/h, whereas minimum
values were found as 10.6 % for same nominal spacing at the forward speed of 3 km/h (Fig 8). While
for tuberose bulbs, the maximum CP3 values were obtained as 33.59 % for the nominal spacing of 15
cm at the forward speed of 1.5 km/h whereas minimum values were obtained as 12.77 % for the
nominal spacing of 20 cm at the forward speed of 2.5 km/h. From the figure, it is observed that the
CP3 values decrease with increase in forward speed for both gladiolus and tuberose bulbs. For
gladiolus corms there is no significant effect of nominal spacing on CP3 values whereas for tuberose
bulbs, it was observed that the lower values were found for the nominal spacing of 20 cm as
compared to 15 and 25 cm. Statistical analysis showed that the significant effect of forward speed on
CP3 values for both gladiolus and tuberose bulbs at 5% level of significance whereas only nominal
spacing affects the CP3 values for tuberose bulbs at 5 % level of significance (Table 2).
Visible damage: The visible damage wasobserved and the same is presented in Table 3. It is
observed that the maximum visible damage was found as 5.3 % for tuberose bulbs whereas no there
was no visible damage for gladiolus corms for nominal spacing of 20 cm at the forward speed of 1.5
km/h and also for nominal spacing of 25 cm at the forward speeds of 1.5 and 2 km/h.The percentage
of physical damage increased with increase in forward speeds and decreases with increase in
nominal spacing. The physical visible damage occurred may be due tothe force acting on the bulbs
from the rod of the finger while releasing the finger from the tension. The effect of forward speed on
physical of damage was found statistically significant.
Table 3Visible damage of tuberose bulbs and gladiolus corms(%)
Forward Tuberose bulbs Gladiolus corms
speed Nominal spacing, cm
km/h 15 20 25 15 20 25
1.5 2.1 1.9 2.0 1 0 0
2.0 2.8 3.1 2.9 1.5 1.5 0
2.5 4.8 4.9 5.1 2.1 2.0 2.2
3.0 5.3 5.2 5.0 2.4 2.1 2.2
Optimized conditions: The data were analyzed statistically in the Stat Ease Design Expert software
and the optimized operational parameters have been presented in Table 3. The values of quality of
feed index, Precision and Coefficient of Precision (CP3) were found less for tuberose bulbs as
compared to gladiolus corms whereas the remaining values of multiple index, miss index, coefficient
of uniformity was found more for tuberose bulbs as compared to gladiolus corms. The optimized
speed is found as 1.5 km/h for both tuberose and gladiolus corms while the optimized spacing is
found as 15 cm for tuberose bulbs and 20 cm for gladiolus corms. However both the tuberose and
gladiolus corms can be planted at the spacing ranging from 15 – 25 cm between plant to plant.

44
 Table 4Optimized conditions
Crop Speed Spacing Multiple Miss QFI CoU Precision CP3
Tuberose 1.5km/h 15 cm 8.52 % 12.03 % 79.44 % 81.42 % 20.98 % 25.49 %
Gladiolus 1.5 km/h 20 cm 7.69 % 8.16 % 84.14 % 74.48 % 21.27 % 25.99 %

Conclusion
Based on the results of laboratory test it is concluded that the multiple index, quality of feed
index, coefficient of uniformity and coefficient of precision (CP3 values) decreased and miss index
increased with increase in forward speed. The operating parameters namely forward speed and
nominal spacing was found to have significant effect on miss index, multiple index, quality of feed
index, coefficient of uniformity and coefficient of Precision (CP3) values at 1 % level of significance.
The developed metering device performed better at lower forward speeds of 1.5 and 2 km/h as
compared to 2.5 and 3 km/h speeds for all the nominal spacings.

Fig. 3 Effect of forward speed and nominal spacing on multiple index for gladiolus and tuberose

Fig. 4 Effect of forward speed and nominal spacing on Miss index for gladiolus and tuberose bulbs

45
Fig. 5 Effect of forward speed and nominal spacing on quality of feed index for gladiolus and
tuberose bulbs

Fig. 6. Effect of Forward speed and nominal spacing on precision for gladiolus and tuberose bulbs

Fig. 7 Effect of forward speed and nominal spacing on coefficient of uniformity for gladiolus and
tuberose bulbs

46
Fig. 8 Effect of forward speed and nominal spacing on CP3 values for gladiolus and tuberose bulbs
References
Anonymous, Annual report, 2017. National Horticulture board. Department of Agriculture,
Cooperation and Farmer’s Welfare, Ministry of Agriculture and Farmer’s Welfare, New Delhi
Grewal, R. S. 2014. Development and evaluation of tractor operated planter for onion crop. M.Tech
Unpublished Thesis, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana.
Jack, D. S., Hesterman, D. C. and Guzzomi, A. L., 2013. Precision metering of Santalum spicatum
(Australian Sandalwood) Seeds. Bio-system Eng. 115:171-183.
Jinqing, L. Ying, Y., Zihui, L., Qinqin, S., Jicheng, L. and Zhongyuam, L. 2016. Design and experiment of
an air suction potato seed metering device. Int. J. Agric. & Biol. Eng. 9(5): 33-42.
Kang, N., Xianfa, F., Yangchun, Chengxu, L. and Yanwei, Y., 2017. Optimized design and performance
evaluation of an electric cup-chain potato metering device. Int. J. Agric. & Biol. Eng. 10(2):36-
43.
Shaaban U. A., Afify, M. T. Hassan, G. E. and Za, E. H. 2009. Development of a vacuum precision
seeder prototype for onion seeds. Misr. J. Ag. Eng., 26(4): 1751-1775.
Singh, T. P. and Gautam, V. 2015. Development and performance evaluation of a gladiolus planter in
field for planting corms. Int. Scholarly & Sci. Res. & Innovation. 9(12):1243-1248.
Taghinezhad, J., Alimardani, R. and Jafary, A. 2014. Design and evaluation of three metering devices
for planting of sugarcane billets. J. Agri. Sci. 20:164-174.
Yazgi, A. and Degirmencioglu, A. 2014. Measurement of seed spacing uniformity performance of a
precision metering unit as function of the number of holes on vacuum plate. Measurement.
56:128-135.
Yitao, L., Lei, W. and Qingxi, L. 2017. Design and test of an inside filling pneumatic precision
centralized seed metering device for rapeseed. Int. J. Agric. & Biol. Eng. 10(2):56-62.
Zoltan S. and Sing, T.P. 2016. Design modification and performance evaluation of four row gladiolus
planter and its comparison with manual planting in the field condition. Unpublished M.Tech
GBPUAT Pantnagar.

47
 Runoff distribution decision planning using Land Resource Inventory and
Hydrological parameters in Adagur Watershed of Tumkur District of
Karnataka
H.G. Ashoka 1, N.K. Rajesh Kumar2, K.S. Rajashekarappa 3, S. Shivaraj 4, Aruna K.T.5
and T. Chikaramappa 6
1
Special Officer, 2Research Associate, 3Professor, 4Senior Research Fellow, 5Senior Research Fellow,
Department of Agricultural Engineering, COAE, 6Professor, Department of Soil Science and
Agricultural Chemistry, COA, University of Agricultural Sciences, GKVK, Bangalore-65;
Email : rajeshmtechster@gmail.com
Abstract: Improper watershed planning results in huge economic loss as well as wastage of water
and soil loss. Scientific based watershed planning is the need to reduce the cost as well as proper
distribution of rainfall-runoff water at different reaches of the watershed. The integrated hydrology
assessment and land resource inventory study carried out under Sujala-III project to suggest suitable
soil and water conservation structures. The study was carried out in Adagur Sub watershed, Tumkur
district 76º 58ʹ 56.72ʺ E to 77º 5ʹ 52.51ʺ E, Longitude and, 13º 19ʹ 10.62ʺ N to 13º 14ʹ 18.35 ʺ N
Latitude, covered area of 4434.35 ha. The average rainfall of 862 mm, Kharif rainfall is 55.52 %, Rabi
rainfall is 22.6 % and Summer rainfall 21.88 % was contributed. The average actual
evapotranspiration (AET) was 837.32 mm. The average monthly AET v/s Rainfall during May, July,
August, September, October and November indicated that the Evapotranspiration (ET) was much
lower than the rainfall. The value of Budyko curve analysis for sustainability was 1.01 which is more
than 1. It shows, there is no scope for construction of conservation and harvesting structures. The
sub-watershed is comprised of soil with textures namely, Loamy Sand (5.1 ha), Sandy loam (173.6
ha), Sandy clay loam (836.4 ha), Sandy clay (2188.6 ha) and clay (679.1 ha). Runoff computation was
made by Rainfall intensity-infiltration capacity method. The result shows Runoff availability with
existing conditions is 132.5 mm (14.9 %), out of which 32.4 mm (3.6 %) is Runoff availability with
effective interventions, 22.73 mm (2.56 %) is Runoff excess for harvesting by construction of
structures and remaining 9.74 mm (5.0 %) is Runoff allowed as environmental flow at the outlet.
Total water balance of micro watershed, rainfall is 888 mm, actual evapotranspiration is 823.8 mmm
and about 277.5 mm stored as soil moisture and runoff is 132.5 mm.
Key words: Runoff Distribution, Decision Planning, Budyko Curve, Total Water Balance
Introduction :Karnataka is the 2nd largest dry land area with variable rainfall (200 mm to 2500mm)
and depletion of ground water (1mbgl to 100mbgl) at alarming rate, due to unscientific utilization of
ground water due to over usage even though the length of growing period varies from 90 days to 190
days at many places. Due to above reason scientific based runoff harvesting and distribution play a
key important role to reduce the pressure on ground water as well as recharge takes place at specific
site. Land Resource Inventory (LRI) and hydrological parameters analysis has been carried out based
on physical factors rock, soil, slope, erosion type & severity and vegetation and weather parameters
which is the basis of assessing land and water resources. LRI helps in grouping together areas where
similar land and water resource exists on ground, which require the same kind of management, the
same kind and intensity of conservation treatment and same kind of crops, pasture or forestry
species, with similar yield potentials. It is essential to assist in the planning for future land use,
particularly agriculture, because it assesses the land resource and its potential for sustainable
agricultural production (Naidu et al., 2006). In this scenario integrated hydrology and land resource
inventory play an important role in suggesting suitable soil and water conservation structures. The
various researchers tried for finding the crop suitability (Anil et.al, 2017; Venkategowda et. al., 2017)
site suitability for water conservation structures viz. (Gavade, et. al., 2011; Abhay, M. JP Singh et. al.,
Umapathi, et. al., 2013; Yogesh, et. al., 2013).
Location and Extent: The University of Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore carried out the inventory and
documentation of spatial and temporal changes in hydrological components of Adagur sub-
watershed (SWS) in Tumkur Taluk of Tumkur District has been undertaken for Integrated planning,

48
development and management at the level of soil mapping units (scale 1:8000). Adagur Sub-
Watershed is located within the boundary of 76º 58ʹ 56.72ʺ E to 77º 5ʹ 52.51ʺ E, Longitude and, 13º
19ʹ 10.62ʺ N to 13º 14ʹ 18.35 ʺ N Latitude, covering an area of 4434.35 ha. The sub-watershed
comprises of 8 MWS namely Adalapura (4B3D3H2b), Adagur (4B3D3H2d), Galigenahalli (4B3D3H1d),
Chikka Sarangi (4B3D3H1b), Heddatanahalli (4B3D3H2c), Ramegoudanapalya (4B3D3H2a),
Vaddarahatti (4B3D3H1a) & Yallapura (4B3D3H1c) and Average annual rainfall of the area is 862 mm.
The subwatershed is comprised of soil with textures namely, Loamy Sand (5.1 ha), Sandy loam (173.6
ha), Sandy clay loam (836.4 ha), Sandy clay (2188.6 ha) and clay (679.1 ha). The main cropping
season is Kharif and major crops are Arecanut, Coconut, Ragi, Maize, Banana, Tomato and Brinjal.
The major landforms identified in the micro-watershed are undulating uplands, middle land and low
lands. The database was generated by using cadastral map of the village as a base along with high
resolution satellite imagery [Cartosat-1 PAN 2.5 m and Resourcesat-2 LISS-IV MX merged Image].

Fig 1: Location map of Adagur Sub watershed area, Tumkur District, Karnataka
The methodology followed was explained in frame work flow chart (Fig.2) for extraction of
information from satellite data is essentially of standard monoscopic visual interpretation based on
tone, texture, shape and size. The topographic features, major physiographic units and land use were
extracted. The origin of soil deposits was extracted from geological map provided by Geological
Survey of India. The data extracted from both the sheets were converted into defined soil units using
satellite imagery and were verified by ground truthing through field observation and soil sample
collection. Based on the variations of these factors sample strips have been selected for detail
morphological study of the soils. The study area was delineated with the help of toposheet of
1:50,000 scale and soil survey was carried out using cadastral base map at 1:7920 scale. A detailed
traverse of the micro watershed was made to identify the major landforms like uplands, midlands
and lowlands. Seventeen representative pedons were selected on different landforms in transect
along the slope from the upper to lower slope. The profiles were dug up to 150 cm depth or up to
parent rock whichever was shallower based on variations in physiographic unit, parent material type,
land use land cover and slope map and studied for their morphological characteristics as per Soil
Survey manual (Soil Survey Division Staff, 1999). The horizon wise soil samples were collected, air
dried and passed through 2mm sieve and analysed for particle size distribution following
international pipette method (Richards, 1954). Based on soil site characteristics and the crop

49
requirements, the soil suitability classes were developed as per the criteria suggested by Sys et al.
(1993) and NBSS and LUP (1994). The land capability classes and sub classes were arrived at as per
the guidelines in Soil Survey Manual (Soil Survey Staff, 1951).

Fig 2: Framework methodology

Hydrology parameters was collected from KSNDMC and weathers stations installed in pilot
micro watersheds both special and temporal at 15 minutes interval (Rainfall, Evapotranspiration,
ground water, soil moisture and climate) data was used from standard sources for developing water
balance model. Infiltration studies were carried extensively based on soil series wise and compared
with different soil phases and scenarios (Jagadale, et.al, 2012). Instantaneous runoff process was
estimated from each 15 minutes Rainfall intensity over basic infiltration capacity of each soil phase.
Quantity of runoff stored in the existing bunds, storage tanks and harvesting structures considered
for total water balance. Water budgeting is the process of assessing the volume of additional rain
water to be harvested in the watershed area and to plan harvesting structures accordingly. It also
involves calculating the volume of water required for human, livestock, agriculture and for
maintaining the ecological balance sustainably Quantity of runoff allowed as environmental flow is
estimated for sustainability of cascade tanks (Anon, 2015).
Results and discussion
Rainfall index of the Adagur Sub watershed: The average annual rainfall (862 mm) during 2009 to
2017. Severe drought years were observed during 2009, 2011, 2012, 2014 and 2016. The year 2010,
2013, 2015 and 2017 will be considered as above normal rainfall year. Total rainfall of 888 mm during
2017 which is considered for runoff analysis, average kharif rainfall is 55.5 %, average Rabi rainfall is
22.6 % and average summer rainfall 21.8 % was contributed. Excess runoff should be collected in
some storage structures so as to use it for irrigating post-monsoon crops Subudhi et al. (2012).
Actual Evapotranspiration Vs Rainfall: The average annual actual evapo-transpiration (AET) 2001 to
2017 is 837 mm is lower than the average annual rainfall (862 mm). In comparison to the last decade,
average annual AET increased by about 17.4 %. This increase is evenly distributed during May to
December. The average monthly AET v/s Rainfall indicates during May, July, August, September,
October and November, the ET is lower than the rainfall which indicates proper conservation and
harvesting operation can be carried in these months. Appropriate scheduling of irrigation increase
the irrigation water use efficiency allowing more water available for other human and environmental
uses. Timing and quantum of water to be applied requires data on Actual Evapotranspiration (AET)
Rao, et al. (2012).
Budyko curve analysis: The watershed water balance observed there is high evaporative index 1.6 in
the year 2012, whereas low evapotranspiration index 0.7 found in the year 2010. Budyko curve value
should be below one for sustainability from hydrological considerations. In Adagur Sub watershed for

50
sustainability, the limit of average AET/P Vs PET/ P Budyko curve value is 1.01 which is nearer to 1.
This suggests that the cropping choices and irrigation choices have to be altered to reduce the total
AET. Budyko equation has achieved iconic status in hydrology for its concise and accurate
representation of the relationship between annual evapotranspiration and long-term-average water
and energy balance at catchment scales (Garrison and Sposito, 2017)

Fig 5: Budyko curve analysis

Fig 7: Temporal soil moisture

The method developed for retrieving soil moisture from multi-satellite observations allowed
to map surface soil moisture behavior in the micro-watershed. The available surface moisture was
varied in the range of 11.5-32.5% in Kharif and rabi-16 and 11.75-34.5% in Kharif and Rabi-17, Later it
reduces to 11.25% during summer 2018 in the Sub-watershed. This observation is helpful for
providing life saving irrigation during critical crop growth stages of the crops grown in different
texture of soils (Renschlerab, et.al, 1999).
The bore well in Gubbi representing Adaguru subwatershed groundwater status. Based on available
data obtained from Department of mines and geology (DMG)- ground water seasonal fluctuations
during the period indicates variation in ground water status from 18 mbgl(Jan-2008) raised to 8.3
mbgl (Dec 2010). Later Oct 2011(8.6 mbgl) fall to 24.8 mbgl (Mar-2015), later the ground water table
fall to 32.41 mbgl (Aug-17). Moreover, the groundwater use is relatively higher and there is scope to
reduce the use by utilizing the marginally under-utilized runoff through harvesting and conservation
practices.
Soil phase wise runoff distribution:

51
 Fig. 9: Mapping unit wise runoff distribution

Table:1 Runoff distribution allocation

Average 2017
Sl. No Particulars Per cent
(mm)

1. Rainfall 888

2. Rainfall that produces runoff excess 132.5 14.9

3. Runoff excess beyond bunding system 32.47 3.6

4. Runoff excess for harvesting by

22.73 2.56
construction of structures

5. Runoff allowed as environmental flow at

9.74 1.10
the outlet

In Adagur Sub watershed out of 888 mm (2017). About 132.5 mm (14.9 %) runoff happening in
existing condition, Runoff excess beyond bunding system is 3.6 % and remaining 1.1 % is allowed as
environmental flow, rest over is 2.56 % runoff water is available for harvesting.
Total water balance of Yarehalli micro watershed: Total water balance Yarehalli Micro watershed
indicates (Fig.10) 42 % rainfall, 39% of water actual evaporated from both surface as well as plant
canopy, 10 % stored as soil moisture, ground water recharge change is 3%, about 6 % of runoff
occurs in the whole micro watershed which is helpful construction of additional harvesting structures

Fig. 10: Water budget for Adagur Sub-watershed

52
Conclusion
Soil and water are two important natural resources judicious utilization of these natural resources
play key important role by suggesting suitable crops during pre-monsoon, post monsoon and non-
monsoon season by providing lifesaving irrigation at critical growth stages of the crop to achieve
food production target. The choice of crop and method of irrigation have to be altered to reduce
total AET from the present dominant Arecanut crop with basin irrigation with drip cum mulch
irrigation. The total water balance analysis indicates proper conservation and harvesting operations
should be carried by suggesting suitable structures at upper, middle and lower reaches of the
watershed based upon spatial decisions and field visit in drainage line. Proper water balance and
runoff distribution at different scenarios helps the policy makers to take decision for allocation of 20
% as environmental flow for sustainability of cascade tanks.
Acknowledgment: Authors acknowledge Watershed Development Department, Government of
Karnataka and World, Bank for providing financial support to carry out the study under Sujala-III
project. The technical support provided by staff of Sujala is greatly acknowledged. Authors
acknowledge thanks to Department of Agricultural engineering, Soil Science and Agricultural
Chemistry, University of Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore for providing technical guidance, lab
facilities for analysing soil samples, collecting hydrological parameters and to generate various
suitability maps.
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54
 Assessment of climate change impact on maize (zea mays l.) in semi-arid
alfisol of southern Telangana
Barikara Umesha1*, K S Reddy2, B. S. Polisgowdar3, V Maruthi2, M S Ayyanagoudar3
and U Satishkumar3
1*
Scientist (SWE), ICAR-KVK, Yadgir,
2
Principal Scientist, Central Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture, Hyderabad
3
Professor, College of Agricultural Engineering, UAS, Raichur. Karnataka, India
Corresponding Email:umeshbarikar@gmail.com
Abstract: The rainwater harvesting with supplemental irrigation in the semi arid regions enhance the
livelihoods of rainfed farmers by mitigating the dry spells under changing climate. The present study
was under taken to assess the climate change impact on maize crop. There were five main irrigation
treatments viz., I0, I1, I2, I3, I4, two sub treatments viz., M0 (no mulching), M1 (mulching @ 5 t ha-1 with
glyricidia) and two sub-sub treatments viz., NF (normal fertilizer) and HF (high fertilizer) to study the
effect of supplemental irrigation and crop management practices on maize grain yield and water
productivity in semi aridalfisols of Telangana state. The results of the present study showed that, the
highest average grain yield of 3.19 t ha-1 was recorded in I4 and lowest was in I0 (1.78 t ha-1). The
highest average water productivity (10.65 kg ha-1 mm-1) was recorded in I4 followed and the lowest
was in I0 (7.60 kg ha-1 mm-1). The developed crop water production functions indicated that, the grain
yield was increased with increase in depth of supplemental irrigation. The AquaCrop model was
calibrated for simulation of grain yield, biomass and water productivity for all treatment levels and
the prediction error statistics were 0.94 < E < 0.95 %, 0.06 <RMSE< 0.12 t ha-1 and 0.59 <MAE< 0.82 t
ha−1. During the validation, model performed well with model efficiency of 91, 90 and 73 % for grain
yield, biomass and water productivity respectively and is within the acceptable limits. Under the
changing rainfall and air temperature, the maize grain yield in rainfall in rainfed condition can be
sustained by application of supplemental irrigation of 50 mm with expected increase by 75, 80 and
85 per cent in time scenarios of 2020, 2050 and 2090 as compare to kharif 2013 in Rangareddy
district of Telangana state.
Keywords: Rainfed, Supplemental Irrigation, Maize, Climate Change.
Introduction:Water scarcity and frequent droughts are threats to the livelihood of dryland farming
communities and the economy in many parts of the world (Alam 2015), particularly countries like
India where more than 55 % of total agricultural area is rainfed (Kumar et al., 2015; William 2011)
supporting 40 % of India’s food demand of 1.2 billion people. In semi-arid regions, climate change is
expected to cause more variability which leads to occurrence of extreme rainfall events and increase
in the frequency of droughts (Lasage and Verburg, 2015; Iglesias and Garrote, 2015). According to
Reddy et al., (2014) average annual rainfall is expected to be increased by 5.16 % in 2030 and 9.5 %
in 2060 in semi arid of southern part of Telangana state in India. The occurrence of frequent
droughts in the semi arid regions received increasing attention in adoption of rainwater harvesting
structures in recent years. To keep in pace with the demand for food for the increasing population,
the Indian drylands should be made more productive through appropriate rainwater harvesting and
management techniques (Temesgen, 2007). Crop growth simulation models have become widely
accepted tools for assessing the impact of climate change on crop production. These models need for
their simulations, multivariate weather series representing present and future climates to simulate
crop growth on a daily time step (Mearns et al., 1997). Crop producers need to adapt to climate
change through changes in farming practices, cropping patterns, and use of modern technology. The
expected future changes in climatic conditions namely solar radiation, air temperature, precipitation
and higher concentration of carbon dioxide (CO2) can be analyzed by using crop models (Žaludet al.,
2011).The AquaCrop is a crop waterproductivity model developed by the Land and Water Division
ofthe Food and Agricultural Organisation (FAO) of the United Nations(Steduto et al., 2009). In
comparison with other models, it is moreeffective for areas where water is a limiting factor, it
requires fewerparameters, it is user-friendly, more accurate, with lower errorprobabilities (Raes et

55
al., 2009). RCPs are concentration pathways used in the IPCC AR5. They are prescribed pathways for
greenhouse gas and aerosol concentrations, together with land use change, that are consistent with
a set of broad climate outcomes used by the climate modelling community. The pathways are
characterized by the radiative forcing produced by the end of the 21st century. Radiative forcing is
the extra heat the lower atmosphere will retain as a result of additional greenhouse gases, measured
in Watts per square metre (W m-²). The complexity of humanity’s possible future emissions has been
reduced to just four representative pathways.
RCPs take into account the impact of atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide and other
greenhouse gases and aerosols. Each of the RCPs covers the period from
1850–2100. The full range of emission scenarios, with and without climate policy, is included within
the range of the RCPs. They include one mitigation scenario leading to a very low forcing level (RCP
2.6), two medium stabilization scenarios (RCP 4.5 and RCP 6) and one very high baseline emission
scenario (RCP 8.5). Keeping these aspects in view, the present investigation on “Assessment of
climate change impact on maize (zea mays l.) in semi-arid alfisol of southern Telangana” was carried
out at ICAR - Central Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture, Hyderabad with the following
objectives.
Materials and Methods
Experimental location and treatments: The field experiment was conducted in Gunegal Research
Farm (GRF) of ICAR-Central Research Institute for Dryland Agricultural (CRIDA), which is located at 45
km away from Hyderabad. The farm is located at 78º 40ʹ 18ʺ N and 17º 2ʹ 5ʺ E with mean sea level of
621 m. The experiment was laid out in a split-split plot statistical design with three replications.
There were five main treatments viz., I0, I1, I2, I3, I4, two sub treatments viz., M0 (no mulching), M1
(mulching @ 5 t ha-1 with glyricidia) and two sub-sub treatments viz., NF (normal fertilizer) and HF
(high fertilizer). Maize (Monsanto, Dekalb 900 M.Gold) crop was used as test crop and total plot size
was 4050 m2 (60 blocks) with each block size 15 m x 4.5 m. The experiment was conducted during
season for two years, 2013 and 2014 and sowing of maize crop was done on two dates ie 15th July of
2013 and 5th July of 2014.
Weather data: The daily climate data on rainfall, maximum and minimum temperature, solar
radiation, relative humidity and wind speed are recorded from an automated weather station (AWS)
installed at Gunegal Research Farm (GRF), ICAR-CRIDA during crop period of 2013 and 2014. The
average annual and seasonal rainfall of the study area is 701.87 and 478.05 mm, respectively. The
average temperature of study area is 25.5 ºC with average minimum and maximum of 8.94 and 42.06
ºC respectively. The weather data such as daily rainfall depth, maximumand minimum temperatures
during the crop period of 2013 and 2014 were presented in FigS1 and 2.
AquaCrop model description and input data: AquaCrop version 3.1 was used in the present study
and it consists of six input files for simulation: climate file, crop file, soil file, field management file,
irrigation file, and initial soil water conditions; all these are user specific. However, crop file contains
both conservative parameters (that do not change with location) and non-conservative (user-specific
parameters). The detailed information on AquaCrop model can be found in (Steduto et al., 2009).
Climate data: AquaCrop model requires daily values of rainfall, minimum and maximum air
temperature, reference crop evapotranspiration (ETo), and mean annual carbon dioxide
concentration (CO2). The FAO ETo calculator was used to calculate daily ETo using the daily maximum
and minimum temperature, wind speed at 2 m above ground surface, solar radiation and mean
relative humidity (RH).The daily rainfall depths, temperature variations and ETo during the
experiment of 2013 and 2014 are shown in Figs. 1 and 2, respectively.
Crop parameters: Random sampling at regular intervals is used in the study for obtaining data on
plant growth parameters such as aboveground biomass, plant height, root length, leaf area index.
Observation on plant height, leaf area and root depth were recorded on 15 days interval, 15 days
after of sowing (DAS) to harvest stage and subsequently the days related to germination, flowering,
maximum canopy, maximum root depth, senescence and maturity were also recorded. The values
for canopy decline coefficient, crop coefficient for transpiration at full canopy cover, soil water

56
depletion thresholds for inhibition of leaf growth and stomatal conductance, acceleration of canopy
senescence were adopted from Abedinpour et al., (2012). Relationship between LAI and CC used for
maize crop is presented in Eq. (1) (Hsiao et al., 2009; Heng et al., 2009).
CC = 1.005[1−exp(−0.6×LAI)]1.2 …(1)
Irrigation and field management parameters: The input data required by AquaCrop model on
irrigation management are rainfed and irrigation. In the present study, no irrigation was applied
under rainfed treatment. However, two supplemental irrigations was applied through sprinkler
irrigation based on selected treatment viz I1(20 mm), I2(30 mm), I3(40 mm) and I4(50 mm). The field
management consists of mulching and fertility levels. In the present study, two fertilizer levels and
mulching with 5 t ha-1were adopted.
AquaCrop model calibration: Calibration is a process of adjusting the parameters of the model so
that simulated results reach a pre determined level, usually that of an observation. In the present
study, the AquaCrop model calibration was accomplished by using observed values from the field
experiment conducted during rainy season of 2013. The field data of 2013 crop season were used as
input to simulate the model output viz. soil water content, maize green crop canopy, yield, biomass
and water productivity. The prediction error between observed and model predicted values were
reduced by trial and error method by taking one specific input variable as reference and adjusted
only those parameters. The same procedure was repeated for each treatment combination to arrive
at the closet match between the observed and model simulated values.
Calibration of crop parameters: The development of crop canopy is depends on crop parameters viz
days to emergence, days to full maturity, maximum canopy cover, days to senescence, canopy
growth coefficient (CGC), and canopy decline coefficient (CDC). In order to minimize the prediction
error between measured and simulated values, the coefficients were adjusted by trial and error
approach. The calibrated values of CGC and CDC for the experiment were 15.5 % day−1 and 4.2%
day−1, respectively. The maximum transpiration crop coefficient (Kcbx) was calibrated to standardize
ETo during the growing-season where the CC was equal to the maximum canopy cover (CCx). The
(Kcbx) value thus obtained was 1.05 under full irrigation and no fertilizer stress conditions. The
harvest index was obtained as 34% on a dry biomass basis and 39% on wet basis with grain moisture
content of 15.5% at harvest. Subsequently, under the crop water stress category, factors pertaining
to expansion stress were calibrated to have the upper threshold, lower threshold, and shape factor
to be 0.14, 0.72 and 2.9, respectively. Also, the stomatal closure stress, the upper threshold and
shape factor were 0.69 and 2.7, respectively, while the lower threshold was set at the permanent
wilting point (PWP). Moreover, for the early senescence stress, the upper threshold and shape factor
were 0.19 and 1.3, respectively, while the lower threshold was set at the permanent wilting point
(PWP). All these eight calibrated coefficients were related to the crop water stress function in the
AquaCrop model, which was used to simulate the yield from different experimental plots.
Validation of AquaCrop model: Having calibrated AquaCrop, it was significant that the model be
validated in order to evaluate its performance in simulating crop yields. Model validation is
important in order to determine if the model has the ability to replicate the data, to analyse the
effectiveness of model calibration and compare synthetic data with those done in previous studies.
To effectively evaluate the performance of the model, the use of ensemble statistical indicators is
appropriate (Willmott, 1984). In our analysis of performance of AquaCrop, the following lists of
statistical indicators were used: prediction error (Pe), coefficient of determination (R2), mean
absolute error (MAE), root mean square error (RMSE) and model efficiency (E). E and R2 indicate the
predictive power of the model whilst Pe, MAE and RMSE are used to signify the amount of error
associated with the model prediction (Abedinpouret al., 2012).
Development of climate change scenarios: The climate change scenarios are developed for
representative concentration pathways (RCP) of RCP 4.5 and 8.5. RCPs are concentration pathways
used in the IPCC AR5. Climate researchers use the four RCPs as inputs into climate models to
determine likely global temperature, rainfall and other climate possibilities. Coupled carbon-cycle
climate models can then calculate associated emission levels. Specialists in ecosystems, agriculture,

57
water, city planning and economics use the projected climate information to assess impacts and
costs of likely change. ParthSarathiet al. (2012) indicated that, RCP 4.5 and 8.5 are suits to the Indian
condition. Therefore, data on RCP 4.5 and 8.5 are downloaded from website
http://gismap.ciat.cgiar.org/MarkSimGCM/. (Climate Change on Agriculture and Food Security) and
used for study of impact of climate change on maize yield, biomass and water productivity under
rainfed and supplemental irrigation in rainfed alfisols for Rangareddy district of Telangana state. The
collected rainfall data is analyzed for weekly, monthly, seasonal and annual rainfall and variability in
the mean, maximum and minimum air temperature from 2010 to 2100 and compared with base
period of 1960-2014. Based on the variability/changes in the rainfall and air temperatures, three
time scenarios have developed as near century (2010-2040), mid century (2041-2070) and end
century (2071-2100) which represents the 2020, 2050 and 2090, respectively. The dry spells were
identified by weekly rainfall analysis in the selected time scenarios. The supplemental irrigations
have given wherever the dry spells exceeds 20 days under both the RCP 4.5 and 8.5 in three time
scenarios of 2020, 2050 and 2090. According to contingency report of CRIDA, the Rangareddy district
receives the monsoon rainfall during second week of June and based on this 15th June is selected as
sowing date for projection of maize grain, biomass and water productivity in selected time scenarios.
Results and Discussion
Weather data analysis: The total rainfall depths received during crop season of 2013 and 2014 were
775 and 249 mm respectively (Fig. 1 and 2). Due to drought condition in rainy season of 2014, there
was a 68 per cent reduction in rainfall depth as compared to rainy season of 2013 with good rainfall
distribution. The maximum air temperature during crop growth period was observed on 19th October
(33.2 ºC) and 22nd of October (36 ºC) and minimum air temperature was observed on 11th September
(11 ºC) and 18th September (14.3 ºC) in 2013 and 2014 respectively. The temperature regime during
2014 was warm as compared to 2013 during the growing season, with large differences between the
daily maximum and minimum air temperatures.
2013

58
 2014

Fig. 2. Daily weather data recorded during the crop growth period of rainy season of2013 and 2014

Yield response to supplementary irrigation under different crop management practices

Measured data from the field experimentation for two years of 2013 and 2014 were pooled to study
the effect of supplemental irrigation in rainfed maize production. The average percentage increase in
the grain yield due to application of supplemental irrigation during rainy season of 2013 and 2014
over rainfed condition is presented in Figure 3. The percentage increase in grain yield ranges from
34.88 % in supplemental irrigation of 20 mm (I1) under M0NF to 148.37 % in supplemental irrigation
of 50 mm (I4) under M1HF. The study clearly indicates that, there is an increasing trend in percentage
increase in the order of M0NF<M0HF<M1NF<M1HF over rainfed condition. It was observed that,
application of supplemental irrigation and incorporation of mulching in rainfed maize production
improves the effectiveness of water utilization and the parallel results were also reported by Li and
Gong, (2002).The study showed that, shifting from exclusive rainfed agriculture to supplementary
irrigation, the average WP of maize can be increased substantially over rainfed and the maize yield
improvement can be attributed to timely water application to crops to avoid water stress and
availability of more soil water for the plant.

Fig 3. Average percentage increase in the grain yield due to application of supplemental irrigation
during rainy season of 2013 and 2014 over rainfed
Aquacrop Model Performance- Calibration
The performance of AquaCrop model under calibration was assessed using statistical parameters viz

59
model efficiency (E), root mean square error (RMSE) and mean absolute error (MAE). The model was
calibrated for grain yield with model efficiency (5 %) and coefficient of determination (R2) 0.94
respectively. It was observed that, the maximum and minimum error in grain yield prediction was in
I3 (M1NF) and I0 (M0HF) treatments amounting to 16.51 % and 0.19 % respectively. It is observed that,
the model was calibrated for simulation of yield for all treatment levels with the prediction error
statistics 0.94 < E < 0.95, 0.06 < RMSE < 0.12 t ha-1 and 0.59 < MAE < 0.82 t ha−1. AquaCrop model
predictions for grain yield were in line with the observed data with the values of E and R2
approaching one. The calibration results on grain yield clearly indicated that, the AquaCrop model is
able to simulate grain yield in acceptable range. It was possible to reduce the prediction error
between measured and simulated grain yield by adjusting the values of basal crop coefficient (1.05),
canopy growth coefficient (15.5 % day-1), canopy decline coefficient (4.2 % day-1), stomatal stress
coefficient and expansion stress coefficient (upper:0.14 and lower:0.72). Over all, the prediction
error (Pe) ranged between minimum (0.19 %) to maximum (16.51 %) in I0 (M0HF) and I3 (M1NF)
respectively. The similar results were also quoted by (Gebreselassieet al., 2015; Abedinpouret al.,
2012) for maize crop in semi arid regions.
Aqua crop model validation : The experimental data of rainy season of 2014 were used for validation
of AquaCrop model to simulate grain yield and results are presented in Table 1. It was observed that
the maximum and minimum error of grain yield prediction during model validation with the data of
2014 was in rainfed (I0)underM1HF and supplemental irrigation of 30 mm (I2) under M0HF treatments
were 29.47 % and 1.93 % respectively. Results indicated that, the grain yield predicted under
validation were similar to measured under even drought conditions. The model performance was
evaluated with statistics using RMSE (root mean square error), MAE (mean absolute error) and
model efficiency (E) and results are presented in Table1. There was a good agreement between
measured and simulated grain yield with R2 of 0.93 with an efficiency of 0.91 % which is within the
acceptable limits. The RMSE and MAE values obtained during validation of AquaCrp model for grain
yield are 0.37 and 0.33 which isinacceptable range and deviations are more in 2014 due to 3 long dry
spells of 30 days at various critical stages of maize. Out of three dry spells, the first dry spell at
vegetative stage was managed by one supplemental irrigation in the experiment as water available in
farm pond was limited and there was no runoff collection in farm pond during crop growth period in
2014. The AquaCrop model validation indicates that, the model simulated maize grain values are in
line with measured data even under severe drought condition during rainy season of2014. However,
highest prediction error was obtained in rainfed for grain yield (29.47 %) this is due to fact that, the
water stress in the rainfed was significantly reduced the grain yield during the experiment.
Moreover, the model over estimated the grain yield in the rainfed treatment leading to higher
prediction error. As compared to calibration, the performance of the model during the validation was
low with model efficiency for grain yield (91 %) as compared to (94%) in calibration. The two long dry
spells in crop growth period of rainy season 2014 was significantly reduced grain yield as compared
rainy season 2013, which leads to higher percent of deviations as compared to measured data.
Table 1. Performance statistics of the AquaCrop model during calibration and validation
Model output Mean
RMSE E MAE R2
parameters Measured Simulated
Calibration
-1
Grain yield (t ha ) 4.08 3.72 0.12 0.95 0.59 0.94
Validation
Grain yield (t ha-1) 0.85 0.80 0.37 0.91 0.33 0.93

Climate change impacts on maize yield in time scenarios of 2020, 2050 and 2090 underRCP 4.5
and 8.5 in Rangareddy district: Projected future potential rainfed maize yield with climate change
and projected impacts of supplemental irrigation on are presented in this section. For this purpose,
AquaCrop used to estimate future potential of maize attributes under RCP 4.5 and 8.5 IPCC

60
 scenarios. The maize yield under rainfed condition during kharif 2013 was 2.81 t ha-1. This value is
considered as base for calculating climate change impacts in three time scenarios under RCP 4.5
and 8.5. Figures 4 and 5 respectively showed the percentage changes in maize yield relative to the
observed data of kharif 2013. In general, the results suggest a decrease in maize yield for all the
three time scenarios in rainfed farming without drought management strategies adopted. The
expected percentage reduction in maize yield for 2020, 2050, and 2090 are 18.06, 16.42 and 13.97
per cent under RCP 4.5 and 13.96, 11.81 and 8.80 per cent under RCP 8.5 respectively in the rainfed
(Fig. 4). The application of supplemental irrigation during vegetative and grain development stages
increases the average maize yield of 28.39, 30.96 and 34.81 per cent under I1, 34.77, 37.46 and
41.50 per cent under I2, 49.67, 52.66 and 57.15 per cent under I3 and 66.46, 69.79 and 74.79 per
cent under I4 during 2020, 2050 and 2090 under RCP 4.5 respectively. There was an increase of
grain yield by 34.81, 38.18 and 42.90 per cent under I1, 41.50, 45.04 and 50 per cent under I2,
57.15, 61.08 and 66.58 per cent under I3 and 74.79, 79.15 and 85.27 per cent under I4 during 2020,
2050 and 2090 respectively under RCP 8.5 over observed rainfed maize yield of kharif 2013. The
results of predicted maize grain yield showed that using traditional practices in the period 2020 to
2090 will result in maize (Zea mays L.) yield reductions by 18.06, 16.42 and 13.97 per cent under
RCP 4.5 and 13.96, 11.81 and 8.80 per cent under RCP 8.5 respectively. However, by adopting
supplemental irrigation strategies will result in maize yield increase from 28.39 to 74.79 per cent in
RCP 4.5 and 34.81 to 85.27 per cent in RCP 8.5 from near century (2020) to end century (2090). This
may be due to uneven distribution of rainfall and dry spells in crop growth period reduced the
maize yield in rainfed. These dry spells can be mitigate by collecting the excess runoff during
extreme rainfall events and used as supplemental irrigation could increase the grain yield. This
indicates the negative impact of climate change in the rainfed can be compensated by application
of supplementary irrigation as the best adaptation strategy in rainfed maize cultivation in
alfisol.The onset of the rainfall season and the intra-seasonal distribution is currently erratic and
these variations will be more severe with climate change, so there is a need for establishment,
expansion and rehabilitation of existing irrigation systems as a source of supplementary water for
agriculture in the region.

Fig.4. Percentage change in maize yield in time scenarios of 2020, 2050 and 2090 under RCP 4.5.over
measured maize yield (kharif 2013) in Rangareddy district

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 Fig.5 Percentage change in maize yield in time scenarios of 2020, 2050 and 2090 under RCP
8.5.over measured maize yield (kharif 2013) in Rangareddy district

Conclusion
Aquacrop model is very good tool to study the climate change impact on maize grain yield under
rainfed condition. The maize cultivation under the changing rainfall and air temperature can be
sustained by application of supplemental irrigation of 50 mm with expected increase by 75, 80 and
85 per cent in time scenarios of 2020, 2050 and 2090 as compare to kharif 2013 in Rangareddy
district of Telangana state.
Acknowledgements : The authors are grateful to Director, ICAR-Central Research Institute for
Dryland Agriculture, Santoshnagar, Hyderabad for facilities provided during the course of present
work. Authors also thanks to University of Agricultural Science, Raichur for permission given to take
present research work in CRIDA institute at Hyderabad. Authors would like to express thanks to
Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) New Delhi for financial help provided during the
study period.
References:
Abedinpour, M., Sarangi, A.,. Rajput, T.B.S., Man Singh, Pathak, H. and Ahmad, T., 2012. Performance
evaluation of AquaCrop model for maize crop in a semi-arid environment. Agricultural Water
Management 110, 55-66.
Alam, K., 2015. Farmers’ adaptation to water scarcity in drought-prone environments: A case study
of Rajshahi District, Bangladesh. Agricultural Water Management 148, 196–206.
Gebreselassie, Y., Mekonen, A. and Kassa, T., 2015. Field experimentation based simulation of yield
response of maize crop to deficit irrigation using AquaCrop model, Arba Minch, Ethiopia.
African Journal of Agricultural Research 10(4), 269-280.
Heng, L.K., Theodore, H., Steve, E., Terry, H. and Steduto, P., 2009. Validating the FAO AquaCrop
model for irrigated and water for Maize. Agronomy Journal, 101(3), 488- 498.
Hsiao, T.C., Heng, L., Steduto, P., Rojas-Lara, B., Raes, D. and Fereres, E., 2009. AquaCrop-The FAO
crop model to simulate yield response to water: III. Parameterization and testing for maize.
Agronomy Journal 101, 448-459.
Iglesias Ana and Garrote Luis, 2015. Adaptation strategies for agricultural water management under
climate change in Europe-Review. Agricultural Water Management 155, 113–124.
Kondwani, 2013, Climate change impacts on rainfed corn production in Malawi, A thesis submitted
to University of Central Florida, Orlando Florida, pg no:1-82
Kumar, M., K.S. Reddy, R.V. Adake, C.V.K.N. Rao, 2015. Solar powered micro-irrigation system for
small holders of dryland agriculture in India. Agricultural Water Management 158, 112–119.
Lasage, R., and Verburg, P.H., 2015. Evaluation of small scale water harvesting techniques for semi-
arid environments. Journal of Arid Environments 118, 48-57.

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Li Xiao, Y. and Gong, J.D., 2002. Effects of different ridge and furrow ratios and supplemental
irrigation on crop production in ridge and furrow rainfall harvesting system with mulches.
Agricultural Water Management54, 243-254.
Raes, D., Steduto, P., Hsiao, T.C., Fereres, E., 2009. AquaCrop—the FAO crop model tosimulate yield
response to water II. Main algorithms and soft ware description. Agronomy Journal 101, 438–
447.
Reddy K. S., M. Kumar, V. Maruthi, B. Umesha, VijayalaxmiandC. V. K. Nageswar Rao, 2014, Climate
change analysis in southern Telangana region, Andhra Pradesh using LARS-WG model,
Current Science, 107(1):54-62.
Steduto, P., Hsiao, T.C., Raes, D., Fereres, E., 2009. AquaCrop—the FAO Crop Model to Simulate Yield
Response to Water I. Concepts and Underlying Principles. Agronomy Journal 101, 426–437.
Temesgen M, Rockstrom J, Savenije HHG, Hoogmoed W B, 2007, Assesment of stip tillage system for
maize production in semi arid Ethiopia: Effect of grain yield and water balance, UNESCO-
IHE, Wagenirgen University. The Nethaland.
William, D. Dar, 2011. Revitalizing rainfed agriculture for India’s second Green Revolution,
Agriculture Yearbook. ICRISAT, Hyderabad.

63
 Application of machine vision system for seed planter calibration
Beerge Ramesh1 and M. Veerangouda2
1
Ph.D. Scholar, Dept. of FMPE, and 2Dean, College of Agril. Engg
University of Agricultural Sciences, Raichur, India
Corresponding Email: bramesh2066@gmail.com
Abstract: This paper presents a review of the research articles published in recent years with respect
to the wide application of machine vision system and digital image processing (DIP) techniques in
agriculturaland food industry. Due to the advancement of electronics, computerand software
technology in recent years, machine vision techniqueswere adopted in all the sectorsfor process
monitoring and control. This technique helps visual inspection of process in real time and its auto
control by decision making.Automation increases the precision and decreases the cost, performs the
task in time there by helps in saving various resources. Without reliable vision system, automation of
field and lab activitiesis not possible. The machine vision is not a new development and has already
made significant progress in variousfields like medicine, industrial production, but its applicationsin
agricultural research system were yet to take place world over in general and in India particular.
Development of reliable vision system in agriculture is difficult task due high spatial and temporal
variability in field conditions. This paper discusses some of the basic concepts of machine vision used
for laboratory evaluation of seed metering mechanisms and its future research scope. In machine
vision,the video clips or images were acquired by using high speed digital camera or scanner.The
acquired clips are analyzed using different image analysis software’s by different method to detect
the seed position and to determine consecutive distance ortime between two successive seeds.
Many algorithms were developed for seed detection, segmentation and its feature extraction etc.
Keywords: Machine Vision, Image Processing, Planter Performance andSeed Metering Unit.
Introduction:The evolution of sensor and high speed video camera technology has led to the
establishment of new techniques of measurement of the productprocesses, thus allowing permanent
monitoring during the testing and implementation of visual inspection systems.However, it becomes
a big challenge for any system designer to design an automated image processing and process
control system due to wide variability in agriculture. In spite of this,many applications using machine
vision technology have been developed inagricultural sectors, such as land-based and aerial-based
remote sensing for naturalresources assessments, precision farming, postharvest product quality and
safetydetection, classification and sorting and process automation1. This is becausemachine vision
systems not only recognize size, shape, color, and texture of objects,but also provide numerical
attributes of the objects or scene being imaged2. To overcome the drawbacks of existing
conventional seed spacing monitoring methods, researcher developed some advanced techniques
and used. The performance of seed meter is difficult to detect by using eyes or general observation
methods because of the high sowing frequency. Stroboscopic and high speed photography methods
had being employed to analyze the performance of seed meter in 1980s5. The seed spacingsobtained
using an opto electronic systemare strongly correlated with that data measured using a greased belt
test stand. On the otherhand they recognized the limitations to use opto-electronic system. The
measurement error of electronic sensor systems with front-to-back location relative to the seeder is
0.14 cm by 15 cm target seed spacing and 4.8 km h-1 travel speed4.The captured pictures with high
speed camera were difficult to be processed due to their poor quality, besides the detecting
precision of the two above-mentioned methods did not satisfy either.With the development of
intelligent technology, the machine vision technologyhas been gradually used to measure seed
placement precision,where most of researches focused on development of precision
seedmeterdevices6. A sensor based on a light interference technique for sensing the seeds dropping
from the planter was developed and evaluated for maize seeds. Their system could evaluate
performance of planter for wheat and maize with 18 and 10 percent error respectively. This error
was due to inability of the sensor to detect multiple seeds in a short period of time7.

64
Machine Vision System: The machine vision provides image based monitoring, automatic process
control and guidance system. Generally machine vision is defined as acquisition and processing of
images to extract data for controlling the process9. Machine vision techniques discussed in this paper
are limited to high speed line or area scan camera for monitoring seed uniformity of planter. It holds
great potential in determining the planter evaluation parameters like miss index, quality feed index
and precision index, besides various other agricultural operational machinery performance
evaluations and monitoring.
Hardware: The hardware configuration of computer vision or machine vision system is relatively
standard. Typically, a computer vision system consists of an illumination devices like fiber optic,
fluorescent and LED, which illuminates the sample under test to control how the object appears to
the camera, images are acquired with a physical image sensor (camera), personal computer or
microprocessor system, to provide disk storage of images and computational capability with
software and specific application programs10.
Illumination: Selecting the suitable illumination is one of the most crucial factors in designing a vision
system. The quality of captured image can be greatly affected by the lighting condition. There are
three basic types of illumination commonly used for machine vision, namely fiber optic, fluorescent
and LED. Each type has benefits and shortcomings, which often means that particular type of
illumination suits to particular application.
Image acquisition system: Digital images are electronic snapshots taken of a scene or scanned from
documents such as photographs, manuscripts, printed texts and art work12. It is a numeric
representation (normally binary) of a two dimensional image. Depending on whether or not the
image resolution is fixed, it may be of vector or raster type13. Image acquisition is the transfer of the
electronic signal from the sensing device into a numeric form. CCDs are sensors used in digital
cameras and video cameras to record still and moving images. Typically the image sensors used in
machine vision are usually based on solid state charged coupled device (CCD) camera technology,
which are either of the area type or line scan type. Area type cameras consist of a matrix of minute
photosensitive elements (photosites) from which the complete image of the object is obtained based
on output proportional to the amount of incident light. The resolution of a CCD image depends on
how many pixels are in the CCD arrays. Depending on the nature of applications, the camera
resolution can range from 480 to 1024 lines or even higher. Colour features images included mean,
variance, ranges of the red (R), green (G), and blue (B) color primaries and the derived hue (H),
saturation (S), and intensity (I) values. The 256 grey levels of the R, G, and B values were grouped in
bands of 16 and were called the histogram features. A precision test bed fixed with three CCD
monochrome cameras (WAT-505EX,Watex, Japan) was used to acquire images, to which zoom lens
(SE1614) of 16 mm focal length were fitted. The shutter speed was set to 1/4000s to acquire clear
images when the object moved at high speed and the stored image resolution is 768×288 pixel11. A
semi professional digital camera (Nikon D70) was also used to evaluate the seed metering device
performance in laboratory and fitted at 1 m ahead of the planter and above the grease belt14.
Software: The image analysis is performed usingspecificapplication software. The software was
divided into two modules, an application for training the system and another to command the
acquisition, process the images and provide the estimated quality parameters.Many programming
languages are commonly used to implementReal-Time Colour Imaging Systems, including C, C++, C#,
Java, Visual Basic, FORTRAN,assembly language, and even BASIC. Besides, modern object-oriented
languages such as C++ and C# have quite alot in common with Java15. In recent years, the commonly
used image processing and analysis software were AdOculos, IMAQ vision, Optimas3, GLOBAL LAB
image,LUCIA16,Matlab image acquisitioon and processing toolbox14.
Image Processing:Image analysis is the process of distinguishing the objects (Region of Interest - ROI)
from the background and producing quantitative information, which is used in the subsequent
control systems for decision making. An image may be defined as a two-dimensional function, f(x, y),
where x and y are spatial coordinates, and the amplitude of f at any pair of coordinates (x, y) is called
the intensity or gray level of the image at that point17. There are three main categories of image

65
preprocessing which is image compression (used to reduce the amount of computer memory
needed), image enhancement (to modify the brightness and contrast of an image) and image
measurement (involves segmenting the image to separate the objects of interest from the
background)18.The captured images are transferred to a computer and convert to digital images. Pre
processing or image enhancement refers to the initial processing of the raw image, commonly
applied to a digital image to correct problems such as poor contrast or noise. Pre processingsuch as
morphological operations, filters and pixel-to-pixel operations are generally used to correct
inconsistencies in the acquired images caused by inadequate or non-uniform illumination. For
example in agriculture application, median filter is used as a method to remove noise in
preprocessing stage19.The intermediate-level processing involves image segmentation, image
representation and description. Image processing has wide application in agriculture and food
industry for automatic inspection and control1. The image processing steps may vary based on the
type of image and its purpose but some generally followed steps were listed in the Figure 1. It is not
compulsory to perform all the below listed steps and their sequence in flow chart both may vary
according to the demand of the application.

Fig. 1. Fundamental steps in image processing.

Pixel: A pixel is a single point picture element in a graphic image. A digital image, however, is discrete
in nature and there is some point, which cannot be magnified further. This point is called a pixel of
that digital image. Graphics monitors display pictures by dividing the display screen into thousands
(or millions) of pixels, arranged in rows and columns. The pixels are so close together that they
appear connected. The number of bits used to represent each pixel determines how many colors or
shades of gray can be displayed20. For example, in 8-bit color mode, the color monitor uses 8 bits for
each pixel, making it possible to display 2 to the 8th power (256) of different colors or shades of gray.
On color monitors, each pixel is actually composed of three dots - a red, a blue, and a green dot.
Ideally, the three dots should converge at the same point, but all monitors have some convergence
error that can make color pixels appear fuzzy. The quality of a display system largely depends on its
resolution, how many pixels it can display and how many bits are used to represent each pixel21.

66
Image segmentation: Image segmentation is a process of cutting, adding and feature analysis of
images aimed at dividing an image into regions that have a strong correlation with objects or areas of
interest using the principle of matrix analysis. Image segmentation is one of the most important
steps in the entire image processing technique, as subsequent extracted data are highly dependent
on the accuracy of this operation22.
Feature extraction: Statistical procedures from basic image statistics such as mean, standard
deviation, and variance to more complex measurement such as principle component analysis can be
used to extract features from digital images23. Linear and quadratic statistical classifiers were used
for classification usingindividual types of features and their combinations to find the best feature set
andclassification method for improved classification of cereal grains. The researchers adopted
different techniques of image analysis according to the purpose and requirements. Precision planter
test was designed to deposit a single seed at an equal row interval. During the test, the projected
distance on the direction of x axis between two seeds is very important. The distance was
determined easily by the difference of their x coordinate values, if two seeds locate in one image.
The image splicing technique was used when two seeds were not in one image, for this identical
mark in the overlapped area will be taken as new edge of the images. The distance between the
seeds as well as the new edge was considered to determine the sum of the distance between
seeds11. The image processing algorithmscomes in handy to separate the seeds from the background
and detect the coordinates to find out seed spacing. The seed is separated by simple threshold
operation from its background and it was implemented by look up table in the put path of frame
grabber, so that the acquired digital image was already in binary form, hence seeds appeared as
black object on a white background operation. The detected segments were checked for overlap
with segments of the previous line. The dimensions and area of each object were updated at each
line. The number of pixels of each detected segments was accumulated to the number of pixels of
the corresponding object. The algorithm that calculates the seeds interval distribution from its image
coordinates after detecting the whole seed. To determine the time difference of successive seeds, a
reference line was drawn over the images and the number of successive images between successive
seeds that passed the reference line was counted. The velocity of fall was found by taking the
difference of locations of falling seed between the first 20 successive images when the seed just
leaves the coulter outlet. The reference line over the images was in the same horizontal plane as the
viewing surface of the sticky belt.
Conclusion
Very few studies were reported in machine vision system, thereis still no standardized method which
could be directly proposed for the evaluation of planter performance. Thegreat diversity of seeds,its
characteristics and operational variables oftenimpose restrictions to customize the inspection
system, resultingin a higher investment than the simple purchase of anequipment, as well as demand
for specific knowledge ofthe system in order to perform adjustments which areadequate to the
problem.Many factors like illumination, background colour, seed quality and camera settings need to
be controlled for automatic monitoring system. Despite of all these problems, the data obtained by
the machine vision method were strongly correlated with the same seed spacing measurements
obtained from grease belt8.Several techniques of computational visions have been studied,
considering the wide scope of activities related to agriculture, from cultivation of crops on the fields
to the manufactured food products, encompassing the use of several aspects of vision through the
computer in a wide variety of conditions for the acquisition of data and processing. Besides, the main
problems related to the techniques of computational vision have been clearly identified,
demonstrating that there is still much work need to be done, in order to obtain more reliable
results.In this light, this bibliographic review aims to summarize the methods already employed and
their specific applications with a view to encourage new research to be developed.
References
1. Juliana, F. S. G. and Fabiana, R. L., Applications of computer vision techniques in the agriculture
and food industry: a review. Eur. Food Res. Technol., 2012.

67
2. Yud Ren Chen, Kuanglin Chao and Moon, S. K., Machine vision technology for agricultural
applications. Computers and Electronics in Agriculture, 2002, 36, 173-191.
3. Karayel, D., Wiesehoff , M., Ozmerzi, A. and Muller, J., Laboratory measurement of seed drill seed
spacing and velocity of fall of seeds using high speed camera system. Computers and Electronics
in Agriculture, 2006, 50, 89–96.
4. Kocher, M. F., Lan, Y., Chen, C. and Smith, J. A., Opto-electronic sensor systems for rapid
evaluation of planter seed spacing uniformity. Trans. ASAE., 1998, 41(1), 237–245.
5. Liao, Q. X., Deng, Z. J. and Huang, H. D., Application of the high speed photography checking the
precision metering performances. J. of Huazhong Agricultural University, 2004, 5, 570-573.
6. Ma X. and Wang, J. P., Detection of a precision seed meter performance using image processing
technology. J. of Agril. Machinery, 2001, 4, 34-37.
7. Raheman, H. and Singh, U., A sensor for flow seed metering mechanisms. IE (I) Journal-AG. 2003,
84, 6–8.
8. Ismet Onal, Adnan Degirmencioglu and ArzuYazgi, An evaluation of seed spacing accuracy of a
vacuum type precision metering unit based on theoretical considerations and experiments. Turk.
J. Agric. For., 2012, 36,133-144.
9. Relf Christopher, G., Image acquisition and processing with LABVIEW, Taylor and Francis, 1-264.
10. Narendra, V. G. and Hareesh, K. S., Prospects of computer vision automated grading and sorting
systems in agricultural and food products for quality evaluation. Int. J. Comp. App., 2010, 1, 0975-
8887.
11. Lin Jiachun and Liwei, Seeding Precision test based on machine vision.http://www.paper.edu.cn,
2006.
12. Scott E. Umbaugh, Digital image processing and analysis, human and computer vision application
with CVIP tool. Taylor and Francis group. 2011, pp 77.
13. Wilhelm Burger and Mark, J. B., Principles of digital image processing fundamental techniques.
Springer science and business media.2010, pp-13.
14. Navid, H., Ebrahimian, S., Gassemzadeh, H. R. and Mousavinia, M. J., Laboratory evaluation of
seed metering device using image processing method.Australian Journal of Agricultural
Engineering, 2011, 2(1), 1-4.
15. Lukac, R. and Plataniotis, K. N., Colour image processing methods and applications (Image
Processing). CRC Press, Canada. 2007, pp 434.
16. Ebru, F. D., Evzen, S., Zdenek, B., Matyas, S. and Pavel, K., Size properties seeds of different
varieties using image analysis. J. of Food Engineering, 2010, 99, 445-451.
17. Gonzalez, R. C., Woods R. E. and Eddins, S. L., Digital image processing using MATLAB, Gatesmark
Publishing, 2009, pp-2.
18. Fakhri, A., Nasir, A., Nordin, M., Rahman, M. and RasidMamat, A., A study of image processing in
agriculture application under high performance computing environment. International Journal of
Computer Science and Tele communications, 2012, 3(8), 16-24.
19. Nicolescu, C. and Jonker, P., Parallel image processing on distributed-memory system. Proc. IPDPS
Workshops on Parallel and Distributed Processing. 2000,pp. 226–233.
20. Jagbir Singh, Savina Bansal, and Bansal, R. K., Performance analysis of data hiding using adjacent
pixel difference technique. International Journal of Advanced Research in Computer Science and
Software Engineering. 2013, 3(9), 494-502.
21. XiaodanJin and KeigoHirakawa, Analysis and processing of pixel binning for color image sensor.
EURASIP Journal on Advances in Signal Processing, 2012, 2-15.
22. Davinder Sandhu., Image segmentation based methodology for classification of various seed
varieties. International Journal of Research in Engineering & Advanced Technology, 2013, 1(2), 1-
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23. Pablo, M. G., Hugo, D. N., Pablo, F. V. and Ceccatto, H. A., Weed seeds identification by machine
vision. Computers and Electronics in Agriculture, 2002, 33, 91-103.

68
Innovations in refrigeration system for improving performance of milk chilling
system by applying power saving methods
Chitranayak1, Shubham Thakare2, PS Minz3 and JK Dabas4
1
Senior Scientist, 2M Tech Scholar, 3Scientist, 4ACTO, Dairy Engineering Division
ICAR-National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal
Email : chitranayaksinha@gmail.com
Abstract: Chilling means the rapid cooling of the product to sufficiently low temperature so that the
growth of micro-organisms present could be restricted and controlled to be at minimum level, so
advanced refrigeration system for milk cooling by applying innovative techniques for milk cooling has
been developed. Inside the udder milk is sterile until it is exposed to atmosphere and the
microorganisms gain entry mostly through the atmosphere. The sources contribute to the micro flora
in milk are containers, udder of the animal, dust and dirt particles, fodder, leaves, atmospheric air,
the milking person and the animal itself. Chilling of milk in bulk milk coolers the rate of chilling is very
slow (chills milk from 35°C to 4°C in 2 to 3 hours) and bulk milk coolers (BMCs) are higher in terms of
cost, so these are not feasible to be installed at each and every farm level. Hence there is an urgent
necessity of improving performance of current refrigeration system of milk cooling. For this purpose
there is need of searching new innovations in refrigeration system and to develop new advanced
refrigeration system which will increase the rate of cooling of milk and will lower the price of cooling
system. Heat dissipated to atmosphere through condenser is recovered to improve the energy
efficiency and the waste heat is utilized to heat the water which is used to clean the milk processing
equipment’s thus saving thermal or electrical energy used to heat the water separately.
Keywords: Refrigeration, Milk, Chilling, Heat, Condensation
Introduction : The milk production in India has reached to the highest in world achieving an annual
output of 165.4 MT (million tons) during 2016-17 (Department Of Animal Husbandry, Dairying and
Fisheries, Ministry of Agriculture, GOI) from 17 MT during the year 1950-51 and the per capita
availability has increased to 355 g/day.The procurement of milk by dairy cooperatives as compared
to initial year is registering a substantial growth in India. Production of milk is mostly done in rural
areas, while market is mostly in cities and urban area. Hence, the milk has to be collected and
transported from production points to processing including chilling centres and distributions points
in cities. In India small quantities of milk are produced, in a scattered manner all over the country.
Because of this the the work of milk collection becomes critical.The advancement in refrigeration
system for milk cooling has been achieved by applying new advanced and innovative techniques.
Chilling of the milk to the sufficiently low temperature was achieved so that the growth of micro-
organisms present could be restricted and controlled to remain at the lowest level. In chilling process
the temperature of the milk should be reduced to less than 4-6 °C. Milk inside the udder is sterile
until it is exposed to atmosphere and the microorganisms gain entry mostly through the atmosphere.
The sources contribute to the micro flora in milk are containers, udder of the animal, dust and dirt
particles, fodder, leaves, atmospheric air, the milking person and the animal itself. Chilling of milk in
bulk milk coolers the rate of chilling is very slow (chills milk from 35°C to 4°C in 2 to 3hours) and bulk
milk coolers (BMCs) are higher in terms of cost, so these are not feasible to be installed at each and
every farm level. Hence there is an urgent necessity of improving performance of current
refrigeration system of milk cooling. For this purpose there is need of searching new innovations in
refrigeration system and to develop new advanced refrigeration system which will increase the rate
of cooling of milk and will lower the price of cooling system.In this paper we are going to discuss
about conventional refrigeration system for milk cooling system (BMC) and the scope of applying
new technologies to the refrigeration system such as variable frequency drive in order to reduce the
power consumption of system and to reduce the cost of milk chilling per unit quantity.
The conventional system used for milk cooling is Bulk milk cooler. Ghewadeet.al.(2007) studied the
operational behavior of this bulk milk cooler. Bulk milk coolers are basically designed to chill milk at

69
milk farms or dairy cooperative societies and having the capacities ranging from 500 liters to 5000
liters. One vapour compression system for small sized BMC and medium to large sized BMCs have
two vapour compression systems both operating simultaneously. These are designed to chill the
given quantity of milk to 4°C within three hours. The chillers operate under two conditions
1. First Milking condition
2. Second Milking condition.
First milking condition requires three hours to cool the milk from 35°C to 4°C if tank is filled its half
capacity. Second milking condition requires three hours to cool the milk from 19°C to 4°C when the
tank is completely filled. When the milk temperature reaches 4°C the Operation of BMC is shut
down. The BMC further maintain the temperature because of insulation of the tank by polyurethane
foam of sufficient thickness. Minute Heat leak takes place from top cover as it is single walled and
not insulated. Continuousagitation of milk is to maintain the homogeneity and to avoid fat layer
separation. Agitator of low rpm motor support on top cover. Stirring somewhat increase the heat
transfer and maintain the uniform temperature throughout the BMC. The temperature gradient from
top to bottom and from front to back side should be less than 0.5°C.The cooling loadvaries along
with compressor input power varies by 15%.

Fig.1: Variation of Milk temperature w.r.t. Time

Fig.2: VCRS Fig.3: Bulk milk coolers

The Bulk milk cooler uses the conventional refrigeration system i.e. the VCRS (Vapour Compression
Refrigeration System) which contains compressor, condenser, evaporator and expansion devices. A
compressor is the heart of the refrigeration system on which the working of the refrigerator
depends.The compressor used by the traditional refrigeration system is of single speed type which
only operates at one speed. Conventional compressor becomes ‘ON” and ‘OFF’ and follow the cycle
throughout the day. It was found that the cycle in conventional refrigerator that it remains quiet and
for some time and again starts when compressor works.
Materials and Methods
Different innovations in order to improve the performance of BMC: Waste heat recovery method
from condensation process in BMC : Bulk milk coolers are used to chill the milk from its harvest
temperature of 35–4 °C to arrest the bacterial growthand maintain the satisfactory of harvested milk.
Milk chilling practices are electricity intensive with low coefficient of performance (COP) of about
3.0. Increased energy value problem encouraged an investigation of condensation from bulk milk

70
cooler as one conservation alternative for lowering water heating price in dairy industry. Heat
dissipated to surroundings through condenser is recovered to improve the strength effectivity of
plant. The waste warmth is utilized to heat the water which is used to easy the milk processing
equipment as a result saving thermal or electrical energy used to warmth the water separately. Shell
and coil type warmness exchanger is designed and used to recover the waste heat during
condensation process. Heat rejected in condensation manner consists of superheat and latent
warmth of the refrigerant. In this work, strive has been made to get better complete superheat along
with part of latent heat which is a present lookup issue. The consequences show that entire
superheat and 35% of latent heat is recovered. Heat recovery price is measured for quite a number
mass glide rates. Water is flowing on shell aspect and refrigerant via tubes. The effectiveness of the
warmth exchanger is decided and the consequences carried out are presented in this paper.
Significant enhancements have been carried out and COP of the gadget is multiplied from three to
4.8.
VFD (variable frequency drive) application to BMC in order to reduce the power consumption by
compressor motor: The variable-frequency drive which is actually an adjustable-frequency drive and
the “variable voltage/ variable-frequency (VVVF) drive”, AC drive, micro drive or inverter drive,
variable is systems to control AC motor speed and torque by varying motor
input frequency and voltage. The various applications of VFDs range from small appliances to large
compressors. Approximately 25% of the world's total electrical energy is consumed in different kinds
of electric motors in industrial and other applications. The electrical energy can be more efficiently
utilized by employing VFDs in centrifugal load service. At present, the application of VFD technology
is limited globally. The use of variable-frequency drives (VFDs) is to control compressor and fan
motors become a key factor in reducing energy costs, enhancing product life and salability, and
improving equipment service life. For outdoorcondensers, drives utilizing variable-speed operation
have made important contributions to noise reduction.
Results and Discussion
Heat Recovery in BMC by using Heat exchanger: Experiments were carried out for tank stuffed with
500 l (case I), 750 l (case II) and 1000 l (case III) of water with initial temperature of 18 °C introduced
down to 4 °C. Heat recuperation rate decided with the aid of the usage of Equation,
Q = mw .cpw (Two — Twi)
Where; Q(kW) is the rate of heat absorption by water ;mw( kg/s) andcpw (kJ/kg K) are mass flow rate
and specific heat of water respectively ; Two (K) and Twi (K)are outlet and inlet temp. of water at heat
exchanger respectivelyis plotted against time and is shown in Fig. 4. Heat recuperation rate
decreases as cooling process progresses toward its end. Heat recovery rate is greater for case I due
to higher LMTD throughout the heat exchanger. It is lower for case II as LMTD is low as in contrast to
cases I and III. Rate of decrease in heat recovery rate is decrease for case III as in contrast to
instances I and II.Investigations of the heat recovery rate with respect to LMTD as proven in Fig.
5.divulge that highest recovery is said for case I due to higher temperature distinction throughout
heat exchanger in contrast to instances II and III.

Fig.4. Varition of Heat Recovery w.r.t. time

71
 Fig.5. Variation of Heat Recovery vs LMTD

Power consumption saving in BMC by using VFD: The energy effectivity potential was also studied
experimentally via with one variable frequency refrigerators/freezers, with BLDC motor/compressor
referred to by means of ‘B’, compared one fixed frequency type, mounted with AC induction
motor/compressor cited by ‘A’.

Ambient Temperature 30°C 15 °C

Type Energy consumption( (B-A)/A Energy (B-A)/A
KWH per year) consumption(KWH per
year)
Fixed Frequency Product 932.5 - 474.0 -
‘A’
Variable 725.8 22.15% 311.9 34.2%
FrequencyProduct ‘B’

Conclusion
Heat dissipated in condenser consists of superheat, latent heat and subcools heat of refrigerant.
About 53–65% of two whole heat misplaced is recovered in heat recovery heat exchanger.
Development for inverter-controlled refrigerator might be considered as a innovative advancement
for refrgeration appliances. It two has low noise, consistent temperature control, quickly cooling and
energy saving. Variable frequency control even makes refrigerator intellectual. It adjusts compressor
speed and puts control over different elements according to various conditions.
References
Ghewade DV, Sapali SN, KajaleSR(2007).Dynamic modeling of bulk milk cooler. HEFAT.
MWBrowne, PKBansal(2001) An Elemental NTU-ε modelforvapour compression liquid chillers, Int.
J. of Refrigeration,24:612-627.
SWellsandt, LVamling, (2003) Heat Transfer and pressure dropin plate type evaporator.
InternationalJournal of Refrigeration,26:180-188.
Sapali SN, Pise SM, Pise AT, GhewadeDV (2014). Investigations of waste heat recovery from bulk
milk cooler. Case Studies in Thermal Engineering, 4:136-143.

72
 Application of nanotechnology in food processing and packaging
Dr. Dattatreya M Kadam
Principal Scientist (APE), ICAR-CIRCOT, Mumbai
Email: kadam1k@gmail.com
Introduction: Nanotechnology is manipulation of matter on atomic and molecular scale(materials,
devices, structures with at least one dimension sized from 1 -100 nm). Nanotechnology deals with
developing materials, devices, or other structures with at least one dimension sized from 1 to
100 nanometers. Nano-sized particles exhibit unique characteristics different from microscopic /
macroscopic particles. This is the reason why nanotechnology has gained so much importance. As the
size of the particles in the system decreases change in several phenomena become pronounced.
Physical properties (mechanical, electrical, optical, thermal etc.) undergo pronounced changes.
Increase in surface area to volume ratio results in increased diffusion and catalytic reactions. Opaque
substances become transparent (e.g. copper), stable materials become combustible (e.g. aluminium)
and insoluble materials become soluble (e.g. gold). The present day food processing technologies
face certain limitations. Water soluble vitamins cannot be added to fats/oils, similarly fat soluble
vitamins cannot be added directly to juices/beverages. It becomes difficult to add vitamin D to toned
milk. Heating during processing of the foods results in loss of heat labile vitamins, washing leads to
loss of water soluble components. Nanotechnology appears to address many of these issues.
There are two approaches which have come into existence in nanotechnology. Either the nanoscale
materials are created from molecular components or these are produced by size reduction of
macroscopic components. The first approach is commonly referred to as bottom up approach and
the other is referred to as top down approach.
Bottom up approach:Materials and devices are built from molecular components, through self-
assembly. The self-assembly of the building blocks takes place through various forces such as Vander
Waals, H-bonds and capillary forces. Examples of self-assembled materials are molecular crystals,
colloids, lipid bilayers etc.Self-assembled natural nanostructures have also been investigated. The
natural self-assembled nanostructures in food systems are (i) casein micelles, (ii) fat globules, (iii)
whey proteins, (iv)nanotubes from hydrolyzed milk protein alpha-lactalbumin, (v) recrystallised
starch granules, etc.
Top down approach:It involves creation of nanoparticles from larger entities. Some examples
arenano-clay, TiO2, nano-silver etc. Nano-clay is used in nano-composites used for packaging,
TiO2finds applications in sunscreens, cosmetics, surface coating, foods and nano-silver is used in food
packaging, clothing, disinfectants, household appliances, bandages etc.
Nanotechnology has opened new avenues in the research and development of food technology. It is
being used as a means to understand how physiochemical characteristics of nano-sized substances
can change the structure, texture and quality of food. Application of this area already span
development of improved tastes, colour, flavour and consistency of foodstuffs, increased absorption
of nutraceuticals and health supplements, new food packaging with improved barrier, mechanical or
antimicrobial properties, and nano-sensors for traceability and monitoring the conditions of food
during transport and storage. Nanotechnology derived food packaging materials is the largest
category of current nanotechnology applications for the food sector. The applications of
nanoparticles and nanostructured materials in food manufacturing, packaging and safety are
described in Table 1.

73
Table 1: Nanoparticles and nanostructured materials in the food industry and their applications
Category Nanoparticles, nanostructured Examples of applications
materials
Food Nano-capsules (micelles, Encapsulation, improved solubility,
manufacturing liposomes) protection and controlled delivery of
Nano-emulsions ingredients; application for example in
Nanotubes and nano-spheres “nutraceuticals” and/or “functional food”
from milk protein

Membranes Water treatment, filters

Nano-ceramic coatings Cleaning and preserving deep fat frying oil

Nano-lycopene Antioxidants for food supplements and food

Nano-beta-carotene Colouring agent for beverages

Nano-silicon dioxide Food additive and processing aid
TiO2, SiO, CaO, ZnO, MnO Confectionery coatings
Packaging Nano-composites, Foils, packaging containers, PET bottles
nanoparticles
(silver, titanium dioxide,
Silicon dioxide, nano-clay)
Safety Nano-cantilevers (metering Sensors to detect pathogens, chemicals,
and sensor needles) poisons
technology Nanowires
Source: NanoTrust-Dossier No. 004en, December 2010: epub.oeaw.ac.at/ita/nanotrust-dossiers
/dossier004en.pdf
Developments in applications of nanotechnology in food processing / food technology can be
classified into following four distinct areas:
I. Materials
a. Nano-particles
b. Nano-emulsions
c. Nano-composites
d. Nano-structured materials
II. Products
a. Delivery
b. Formulation
c. Packaging
III. Processing
a. Heat &mass transfer
b. Nanoscale engineering
c. Nano-biotechnology
d. Molecular synthesis
IV. Food safety and Bio-security
a. Nanotracers
b. Nanosensors
The areas are very extensive. Research in some of the areas is at very nascent stage and it may take
some time for the results to reach consumers. Some of these areas are discussed as under:
Materials

74
Nanoemulsions: Nanoemulsions are very fine, oil-in-water emulsions with a mean droplet size of 50-
200 nm. Nanoemulsions do not scatter visible light and are hence transparent. Due to their tiny
particles, nanoemulsions remain stable for longer periods, i.e. a separation of oil and water (which
leads to a completebreakdown of the emulsion) occurs later than in traditional emulsions. These
enable the addition of nanoemulsifiedbioactives and flavors to a beverage without a change in
product appearance. The bioavailability of lipophilic substances can be increased considerably by
means of nanoemulsions. They also demonstrate interesting textural properties – even if the oil
droplet concentration is low they have the consistency of a viscous cream, which makes them of
interest for the development of reduced fat products. Solid lipid nanoparticles formed by controlled
crystallization of food nanoemulsions have been reported for delivery of bioactives, such as lycopene
and carotenoids. The major advantages of solid lipid nanoparticles include large-scale production
without the use of organic solvents, high concentration of functional compounds in the system, long
term stability, and the ability to be spray dried into powder form.
Nanoencapsulation: Nanoencapsulation is defined as a technology to pack substances in miniature,
making use of techniques such as nanocomposite, nanoemulsification, and nanoestructuration and
provides final product functionality that includes controlled release of the core. The protection of
bioactive compounds, such as vitamins, antioxidants, proteins, and lipids as well as carbohydrates
may be achieved using this technique for the production of functional foods with enhanced
functionality and stability. Different techniques have been developed for the production of
nanocapsules have been reported.Ability to nanoencapsulate a multitude of bioactive and active
ingredients in nutraceutical products has also been achieved. These nanocapsulesget absorbed as
common foods after they have delivered their active ingredients. Nanoencapsulation can make
significant savings for formulators, as it can reduce the amount of active ingredients needed.
Lipid-based nanoencapsulation systems enhance the performance of antioxidants by improving their
solubility and bioavailability, in vitro and in vivo stability, and preventing their unwanted interactions
with other food components. The main lipid-based nanoencapsulation systems that can be used for
the protection and delivery of foods and nutraceuticals are nanoliposomes, nanocochleates, and
archaeosomes. Nanoliposome technology presents exciting opportunities for food technologists in
areas such as encapsulation and controlled release of food materials, as well as the enhanced
bioavailability, stability, and shelf-life of sensitive ingredients. The application of nanoliposomes as
carrier vehicles of nutrients, nutraceuticals, enzymes, food additives, and food antimicrobials has
been reported. Nanoencapsulation technologies have the potential to meet food industry challenges
concerning the effective delivery of health functional ingredients and controlled release of flavor
compounds. Zein, the prolamine in corn endosperm binds and enrobes lipids, keeping them from
deteriorative changes. Further, zein has been shown to adsorb fatty acids and produce periodic
structures, most interestingly, nanoscale layers of cooperatively assembled fatty acid and zein
sheets. Soy lecithin is the main structural ingredient in the formation of aqueous nanodispersions
that carry high loads of water-insoluble actives. These actives include water-insoluble nutraceuticals,
fat-soluble vitamins, and flavors. The encapsulated actives disperse easily into water-based products,
showing improved stability and increased bioavailability. A selection of possible application areas for
nanoparticles and nanostructured materials in the food industryand processing technology
applications are presented below:
Applications in food manufacturing and food additives
(1) Functional Food (or “nutraceuticals”): Micelles and liposomes (lipid vesicles) can act as carriers for
ethereal oils, flavouring agents, antioxidants, coenzyme Q10, vitamins, minerals, active plant
ingredients, proteins, enzymes, and antimicrobial ingredients (example product: Canola Active Oil,
made in Israel; micelles with phytosterol). Encapsulating active ingredients (e.g. polyphenol,
minerals, micro-nutrients) can also prevent oxidation and their bad taste can be minimised in the
end product (example product:Tip-Top Up Bread, made in Australia; bread with nano-capsules
containing fish oil which contains health-enhancing Omega-3 fatty acids).
(2) Nanoparticulate synthetic lycopene (a carotenoid; the red pigment of tomatoes) a food

75
supplement and food fortifying agent (e.g. LycoVit, made by BASF). Classified as safe by the US Food
and Drug Administration, FDA, (“generally recognized as safe”, or GRAS). (3) Nanoparticulate beta-
carotene as a colouring agent in beverage manufacturing (example product: Lucarotin 10 CWD, from
BASF). A protective colloid made from modified starch encapsulates the nanoparticles and prevents
aggregation and agglomeration (“lump formation”). Carotene and modified starch are licensed food
additives (E160a and E1450 respectively). Nanoparticulate carotenes are thereby also licensed.
(4) Nanoparticulate silicon dioxide (SiO2): Silicon dioxide is only licensed for use in certain food
products (E551), including among others, dried food in powder form, cheese (in slices or grated),
seasoning, food supplements, cooking salt, and cooking salt substitute, and must be declared as a
food additive.Its use as a carrier of emulsifiers, colouring agents and aromas is also permitted. The
tolerable daily intake is not specified; silicon dioxide is not regarded as posing a health risk. In
addition, SiO2 in gel or colloid form (microscopically dispersed particles) may also be used as a
processing aid for plant-based foods. Processing aids are not ingredients but are used in processing
technology, and may result in residue in the end product. Synthetic SiO2 is also sold as pyrogenic
(colloidal) silicon by several companies, for example under the product name Aerosil made by
Evonik16 (applications: food and cosmetics; thickening agent, improved flow of powders, and the
prevention of lump formation in powders). For example, “Bad Ischler 7-Kräuter-Salz” (a salt product
from Austria) contains Aerosil as a flow aid. As it is a colloid, the primary particles of pyrogenic silicon
are naturally nano-sized. However, the particles tend to form agglomerations bigger than 100 nm.
Individual particles only occur occasionally and instead form aggregates which are not regarded as
posing a health risk as they are excreted by our bodies unchanged. (5) Nanoparticulate titanium
dioxide (TiO2): In its larger form, TiO2 is a licensed food colouring agent (E 171). It is used as white
pigment in paper and plastic because of its UV-resistant properties. TiO2 can also be found in food
itself, for example in sugar glazing in confectionery or in instant beverages. Mars Inc. (USA) has a
patent for inorganic coatings for consumables, which, it claims, protect confectionery in particular
from moisture and oxygen by means of a transparent, ultrathin layer (0.2–500 nm) of inorganic
material (SiO2, SiO, CaO, ZnO, TiO2 or MnO) thereby extending the product’s shelf life. (6) Crushing
herbs to nano dimensions (nanopowder, nanoemulsions; in use, for example, in food supplements).
(7) Water treatment using nano-membranes (disinfection, removal of pollutants; currently being
developed). (8) Catalytic improvement of frying oil by means of a nanoceramic insert in commercial
deep fat fryers, which prevents oil polymerisation and the associated bad smells (example product
OilFresh, USA). (9) Filter paper with nano-silicon for decaffeinating coffee (currently being developed
at the University of Nebraska, Lincoln, USA).Similar filter papers could also be used to remove
cholesterol or nicotine.
Nano-composites: Nano-composites are broadly classified into thermoplastic and thermoset nano-
composites:
Thermoplastic nano-composites: These materials are divided into two major categories, i.e.
commodity resins and engineering resins. Thermoplastics filled with nanometer size materials have
different properties than thermoplastics filled with conventional materials. Some of the properties of
nano-composites, such as increased tensile strength, may be achieved by using higher conventional
filler loading at the expense of increased weight and decreased gloss. Other properties of nano-
composites such as clarity or improved barrier properties cannot be duplicated by conventional filler
at any loading. One of the goals of nano-composites is to allow substitution of more expensive
engineering resins with a less expensive commodity resin. Composites of nylon-6, polyethylene,
polypropylene etc with layered clays (montmorillonite / hectorite) have been developed for
commercial applications.
Thermoset nano-composites: These have received less commercial interest in their development
than thermoplastic nano-composites, but the processing and production of these simpler thermoset
nano-composites can offer some significant advantages over conventional thermosets. Thermoset
nano-composites of polyester / polyurethane and montmorrillonite have been prepared by in-situ
polymerization / solution exfoliation / melt intercalation techniques.

76
Processing of polymer Nano-composites
Selection and preparation of nano-particles: Polymer nano-composites are made by incorporating
nano-sized fillers particles into polymers. This involves production of nano-sized filler particles and
their dispersion into the polymer matrix. Nano-particles are mainly of three types i) Lamellar type
(nano-layered silicates) e.g. natural and synthetic clay minerals such as montmorillonite, hectorite
saponite, fluorohectorite, laponite, magadiite etc. ii) Shell like (e.g. carbon nanotubes) and iii)
Fibrillar type (e.g. carbon nanofibers). As of today, the commercial polymer nano-composites have
been prepared from clay minerals, as these are readily available at low cost in comparison to carbon
nanotubes and nanofibers. The first step in processing of nano-composites is to prepare nano-
particles. There are four routes to make nano-particles. These are wet chemical processes (colloidal
chemistry, hydrothermal methods, sol-gel methods, and precipitation methods), mechanical
processing methods (grinding, milling, and mechanical alloying techniques), form-in-place processes
(lithography, vacuum deposition processes such as physical vapour deposition, chemical vapour
deposition and spray coating) and gas-phase synthesis (flame pyrolysis, electro-explosion, laser
ablation, high temperature evaporation and plasma synthesis techniques).
Production of polymer Nano-composites: The diffusion of nano-particles throughout a polymer
significantly reduces its permeability. The degree of dispersion of the nano-particles within the
polymer relates to improvement in mechanical and barrier properties in the resulting nano-
composite films over those of pure polymer films. Nano-particles allow for much lower loading levels
than traditional fillers to achieve optimum performance. Usually addition levels of nano-fillers are
less than 5%, which significantly impacts weight reduction of nano-composite films. The dispersion
process results in high aspect ratio and surface area causing higher performance plastics than
obtained with conventional fillers. Clays, in a natural state, are hydrophilic while polymers are
hydrophobic, so the incompatibility between hydrophilic clay and hydrophobic polymer often causes
agglomeration of clay minerals in the polymer matrix. To make the two compatible, the clay’s
polarity is modified to be more “organic” to interact successfully with polymers (Ryan, 2003). One
way to modify clay is by exchanging organic ammonium cations for inorganic cations from the clay’s
surface. Upon organic treatment, clays become hydrophobic and hence compatible with the specific
polymers (thermoplastics, thermosets or elastomers). Such modified clays are commonly referred to
as organoclays. However, the most popular modification for clays is to exchange the interlayer
inorganic cations (e.g., Na+, Ca2+) with organic ammonium cations. Another key aspect of surface
modification is to swell the interlayer space up to a certain extent (normally over 20 Å) and hence
reduce the layer–layer attraction, which allows a favourable diffusion and accommodation of
polymer or precursor into the interlayer space. There are several processes to make clay-based
polymer nano-composites, including in-situ polymerization, solution exfoliation and melt
intercalation or melt compounding.
Properties of Nano-composite polymers
Barrier properties: Polymer nano-composites have excellent barrier properties against gases (e.g.,
oxygen, nitrogen and carbon dioxide), water and hydrocarbons. Studies have showed that reduction
in permeability strongly depends on the aspect ratio of clay platelets, with high ratios dramatically
enhancing gaseous barrier properties.
Mechanical strength: The enhancement in mechanical properties of polymer nano-composites can
be attributed to the high rigidity and aspect ratio together with the good affinity between polymer
and organoclay. The unprecedented mechanical properties of nylon-6 clay nano-composite
synthesized by in-situ polymerization were first demonstrated by researchers at the Toyota Central
Research Laboratories. Such nano-composites exhibit significant improvement in strength and
modulus, namely, 40% in tensile strength, 60% in flexural strength, 68% in tensile modulus, and 126%
in flexural modulus.
Thermal properties: The thermal stability of polymer composites is generally estimated from the
weight loss upon heating which results in the formation of volatile products. The improved thermal
stability in polymer nano-composites is due to the clay platelets, which hinder the diffusion of

77
volatiles and assist the formation of char after thermal decomposition.The heat distortion
temperature (HDT) of nylon 6 nano-composites reported by Toyota researchers increased from 65°C
of pristine nylon 6 to 145°C. The increase in HDT has also been observed in clay-based nano-
composites for other polymer systems such as polypropylene (PP) and polylactide (PLA). Such an
increase in HDT is very difficult to achieve in conventional polymer composites reinforced by micro-
particles.
Uses of Nano-composites in packaging industry: Presently majority of consumer products that use
nano-composite packaging are in the beverage industry. Applications could include packaging films
for moisture and oxygen sensitive foods. Excellent barrier characteristics have resulted in
considerable interest in nano-clay composites in food packaging applications, both flexible and rigid.
Specific examples include packaging for processed meats, cheese, confectionery, cereals and boil-in-
the-bag foods, extrusion-coating applications in association with paperboard for fruit juice and dairy
products, together with co-extrusion processes for the manufacture of beer and carbonated drinks
bottles.Many different types of commercial plastics, flexible and rigid, such as poly-propolyene (PP),
nylon, polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polyethylene (PE) etc. are being considered to develop nano-
composites for food packaging.
Conclusions
Nanotechnology focuses on the characterization, fabrication,and manipulation of biological and non-
biologicalstructures smaller than 100 nm. Structures on this scalehave been shown to have unique
and novel functional properties.Consequently, interest and activities in this research area
havegreatly increased over the past years.Since foods are complexbiological systems that are
governed by many of the same basicmechanisms and principles that biologists and biochemists
study,the discoveries made in nanotechnology will eventually also impact the food industry. Foods
undergoa variety of postharvest and processing-induced modifications thataffect the biological and
biochemical functionality of the system.Nanotechnology allows scientists to measure, control, and
manipulatematter at the nanoscale level to change those properties andfunctions in a beneficial
way.The commercialization of many nano-technological innovations in the area of food has already
taken place. The potential of nanotechnology infood processing and packaging is immense.

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 Performance evaluation of weeder by number of blades per flange in maize crop
1
Devojee B,2S. S. Meena, 3A. K. Sharma
1
M. Tech student, Department of Farm Machinery and Power Engineering, CTAE, Udaipur.
2
Assistant Professor, Department of Farm Machinery and Power Engineering, CTAE, Udaipur.
3
Professor, Department of Farm Machinery and Power Engineering, CTAE, Udaipur.
Correspondence Email - devojibhookya@gmail.com
Abstract: A weed is essentially any plant which grows where it is not required. A weed can be
thought of as any plant growing in the wrong place at the wrong time and doing more harm than
good.Weeds are the most severe and widespread biological constraint to crop production, and cause
invisible damage till the crop is harvested. The composition and competition by weeds are dynamic
and dependent on soil, climate, cropping and management factors. Weeds decrease the value of
land, particularly perennial weeds, which tend to accumulate on long fallows; increase cost of
cleaning. Significant portion of farmer’s time is wasted for weeding of crops.Weeding is the removal
of unwanted plants in the field crops. Mechanical weed control is very effective as it helps to reduce
drudgery involved in manual weeding, it kills the weeds and also keeps the soil surface loose
ensuring soil aeration and water intake capacity. Weeding is an important but equally labour
intensive agricultural unit operation. There is an increasing interest in the use of mechanical intra-
row weeders because of concern over environmental degradation and a growing demand for
organically produced food. Today the agricultural sector requires non-chemical weed control that
ensures food safety. Consumers demand high quality food products and pay special attention to food
safety. A portable knapsack power weeder was developed with width of cut was 25 cm and tested in
maize crop with number of blades per flange (2, 4 and 6). Operational speed, actual field capacity,
field efficiency, weeding efficiency, plant damage, actual working depth of cut, fuel consumption,
performance index of (2,4,6 blades per flange) was 0.42, 0.38 and 0.36 m/s, 0.028, 0.025 and 0.023
ha/h, 74.6, 66.6 and 61.3 per cent, 84.7, 87.9 and 89.3 per cent, 4.28, 3.43 and 2.40 per cent, 3.36,
3.83 and 4.33 cm,0.61, 0.67, and 0.70 l/h, 136, 127 and 120.
Key words: Number of Blades per Flange, Operational Speed, Actual Field Capacity, Weeding
Efficiency, Plant Damage, Fuel Consumption.
Introduction: India is a vast country having agriculture sector as the backbone of its economy. India
has total land acquisition of about 329 Mha out of which 166 Mha (Sahay, 2008) of land is under
cultivation. Day by day Indian population growing, hence, it is required produce more food to
demand of the growing population. This can be achieved by two ways they are either increasing the
land under cultivation or by adopting the high farming technique which would increase the crop yield
as per population demand. As it is not possible to increase the land under cultivation, another option
is increase the crop yield.A weed is any plant which grows where it is unwanted or not required.
Weeds waste excessive proportions of farmers’ time, thereby acting as a brake on development.
Weeding is one of the most important farm operations in crop production system. Weeding is an
important but equally labour intensive agricultural unit operation. Weeding accounts for about 25%
of the total labour requirement (900–1200 manhours/hectare) during a cultivation season (Yadav
and Pund, 2007). At a conservative estimate, an amount of Rs.100 billion is spent on weed
management annually in India, in arable agriculture alone (Anonymous, 2011). In India, farmers
mainly follow the weeding with small hand tools though chemical weeding is slowly becoming
popular, in spite of it being costly. Use of herbicides will have residual effect and change in quality of
soil and the chemicals used in weed killers cause damage to the environment and to the health of
people who come into contact with them.Tractor operated weeding implements can save about 75
per cent time and 20 per cent cost as compared to bullock drawn methods. But there is uncovered
headland and tractor hiring charges will be crucial input cost which may vary according to the
season. The rotary type weeder stirs the soil more accurately, disturb the weed root and remove
them from soil. In addition this helps in keeping the soil in loose condition for proper aeration. The
major advantage of rotary power weeder is power being used for rotary weeder blades requires less

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draft and improved field performance. Several weeders are available which run by tractor or power
tiller, these are large in size cannot work for low inter row spaced crops.
Experimental details.
Power weeder with different numbers of blades were selected as treatments
(T1) Power weeder - 2 blades per flange, all are at 180° to each other
(T2) Power weeder - 4 blades per flange, all are at 90° to each other
(T3) Power weeder – 6 blades per flange, all are 60° to each other
MATERIAL AND METHODS
Specifications of developed portable knapsack powerweeder
S. No. Specification Value
1 Number of engine cylinder 1
2 Engine maximum power at 6500 rpm 1.25 kW
3 Weeding width 25 cm
4 No. of Blades per flange 2,4,6
5 Rotor speed 185 rpm
6 Weeding depth 3-5 cm
7 Power transmission Lightweight aluminum gear box
8 Fuel tank capacity 0.9 L
Petrol mixed with lubricating oil(1
9 Fuel
liter of petrol with 30 ml of oil)
10 Material of blade Spring steel –L-type blade
11 Total weight 11 kg

Performance evaluation of portable knapsack power weeder: After completion of the development
of power weeder, the field experiments were conducted to evaluate the performance of the
machine.
Speed of operation
The speed of operation was calculated by observing the distance traveled and the time taken
as
S=
Where,
S = Forward speed of operation, m/s
L = Distance traveled, m
t = Time taken, s
Effective working width of cut: The width of cut of the machine with different blades was measured
in the field by measuring scale in different rows at different places.

Measurement of width of cut

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 Fuel tank

Engine

Flexible drive shaft

Handle

Blade cover

Worm gear box

Flanges

Rotor shaft

Blades

Portable knapsack power weeder

Effective working depth of cut: The depth of cut of the machine with different blades was measured
in the field by measuring the depth of soil layer tilled by the blade in a row. The depth of the weeding
was measured by measuring scale in different rows at different places. Average of 3 observations
was taken as depth of weeding and expressed in cm.

Measurement of depth of cut

83
Theoretical field capacity
Theoretical field capacity of the machine is the rate of field coverage of the machine that
based on 100 percent of time at the rated speed and covering 100 per cent of its rated width. It is
expressed as hectare per hour and determined as follows (Kepner et al., 1978)

Effective field capacity

The effective field capacity of power weeder was computed by recording the area weeded
during each trial run in a given time interval. It is dependent upon speed of operation. With the help
of stopwatch, time was recorded for respective trial run along with area covered.

Field efficiency
Field efficiency is the ratio of effective field capacity to the theoretical field capacity, Expressed as
percentage.

Weeding efficiency
Weeding efficiency is the ratio between the numbers of weeds removed by power weeder to
the number of weeds present in a unit area and is expressed as a percentage. The samplings were
done by quadrant method, by randomly selection of spots by a square quadrant of 1 square meter
(Tajuddin, 2006). Higher the value of weeding efficiency better is the weeder performance.

Plant damage
Plant damage is the ratio of the number of plants damaged after operation in a row to the
number of plants present in that row before operation. It was calculated by the following formula
(Yadav and Pund, 2007). It is expressed in percentage.

Where,
Q = Number of plants in a 10 m row length of field after weeding
P = Number of plants in a 10 m row length of field before weeding
Performance index
Performance of the weeder was assessed through performanceindex(PI) by using the
following relation as suggested by (Srinivas et al., 2010).

Where,
FC = Field capacity, ha h-1
PD = Plant damage, per cent
WE = Weeding efficiency, per cent
Fuel consumption

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 The fuel consumption has direct effect the economics of the power weeder. It was measured
by top fill method. The fuel tank was filled to full capacity before and after the test. After completion
of test operation, amount of fuel required to top fill again is the fuel consumption for the test
duration. It was expressed in litre per hour.

Measurement of fuel consumption

Instrumentations
Stop watch - A stop watch was used to measure time required for one turn and turning of a weeder.
Time was generally measured in second and further calculated to minutes and hours as per
requirement.
Measuring tape – A measuring tape of 30 m was used for measuring and marking in the field. A steel
foot rule was also used for measuring depth of operation, height of crop and height of weeds.

Measuring of row to row spacing

Tachometer- Mechanical tachometer was used to measure the rpm of rotor shaft.

Measurement of rpm of rotor shaft with tachometer

Result and Discussion
Speed of operation
Speed of operation of the weeder with different blades (2, 4, and 6) was determined.
Maximum and minimum speed of operation of the weederwas 0.42 m/s with 2 blades and 0.36 m/s
with 6 blades, whereas 0.38 m/s with 4 blades.
Effective working depth of cut
The effective working depth of cut of weeder for different blades (2, 4, and 6) was
determined.The data reveals that, the maximum and minimum depth of cut of weeder was 4.33 cm

85
with 6 blades and 3.36 cm with 2 blades,whereas 3.83 cm with 4 blades.
Effective working width of cut
The width of cut of the weeder with different bladeswas measured in the field by observing
the strip of soil and weeds cut in a row. The effective width of cut of the weeder was found as 25 cm.
Theoretical field capacity
The theoretical field capacity of the weeder with different blades (2, 4, and 6) was measured.
The width of cut of the weeder was 25 cm and speed of operation was assumed 1.5 km/h for all
blades (2, 4 and 6).The theoretical field capacity of the weeder for all blades was 0.0375 ha/h.
Effective Field Capacity
The effective field capacity of the weeder with different blades (2, 4, and 6) was
measured.Higher the value of field capacity better was the weederperformance.The data reveals
that, the Maximum and minimum effective field capacity of weeder was 0.028 ha/h with 2 blades
and 0.023 ha/h with 6 blades,whereas 0.025 ha/h with 4 blades.
Field efficiency
The field efficiency of the weeder with the different blades (2, 4, and 6) was measured.The
data reveal that the maximum and minimum field efficiency of weederwas 74.6 per cent with 2
blades and 61.3 per cent with 6 blades, whereas 66.6 per cent with 4 blades.The actual field capacity
of weeder increases with increasing field efficiency and decreases with decreasing field efficiency.
Weeding efficiency
The weeding efficiency of the weeder with the different blades (2, 4, and 6) was
measured.The data reveal that the maximum and minimum weeding efficiency of weeder was 89.3
per cent with 6 blades and 84.7 per cent with 2 blades, whereas 87.9 per cent with 4 blades.In 6
blades, depth of cut increases as speed of weeder reduces, weeding efficiency increases whereas
comparing with 2 blades depth of cut decreases and speed increases, weeding efficiency decreases.
Weeding efficiency depends on the number of weeds presents in the crop.
Plant damage
The plant damageof the weeder with the different blades (2, 4, and 6) was measured.The
data reveal that the maximum and minimum weeding plant damage of weeder was 4.28 per cent
with 2 blades and 2.4 per cent with 6 blades, whereas 3.43 per cent with 4 blades.Maximum plant
damage was observed with 2 blades as it runs with high speed and jerks. Comparing with 6 blades,
rotor moving with low speed and depth of cut increases and no jercks was observed and thereby
lower plant damage was observed.
Fuel consumption
Fuel consumption of the power weeder was calculated by topping method.The maximum
fuel consumption was found with 6 blades as 0.76 l/h due to more depth of cut (4.60 cm) and
minimum fuel consumption was found in maize crop with 2 blades as 0.61 l/h due to low depth of
cut (3.36 cm).Whereas with 4 blades the fuel consumption was 0.7 l/h.
Performance index
Maximumand minimum performance indexof power weederwas 136 with 2 blades and 120
with 6 blades respectively.Whereas with 4 blades the performance index was 127.
Conclusions
The performance evaluation of weederby number of blades per flange in maize crop was
found satisfactory with 6 blades.The maize crop weeding efficiency was found 89.3 per centand plant
damage was observed as 2.4 per cent which was less compared to other types of blades. Fuel
consumption was high in 6 blades whichwas 0.76 l/h in maize crop. From the study it can be
concluded that the power weeder with 6 blades was preferred for weeding.
References
Ambujam, 1993. Evaluation of power weeder performance.Agricultural Mechanization in Asia, Africa
and Latin America 24: 16.
Anonymous, 2011. Indian Council of Agricultural Research (Vision 2030).
Kepner, R. A., Bainer, R. and Barger, E. L. 1978.Principles of Farm Machinery, 3rd edition, CBS

86
 Publications and Distributors, New Delhi.
Fanoll. 1993. Evaluation of power weeder performance. Agricultural Mechanization in Asia, Africa
and Latin America24: 16.
Kumar, N. T., Kumar, S. T., Madhusudan, N. A. and Ramya, V. 2014.Performance evaluation of
weeders.International Journal of Science, Environment and Technology 3: 2160-2165.
Srinivas, I., Adake, R. V., Reddy, B. S., Korwar, G. R., Thyagaraj, C. R., Dange, A.,
Veeraprasad, G and Reddy, R. 2010. Comparative performance of different
powerweeders in rain fed sweet sorghum crop. Indian Journal of Dry land
Agriculture Research and Development 25: 63-67.
Rangasamy, K., Balasubramanian, M. and Swaminathan, K. R. 1993.Evaluation of power weeder
performance.Agricultural Mechanization in Asia, Africa and Latin America24: 16-18.
Tajuddin, A. 2006. Design, development and testing of engine operated weeder, Agricultural
Engineering Today 30: 25-29.
Yadav, R. and Pund, S. 2007. Development and ergonomic evaluation of manual weeder.Agricultural
Engineering International: The CIGR E Journal9: 1-9.

87
 Effect of superheated steam and microwavetreatment on drying kinetics and quality of beetroot
(beta valgaris L.) chips
Digia LG1, Sandhya R Shewale1, 2and H Umesh Hebbar1, 2
1
Dept. of Technology Scale-up, and 2Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR),CSIR-Central
Food Technological Research Institute (CSIR-CFTRI) Campus, Mysore
Email: hebbar@cftri.res.in
Abstract: Beetroot (Beta vulgaris L.) is a rich source of potentiallybioactive compounds; and can be
converted into health friendly snack considering the increasing demand from health-conscious
consumers. In this study, beetroot slices (1 mm)were given thermal pretreatment using superheated
steam (SHS, 240 °C) and microwave (MW, 900 W) for different durations and its effect was compared with
hot water (WA, 90 °C) and steam (ST, 100 °C) treatments. The pretreatment conditions (SHS for 2 min,
MW for 2.5 min, WA and ST for 1 min) effectively inactivated PPO and POD (≥90%) enzymes and retained
higher amount of betalain and color. These pretreated slices were dried by low humidity air (LHA) at 50
°C. Reduction in drying time was 50%, 40% and 30% in slices pretreated with MW, SHS, WA & ST, as
compared to LHA drying without pretreatment.SHS treatment prior to LHA drying led to better retention
of betalain (75%) and ascorbic acid (62%). LHA drying combined with SHS and ST pretreatment, retained
higher amount of total Polyphenol, flavonoid and also exhibited higher antioxidant activity (DPPH RSA)
compared to other treatments. The study suggested that combination of SHS pretreatmentand LHA drying
could be an option in the preparation of chips from heat sensitive vegetable such as Beetroot.
Key words: Beetroot, Microwave, Superheated Steam,Pretreatment,Low Humidity Air Drying
Introduction: Red Beetroot (Beta vulgaris L.) is a root vegetable belonging to the family
Chenopodiaceaeandwidely known for their antioxidant, neuro-stimulator, strong anti-hypertensiveand
anti-cancer effects (Neelwarneet al., 2013) due to its rich valuable bioactive compounds. It is
exceptionally rich in fibres as well as in sugars but with moderate caloric value. Beetroot also has good
amount of B-vitamins (B1, B2, B3and B6) and is a rich source of potent nutrients including magnesium,
potassium, sodium, vitamin C, betaine and folates (Dias et al., 2009). However, fresh beetroot remains
susceptible for microbial spoilagedue to its high moisture content(~88 % wb). It is widely consumed as
salad, juices and is available in minimally processed, canned and dried product forms. Dried beetroots can
be consumed directly in the form of chips as a substitute to traditional snacks that are rich in trans-fatty
acids (Aroet al., 1998). Betalains are most important nutrient in beetroot and its stability varies
withdifferent levels of water activity, temperatures, exposure to oxygen, light and enzymatic activities.
The literature reports indicate that betalains degrade at a temperature above 50 °C (Saguyet al.,1978) and
hence dehydration of beetroot while maintaining a high content of betalainsisa challenge. Although,
traditional drying methods such as sun drying or hot air drying can be employed,they often require longer
drying time because of operation at lower temperature. The pretreatment before drying,generally known
as blanching, denatures the enzymes responsible for undesirable reactionsthatadversely affectproduct
quality and also cause changesinstructural arrangement of tissues by forming pores or channels which
facilitate the fasterremoval of moisture upon drying.Many studies on hot water blanching of fruits and
vegetables have been reported in the literatures.The loss of water-soluble nutrientsis a mainly account for
the limitations of hotwater blanching. Hence, newer methods of pretreatment are focusing on reducing
nutrient losses, improving energy efficiency and minimizing environmental impacts. The emerging and
innovative pretreatment technologies includemethods such as superheated steam (SHS)blanching,high-
humidity hot airimpingement blanching (HHAIB), microwave (MW) and infrared (IR) blanching.Use of SHS
is reported for blanching of potato (Sotomeet al., 2009), yam slices (Xiao et al., 2012) and sea cucumber
(Gao et al., 2007). These studies indicated that SHS blanching was more effective for enzyme inactivation
compared to hot water blanching and color of the products were improved after SHS treatment. Bai et al.
(2013) used superheated steam impingement blanching (SSIB) before drying of grapes and reported that
SSIB pretreatment in addition to reduction of PPO enzyme activity it also helped in reduction of drying
time and improved the color of raisins. There are a few literature reports on drying of beetroot slices,
pulp, and slurries with different techniques, namely, vacuum and microwave drying (Ravichandranet al.,
2013), intermittent drying (Gokhaleet al., 2011), and combination of convective pre-drying (CPD) with

88
vacuum-microwave finish drying (VMFD) (Figiel, 2010). They reported that combination of two or more
drying methods enabled considerable shortening of drying time and better product quality compared to
individual and conventional drying method. The processing methods and conditions employed decides the
quality of dehydrated product obtained and efforts are always on identifying suitable combinations of
processing to optimize the product yield and quality.The rate of drying depends mainly on the
temperature and when the temperature is low, the process becomes long, as driving force for mass
transfer is less.One of the strategies that can enhance this driving force under low-temperature conditions
is lowering the relative humidity of hot air, which increases the capacity of air for moisture absorption
from the surface (Naidu et al., 2012). Low humidity air (LHA) drying is emerging as one of the potential
methods for drying of heat-sensitive foods at a relatively low-temperatures. The humidity of air can be
lowered either using heat pump system or adsorption column. Since heat pump method is expensive and
has low energy efficiency, adsorption desiccant beds are commonly used for dehumidification of air. In
this technique, air that is used as drying medium is contacted with adsorbents (zeolite or silica) to remove
moisture and is circulated through material bed to dry it. Use of air with low humidity during drying of
apple slices enhanced drying rate and also resulted in higher retention of ascorbic acid and better color
compared to conventional hot air drying under similar conditions (Shewaleand Hebbar, 2017). The
present work is mainly focused on studying the effect ofsuperheated steam (SHS) and electromagnetic
radiationi.e., microwave (MW)based treatment on enzyme inactivation and quality ofbeetroot slices
andcomparison with conventional blanching methods such as steam (ST) and hot water (WA). The
pretreated beetroot slices were further dried using LHA drying method at temperature of 50 °Cto obtain
chips like product, which could be consumed as snack. The quality of dried beetroot chips was evaluated
in terms of rehydration ratio and retention of betalains, color, ascorbic acid, polyphenol,
flavonoidandantioxidant activity.
Material and Methods
Materials : Fresh beetroots were purchased from the local market. Material was sorted for uniform shape
and size and carefully cleaned, peeled and manually sliced into a thickness of 1-2 mm using a slicer (CL 5,
Robot coupe, USA) and were subjected to different pretreatments.Thickness of 1 mm was chosen in order
to achieve chips-like final dried product. All the chemicals used for the analysis were of analytical grade
and procured from Sigma Aldrich and Merck chemical Ltd. (India).
Experimental Procedure: Pretreatment:Thepretreatment methods studied were water (WA), steam (ST),
superheated steam (SHS) and microwave (MW). An equal quantity (800 g) of beetroot slices was taken
for alltreatments. The pretreated samples were immediately analyzed for enzyme activity and quality
attributes.
Water blanching: Beetroot slices were dipped in hot water (90 ±1 °C) for differentduration (1, 2, 3, 4 and
5 min.) followed by immediate immersion in cold water for 20 s. The excess moisture from the surface of
beetroot slices was absorbed with blotting paper. A thermostatic water bath (Shital Scientific Industries,
Bombay) was used for water blanching studies to maintain the constant temperature during the
treatment.
Steam blanching (ST): Beetroot slices were treated with steam (100 °C) for different duration (1, 2, 3, 4
and 5 min) in an autoclave (Krauss Maffei, Germany). Prepared slices were spread on perforated tray in
single layer for uniform heating and loaded intotheautoclave.Immediately after treatment, excess
moisture from surface of slices was removed using blotting paper and slices were cooled to room
temperature.
Microwave (MW):Beetroot slices were pretreated with microwave radiation at power level of 450, 600
and 900 W for different durations in a domestic microwave system (MC32J, Samsung, India). After
treatment slices were immediately cooled to room temperature.
Superheated Steam (SHS):Prepared beetroot slices were placed on perforated trays and exposed to
superheated steam at temperature of 120, 180 and 240 °C for different durations. For this purpose
superheated steam heating equipment developed at CSIR-CFTRI, Mysore was used. After treatment slices
werekept on blotting paper and allowed to cool to room temperature.
Drying:Low-humidity air (LHA) drying was performed in the laboratory dryer (Alpha, India) (through-flow,

89
air velocity 1.3 m/s) fitted with a dehumidifier (FFB-170, Bry-Air, India) having a regenerative desiccant
bed for reducing the humidity of inlet air. The air temperature was maintained at 50±2 °C. Relative
humidity was in the range of 24-28 % throughout the drying duration. About 800 g of beetroot slices
treated with different pretreatments were dried in separate batches. Drying was continued till moisture
content of beetroot slices reached 5–6% (wb).
Quality analysis of pre-treated slices
Crude Extract Preparation:Fresh (control) and treated samples (5 g) from each pretreatment were minced
and homogenized with 0.1 M sodium phosphate buffer of pH 7 in the ratio of 1:3. Homogenate was
filtered through muslin cloth and centrifuged at 14000 g for 30 min at 4 °C. After centrifugation, the
supernatant was filtered through filter paper. The filtrate was then made to attain a temperature of 25 °C
for the enzyme activity assay.
Peroxidase (POD):To estimate POD activity guaiacol was used as a donor and hydrogen peroxide as a
substrate. The substrate solution was comprised of 1.0 mL of phosphate buffer of pH 6, 1.0 mL of 15
mMguaiacol and 1.0 mL of 3 mM hydrogen peroxide. 50 µL of enzymatic extract at 25 °C was added to the
substrate solution and the increase in optical density was recorded at 470 nm for 5 min using UV
spectrophotometer (Shimadzu, UV-1800, Japan). A blank sample was prepared in the same way by
substituting the supernatant with a phosphate buffer.
Polyphenol oxidase (PPO):PPO activity was evaluated using 3 mL of catechol (0.1 mg/mL) as a substrate
to 75 µL of the supernatant and following the formation of the brownish compound o-quinone at 420 nm
for 2 min. For the blank sample, double distilled water was used in place of the supernatant. PPO and POD
activity was calculated using the slope of a linear segment absorbance-time. The enzyme activity was
expressed as a change in the absorbance/min/g of fresh weight (FW) of the sample analyzed (Paciulliet al.,
2016). Percentage variations were calculated in comparison to untreated.
Betalain pigment:Raw and treated (1 g of fresh/treated and 0.1 g of dried) samples were minced in pestle
and mortar and dissolved in 10 ml of 50% ethanol followed by agitation for 30 mins using magnetic stirrer.
The homogenate was centrifuged at 6000 rpm for 10 min at 25°C. The supernatant was collected after
centrifugation. The same procedure was repeated for two more times on the residue to ensure maximum
extraction of betalains. The supernatant was pooled and further used for determination of betalains in
terms of betacyanins and betaxanthins using spectrophotometer (Shimadzu, UV-1800, Japan) at 540 nm
and 480 nm respectively according to the methods of Stintzinget al., (2003). The absorbance reading
obtained was used to calculate the betalain concentration for each sample. The betalain content (BC) was
calculated as

Where, A = absorption; DF = dilution factor; l = pathlength (1 cm) of the cuvette.

The molecular weights (MW) and molar extinction coefficients (e) used for quantification of betacyanins
and betaxanthins were: MW=550 g/mol; e= 60,000 L/mol cm in H2O and MW=308 g/mol; e=48,000 L/mol
cm in water respectively.
Colorparameters:Thecolor of the trated and untreated beetroot slices was evaluated using a Minolta
Chroma Meter CM-5 (Japan). The instrument was calibrated using a standard white and blank reference
tile under illuminated conditions. Chroma indicates the purity of the color while hue angles were
measured along an axis, the hue angles 0°, 90°, 180°, and 270° indicate red, yellow, green, and blue colors,
respectively. The color of dried beetroot slices was measured after grinding into fine powder. All
measurements Readings were done in triplicate and average values are reported. The total color
difference (Δ E), Hue angle (H°) and Chroma value (C*) were calculated from L*, a* and b* coordinates
using the following expressions:

Where, ∆L, ∆a, and ∆b were calculated as the difference of individual color reading from a reference
sample (fresh beetroot slice) reading
(3)

90
 (4)
Quality analysis of dried beetroot chips
Ascorbic acid :The ascorbic acid (AA) estimation was performed according to Jagota and Dani (1982) with
some modifications. The 0.2 g of powdered sample was used for extraction of AA using 0.8 ml of 10%
trichloroacetic acid. After vigorous shaking the tubes were kept at 4 °C for 5 min and centrifuged at 3000
rpm for another 5 min. For the estimation, 0.2 ml of the supernatant was diluted to 2.0 ml using distilled
water followed by addition of 0.2 ml of diluted Folin reagent (1:10) and vigorously shaken. After 10 min,
the absorbance of the blue color developed was taken at 750 nm. A standard curve was prepared by
taking 0.01 to 0.1 ml of standard AA solutions (100 μg AA/ml).
Betalaincontent:Similar method of estimation was followed as described inthe text above
Polyphenol, flavonoid content and antioxidant activity
Extraction of polyphenols and flavonoids: The extraction was done according to Raikoset al. (2016) with
some modifications. 0.1 g of the dried beetroot powders and 1 g of fresh beetroot pieces were added to
20 mL of a 50% (v/v) ethanol solution and homogenized using a magnetic stirrer for 30 min. The
homogenate was centrifuged at 6000 × g for 10 min. The residue was re-extracted with fresh solvent
following the same procedure and the supernatant were pooled together and stored at 4 °C until further
analysis.
Total phenolic content(TPC): The amount of TPC present in each sample was measured according to the
Folin–Ciocalteu assay (Singleton and Rossi, 1965). 2.0 mL of Folin–Ciocalteau solution was added to tubes
containing 2 mL of distilled water and 0.2 mL of sample, standards and blank. Solutions were allowed to
stand for a minimum of 30 s and a maximum of 8 min before 2 mL of 7.5% sodium carbonatewas added.
The solutions were vortexed and incubated for 60 min at room temperature. The absorbance of the
samples was measured at 765 nm against blank. A calibration curve was performed using gallic acid as a
standard and results are expressed as mg GAE/100 g dry wt.
Total flavonoid content(TFC): The similar extract was used forestimation of TFC according to El-Haciet al.
(2013) method. The 500 μL extract was mixed with 2 mL of distilled water and subsequently 150 mL of
sodium nitrite solution (15%) added. After 6 min, 150 mL of aluminum chloride solution (10%) was added
and allowed to stand for 6 min. Then, 2 mL of sodium hydroxide solution (4%) was added to the mixture.
Immediately, distilled water was added to bring the final volume to 5 mL and the mixture was thoroughly
mixed and allowed to stand for another 15 min. The absorbance of the mixture was then measured at 510
nm against the blank and results were expressed as rutin equivalent on a dry weight basis (mg RU/100 g
dry wt).
Antioxidant activity: The antioxidant activity of the beetroot extract was determined by DPPH method
according to Lee et al. (2003) with some modifications. The stock reagent solution (1×10-3M) was
prepared and stored at −20 °C un l use. The working solu on (6×10-5M) was prepared by mixing 6 mL of
stock solution with 100 mL of methanol to obtain an absorbance value of 0.8±0.02 at 515 nm, as
measured using a spectrophotometer. Extracts each of 0.1 mL were vortexed for 30 s with 3.9 mL of DPPH
solution and left to react for 30 min, after which the absorbance at 515 nm was recorded. The DPPH
solution with no added extract was analyzed as a control and scavenging activity was calculated as
follows:
(5)
where, ‘A’ is the absorbance at 515 nm

Colour measurement:The method described in section 2.3.3 was followed for the measurement of colour
of dried slices.
Rehydration Ratio: Rehydration ratio was estimated by immersing by about 1g (3-4 dried slices) of dried
samplein distilled water (90±2 °C) for 10 min. Subsequently, the samples were taken out, blotted with
tissue paper to remove excess water on the surface, and weighed on electronic digital balance (sensitivity
0.0001 g). The experiments were performed three times and averages values are reported. The
rehydration ratio (RR) was calculated by using following expression:

91
 (6)
where, Wr is the weight after rehydration (g), and Wd is the weight before rehydration (g).
Results and Discussion
Effect of pretreatments on beetroot slices
Enzyme activity: Beetroot slices were blanched with hot water (WA) (90±2 °C) and steam (ST)(100 °C) for
1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 min and results on enzyme activity are presented in Figures 1 a and b. The PPO and POD
activities of fresh (control) beetroot slices were ranged from 156±0.74 to 167.52±0.53 U/gand 82.6±0.75
to 147.48±0.98 U/g, respectively indicating thatactivity of PPO was slightly higher than POD in fresh
beetroot. It is noticeable that WA and ST pretreatment for 1 min were sufficient to inactivate PPO (91.82
and 90.08%) and POD enzymes (97.0 and 97.65%) to more than > 90% of initial activity (Figure 1 a and b).
Further increase in treatment time in ST treatment (˃1 min) caused so ening of ssues of the beetroot
slices and led to leaching of pigments due to condensation of steam on the surface of the slices. However,
the amount of pigment leaching in ST treatment was apparently less compared to WA treatment.
The preliminary studies on SHS treatment of beetroot slices were carried out at temperature of 120, 180
and 240 °C for different durations. Since, processing at 120 and 180 °Cwere not efficient to lower the
enzymesactivityquickly, SHS at 240 °C was chosen and slices were treated fordifferentdurations(1, 2, 3, 4
and 5 min). SHS treatment for 2 min duration was effective in reducing PPO and POD activities to 90.02
and 98.75 %, respectively (Figure 1c).The leaching loss was negligible during SHS treatment for all
durations. Xiao et al. (2014) also reported that SHS blanching can considerably reduce leaching and avoid
loss of water-soluble nutrients. In addition, there is almost no/negligible amount of waste water
generationshowing the eco friendliness of SHS treatment. Exposures of beetroot slices to SHS beyond 2
min changed the color slightly and soften thetexture.Hence, on basis of results of enzymes inactivation
the SHS treatment at 240 °C for 2 min was selected for further studies on LHA drying. Longer duration
with SHS compared to ST could be attributed to higher condensation of SHS on material surface during
the initial stage of treatment, which in turn delays the product temperature rise. The preliminary studies
for MW treatment of beetroot slice were carried out at power level of 300, 450, 600 and 900 W for
different duration. Lower MW power (<900 W)treatments were required relatively longer time to
inactivate enzymeand product temperature raised during these treatments was ranged from 35-40
°C.Hence, the MWpower level of 900 W was chosen for details studies on enzyme inactivation for
duration of 30, 60, 90, 120 and 150 s and results are presented inFigure 1 d.AfterMW treatment at 900 W
for 150 s, thePPO activity was reduced by 82.56% while POD enzyme activity reduced by 93.57% of initial
activity. The difference in degree of inactivation could be due to variation in stability and initial amount of
PPO and POD in fresh beetroot slices. Theloss of sample weight was more in MW(~40%) due to higher
moisture lossascompared to other treatments. The surface drying, shrinkage (curling of edges) and color
darkening were also intensified with increase in MW treatment time and the effect was more pronounced
after 120 s.Similarly, Kidmoseet al. (1999)also observedcells folding and destruction of product
microstructure at high microwave powers. In the present study, based on enzyme inactivation, MW
treatment at 900 W for 150 s was chosen for LHA drying studies. Leaching was not observed during MW
pretreatment, as the moisture in samples was used up for heat generation and evaporation,whichin turn
reduces the amount of nutrients losses during pretreatment(Lin & Brewer, 2005).Results of all
pretreaments indicatedthat POD has higher degree of inactivation than PPO.It is also reported that red
beet POD could be inactivated at temperatures of above 70 °C, while PPO exhibits superior thermal
stability, losing its activity only above 80 °C (Parkin and Im 1990).The degree of inactivation of enzyme is
highly dependent on the initial activity as well as processing conditions (Paciulliet al., 2016).
Betalain content :The betalain content of fresh beetroot was approximately 1007.4 ± 9.2 mg/L and
betacyanin (BC) and betaxanthin (BX) was found in ratio of 2:1.5 in all samples. Betalains are water soluble
pigments and unstable beyond a temperature of 50 °C and are highly sensitive to heat, light, water activity
and oxygen (Herbachet al., 2006). The results of pretreatment studies showed that, increase in treatment
duration resulted in decrease of betalain content. Figure 2, presents the retention of betalain content and
total color difference for the selected pretreatment conditions. The highest retention of betalains was

92
obtained for SHS (89.01%) treatment followed by ST (77.32%) and MW (77.23%), as a result of minimum
leaching losses compared to WA (49.23%). In case of WA treatment,a higher betalain loss was observed
due to leaching effect through immersion in water at 90 °C.The retention of betalains in MW treatment
were comparatively higher than WA, could be due to no leaching looses and much lower surface
temperature (55-65 °C) of the beetroot slices during treatment than that of WA (90±2 °C).
Colorparamters: The similar trend for color change was observed as in the case of betalain retention i.e.
increase in treatment time hasincreased lightness (L*) while redness (a*) and yellowness (b*) decreased.
The results for total color change arepresented inFigure 2. It was observed that the SHS treated beetroot
slices has highest chroma value(24) followed by ST (20), WA (17) and MW (15). While, the total color
difference (ΔE) was least in ST (7.41) treated slices after that SHS (7.6) and WA (9.3) and highest for MW
(15.8). The least C* and highest ΔE for MW pretreated slices may be due to thermal degradation of
betalain pigment and rapid drying of the slices. Similar observations was reported by Latorreet al. (2013),
MW treated beetroot has higher ΔE values and values increased at highermicrowave power for similar
duration as results of thermal degradation of betalain and its derivatives. In the present study, SHS as a
pretreatment was found to significantly improve the colorandbetalain retention of beetroot slices.Gaoand
Xiao (2007)also observed a better color and shape of sea cucumbertreated with SHS treatment at 90-200
°C forperiod of 5 to 40 min than that of hot water treatment.
Drying kinetics : The average moisture content of fresh beetroot was found to be 87.57±1.02 % (wb). The
slices both pretreatedand untreated were dried to a final moisture content of (MC) 5 to 6 % (wb) in LHA
dryer at 50 °C temperature. The changes in moisture content with respective to drying time for pretreated
and untreated beetrrot slices are presented in Figure 3. It can be seen that untreated beetroot slices
required around 300 min toreachdesired level of MC (5% wb)(Figure 3).It is noticeable that application of
pretreatments reduced the drying time as compared to the untreated. Among the studied combinations,
the MW+LHA required lowest time (150 min), whileSHS+LHA and WA+LHA required similar time (180 min)
and ST+LHA (210 min) to reach to desired MC. The shorter drying time in MW+LHA could be due to
relatively higher moisture losses during MW treatment i.e. about 40% of initial moisture from beetroot
slices was removed during treatment (MW at 900W for 150 s).These results indicate that of SHS+LHA
combination reduced the drying time by 40% in comparison to untreated+LHA. This could be attributed
tomicrostructural changes during SHS drying, resulting in opening of pores,whichin turn facilitate the
moisture migration from within.
Quality of dried beetroot chips
The quality of prepared beetroot chips was evaluated in terms of retention of ascorbic acid, betalain,
polyphenol, flavonoid content and antioxidant activity and color to optimize processing conditions with an
objective of preparing anutrient dense snack.
Betalainpigment:The effect of pretreatment and drying on betalain retention in dried beetroot slices is
shown in Figure 4 a. Among the studied combinations, the beetroot slices dried by SHS+LHA showed
significantly higher (855.57±2.229 mg/mL) betalain content while the least value was found for WA+LHA
(634.01±3.529 mg/mL). The trend of betalain reduction in dried beetroot slices was similar as observed
during the pretreament i.e., minimum losses in SHS+LHA (5.1%) followed by ST+LHA (11.2%), MW+LHA
(29.6%) and WA+LHA (32.8%) dried slices compared to control. It is noticeable that SHS+LHA combination
showed lowest difference in betalain content compared to control slices. This observation could be
attributed to, lower surface temperature of the slices (<55 °C) during SHS treatment, which might have
avoided the thermal degradation of betalains. The longer exposure of beetroot slices to higher MW power
(900 W for 150 s) during MW treatment might have caused thermal degradation of betalains in MW+LHA
dried sample. Slavovet al. (2013) observed that higher power of the microwave field and extended period
of treatment increased the temperature above 60°C, which led to the destruction of betalains in beetroot
juice. In present study, it was observed that betalains retention depended on pretreatment temperature,
duration, method of pretreatment as well as drying time requirements. The longer drying time required in
ST+LHA resulted in lower retention of betalain in dried slices. Among the studied combination, the
SHS+LHA and ST+LHAdried samples showed better retention ofbetalain indicating that SHS and ST
pretreatments are more effective for preservation of betalains compared to WA and MW.

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Ascorbic acid: The effect of pretreatment and drying on ascorbic acid (AA) are presented in Figure 4 b.The
AA content in fresh beetroot was foundto be 457.58±3.36 mg/100 gdb. Among the studied pretreatment
and drying combination SHS+LHA (57.5%) dried beetroot slices retained higher amount of AA followed by
ST+LHA (54.8%), MW+LHA (46.8%)and WA+LHA (45.0%), respectively. The relatively lower amount of AA
in MW and WA pretreateddried slices could be result of leaching of AA in water in WA treatment and may
be thermal degradation of AA in MW treatment due to volumetric heating effect at higher MW power for
longer time. It is also observed that the control (untreated+LHA) sample had retained higher AA (73.3%)
compared to treatedones. These results indicate that pretreatment before drying has effect on retention
of AA in dried beetroot slices. Previous studies carried by Bai et al. (2013) also indicated that blanching of
beetroot at temperature of 90, 100, 110, and 120 °C resulted in lower retention of vitamin C (11.3%,
10.8%, 7.8%, and 4.5%, respectively) in blanched samples.Jiratanan and Liu (2004)also observed a
significant reduction (p< 0.05) of vitamin C inthermally processed beetroot slices at a temperature of 115
°C for time intervals of 15, 30, and 45 min compared to the control. In the present study, it is noticeable
that SHS treatment before drying showed nearly similar retention of AA compared to control. This
observation can be attributed to combined effect of lesser oxidative degradation of AA during SHS
pretreatment due to absence of oxygen and shorter drying time requirement. These results suggest that
SHS can be used as an effective pretreatment for drying of heat sensitive vegetables such as beetroot and
have least effect on nutrients.
Phenolic content (TPC) and DPPH radical scavenging activity (RSA) : The TPC of fresh beetroot was found
to be 472.68±7.15 mg GAE/100 g db and results for effect of pretreatment and drying on TPC and DPPH
RSA activity are presented in Figure 4 c. It can be seen that all pretreated and dried beetroot slices has
higher amount of TPC compared to fresh beetroot slices. This could be result of improvement in
extractability of polyphenols due to pretreatment. The magnitude of increase in TPC content was highest
for ST+LHA (50.5%) followed by SHS+LHA (43.9%), untreated+LHA (32.9%), MW+LHA (32.3%), and
WA+LHA (12.1%) dried beetroot slices. From Figure 4 c,it can be noted that TPC and antioxidant activity
(DPPH RSA) (Fig.4.13.) are closely associated. The antioxidant activity is measured in terms of ability of the
antioxidant compounds presents in the beetroot samples to inhibits the DPPH radical and expressed as
percentage inhibitions, i.e., higher the inhibition percentage higher the antioxidant activity. The similar
trend as in retention of TPC was observed for antioxidant activity in pretreated and dried beetroot slices.
Indicating that lower the TPC lower the antioxidant activity.Among studied combinations ST+LHA (12.7%)
and SHS+LHA (11.75%) dried beetroot slices showed comparatively higher antioxidant activity than
MW+LHA (10.58%) and WA+LHA (9.77%).The higher retention of TPC and relatively higher antioxidant
activity for ST and SHS treatment could be attributed to lesser oxidation reaction due to presence of
steam at the surface of product during treatment and relatively milder surface temperature of slices.
While, in case of MW treatment relatively higher product surface temperature (>60 °C) might be
responsible for thermal degradation of compounds having antioxidant activity. The higher losses of water
soluble nutrients during WA treatment well justify the lowest values of TPC and antioxidant activity in
dried sample. Previous study carried out byJiratanan and Liu. (2004) andHassimottoet al. (2005) also
suggested that heat treatment of beetroot products results in reduction of polyphenolic compounds and
loss of antioxidant activity.
Total flavonoid content (TFC):The TFC of sample was expressed as rutin equivalent (RUE) as it is major
flavonoid compound present in beetroot (Georgiveet al., 2010) and results are presented in Figure 4 d.
The value of TFC of fresh beetroot was found to be 215.24±1.87 mg RUE/100 g db. It was observed that
content of flavonoid compounds decreased when beetroot slices were pretreated and dried. The
untreated+LHA dried beetroot slices showed highest retention of TFC (77.4%) followed by ST+LHA (65.2%)
and SHS+LHA (61.1 %) dried samples. While, WA+LHA (46.1%) and MW+LHA(44.0%) dried beetroot slices
retained nearly similar amount of TFC, and it is least among the studied combinations.This could be
attributed to leaching of water soluble flavonoids compounds during WA treatment and thermal
degradation due to volumetric heating and higher product surface temperature during MW treatment.
The results of retentions of nutrients such as AA, betalains, TPC and TFC indicates that MW and WA
treatment could not be chosen as method of pretreatments for heat sensitive vegetables such as

94
beetroot, as it resulted in higher losses.
Color parameters: The color attributes of dried beetroot slices was measured using Hunter Lab
Colorimeters in terms of L*, a*, b* coordinates and then by using these values total color difference (ΔE),
chroma and hue angle were calculated and results are presented in Table 1. The average values of L*, a*
and b* for fresh beetroot slices were observed to be 17.68±2.55, 27.81±2.34 and 7.80±1.23 respectively,
and these values lies in same range as reported byKaur et al. (2014) (19.55, 22.95 and 5.40 respectively).
The pretreated and dried beetroot slices showed similar trend in color values as observed after
pretreatment i.e. increase of lightness (L*) and decrease in redness (a*) and yellowness (b*). From Table
1, It can be seen that a* values was more in MW+LHA (22.86 ± 0.50) followed by SHS+LHA (20.72 ± 0.22),
WA+LHA (19.86 ± 0.44), untreated+LHA (18.89 ± 0.29) and ST+LHA (17.58 ± 0.73) dried samples. These
observations indicated that better retention of pigment leads to higher redness. It can be noticed that
fresh beetroot slices has highest chroma values (28.95), while pretreatment and drying resulted in slight
decrease in chroma. Among the studied combination, MW+LHA (22.88) and SHS+LHA (20.75) showed
higher values for chroma. The hue angle(h°) calculation confirmed that untreated+LHA (0.09±0.003) and
MW+LHA (0.03±0.001) dried samples have redishcolor while SHS+LHA (359.95±0.003), ST+LHA
(359.95±0.006) and WA+LHA (359.87±0.006) dried samples have red-purple color. The values of ΔE were
least for ST+LHA (14.48±0.41) dried beetroot slices followed by MW+LHA (15.04±0.21), SHS+LHA
(15.87±0.07) and WA+LHA (17.93±0.23) dried sample, higher the values ofΔE indicates the more changes
in color to that of fresh beetroot samples. These results correlate well with the higher retentionofbetalain
pigments for SHS+LHA and ST+LHA dried samples, indicating that SHSand ST could be a better alternative
to conventional pretreatments such as WA for vegetables which predominantly contains water soluble
pigments.
Rehydration ratio:Estimation of rehydration ratio (RR)is essential for dried products and it used as an
important measure for evaluation of dried product quality. In present study RR values was ranged from
4.87 to 7.71. It can be seen from Figure 5,the pretreatment ofbeetroot slices before drying improved the
rehydration ratio than that of untreated+LHA(4.87). Among the studied combinations, WA+LHA dried
beetroot slices showed highest RC (7.71) followed by SHS+LHA (5.96), MW+LHA (5.31) and ST+LHA (5.27)
dried, respectively. This could be because breakdown of cell membranes during treatment and release of
air from the tissues resulting in more void and porous structure of dried samples. This will help to absorb
more water upon rehydration.
Conclusions
The present work showed thatpretreatmentis essential for inactivation of PPO and POD enzymes in
beetroot slicesto desired level (>90%) and it also facilitates quicker drying. Although, conventional WA (1
min)treatment wasquicker for enzyme inactivation compared toSHS (2 min),it resulted in higher looses of
betalain and more changes in color. The MW pretreatmentsbefore drying resulted in significant reduction
in drying time (50%) followed by SHS (40%), WA and ST (30%), as compared to untreated and LHA drying.
Among the studied pretreatmentcmbinations,SHS+LHA dried beetroot slices retained betteramount of
betalain (75%), ascorbic acid (62%), TPC, TFC and exhibited higher antioxidant activity.These results
suggest that SHS has a potential to be used as a pretreatment for enzyme inactivation in agricultural
produce which contains predominantly water soluble and heat sensitive pigments and nutrients. Hence,
combination of SHS pretreatmentfollowed by drying at relatively lower temperature and humidity could
be an effective method for conversion of heat sensitive vegetables such as beetroot into nutritious crisp-
chipsin shorter timewithbetter quality.

95
Fig. 1 Effect of pretreatmenton PPO and POD enzymes activity in beetroot slices a) Water treatment at
90±2 °C for 1 to 5 min b)Steam treatment at 100±2 °C for 1 to 5 min c) Superheated steam treatment at
240 °C for 1 to 5 min d) Microwave treatment at 900 W for 30 to 150 s.

Fig. 2 Effect of different pretreatments on betalain and total color difference of treated beetroot
slices {Control= untreated/fresh beetroot slices, WA = water treatment at 90±2 °C for 1 min, ST =
steam treatment at 100±2 °C for 1 min; SHS = superheated steam treatment at 240 °C, for 2 min; MW
= Microwave treatment at 900 W for 150 s}

96
Fig. 3 Effect of pretreatments on moisture content of beetroot slices during low humidity air (LHA) drying
at 50 °C{LHA= untreated and LHA dried; WA+LHA= WA at 90±2 °C for 1 min followed by LHA drying;
ST+LHA= ST at 100±2 °C for 1 min followed by LHA drying; SHS +LHA= SHS at 240 °C for 2 min followed by
LHA drying; MW+LHA= MW at 900 W for 150 s followed by LHA drying}

Fig. 4 Effect
of pretreatments and drying on a) Betalain content b) Ascorbic acid c) Total polyphenol and DPPH RSA
antioxidant activity d) Total flavonoid content of dried beetroot slices{LHA= untreated and LHA dried;
WA+LHA= WA at 90±2 °C for 1 min followed by LHA drying; ST+LHA= ST at 100±2 °C for 1 min followed by
LHA drying; SHS +LHA= SHS at 240 °C, for 2 min followed by LHA drying; MW+LHA= MW at 900 W for 150 s
followed by LHA drying}

97
Fig. 5 Effect of pretreatments and drying on rehydration ratio of dried beetroot slices {LHA= untreated
and LHA dried; WA+LHA= WA at 90±2 °C for 1 min followed by LHA drying; ST+LHA= ST at 100±2 °C for 1
min followed by LHA drying; SHS +LHA= SHS at 240 °C, for 2 min followed by LHA drying; MW+LHA= MW
at 900 W for 150 s followed by LHA drying}
Table 1 Effect of pretreatment and LHA drying on color attributes of beetroot slices
Treatments a* b* C* ΔE h°

Fresh 27.81±2.34 7.99±1.23 28.95±2.42 - 0.28±0.036

LHA 18.89±0.30 1.62±0.03 18.96±0.29 11.84±0.28 0.09±0.003
WA+LHA 19.86±0.44 -2.49±0.07 20.02±0.43 17.93±0.23 359.88±0.006
ST+LHA 17.72±0.73 -0.92±0.11 17.60±0.73 14.48±0.41 359.95±0.006
SHS+LHA 20.72±0.22 -1.10±0.05 20.75±0.22 15.87±0.07 359.95±0.003
MW+LHA 22.86±0.50 0.67±0.02 22.88±0.50 15.04±0.21 0.029±0.004
a*= redness b*=blueness and yellowness C*=purity of the colorΔE=total color difference compared to
fresh, h°=hue angle {LHA= untreated and LHA dried; WA+LHA= water treatment at 90±2 °C for 1 min
followed by LHA drying; ST+LHA= steam treatment at 100±2 °C for 1 min followed by LHA drying; SHS
+LHA= superheated steam treatment at 240 °C, for 2 min followed by LHA drying; MW+LHA= Microwave
treatment at 900 W for 150 s followed by LHA drying
Acknowledgement:Authors wish to thanks Director CSIR-CFTRI, for the support and encouragement to
carry out this work.
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 Evaluating design parameters for breakthrough curve analysis and kinetics
modeling of fixed bed column adsorption of organic pollutants using czno
nano based adsorbent coated sand filter bed for dairy industrial effluent
treatment
Dinesha, B. L1., Sharanagouda Hiregoudar2., Udaykumar Nidoni3., Ramappa, K. T4.,
Anilkumar Dandekar5 and Ravi, M. V6
1,2,3,4
Dept of Processing and Food Engineering, 5Dept of Soil and Water Conservation Engineering,
6
Dept of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, College of Agricultural Engineering, University of
Agricultural Sciences, Raichur- 584 101, Karnataka, India.
Email: dinirbdgtc@gmail.com
Abstract: Chitosan zinc oxide (CZnO) nano based adsorbent was synthesized by chemical
precipitation method and characterized by using particle size analyzer, SEM, XRD and DSC. Individual
and interactive effects of process parameters were studied using response surface methodology
(RSM) coupled with Box-Behnken design (BBD). The comparative study between an artificial neural
network (ANN) and response surface methodology (RSM) was done in the modelling and prediction
of process parameters. Effect of filtration time and bed height on breakthrough points for BOD
adsorption using CZOCS filter bed was found maximum breakthrough capacity (BTC) of 143.00 mg/g,
exhaustion capacity (EC) of 143.50 mg/g and degree of column utilization (DCU) of 99.65% at 40 cm
bed height. Effect of filtration time and bed height on breakthrough points for COD adsorption using
CZOCS filter bed was resulted maximum BTC of 183.25 mg/g, EC of 185.75 mg/g and DCU of 98.65%
at 40 cm bed height. Thomas model was found best fitted model for adsorption of BOD and COD
using CSZOCS filter bed at 30 cm bed height.
Keywords: Chitosan ZincOxide, Chitosan ZincOxide Coated Sand, Nano Based Adsorbent, Modeling
Introduction:The dairy industry is generally considered to be the largest source of food processing
wastewater in many countries. Water is used throughout all steps of the dairy industry, including
cleaning, sanitization, heating, cooling and floor washing. Naturally,the dairy industry need water in
huge volume. Ten liters of water is required to process 1L of milk. In general, effluent from the dairy
processing industry contain a high concentration of organic constituents such as proteins,
carbohydrates, lipids, BOD, COD, suspended solids, oil and grease. All of these require specialized
treatments to prevent environmental problems. To comply with new discharge standards, the dairy
industries have adopted an elaborate effluent treatment protocol that is affecting the overall
economy of the industry and increase the cost of conventional treatment systems (Demirelet al.,
2005). Recently, researchers have shifted their interests to the possibilities of recycling of industrial
effluent. Earlier researchers have investigated the dairy industry effluent treatment through the
membrane process and possibility of recycling.From last few decades, applications of
nanotechnology were used for the remediation of contaminated industrial effluent using nano based
adsorbents.It is one of the most prominent technology with considerable potential benefits. It has
been postulated that,nano based adsorbents incorporated polymers effectivelyadsorb BOD and COD
from dairy industrial effluent (Thirugnanasambandhamet al., 2014). Nano based adsorbents have
been introduced to the process purification of industrial effluent due to their large specific surface
area and the selective adsorption of organic pollutants, such as ammonia, dissolved organic matter
and cations. Moreover, nano based adsorbents have advantageous hydraulic properties i.e., filtration
capacity for large quantity of effluent. Compared with conventional adsorbents, nanobased
adsorbent materials are more stable, have better filter features and easily
accessible(Thirugnanasambandham and Sivakumar,2015).Hence, in the present study effort has been
made to study design parameters for breakthrough curve analysis and kinetics modeling of fixed bed
column adsorption of organic pollutants using CZnOnano based adsorbent coated sand filter bed for
dairy industrial effluent treatment.
Materials and Methods

100
Synthesis and characterization: CZnOnano based adsorbent was synthesized by using chemical
precipitation methodaccording to the method described by Thirugnanasambambandham and
Shivakumar (2015). Synthesizednano based adsorbent was characterized by usingparticle size
analyzer (Zetasizer), scanning electronmicroscopey (SEM), X-ray and diffractometer (XRD). Transition
temperature and specific heatof CZnO was determined byusing differential scanning
colourimeter(DSC).
Batch adsorption study: Initial BOD and COD concentrations of 100-300 mg/L, CZnO dosage of 0.5-2
mg/L were prepared and added to 100 mL distilled water in 250 mL conical flask. pH (2-12) of each
solution was adjusted with 0.1 M H2SO4 or NaOH solution. The solution containing conical flasks are
agitated at different time interval (20-100 min) at 200 rpm by using orbital incubator shaker at 30 ºC.
Samples from the batch adsorption experiments were taken at different time interval as mentioned
above with a 10 mL syringe and filtered through 0.22 µ membrane filter prior to BOD and COD
analysis(Thirugnanasambandhamet al., 2014). The value of per cent reduction of BOD and COD was
calculated by using the following equation.
 C  Ce 
Per cent reduction   0   100
 C0  … (1)
Where,
Co and Ce = Initial and final concentrations of BOD and COD
Response surface methodology (RSM) and artificial neural network (ANN) modelling: RSM and
ANNare empirical statistical modeling techniques employed for multiple regression analysis using
quantitative data obtained from properly designed experiments to solve multivariate equations
simultaneously. Box-Behnken designs (BBD) with four factors at three levels were used to design the
experiments. A quadratic model used for RSM is depicted in following equation.
k k k
Y  β 0   β jX j   β jjX 2 j    βijXi X j  ee … (2)
j1 j1 i j 2
Where, Y is the response; Xi and Xj are variables (i and j range from 1 to k); β0 is the model intercept
coefficient; βj, βjj and βij are interaction coefficients of linear, quadratic and the second-order terms,
respectively; k is the number of independent parameters (k = 4) and ee is the error
(Thirugnanasambandham and Sivakumar,2015).
Preparation of chitosan zinc oxide nano based adsorbent coated sand (CZOCS) filter bed: Activated
sand was prepared according to method given by Gupta et al. (2013). Different dosages (0.5, 1, 1.5
and 2 M) of synthesized CZnOnano based adsorbent was dissolved in 2% acetic acid (1000 mL) using
magnetic stirrer at 1000 rpm for 30 min. One kilogram of activated sand was added into
preparedCZnO solution. Resultant solution was stirred for 24 h at 1000 rpm using laboratory stirrer.
CZnO sand mixed template solution was calcinated in muffle furnace at 200 ºC for heating rate of 5
ºC per minutes and maintained at that temperature for 120 min. Calcinated samples were cooled to
room temperature at a rate of 10 ºC/min. Coated sand was washed several times with distilled water
to remove loose precipitate. It was then dried at room temperature and used for further
experiments.
Development of fixed bed column: Dynamic flow adsorption experiments were conducted in a
polyvinyl chloride (PVC) column of about 3 cm internal diameter and 50 cm length. The column
provided with four sampling points at 10 cm bed height and each bed heights were underlined by 2
cm (20 mm) of glass wool. Addition of glass wool was made to improve the flow distribution. The bed
height of the column was maintained upto 40 cm (400 mm). The column was packed with CZOCS
filter bed without air gaps. Top and bottom end of the column was covered with end cap filled with 2
cm (20 mm) of glass wool to prevent the flowing of adsorbent from the column outlet. At each 10 cm
(10 mm) depth, the tap connections were made to collect effluent samples at every hour time
interval. The influent was pumped from the reservoir into the column by dosing pump in an up-flow
direction. The up-flow operation was chosen to increase the contact time and to avoid any

101
channeling of the influent. Flow rate of 10 mL/min was maintained in the column by using dosing
pump (Oladipo et al., 2017).
Column adsorption study for BOD and COD adsorption by using CZOCS filter bed: The column was
filled with optimized CZOCS (1.5 M dosage) filter bed with the mass of 118.00, 236.00, 354 and
472.00 g at bed height of 10, 20, 30 and 40 cm. Initial BOD and COD concentration of 500 mg/L was
prepared by using stock BOD and COD solution. Prepared synthetic BOD and COD solution pH was
adjusted to 6 using 1M H2SO4 and filled into influent reservoir. Effluent samples were collected every
hour at different bed height (10, 20, 30 and 40 cm). Experiment was continued upto total influent
flow time of 51 h.
Evaluation of kinetic models in fixed bed column adsorption study: In this study, Thomas, Adam-
Bohartand Yoon-Nelson models were used for kinetic studies.
The linearized form of the Thomas model is expressed here under.
C  K q m
ln  o  1  Th o  K Th Co t
 Ct  Q
… (3)
Where,
K Th = Thomas kinetic coefficient (mL/min mg)
t = Flow time (min)
Q = Volumetric flow rate (L/min mg)
q o = Adsorption capacity (mg/g)
m = Mass of the adsorbent are denoted (g)
Plot of ln[(C0/Ct)-1] versus t givesthe value of K Th and q o
The Yoon-Nelson model for a single component system is expressed here under.
 Ct 
ln    K YN t   K YN
 Co  Ct  … (4)
Where,
Ct and C0 = Effluent and influent concentrations (mg/L) at time t and zero
KYN = Yoon-Nelson constant (min-1)
τ = Time required for 50% adsorbate breakthrough (h)
From a linear plot of ln[Ct/(Co -Ct )] against sampling time (t), the values of KYN and τ were
determined from the intercept and slope of the plot.
Linear form of Adams-Bohart model is expressed here under.
C   Z
ln  t   K AB C o t  K AB N o  
 Co   U o  … (5)
Where,
Co and Ct = Influent and effluent concentrations (mg/L)
KAB= Kinetic constant (L/mg min)
N0 = Saturation concentration (mg/L)
t = Flow time (min)
Z= Bed depth of the fixed-bed column (cm)
Cross sectional area 7.06
U o = Specific velocity = = = 0.706 cm/min
Flow rate 10
A plot of ln[Ct/ 0] versus t gives the value of correlation coefficients and constant values of
KAB and N0
Results and Discussion
Characterization of CZnOnano bsed adsorbent: Surface morphological characteristic of CZnO is

102
depicted Fig.1a.SynthesizedCZnONano based adsorbentwas found spherical in shape, smooth and
aggregated structure.Thus, synthesized CZnOhad high surface area and reactivity.The synthesized
CZnOnano based adsorbent was found average particle size of 88.35 d. nm as shown in Fig.1b. X-ray
diffraction spectrum (Fig.1c) showed the diffraction 2-theta angle at 35.64º, the diffraction angle of
4.48º, diffraction light intensity of 122 cps and full width half maximum (FWHM) of 4.58º. X-ray
diffraction angles indicated all angles possess a typical A-type crystallinity.DSC thermogram (Fig.1d)
of CZnO exhibited a broad exothermic peak at 240 ºC. This exothermic peak can be correlated to
decomposition of amine units in CZnO. Chitosan,ZnO and CZnO samples showed specific heat of 5.05,
16.71 and 6.94 J/g ºC, respectively. The transition temperature of CZnOfound at 187.87ºC was higher
than chitosan and lower than ZnO (Jana et al., 2015).
Effect of process parameters on per cent reduction of BOD and COD: The relationship between
independent and dependent variables are illustrated by the 3D response surface contours plots and
are shown in Fig. 2a and 3b. Per cent reduction of both BOD and COD increased with an increase in
dosage ofCZnOnano based adsorbentfrom 0.5 to2mg/L. This may be presumed that the availability of
active sites and total active surface area on theCZnOnano based adsorbent is increased at higher
doses (Wu et al., 2009).: The results indicated that the removal percent of BOD and COD decreased
with increasing pH from 2-12 (Fig. 2a and 2b). At different pH values, the functional groups of
chitosan may be dissociated as their dissociation constants and therefore, could take part in the
surface complexation. In basic media, the decrease in the amount of BOD and COD removal is due to
the phenomenon of partial dissolution (Tehet al., 2014). The Fig.3a and 3b shows that the per cent
reduction of BOD and COD increased with increasing contact time. The initial fast rate is probably
due to the abundant available binding sites on the surface of the adsorbent. After that, other vacant
surface sites were difficult to be absorbed due to repulsive forces between the adsorbate molecules
on the adsorbent.Hence,per cent reduction of BOD and COD are decreased (Thirugnanasambandham
and Sivakumar, 2015). The effect of initial concentration of BOD and COD over a range of 100-300
mg/L is illustrated in Fig.3a and 3b. From the results, the removal per cent of BOD and COD
decreased by an increase in initial concentration. This might be due to when the initial concentration
increases, more organic substances are adsorbed on the surface of the CZnOnano based adsorbent,
thus the per cent reduction of BOD and COD are decreased (Thirugnanasambandhamet al., 2014).
The optimized predictive quadratic model (in terms of coded factors) forper cent reduction of COD
and BOD by using CZnOnano based adsorbent is presented in the following equations.
Per cent reduction of BOD = 69.85-22.28*X1-0.70*X2+0.72*X3+1.98*X4+0.33*X1*X2-0.93*X1*X3-
2 2
1.07*X1*X4+0.34*X2*X3+0.15*X2*X4- 0.49*X3*X4+1.34*X1 -0.65*X2 -
2 2
0.63*X3 +0.59*X4 …(6)

Per cent reduction of COD = 37.53-15.34*X1-1.86*X2+0.52*X3+4.45*X4-0.24*X1*X2+1.07*X1*X3+

5.17*X1*X4+0.54*X2*X3+0.40*X2*X4-1.96*X3*X4+27.16*X12
+0.40*X22+1.08*X32+3.82*X42… (7)

ANN model prediction was done by using ANN tool in the MATLAB software 7.00. The ANN
and RSM models were compared for predictive capability and both models were trained (Fig.4). The
comparison was made on the basis of various parameters such as average MAE (Mean absolute
error), RMSE and R2values.
Effect of filtration time and bed height on breakthrough curves (BTCs) for BOD adsorption by using
CZOCS sand filter bed: ig. 5 shows the BTCs obtained from BOD adsorption on CZOCS filter bed at
different bed heights of 10, 20 30 and 40 cm, flow rate of 10 mL/min, 1.5 M CZnO coated sand, initial
BOD concentration of 500 mg/L and pH 6 , respectively. The results revealed that by increasing the
bed height, the break through time sifted to increase(Aksu et al.,2007).
Effect of filtration time and bed height on breakthrough curves (BTCs) for COD adsorption by using
CZOCS sand filter bed: Breakthrough and exhaustion times were increased with increasing the bed

103
height. As the bed height increases, COD in influent had more time to contact with adsorbent that
resulted in higher removal efficiency (Fig. 5) (Patel and Vashi, 2015). Hence, break through capacity
exhaustion capacity and degree of column utilization was also increased.
Conclusion
RSM coupled with four factors three level Box-Behnken response surface experimental design (BBD)
was employed to optimize the process variables in the treatment of milk processing industry
wastewater using chitosan zinc oxide nano based adsorbent. Second order quadratic mathematical
models were developed with good regression values for per cent reduction of BOD and COD. The
selected ANN model was able to simultaneously predict the two output parameters with an RMSE
value of 0.0171 and 0.0268. Maximum per cent reduction efficiency of BOD and COD using CZOCS
filter bed was found at optimized CZnO coating dosage of 1.5 M, contact time of 120 min, 6 pH and
initial concentration of 50 mg/L. Thomas model was found best fitted model for adsorption of BOD
and COD.

Meas. data:Standard ZnO

Meas. data:Standard chitosan
(c) Meas. data:C Zno

6.0e+003 (d)
Intensity (cps)

4.0e+003
ZnO

CZnO
2.0e+003

Chitosan

0.0e+000
20 40 60 80
2-theta (deg)
*Optimized pattern is displayed.

Fig. 1 Characterization of CZnOnanoadsorbent by using: (a) Surface morphology: SEM (b) Particle
size analysis: Zetasizer (c) Crystallinity and diffraction angle: XRD (d) Transition temperature
and specific heat: DSC

104
 70.2 98
(a)
(a) 85.25

% BOD reduction
69.325

72.5
% BOD reduction

68.45
59.75

67.575 47

100.00 300.00
66.7

80.00 250.00

2.00 12.00 60.00 200.00

1.63 9.50
40.00 150.00
1.25 7.00 Contact time (min) Initial BOD concentration (mg/L)
0.88 4.50
CznO Dosage (mg/L) pH 2 0.00 100.00
0.50 2.00

85

41
(b) 71.75
(b)
% reduction of COD
% reduction of COD

38.875

36.75 58.5

34.625
45.25
32.5

2.00 12.00 32

1.63 9.50

100.00 600.00
1.25 7.00
80.00 500.00

0.88 4.50 60.00 400.00

CZnO dosage pH
40.00 300.00
0.50 2.00 Contact time Initial COD concentration
20.00 200.00

Fig. 2 Effect of CZno dosage and pH on per cent Fig. 3 Effect of contact time and initial concentration on
reduction of (a) BOD and (b) COD per centreduction of (a) BOD and (b) COD

Fig. 4 Comparison of experimental with predicted values of RSM and ANN models plot for per cent
reduction of BOD and COD

105
 Fig. 5 Experimental and predicted break Fig. 6 Experimental and predicted break
through curves of BOD adsorption through curves of COD adsorption
Referencesusing CZOCS filter bed at different using CZOCS filter bed at
bed heights different bed heights
AKSU, Z., CAGATAY, S. S. AND GONEN, F., 2007, Continuous fixed bed biosorption of reactive dyes by
dried Rhizopus arrhizus: Determination of column capacity. J. Hazard. Mater., 143(1): 362-
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DEMIREL, B., YENIGUN, O. AND ONAY, T. T., 2005, Anaerobic treatment of dairy wastewaters: a
review. Process. Biochem., 40 (8): 2583–2595.
GUPTA, D. K., RAJAURA, E. S. AND SHARMA, K., 2015, Synthesis and characterization of graphene
oxide nanoparticles and their antibacterial activity. Int. J. Environ. Sci. Technol.,1(1): 16-24.
JANA, S., TRIVEDI, M. K., TALLAPRAGADA, R. M., BRANTON, A., TRIVEDI, D., NAYAK, G. AND MISHRA,
R. K., 2015, Characterization of physicochemical and thermal properties of chitosan and
sodium alginate after biofield treatment. Pharmaceutica. Analytica. Acta., 6(10): 1-10.
PATEL, H. AND VASHI, R. T., 2015, Characterization and column adsorptive treatment for COD and
color removal using activated neem leaf powder from textile wastewater. J. Urban and
Environ. Eng.,9(1): 45-53.
TEH, C. Y., WU, T. Y. AND JUAN, J. C., 2014, Optimization of agroindustrial wastewater treatment
using unmodified rice starch as a natural coagulant. Ind. Crops Prod., 56: 17-26.
THIRUGNANASAMBANDHAM, K. AND SIVAKUMAR, V., 2015, Modeling and optimization of treatment
of milk industry wastewater using chitosan-zinc oxide nanocomposite. J. Desalin. Water
Treat., 57(40): 194-218.
THIRUGNANASAMBANDHAM, K., SIVAKUMAR, V. AND MARAN, J. P., 2014. Treatment of egg
processing industry effluent using chitosan as an adsorbent. J. Serb. Chem. Soc., 79(6): 743-
757.
WU, Y., ZHANG, S., GUO, X. AND HUANG, H., 2009, Adsorption of chromium(III) on lignin. Bioresour.
Technol.,99: 7709-7715.
OLADIPO, A. A., ADELEYE, O. J., OLADIPO, A. S., ALESHINLOYE, A. O., 2017, Bio-derived
MgOnanopowders for BOD and COD reduction from tannery wastewater. J. Water Process
Engg.,16: 142-148.

106
 Influence of inlet air temperature of spray dryer on the encapsulation of
probiotics
Divyasree Arepally, Sudharshan Reddy Ravula, Tridib Kumar Goswami
Agricultural and Food Engineering Department, Indian Institute of Technology
Kharagpur, 721 302, India
Email: tkg@agfe.iitkgp.ernet.in; divyasreearepally@gmail.com; r.sudharshanreddy@gmail.com
Abstract: Microencapsulation is effectively promising in the research and development of innovative
probiotic foods. The inclusion of probiotics into foods, also in microencapsulated form, poses still
many challenges for the retention of their viability, being food intrinsic and extrinsic factors crucial
for this item. The studies on influence of inlet air temperature of spray dryer on the encapsulation of
probiotics were carried out with laboratory spray dryer set-up (Jay Instruments & Systems Pvt. Ltd.).
The wall material chosen were 20% maltodextrin and 10% gum arabic. Experiments were conducted
using the inlet air temperature of 130 °C, 140 °C, and 150 °C. The produced powder can be used as a
formulation in various food products. Novel probiotic strain (Lactobacillus acidophilus NCDC 16) was
chosen as core material. The obtained spray dried probiotic powder was characterized for physical
properties, flow properties, microstructure and encapsulation efficiency. It was observed that
increasing the inlet air temperature, decreased the moisture content and viability of probiotics.
Morphology of developed probiotic powder showed no cracks, smother appearance with continuous
wall.
Key words: Inlet Air Temperature, Probiotic Powder, Physical Properties, Microstructure
Introduction:The present century has paid attention towards the intake of probiotics because of
their numerous benefits. The concept of probiotics was introduced by Elie Metchnikoff during the
early of 20th century. Fuller defined probiotics as “Live microorganisms when administered in proper
amount confer a beneficial effect on the host by improving intestinal microbial balance” [1]. In
general, probiotics belonging to lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium genera are used. Among the both
genera, lactobacillus is stronger, more resistant to low pH, has thicker cell wall, less vulnerable to
oxygen [2,3]. Food formulations containing at least 106 CFU/g of product provides the better efficacy
of probiotics [4]. Encapsulation of probiotics was done to resist them against the adverse processing,
storage,environmental, and intestinal conditions. The wall materials used for encapsulation acts a
barrier [5]. Different food grade polymers are used as an encapsulating material due to their non-
toxicity, good biocompatibility [6]. Carbohydrate polymers with high activation energy prevents
thermal and oxidative stress. Among such polymers, maltodextrin (MD) is widely used as a wall
material due to non-toxicity, low cost, good solubility, low viscosities even at high solid content, and
easy availability [7,8]. The low emulsifying capacity of MD is preferred in combination with other
carrier agents such as gum Arabic. Gum arabic (GA) at a level of 10% acts as a film former, moisture
stabiliser and mouth feel enhancer [9]. Different encapsulating technologies like extrusion, spray
drying, emulsion, fluidized bed drying and freeze drying; spray drying are used for encapsulation.
Among them, spray drying is convenient in terms of energy requirements, process yield, cost, storage
[4, 10]. During spray drying process, the wet slurry solution is atomized at high velocity to produce
dry granulated powders by injecting a hot air at temperatures up to 200 °C. However, probiotic cells
are subjected to heat and dehydration during spray drying at high temperatures because of
membrane damage and inactivation. It also depends on the other drying process parameters like
outlet temperature, feed rate, inlet temperature, drying time and drying media [8, 11]. Thus the
present study focused on the influence of inlet air temperature of spray dryer on the encapsulation
of probiotics to produce the spray dried probiotic powder, which could be used in any non-dairy food
formulations, with suitable wall material.
Materials and Methods
Materials:Lyophilizedprobiotic culture Lactobacillus Acidophilus (NCDC 016) was procured from
National Dairy Research Institute (NDRI), Karnal, India. Maltodextrin and Gum arabic were obtained
from the Hi-Media Laboratories Pvt. Ltd., Mumbai, India. All the chemicals used in the study were of

107
analytical grade. All the glassware used during this study was sterilized at 121 °C for 15 min.
Stock culture preparation:Lyophilized cells of Lactobacillus Acidophilus (NCDC 016) were revived in
10 mL MRS broth and incubated for 4 to 5 days. Sub-culturing was prepared by inoculating 1 mL of
revived culture in 100 mL of fresh sterile MRS broth and the procedure was repeated for at least
thrice. The third sub culture obtained were used for the preparing stock culture. The 24 h grown
activated culture was mixed in 1:1 ratio with the sterile 80% glycerol (v/v) in eppendorf tubes and
stored at -20 °C for further analysis.
Inoculum preparation:The 1% of a thawed stock culture was added to 100 mL of sterile MRS broth
and incubated at 37 °C for 24 h to prepare the inoculum. The grown cultures were centrifuged (7000
g, 10 min, 4 °C) and supernatant was removed. The cells were washed with the sterile 0.85% (w/v)
saline solution and collected by centrifugation (7000 g, 10 min, 4 °C). The washed bacterial cells were
re-suspended with 0.85% (w/v) sterile saline to obtain a final concentration of inoculum in the range
of 10.74 to 10.98 log CFU/mL. This concentration of inoculum was prepared by dilution with saline
water on the basis of preliminary experimental work conducted to maintain the desirable viable
culture concentration.
Spray drying:The wall material used for spray drying were 20% (w/v) of maltodextrin (MD) and 10%
(w/v) of gum arabic (GA). Both GA and MD were dispersed in hot distilled water (50 °C, 30 min)
under magnetic stirring for dissolution and hydration. The probiotic suspension was inoculated into
the feed solution. The feed suspension was exposed non-lethal heat treatment at 52 °C for 10 min as
followed by [12]. The feed solution was spray dried in a laboratory spray dryer (Jay Instruments &
Systems Pvt. Ltd, Mumbai, India) operating at constant feed flow rate of 8 mL/min and outlet air
temperature of 55±2 °C. The spray dryer was operated for 15 to 20 min just before spray drying the
suspension to reach desired process temperature. The inlet air temperature chosen varied as 130 °C,
140 °C, and 150 °C. The spray dried samples were collected in sterile glass vials directly from the
cyclone, and immediately stored in desiccators for further analysis. The count of L. acidophilus just
before spray drying was taken as an initial count.
Enumeration of L. acidophilus and encapsulation efficiency:The sample (spray dried probiotic
powder) was suspended in 0.85% sterile saline solution. For complete dissolution of the powders, the
suspension was mixed by vortex spinner for 5 min at room temperature. Counting is done by serial
dilutions of the initial suspension and pour plated on MRS agar plates in triplicate. Incubation was
then done at temperature of 37±1 °C for 48 h under anaerobic conditions. Plates containing 30-300
colonies were chosen for counting the viable cells [13] and expressed as log CFU/g. The
encapsulation efficiency was expressed as
N
Encapsulation efficiency  100
N0
Where N and N 0 are log CFU/g and log CFU/mL after and before encapsulation respectively.
Physical properties of probiotic powder
Moisture content:The moisture content of the spray dried powders was determined according to
[14].
Bulk density:Bulk density of encapsulated probiotic powder obtained from different treatments was
measured according to the procedure explained by [15]. The loose and tapped bulk density of spray
dried powder was computed using the following expressions respectively:
weight of powder (g)

Loose bulk density g cm 3  
Bulk powered volume (cm 3 )
weight of powder (g)

Tapped bulk density g cm 3  
Tapped powdered volume (cm 3 )
Flow properties:Carr’s index (CI) and Hausner ratio (HR) were used to estimate the flowability and
cohesiveness of spray dried probiotic powder, respectively and were calculated according to the
following formula given by [15].

108
 Tapped bulk density (g cm3 ) - Loose bulk density (g cm3 )
Carr's Index(%)   100
Tapped bulk density (g cm3 )
Tapped bulk density (g cm3 )
Hausner Ratio 
Loose bulk density (g cm3 )
Powder morphology:The morphology of spray dried probiotic powder (SPP) samples was evaluated
by using scanning electron microscopy (Zeiss EVO 60 SEM with Oxford EDS detector). The samples
were gold coated and examined using a high resolution field emission gun operating at an
accelerating voltage of 20 kV under a vacuum of 9.75 ×10-5 Torr at 1000× magnification.
Results and Discussion
Encapsulation efficiency of SPP:The initial counts of viable bacteria for all the treatments were
almost similar and fall within the range of 10.81 to 11.36 log CFU/g. Encapsulation efficiency
decreased with increase in inlet air temperature as depicted in Fig. 1 (a). The viability of strains
decreased gradually from 9.97 to 7.3 log CFU/g on increasing the inlet temperature. This decrease in
viability may be due to cellular injuries like denaturation of DNA and RNA, dehydration of
cytoplasmic membranes, rupture and collapse of cell membrane due to water removal [16]. Similar
results were reported for Lactobacillus acidophilus and Lactobacillus rhamnosus with maltodextrin
[17]. Lactobacillus rhamnosus was encapsulated with native rice starch and inulin at different inlet air
temperatures of 135, 145 and 155 °C [18]. They obtained the maximum encapsulation efficiency of
74% with native rice starch and 54% with inulin at 145 °C.
Moisture content:Moisture content of powder represents the product stability and also influence
the probiotic viability during storage which is one of the quality parameter to take into account for
powders containing cells [19]. The moisture content of SPP at different treatments is shown in Fig. 1
(b). It was found that the moisture content of probiotic powder reduced quickly with increasing inlet
air temperatures. The temperature difference between the feed solution and drying air resulted in
faster heat transfer for water removal producing the low moisture powders.
Bulk density:The loose bulk density of probiotic powder under different spray drying inlet air
temperatures was found to be 0.48, 0.48, and 0.47 at 130, 140, and 150 °C respectively whereas the
tapped bulk density was found to be 0.6, 0.58, and 0.56at 130, 140, and 150 °C respectively. The bulk
density of probiotic powders was significantly affected by the inlet air temperature. It was observed
that increased inlet air temperature causes a reduction in bulk density, as evaporation rates are
faster and dry to a more porous structure [20]. According to [21] increasing the drying air
temperature generally produces a decrease in bulk and particle density, and there is a greater
tendency for the particles to be hollow.
Flow properties:The flow properties of the spray-dried probiotic powder obtained for all treatments
were considered as “possible” and “fair” by their Hausner Ratio (HR) (1.20 to 1.25) and Carr’s Index
(16.52 to 20.00) shown in Fig. 2. The possible flowability might be due to higher moisture content,
which causes particles to stick together and increase the resistance to flow.
Particle morphology:Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was used to identify the changes in the
morphology of powder. Original samples of GA and MD shows irregularity in particles both in form
and size. Spray dried powder produced was of almost spherical particles in shape with smaller size
than those of encapsulating agents. The SEM microphotographs of powders was produced with
different temperatures of 130, 140 and 150 °C. The particles produced with different temperatures
were less deviated and are not shown here. However micrographs of control MD, Control GA and
micrographs produced at highest temperature i.e., at 150 °C were shown in Fig. 3.
Conclusion
In the present research work, the influence of the inlet air temperature on the moisture content,
encapsulation efficiency, bulk density, tapped density, flow properties and morphology of the spray
dried probiotic powder were investigated. It was found that increase in inlet air temperature causes
a decrease in encapsulation efficiency, moisture content, and bulk density. The “Possible” flowability

109
was observed for probiotic powder.
Acknowledgement:First author is thankful to Ministry of Human Resource Development (MHRD),
Government of India, for providing financial support during her studies at Indian Institute of
Technology, Kharagpur, India.

87 7.5

86
Encapsulation Efficiency (log cfu/mL)

Encapsulation Efficiency 7.0

85 Moisture content

Moisture content (% w.b.)

84 6.5

83
6.0
82

81 5.5

80
5.0
79

78 4.5
130 135 140 145 150 130 135 140 145 150

Inlet temperature (°C) Inlet temperature (°C)

(a) (b)
Fig. 1. (a)Encapsulation efficiency (b) Moisture content of SPP at different temperatures
Carr's Index

20

15
Carr's Index

10

0
125 130 135 140 145 150 155
Inlet temperature (°C)
Fig. 3. Carr’s Index of SPP at different inlet air temperatures

110
 (a) Control MD (b) Control GA

(c) 150 °C
Fig. 4. SEM microphotographs of (a) ControlMD, (b) Control GA and (c) at an inlet temperature of 150
°C.

References
1. FAO/WHO (2001). Health and nutritional properties of probiotics in food including powder milk
with live lactic acid bacteria. Cordoba, Argen- tina: Food and Agriculture Organization of the
United Nations and World Health Organization Expert Consultation Report.
2. Lee, Y.K. and Salminen, S., 1995.The coming of age of probiotics. Trends in Food Science &
Technology, 6(7), pp.241-245.
3. Tripathi, M.K. and Giri, S.K., 2014. Probiotic functional foods: Survival of probiotics during
processing and storage. Journal of functional foods, 9, pp.225-241.
4. Pinto, S.S., Verruck, S., Vieira, C.R., Prudêncio, E.S., Amante, E.R. and Amboni, R.D., 2015. Influence
of microencapsulation with sweet whey and prebiotics on the survival of Bifidobacterium-BB-
12 under simulated gastrointestinal conditions and heat treatments. LWT-food Science and
Technology, 64(2), pp.1004-1009.
5. Schell, D. and Beermann, C., 2014. Fluidized bed microencapsulation of Lactobacillus reuteri with
sweet whey and shellac for improved acid resistance and in-vitro gastro-intestinal
survival. Food research international, 62, pp.308-314.
6. Xu, M., Gagné-Bourque, F., Dumont, M.J. and Jabaji, S., 2016. Encapsulation of Lactobacillus casei
ATCC 393 cells and evaluation of their survival after freeze-drying, storage and under
gastrointestinal conditions. Journal of Food Engineering, 168, pp.52-59.
7. Silva, V.M., Vieira, G.S. and Hubinger, M.D., 2014. Influence of different combinations of wall
materials and homogenisation pressure on the microencapsulation of green coffee oil by
spray drying. Food research international, 61, pp.132-143.
8. Arepally, D. and Goswami, T.K., 2019. Effect of inlet air temperature and gum Arabic concentration
on encapsulation of probiotics by spray drying. LWT-Food Sciecne and Technology, 99,
pp.583-593.

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9. Meance, S.E.V.E.R.I.N.E., 2004. Acacia gum (Fibregum™), a very well tolerated specific natural
prebiotic having a wide range of food applications-Part 1. Agro Food Industry Hi Tech, 15(1),
pp.24-29.
10. Gardiner, G.E., Bouchier, P., O’Sullivan, E., Kelly, J., Collins, J.K., Fitzgerald, G., Ross, R.P. and
Stanton, C., 2002. A spray-dried culture for probiotic Cheddar cheese
manufacture. International Dairy Journal, 12(9), pp.749-756.
11. Peighambardoust, S.H., Tafti, A.G. and Hesari, J., 2011. Application of spray drying for
preservation of lactic acid starter cultures: a review. Trends in Food Science &
Technology, 22(5), pp.215-224.
12. Paéz, R., Lavari, L., Vinderola, G., Audero, G., Cuatrin, A., Zaritzky, N. and Reinheimer, J., 2012.
Effect of heat treatment and spray drying on lactobacilli viability and resistance to simulated
gastrointestinal digestion. Food Research International, 48(2), pp.748-754.
13. Yonekura, L., Sun, H., Soukoulis, C. and Fisk, I., 2014. Microencapsulation of Lactobacillus
acidophilus NCIMB 701748 in matrices containing soluble fibre by spray drying: Technological
characterization, storage stability and survival after in vitro digestion. Journal of functional
foods, 6, pp.205-214.
14. AOAC, 2005. Official Methods of Analysis, 18th ed. Association of Analytical Communities,
Washington, DC.
15. Reddy, R.S., Ramachandra, C.T., Hiregoudar, S., Nidoni, U., Ram, J. and Kammar, M., 2014.
Influence of processing conditions on functional and reconstitution properties of milk
powder made from Osmanabadi goat milk by spray drying. Small Ruminant Research, 119(1),
pp.130-137.
16. Behboudi-Jobbehdar, S., Soukoulis, C., Yonekura, L. and Fisk, I., 2013. Optimization of spray-
drying process conditions for the production of maximally viable microencapsulated L.
acidophilus NCIMB 701748. Drying Technology, 31(11), pp.1274-1283.
17. Anekella, K. and Orsat, V., 2013.Optimization of microencapsulation of probiotics in raspberry
juice by spray drying. LWT-Food Science and Technology, 50(1), pp.17-24.
18. Avila-Reyes, S.V., Garcia-Suarez, F.J., Jiménez, M.T., San Martín-Gonzalez, M.F. and Bello-Perez,
L.A., 2014. Protection of L. rhamnosus by spray-drying using two prebiotics colloids to
enhance the viability. Carbohydrate polymers, 102, pp.423-430.
19. Guerin, J., Petit, J., Burgain, J., Borges, F., Bhandari, B., Perroud, C., Desobry, S., Scher, J. and
Gaiani, C., 2017. Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG encapsulation by spray-drying: Milk proteins
clotting control to produce innovative matrices. Journal of Food Engineering, 193, pp.10-19.
20. Goula, A.M. and Adamopoulos, K.G., 2010. A new technique for spray drying orange juice
concentrate. Innovative Food Science & Emerging Technologies, 11(2), pp.342-351.
21. Walton, D.E., 2000. The morphology of spray-dried particles a qualitative view. Drying
Technology, 18(9), pp.1943-1986.

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 Development of power operated sugarcane detrasher
R. Thiyagarajan1, G.C. Jayashree2 and V.M Duraisamy3
1
Asst. Professor &3Professor (Farm Machinery), TNAU, Coimbatore, 2Asst. Professor
(Farm Machinery), UAS, Bengaluru, India
Email : drrthiyagarjan@gmail.com
Abstract: Detrashing refers to removal of unwanted bottom dry and green leaves at regular intervals.
Sugarcane stalk bears large number of leaves (30-35) equal to the number of inter-nodes under good
management systems. Detrashing should be taken up after the cane formation around 150 days after
planting.Sugarcane trashes were effectively stripped from sugarcane stalks using a power operated
detrasher that moved upward along sugarcane crop standing in the row. Field tests showed that the
effective field capacity of the power operated sugarcane detrasher was 0.05 ha/h with 89 per cent
field efficiency. Cost of detrashing by the power operated sugarcane detrasher was Rs.1525 /ha as
compared to the Rs. 7500/ ha for manual detrashing.The overall results obtained with the power
operated sugarcane detrasher was better in terms of leaf removal and simplicity of design compared
to other devices reported in the literature for use on standing sugarcane crop.
Keywords: Detrashing unit, Engine, Detrasher, Brush cutter, Backpack
Introduction: Sugarcane (Sacchariumofficinarum L.) is the main source for sugar in India and holds a
prominent position as a cash crop. Sugarcane is mostly grown in the tropical and sub-tropical climatic
regions of the world. Current production stands at 1450 million tons of cane from 22 million hectares
worldwide. Brazil and India are the world's major sugar cane producing countries, accounting for
nearly 60% of the global production. India is the seventh largest country in the world with
geographical area of 328.73million hectares representing 2.45 per cent of the world’s geographical
area. The totalpopulation of the country is 1027 million, which is equal to 15.70 per cent of
world’spopulation. In India, area under sugarcane cultivation is 4.86 Mha and yield is 66.9 t/ha where
as in Tamil Nadu, area under sugarcane cultivation is 0.324 Mha with a yield of 108.4 t/ha during the
year 2010-11 (Source: Cooperative Sugar, 2010).
Detrashing: Detrashing refers to removal of unwanted bottom dry and green leaves at regular
intervals. Sugarcane stalk bears large number of leaves (30-35) equal to the number of inter-nodes
under good management systems. However, all these leaves are not productive, only top eight to ten
leaves are required for optimum photosynthesis. In fact the bottom green leaves are parasitic on the
upper productive leaves and drain out the food reserves (photosynthates) which otherwise could be
used for stalk growth. Therefore, in sugarcane it is important to remove the lower dry and green
leaves.Detrashing should be taken up after the cane formation around 150 days after planting. There
after it could be done at bi-monthly interval depending up on the labour availability. In India and in
many other developing countries, sugarcane harvesting is done by manual labour. Studies have
indicated that the labour requirement for manual cutting and cleaning in India requires 158 and 395
man-h/ha, respectively (Shukla and Sandhar, 1985 and Shuklaet al., 1991)
Importance of detrashing: Detrashing helps in maintaining clean field and enhances air movement
and enriches CO2 within the crop canopy providing an ideal micro-climate for unrestricted growth of
cane. It also gives more food material made available for stalk growth and reduces the problem of
infestation of several insect-pests like scales, mealy bug, white flies etc. Detrashing reduces bud
sprouting due to accumulation of water inside the sheath in some varieties. Bud sprouting is not
desirable as it would reduce main stalk growth and affect sugar accumulation. It also facilitates easy
entry and movement in the field, particularly to inspect the condition of the crop and drip laterals
and thus accordingly plan the fertigation and plant protection schedules. A clean field minimizes
rodents, rats, squirrels in the field which may otherwise cause damage to the crop and facilitates
easy and economy in harvesting besides clean canes for crushing. Detrashed trash can be used as
mulch for moisture conservation and for composting.
Need of power operated sugarcane detrasher :Thedetrashing operation involves topping and
stripping of harvested cane stalks. It consumes about 70% of total man hours required for manual

113
harvesting (miyableet al., 1978; shukla and sandhar 1985). Srivastava and singh (1990) made efforts
to establish the mechanism suitable for detrashing the whole cane. Apart from reducing the cost of
cultivation, the drudgery, which was faced by the labourers, has also been reduced considerably.
When the de-trashing operation is done with help of the tool, the labourer's hands are often injured
due to the spines and serrated margins of the leaf blade.
Importance of sugarcane trash:Sugarcane produces huge amount of foliage - about 40% of the total
biomass. About 15-20 t trash/ha is produced. Average nutrient content of trash is 0.35% N, 0.13%
P2O5 and 0.15% K2O. For every tonne of cane trash nutrient availability is 3.5 kg N, 1.3 kg P2O5 and 6.5
kg K2O. Thus for an hectare of sugarcane crop, around 50 kg N, 20 kg P2O5 and 100 kg K2O can be
recovered from trash alone. In sugarcane fields and in the vacant spaces of the farms, lot of weed
growth occurs. Upon weeding, they are thrown away. Instead, all biomass could be used for
composting and thus recycled. Trash could be used for mulching and then incorporation. It could be
composted by various methods and sources. A novel technique is in situ composting particularly in
ratoons and also upon removal by de-trashing.
Methods of detrashing:There are two methods of detrashing the crop has been practiced by the
farmers.
Manual detrashing using hand:In Tamil Nadu, detrashing of sugarcane cropsis divided in to three
phases that is by touching and compressing, bending and deforming, sliding and detrashing the leaf
sheath. The arduous operation of detrashing sugarcane is usually performed manually with both
hands. In sugarcane detrashing consumes about 10% of total labour required of sugarcane
cultivation.
Manually detrashing using mechanical tools:Detrashing of sugarcane crops is done manually using
local made small hand tools such as knives and detrasher. Detrasher is a small hand tool for stripping
dry leaves and detopping of cane after harvest. The stripper works by separating and pushing the leaf
sheath away from stalk. The knife used for cutting the sugarcane is also used for detrashing the
canes. In sugarcane detrashing consumes about 10% of total labour required of sugarcane
cultivation.
Development of power operated detrasher for sugarcane crop:The power operated sugarcane
detrasher consists of following components. The specification of power operated sugarcane
detrasher is presented in Table 1.
Table 1: Specification of the power operated sugarcane detrasher
S.No Details Specifications
1. Engine stand
i. Carrying case Back pack type
ii. Rotation angle of the engine bed 360 degree
2. Engine
i. Brand and model Mitsubishi meiki engine
ii. No. of cylinder single
iii. Fuel tank capacity 1 litre
iv. Starter system Recoil starter grip
v. Engine weight 3.3 kg
vi. Max. horse power 1.2 hp
vii. Fuel Petrol
Viii. Clutch type Governor
3. Shaft
i. Length of the hollow shaft 730 mm
ii. Length of the flexible shaft 600 mm
iii. Diameter of the hollow shaft 26 mm
iv. Diameter of the flexible shaft 20mm
v. Diameter of the inner flexible shaft 8 mm

114
 4. Gear box
i. Box type Aluminum
ii. Gear ratio 1:1
iii. Type of gear Bevel
5. Trimming disc
i. Diameter of the disc 112mm
ii. Type of rope Nylon
6. Unit weight 9.5 Kg

Performance evaluation of power operated sugarcane detrasher:

The performance of the power operated sugarcane detrasher was evaluated in field No. N2
of Eastern block of Agricultural Engineering College and Research Institute, Tamil Nadu Agricultural
University, Kumulur, which is situated at 11o north latitude and 77o east longitude at an elevation of
400 meters above the mean sea level. View of the field before detrashing and after detrashing is shown in
Plate 2 & 3.

Plate 1: Operational view of the power operated sugarcane detrasher

Plate 2: View of sugarcane field before detrashing Plate 3: View of the sugarcane field after
detrashing

Field evaluation: The performance evaluation of the power operated sugarcane detrasherwas
carried out to compute the field capacity, field efficiency and fuel consumption. The results of
performance evaluation are furnished in the table.
Fuel Consumption:The tank is filled to full capacity before and after the tests. Amount of refueling
after the test is the fuel is the fuel consumption for the test. When filling up the tank careful
attention should be paid to keep the tank horizontal and not to leave empty space in the tank. The
observed fuel consumption is presented in the Table 2.

115
Table2 : Performance evaluation of power operated sugarcane detrasher
Trial Field capacity, ha h-1 Field efficiency, % Fuel consumption, l h-1
I 0.054 88.9 0.58
II 0.047 88.8 0.53
III 0.049 90.2 0.57
Mean 0.050 88.9 0.56

Conclusion : Sugarcane trashes were effectively stripped from sugarcane stalks using a power
operated detrasher that moved upward along sugarcane crop standing in the row. Field tests showed
that the effective field capacity of the power operated sugarcane detrasher was 0.05 ha/h with 89
percent field efficiency. Cost of detrashing by the power operated sugarcane detrasher was Rs.1525
/ha as compared to the Rs. 7500/ ha for manual detrashing.The overall results obtained with the
power operated sugarcane detrasher was better in terms of leaf removal and simplicity of design
compared to other devices reported in the literature for use on standing sugarcane crop.
References
1. Shukla, L. N. and sandhar N.S. 1985. Sugarcane cleaner design, development and evaluation. In:
proceedings Indian society of agricultural engineers, SJC Vol. 1, New Delhi.
2. Srivastava, A.C. and K. singh.1990. Development of power drawn sugarcane detrasher.AMA
21(2): 49-52
3. Shukla, L.N., Singh, I., and N.S.sandhar. 1991. Design, development and testing of sugarcane
cleaner. AMA 22(3): 55-58.

116
Microcontroller based planter-cum-site specific precision herbicide applicator
G. Anitha1, A. Ashok Kumar2, A. Srinivasa Rao3, Ch. Someswara Rao4
1
P.G. Sstudent ( Farm Machinery), 2Professor(Farm machinery), 4Asst professor
(Food Science (Tech), Dr.NTR College of Agricultural Engineering, Bapatla, 522101.
3
Asst. Prof. College of Agril Engg. Madakasira-515301, A.P, India
Email: gugulothanitha1@gmail.com
Abstract: A microcontroller based planter - cum- site specific precision herbicide applicator was
designed and developed. It mainly consists of Infrared (IR) obstacle detection sensors placed inside
the seed delivery tube to detect the seed and an Electronic Control Unit (ECU) to receive and process
the sensors signals and to activate the corresponding solenoid valves to discharge the required
amount of herbicide around the seed at right time and right place to control the weeds. The
developed ECU mainly consists of an Arduino Mega 2560 microcontroller to read, process the
sensors data, three relay switches for activation of corresponding solenoid valves after receiving the
signals from microcontroller. The IR sensors and developed ECU was tested under laboratory and
field condition and found satisfactory results. With this system both the operations such as planting
and herbicide application can be done simultaneously which leads to reduction in cost of cultivation,
saving of time and chemical consumption thereby reduce the environmental pollution.
Keywords : IR obstacle sensor; Solenoid valve; Microcontroller; herbicide application
Introduction : The planting operation is one of the most important cultural practices associated with
crop production. Increase in crop yield, cropping reliability, cropping frequency and crop returns all
depend on the uniform and timely establishment of optimum plant population. In India, most of the
farmers are small and marginal farmers, hence, there is a demand of small implements which could
be used as multifunctional devices by attaching simple components to be fitted to the mini-tractors.
The basic idea of planter cum site specific herbicide applicator is: the dropped seed from the
metering mechanism of planter can be detected by an infrared (IR) sensor and activate the solenoid
valve to discharge of the chemical close to the dropped seeds so as to kill the insects and attacked
fungus on seeds and soil . With this system, seed planting and chemical application can be done
simultaneously in a single operation. This increases the moisture content of soil and sustainability of
seed for germination. With this technology, the chemical can be applied along with the seed at the
targeted location which helps the farmers to plant the crop even under low rainfall conditions (low
moisture content of the soil). Conventional farming, generally apply high amount of
fungicide/herbicide. In order to reduce the chemical application on field crops, protect the
environment and ensure fungicide saving, precision application of chemical is required. As
fungicides/herbicides became available, gradually replaced the cultivation as a method to control
undesirable vegetation (Sprague, 1986). The most common type of chemical application in India is
direct spraying using commercially available manual or power operated sprayers. However, the
major problem in direct spraying is drift of chemical on non targeted areas. The cost of agricultural
inputs is increasing day by day and there is a clear preference to reduce the use of chemicals in
agriculture, hence to make agriculture profitable and to reduce the chemical usage precision
agriculture can be a promising alternative. The recent advancement in technology develops a need
for precision agriculture which include right amount of input at right time of application and in right
quantity to increase farm productivity by reducing farm losses. One of the objectives of precision
agriculture is to minimize the volume of chemical by using site-specific application system.
Maghsoudi et al. (2015) studied about ultrasonic of pistachio canopy for low-volume precision
spraying. Effective volume rate of pesticide application on a site-specific basis can reduce the
amount of agrochemicals used in precision horticulture. Tewari et al. (2014) developed a
microcontroller based manually operated three-row roller contact type herbicide applicator for
control of the weed population in field crops. A control system was developed to apply the quantity
of the herbicide based on quantified weed information using image analysis. Stajnko et al. (2012)
studied about programmable ultrasonic sensing system for targeted spraying in orchards. This

117
research demonstrates the basic elements of a prototype automated orchard sprayer which delivers
pesticide spray selectively with respect to the characteristics of the targets. By keeping above
mentioned parameters in mind, a sensor based planter cum fungicide applicator was developed and
evaluated under actual field conditions to complete the planting and chemical application
simultaneously.
Materials and Methods
Planter development: According to the local climatic conditions, a ground nut planter was designed
and developed suitable for mini tractors which will be useful o the small and marginal farmers. It is a
three row fully mounted planter. The seed to seed and row to row spacing of the planter was 10 cm
and 30 cm respectively. The seed boxes having three sections were made as per the design and a
funnel was provided inside the seed box to carry the seeds from spoons and deliver it in to the
furrow opener through the seed delivery tube. A three point hitch system was connected to the
frame of the developed groundnut planter to mount to the mini tractor three point linkages. The
developed groundnut planter with selected that tractor is shown in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1 Developed groundnut planter with test tractor

Development of Electronic Control Unit for chemical application: Electronic Control Unit (ECU) was
developed for delivering the précised fungicide at required time and right place, by detecting the
seed in seed delivery tube using IR obstacle sensor and to activate the solenoid valves for site
delivering specific precision fungicide. The developed groundnut planter is a three row planter;
hence in the present study three IR sensors were used for detecting the seeds in three seed delivery
tubes and three solenoid valves used for delivering the fungicide in each row. Accordingly three relay
switches were also used for activation of the solenoid valves by multiplying the voltage power
supply. An Arduino Mega 2560 Microcontroller board was used to read, process the three IR sensor
signals and also to activate the three solenoid valves simultaneously. The output pin of the IR sensor
was connected to the digital pins of 2, 3 and 4 of the microcontroller. The circuit diagram presented
in the Fig. 2 shows the integration of single IR sensor, solenoid valve and relay switch. Same
connections were used for connection of other sensors and devices of the remaining two rows. The
inner view of the developed ECU unit is shown in Fig. 3. A program was written in programming
language and compiled in the microcontroller for processing the signals. The program flow chart of
the developed system is shown in Fig. 4

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 Fig. 2 Overall circuit diagram of developed ECU

Fig. 3 Inner view of the developed electronic control unit

Testing of IR Sensor suitability under Laboratory: Preliminary tests were conducted under
laboratory on three IR sensors individually to find its suitability for detecting the seed in a seed
delivery tube under actual field condition and also to measure the detection response range of an
object. Initially the detection LEDs of the sensor (IR Transmitter and IR Receiver) were inserted inside
the seed delivery tube by making a thin cut on the pipe. The “VCC” and “GND” pins of the sensors
were connected to the selected microcontroller and the digital pin “DO” was connected to the digital
pin 2 of the microcontroller. A program was written in programmer language and compiled in the
microcontroller using Arduino software. During testing of sensors under laboratory, it was observed
that, the object detection range (distance) is not uniform for all sensors; therefore it may cause
errors under actual field condition if use the same. Hence the object detection range was adjusted by
rotating distance adjustable knob and kept it as 3cm for all the sensors.

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 START

Initialize input/output ports

Initialize ADC

Initialize IR sensor library

Read ADC of IR sensor, solenoid valve

Yes
No action No If IR1signal is Activate relay switch &
HIGH solenoid valve1

No Yes
No action Activate relay switch &
If IR2 signal is solenoid valve2
HIGH

No Yes
No action If IR3 signal is Activate relay switch &
HIGH solenoid valve3

Print the data on serial port

END
Fig. 4 Program flowchart of developed electronic control unit

Testing of ECU under Laboratory: The developed electronic control unit was tested under laboratory
condition to find the uniform discharge quantity of fungicide from each solenoid valve and also to
know the detection accuracy of seed and functionality of solenoid valve. A plastic tank with a
capacity 20 lit was used as a fungicide tank. Three IR sensors were mounted on the each seed
delivery tube for detecting the seeds simultaneously and three solenoid valves were mounted close
to the furrow opener for dropping of fungicide by using fungicide delivering hoses pipes and
adapters. A 12V DC pump was placed a side of the planter using nut and bolt arrangement for
chemical application. Electronic control unit and battery were also mounted on the body of the
planter and connected all the sensors, pump and battery terminals to the circuit using preselected
and programmed pins. Testing of electronic unit for site specific precision fungicide under laboratory
is shown in Fig 5. The selected IR sensors captured the infrared rays from the sun light; hence sensor
mounted location of the seed delivery tubes were winded using electrical black tape to avoid the
facing of sunrays. Three IR sensors were connected to micro controller arduino board to sense the
seed drop through the seed delivery tube. The pin configurations of three sensors were connected to
the microcontroller and three solenoid valves were connected to the three pre fixed pins of the relay
switches board. The VCC, GND pin was connected to the 5V pin and ground pin of micro controller.

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 Fig. 5 Testing of electronic control unit under laboratory
The input wires of the solenoid valve were connected to the relay switch board using three
pin connector to control the value opening and closing by multiplying the voltage of relay switch.
When the sensors detect the seeds in seed delivery tube, then the corresponding valves activate for
discharge of fungicide without any delay. In the present study three solenoid valves, three relay
switches were used for closing and opening of valves, solenoid values were operated by relay
switches using 12V DC battery power supply. Three polythene covers were connected to the
discharge tubes of three solenoid valves for collecting the fungicide. Premeasured quantity of ground
nut seeds were dropped in each seed tube and the corresponding discharge of fungicide after
detection of seeds by IR sensor were collected in fixed polythene covers. The quantities of the three
samples were measured using measuring. The experiment was replicated thrice for more accuracy.
During the experiment it was also counted the number of times IR sensor activated at every delivery
of seed from the seed hopper. It was observed that, the three IR sensors were responded well while
focusing the seed in seed delivery tube. Apart from the activation of the sensor, it was also observed
good response from the solenoid valves. It was observed that output discharge of first solenoid valve
fixed in first row found to vary from 48.5 to 51.30ml with an average of 49.63 ml. Similarly the output
discharge of second solenoid valve fixed in second row found to vary from 49.28 to 51.35 ml with an
average 50.04 ml, whereas the output discharge of third solenoid valve fixed in third seed tube i.e.
third row were seen to vary from 48.69 to 49.75 ml with an average of 49.12 ml. It clearly shows
that, the discharge of solenoid valve is irrespective of the number of seeds dropped at a time. This
reveals the suitability of IR sensors and solenoid valve based electronic control unit for delivering
uniform discharge of chemical at required place and time in all the rows. It was also observed that,
in every drop of seed in seed delivery tube the IR sensor detects accurately and also corresponding
solenoid valves were activated immediately without any delay. A program was written in
programming language for proper functionality of the ECU. The program flow chart of the developed
system is shown in Fig. 8. This table clearly shows the suitability of the developed system for
application of site specific fungicide/chemical along with the seed
Chemical application system: A 12 V DC high pressure pump (Fig. 6b) was used for pumping the
fungicide from fungicide tank to the hose pipes of main line. From the main line, three sub lines
were connected to connect to the inlet port of solenoid valves. A 10 mm PVC pipe was used for main
and sub lines deliver the fungicide. The main and sub lines were connected using T-joint adapters.
The herbicide pumping arrangement for the site specific precision herbicide applicator is shown in
Fig.6a. Pump and solenoid valve works with battery voltage 12 V, whereas the sensor and
microcontroller needs5V power supply, hence a voltage regulator IC7805 was used to convert the
battery 12 V in to 5V at the controller to avoid errors in processing of the signal. A provision was
made on the circuit that, if the power supply is connected to the circuit via battery terminals, a Red
LED glows which indicate the supply of power to the circuit. After successfully integration of the ECU

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to the selected planter under laboratory, the seeds were filled in the seed hopper and the ground
wheel was rotated by raising it from the ground to supply power transmission to seed metering
mechanism. The number of seeds dropper per revolution of the ground wheel was counted as well
as the corresponding activation status of the IR sensor and solenoid valve were also counted.

Fig. 6a Fungicide supply system for developed unit; b High pressure 12V DC Pump

Integration of developed planter and ECU: The development of ground nut planter and electronic
control unit for site specific precision fungicide application unit were integrated to work as a single
unit for planting as well as site specific fungicide/chemical application simultaneously. The
developed electronic control unit was attached on the groundnut planter with suitable
attachments. The conceptual lay out of the integrated planter cum site specific precision fungicide
applicator is shown in Fig.7.

Fig. 7 Conceptual layout of integrated developed planter cum site specific fungicide applicator
1. Microcontroller 2.Metering mechanism 3.Seed delivery tube 4.IR sensor 5.Fungicide

Field Validation
Measurement of chemical saving percentage: The main aim of the site specific chemical
applicator is to reduce the chemical consumption; hence several field tests were conducted to

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measure the saving of chemical consumption under actual field condition. A field of 20 × 20 m was
selected at research farm of College of Agricultural Engineering, Madakasira and divided in to two
sub plots for testing of planter cum site-specific precision chemical applicator. In one filed the
developed units were tested without activation of IR obstacle sensor based seed detection
system, where as in other field the units were tested with activation of IR obstacle sensor based
seed detection system. The chemical tank was filled up to it maximum capacity before testing. In
first trail, the solenoid valves were kept in open to deliver the liquid chemical continuously in the
furrows irrespective of seed drop and then the chemical consumption was measured, whereas in
other field, the sensors were activated, therefore solenoid valves open only at the required time
after delivery of seeds, then again found the chemical consumption. The chemical saving by using
the developed ECU is calculated by using the following formula.
water consumption with IR sensor
Water Saving, % = 1 − × 100 --- (1)
Water consumption without sensor

It was found that the average fungicide consumption without activation of IR sensor is varied from 10
to 16.8 lit, whereas the fungicide consumption of the system with activation of the sensor system is
observed as 2.3 to 2.5 lit. It was also observed that the average percentage fungicide saving of the
developed site specific precision fungicide application is about 81%. The experiment was replicated
three times for its better performance. From the Fig. 8, it is clearly concluded that, the chemical
consumption was decreased with increasing the speed of operation under without activation of
sensor, whereas , the chemical consumption was nearly constant with activation of sensors with
varying speeds of operation. Measurement of chemical saving under actual field condition is shown
in Fig. 9.

Fig. 8 Chemical consumption with and without activation of sesors during field testing

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 Fig. 9 Measurement of chemical saving under actual field condition
a. Without activation of IR sensor; b. With activation of IR sensor
Measurement of Herbicide Missing Index (FMI) percentage: The developed ECU has to deliver
the comical, after delivery of seeds from the seed tube. To know the accuracy of its working,
experiments were conducted under laboratory by raising and rotating the ground wheel of the
planter. The seeds were placed in the seed hopper and the developed electronic control unit was
attached to the planter using suitable pin configuration. The planter ground wheel was rotated
slowly with a speed of 0.5 m/s. It was carefully observed the status of seed delivery and the
corresponding action of solenoid valve. The number of delivered seeds and opening of solenoid
valves were counted. Then the chemical missing index of the planter cum site specific precision
chemical applicator was measured using the following formula.
Chemical missing index, % = --- (2)
It was observed that for 5 revolutions of the ground wheel, the average number of seeds
delivered in a row is about 20 and then the number of times the solenoid valves activated is 19.
Therefore fungicide missing index of the developed ECU is 5%. This experiment was replicated
thrice and found similar type of results. It clearly shows the suitability of developed electronic
control unit for site specific precision herbicide application on targeted location.
Conclusions: A mini tractor mounted planter cum site specific precision chemical applicator
has been designed and developed; however, it can also be fitted to any self propelled unit
with suitable modifications. It helps to complete the planting as well as site specific
herbicide/chemical application simultaneously. It was tested under laboratory and field condition
and found satisfactory results. The developed IR obstacle sensor object detection unit was able to
detect the seed up to 3cm without any malfunction. The developed site specific precision
fungicide applicator unit can also be used as herbicide applicator by replacing the fungicide. By
using this Electronic Control Unit (ECU) technology an amount of 81% chemical consumption can
be saved. With this sensor based technology application of excess liquid chemical consumption
could be saved which leads to reduction in environmental pollution.
References:
Maghsoudi, H., Minaei, S., Ghobadian, B. and Masoudib, H. 2015. Ultrasonic of pistachio canopy for low-
volume precision spraying. Computers and Electronics in Agriculture 112:149–160.
Stajnko, D., Berk, P., Lesnik, M., Jejcic, V., Lakota, M., Strancar, A., Hocevar, M. and Rakun, J. 2012.
Programmable ultrasonic sensing system for targeted spraying in orchards. Sensors. 12(11): 15500–
15519.
Tewari, V. K., Ashok, K. A., Rajesh, B. N., Satya, P. and Ankur, T. 2014. Microcontroller based roller contact
type herbicide applicator for weed control under row crops. Computers and Electronics in
Agriculture. 104: 40-45.

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Studies on the effect of throat length and length at outlet on the operational
performance of venturi aerators
Gargi Sarma, F. Krishma Singh and Dr. Sudipto Sarkar
Department of Agricultural Engineering, Assam University (A Central University), Silchar – 788011
(Assam)
Email: 1sarma.gargi@gmail.com,2sudiptoiit@gmail.com.

Abstract: Aeration is an important tool for increasing the dissolved oxygen (DO) content and
reducing the buildup of organic in the pond bottom. In large-scale fish production facilities, where
aquatic animals are exposed to stressful conditions, problems related to diseases and deterioration
of environmental conditions often occur and result in serious economic losses. In most pond culture
operations, aeration offers the most immediate and practical solution to water quality problems
encountered at higher stocking and feeding rates. In the present studies the performance of venturi
aerators was examined. The water was made to flow through a venturi under different flow
velocities and the increase in DO concentration of the water coming out of the venturi was
measured. The experiment was carried out at 26 - 31°C with two throat lengths i.e. 10 mm and 20
mm having different throat hole positions for 1 mm, 2 mm and 3 mm throat hole diameter. It was
observed that at a higher discharge the oxygen diffusion was faster. DO diffusion was also observed
to be higher at initial stages of aeration. The best performance was observed in 1 mm throat hole
diameter in during the analysis with different lengths of the outlet points of diverging portion of
venturi aerator using 2 m, 4 m, 6 m, 8 m and 10 m pipe lengths. The maximum SOTR of 9.64 x 10-3
kgO2/h was obtained at Effective Length (EL1) of 10 mm throat length with 1mm throat hole diameter
at 35.03 l/s discharge and maximum SAE was observed to be 57.56 x 10-3 kgO2/kWh was obtained EL1
of 10 mm throat length of 1 mm throat hole diameter at 0.583 l/s discharge with effective length 13
mm. The optimum length at the outlet was obtained at EL1 of 10 mm throat length of 1mm throat
hole diameter using 6m pipe length with maximum SOTR value of 5.42 x 10-3 kgO2/h at 0.583 l/s
discharge which had the maximum SAE value of 42.69 x 10-3 kgO2/kWh at 0.511 l/s(effective length
13 mm). It was also observed that the SOTR and SAE profile depend on the position of the throat
hole of the venturi. It was observed that initially the SOTR increased as the effective length increases,
thereafter decreasing to a minimum value as the effective length reaches the mid-section of the
throat and again increases slightly before becoming constant towards the end of the throat section.
Keywords:Aeration, Aerator, DO, Effective length, Time of exposure, SOTR, SAE, Venturi.
Introduction
General Overview: Water quality and its improvement depends on the presence of dissolved oxygen
(DO), as it is a prime indicator of the water quality for both human and aquatic use. DO is a measure
of the amount of oxygen freely available in water and its concentrations ranges from 0 to 15 mg/l.
Government regulations stipulates that aquatic bodies must contain DO concentrations of not less
than 4.0 mg/l. Thus, indirectly its quantity indicates the amount of water pollution and its suitability
to support aquatic life. A higher level of DO can postulate a better quality of the water system. When
the DO decreases oxygen needs to be added artificially. Aeration is the physical process of oxygen
transfer from the atmosphere to replenish the oxygen level in water whereby water is brought into
intimate contact with air for the purpose of increasing the oxygen content, thereby reducing the
carbon dioxide content, and removing hydrogen sulphide, methane and various volatile organic
compounds responsible for bad taste and odour.Aeration is an important part of many lake
management and restoration efforts (Boyd, 1998). Also, aeration can mitigate the problems of
oxygen-deprived hypolimnion during the summer in many ponds (Kamilyaet al., 2017). The same
ponds may also run the risk of oxygen depletion under periods of extended ice cover. Ponds that
undergo periods of oxygen depletion may be influenced to different degrees ranging from a decline
in ecosystem efficiency to the extreme of experiencing episodes of fish kills.Recently, Baylar and

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Emiroglu (2003), Emiroglu and Baylar (2003), Laksitanonta and Singh (2003 and 2004), Baylaret al.
(2005), Ozkanet al. (2006), Baylar and Ozkan (2006), Zhu et al. (2007) and Baylaret al. (2007a-b, 2009,
2010) have studied the use of venturi tubes in aeration systems. Some hydraulic structures can
increase dissolved oxygen levels such as the venturi creates a pressure differential that forms
vacuum at air hole of venturi tube which gets accomplished when a minimal amount of differential
pressure exists between the inlet and outlet sides of the venturi tube (Baylaret al., 2005).Venturi
tubes are commonly selected for the analysis of aeration as their physical robustness to withstand
erosion and the impact of liquidslugs at high velocities, familiarity with their use and the availability
of standards fortheir use (Baylar and Ozkan, 2006).
Performance of venturiaerator: The performance of aerators varies under varying pond conditions
and hence the standard oxygen transfer rate (SOTR) and standard aeration efficiency (SAE)are used
to compare their performance (Soderberg, 1995).The performance of an aerator also depends on
time of interaction of air with the water. SOTR indicates the ability of the aerator to oxygenate the
water and SAE indicates the power consumed to add 1 kg of oxygen to the water. High SOTR is
always not favourable, as it may lead to more cost of aeration.
Objective: Keeping in mind the above-mentioned points, the present study was carried out with the
following objectives:
1. To find out SOTR and SAE of the aerator for different throat lengths and different lengths at
outlet in a venturi aerator.
2. To obtain the optimum value of throat length and lengths at outlet for the venturi aerator.
Material and Methods
As represented in the fig 2.1, the converging portion of venturi aerator is an effective device
for converting pressure head to velocity head, while the diverging portion converts velocity head to
pressure head. The oxygen content of the water can be raised to 60-80% of the maximum oxygen
content that the water could contain when fully saturated.

Fig. 2.1: Schematic diagram of a venturi aerator

Two film theory :The two-film theory given by Whiteman (1923) states that the resistance to
transfer in each phase is localized in thin films close to the interference as shown in fig. 2.2.

Fig. 2.2: The two-film theory for gas diffusion into water
The interference itself is assumed to offer no resistance to mass transfer. Therefore, the
interfacial concentrations are determined by equilibrium relationship. Mass transfer through the

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stagnant films is assumed to be solely by molecular diffusion and thus a steady state. Linear
concentration profile exists in films, for this situation the mass flux of diffusion species (Jo2) is related
to concentration gradient c in the film end to the film thickness X in accordance with flicks first law:
Jo2 = …(2.1)

where,
D = Molecular diffusivity of oxygen in the film (m2/s),
= Mass transfer coefficient, k (m/s),
= Concentration (mg/l).
Hence, the equation may be written for each of the two films.
Jo2 = kG (CG – CGi) …(2.2)
= kL(CLi– CL) …(2.3)

where,
kGand kL= the gas and the liquid film mass coefficient, respectively.
Since the interfacial concentration is in equilibrium, the flux may be expressed in overall
concentration deriving force as follows:
Jo2 =kL(C*– CL) …(2.4)

where,
kL = overall mass transfer coefficient based on liquid,
C* = equilibrium concentration in liquid.
which for a sparingly soluble gas such as oxygen is related to CG by equilibrium relationship known as
Henry’s law.
C G = HiC * …(2.5)

where,
Hi = Henry’s law constant.

Aerator performance: There are various ways of calculating the aerator performance, such as using
standard oxygen transfer rate (SOTR), standard aeration efficiency (SAE) and time of exposure.
Standard oxygen transfer rate (SOTR): SOTR of an aerating device is the mass of oxygen that the
device can introduce into a body of water per unit time at standard conditions (20°C) water
temperature, 0 mg/l initial DO concentration, one atmospheric pressure and clear tap water, (ASCE,
1992):
…(2.6)
…(2.7)

where,
KLa20 = standard oxygen transfer coefficient per hour at 20 °C and T is water temperature (°C) and
KLaT is measured as follows:
…(2.8)

CS= standard oxygen transfer concentration at 20 °C (mg/l),

Co= initial oxygen concentration where time is zero,
V= volume of water (m3).
Standard Aeration Efficiency (SAE): For comparison of any type of aerator per unit of power, SAE is

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the better comparative parameter. SAE is defined as SOTR per unit of power (Lawson and Merry,
1993).
…(2.9)

where,
SAE = Standard aeration efficiency (kgO2/kWh),
SOTR = Standard oxygen transfer rate (kgO2/h),
P = Power (kWh).
Time of exposure:
When air is entrained into the venturi through the throat hole, bubbles are formed. These
bubbles have to travel in the water body in order to transfer the oxygen from the air in the bubble to
the water and eventually, they reach the water surface and thereafter burst open. Hence, in order to
increase the efficiency of the aeration process, it is important that the air bubble remains for a
considerable amount of time in the water for the oxygen transfer to take place. This can be achieved
through the addition of an additional pipe at the outlet end of the venturi, which will increase the
travel time of the bubble. The time the bubble forms in the setup and the bubble bursts once
reaching the water surface is known as the time of exposure. Longer pipes will have longer time of
travel for the bubbles, and hence a longer time of exposure. However, the longer the pipe, larger will
be the frictional loss adding to the cost of pumping. Also, the diffusion of oxygen decreases with
time, as the oxygen concentration keeps on decreasing due to the decrease in concentration
gradient. Hence, the time of exposure has to be optimum, so that the best efficiency is achieved with
minimal energy of pumping.
Pre-fabricatedventuriaerator : A pre-fabricated venturi of different throat lengths of 10 mm and 20
mm with 1 mm, 2 mm and 3 mm hole was used in this study.

100 mm
100 mm
25.4 mm

Plate 2.1: A pre fabricatedventuri aerator

20 mm

20 mm

(a) 1mm diameter holes (b) 2 mm diameter holes (c) 3 mm diameter holes
Plate 2.2: Pre-fabricated throat sections of various throat lengthand hole diameter
Table 2.1: Details about throat section

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Experimental procedure:
The storage tank had a height, length and breadth of 90 cm long, 55 cm wide and 49 cm deep
with 242 1 capacity. The dimensions of the downstream water tank were 61 cm × 35 cm × 47 cm
(length × breadth × depth). The down flowing water surface was passed through a venturi of throat
hole diameter of 1 mm, 2 mm and 3 mm respectively. Na2SO3 and CaCl2were used to bring the DO
concentration to 0 mg/l. When the DO reached to 0 mg/l pumping of water was carried out through
the venturi and a collecting tank was used under discharge of pump to monitor the increase in DO.
The analysis of DO and temperature of storage tank were carried out by means of the
calibrated DO Meter. DO was monitored up to when it reached 75% saturation level at room
temperature.When water was supplied by the pump, it flows through the venturi aerator which
travels through the aeration holes and drops down from the aerator to the upper tank or when pipe
is attached to the outlet of the venturi aerator. Due to air injection mechanism of venturi, the
aeration took place.

SOTR and SAE for Different Throat Lengths and DifferentLengths at Outlet in a Venturi Aerator:
In order to find out the SOTR and SAE, the DO diffusion orientation was kept constant and
discharge was carried throughvarying discharge of 0.439 l/s, 0.511 l/s and 0.583 l/s.These steps were
repeated for all the arrangements of Holes in one orientation and so on till the DO reached 75%
saturation level. These observations were plotted in graphs between SOTR for different throat
lengths as well as SAE for different throat length and DO with respect to different rpm and the best
suited throat length with throat holes were selected. Secondly, with different throat length we
obtained the different time of exposure in the venturi aerator under different flow conditions by
using 2 m, 4 m, 6 m, 8 m and 10 m pipes at the outlet of venturi. Thus, obtaining the readings we can
get various SOTR and SAE values for different conditions in the venturi aerator.

Fig.2.1: Schematic diagram for different throat lengths and different pipe lengths in venturi aerator

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Optimum Value of Throat Length and Length at Outlet for the Venturi Aerator: From the bar graphs
of SOTR and SAE with respect to rpm under different flow conditions, the optimum value of throat
length and length at outlet was obtained for the venturi aerator.

Results and Discussion

In order to study the effect of discharge on DO diffusion, the discharge and power
consumption of pump assembly at various rpm was first measured (Table 3.1). It was found that the
maximum value of discharge was 0.583 l/s at 1700 rpm and minimum discharge was 0.439 l/s at
1300 rpm as shown in Table 3.1.
Table 3.1: Discharge and power consumption of pump assembly at different rpm

The first set of experiments was carried out by keeping the throat hole of aerator unchanged
and varying the discharge of pump assembly. The DO in storage tank was measured using YSI Pro
ODO DO meter. The initial value of DO was brought down to 0 mg/l by adding suitable amount of
Na2SO3 and CoCl2. After installing the aerator, the water was allowed to flow through the pre-
fabricated venturi aerator. The change in DO was recorded at an interval of 15 seconds. The
experiment was carried out until the DO reached 80% of the saturation value at the room
temperature. This procedure was repeated for different orientation as shown in Table 3.2 for
different discharges.
Table 3.2: Effective length of different throat holeparameters

The results obtained in these experiments for optimum throat length are illustrated in the Fig
4.1 to Fig 4.17 for different holes of throat length of 10 mm, 20 mm of 1 mm, 2 mm and 3 mm hole
diameter at different discharge. It was observed that the value of DO was found maximum at 7.57
mg/l at 1700 rpm achieved in 1725 seconds for 3mm diameter throat hole and the minimum value
was found at 5.62 mg/l at1300 rpm achieved in 2040 seconds by 1mm diameter of throat hole. It can
be also observed that as the DO values of water moves towards saturation, the rate of diffusion
decreases considerably in case of lower discharge than that of higher discharge. It was observed that
in order to reach the final value of DO the time taken with a lower discharge at1300 rpmwas almost
3 times that of higher discharge of 1700 rpm.

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Fig.3.1: Variation of DO with timeof throat length of 10mm and 1mm hole diameter with 1 hole
opened at different rpm
The results obtained in the experiments for different lengths at outlets for 10 m and 8 m pipe
length are illustrated in the Fig 3.2 for different holes of throat length of 10 mm, 20 mm of hole
diameter as among 1 mm, 2 mm and 3 mm throat hole diameter at different rpm, 1 mm throat hole
diameter was found effective. Thus, the experiments were continued for the time of exposure only
for 1 mm throat hole diameter with each effective hole orientation. It can be observed from the
figure that the diffusion of oxygen in the water increases with time at a decreasing rate. At higher
discharge, i.e. higher rpm, the average rate of diffusion was more than that of at lower discharge, i.e.
lower rpm and the minimum value was found at 1300 rpm. It was observed that, as the DO values of
water moves towards saturation the rate of diffusion decreases considerably in case of lower
discharge than that of higher discharge. It was observed that in order to reach the final value of DO
the time taken with a lower discharge at 1300 rpm is almost 3 times that of higher discharge of 1700
rpm. The value of DO was found maximum at 7.15 mg/l at 1700 rpm in 2205 seconds by using 6 m
length of pipe and minimum at 5.91 mg/l at 1300 rpm in 4035 seconds by using 10 m length of pipe
at 1 mm throat hole diameter.

Fig. 3.2: Variation of DO with time of throat length of 10 mm and 1 mm hole diameter with 1 hole
opened at different rpm with different pipe lengths.
Standard Oxygen Transfer Rate (SOTR) Characteristics:
In order to find the SOTR characteristics of venturi aerator at different step of orientations,
the observed DO in experimentation was used. Using these values of DO the saturation level of DO at

131
room temperature was calculated. Therefore, the oxygen deficit (DOs – DO) was calculated and a plot
log (DOs – DO) with respect to time was made. The slope of the graph gave us liquid film coefficient
value KLa20. The value of the coefficient was then substituted in equation 2.7.The variations of SOTR
of different holes of different throat lengths by using different holes are shown in Fig 3.3 and
variation of SOTR of different holes of different throat lengths by using different lengths of pipes for
1mm throat diameter is shown in Fig 3.4.
Thus, it can be said that the rate of aeration was more at 1700 rpm than that of 1300 rpm. It
was also observed from the graphs that SOTR was linearly increasing with increase in discharge and it
was found maximum at maximum discharge when hole kept unchanged. This showed that due to
increase in molecular turbulence the rate of exchange of gas between liquid film and gas increases.

Fig. 3.3: Variation of SOTR for different throat holes of throat length 10 mm of different throat hole
diameter with 1 hole opened at different rpm

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Fig. 3.4: Variation of SOTR for different throat holes of throat length 10 mm of 1 mm throat hole
diameter with different pipe lengths and no. of holes opened are shown in the above bar
graphs at different rpm
Standard Aeration Efficiency (SAE) Characteristics:
In order to calculate the SAE, the power consumed by the pump assembly was calculated by
measuring the voltage and current. The product of voltage and current gave us the power consumed
by the pump assembly in kilowatts shown in Table 3.1. It was observed from the table that as the
discharge increases the power consumption also increases. The SAE of various throat holes were
then obtained by taking the ratio of the SOTR with respect to power consumed for corresponding
different rpm and throat length with various orientations of holes. The results are shown in the form
of bar graphs in Fig 3.5. The SAE of 1 mm throat hole diameter for different throat hole with
different lengths of pipes is shown in the Fig 3.6.

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Fig. 3.5: Variation of SAE for different throat holes of throat length 10 mm of different throat hole
diameter with 1 hole opened at different rpm

Fig. 3.6: Variation of SAE for different throat holes of throat length 10 mm of 1 mm throat hole
diameter with different pipe lengths and no. of holes opened are shown in the above bar
graphs at different rpm

Conclusion
The present study on the effect of throat lengths and different lengths at the outlet of

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venturi aerator showed that the DO diffusion follows almost similar trend for all throat holes. It was
alsoseen that the DO diffusion rate was higher for 20 mm throat length for all discharges till DO
concentration reaches saturation value. Hence it was being conferred that at a higher throat length
of oxygen diffusion was faster.
It was observed that the DO concentration increased with time. The maximum DO
concentration achieved by using different rpm of different throat lengths was achieved for all throat
holes at 0.583 l/s (1700 rpm). DO diffusion rate was higher at initial stage.As the discharge increased
the power consumption also increased. The SAE of the various dischargeswere obtained by taking
the ratio of the SOTR with respect to the power consumed for the corresponding different
discharges. It was observed that the SAE increased with increased in discharge and as the throat
length increased, the SAE also increased too but at lower rpm. It was seen that maximum SOTR was
obtained at EL1 of 10 mm throat length of 1mm throat hole diameter at 0.583 l/si.e. 9.64 x 10-3
kgO2/h which was a lower throat hole position of smallest throat length with highest flow velocity.
And maximum SAE was obtained at EL1of 10 mm throat length of 1 mm throat hole diameter at
0.583 l/si.e. 57.56 x 10-3 kgO2/kWh (effective length 13 mm) which was a lower hole position of
smallest throat length with higher flow velocity.
The optimum time of exposure was obtained at EL1 of 10 mm throat length of 1mm throat
hole diameter by using 6m pipe length as it was obtained maximum SOTR value of 5.42 x 10-3 kgO2/h
at 0.583 l/s rpm which was a lower throat hole position of smallest throat length with highest flow
velocity and maximum SAE value of 42.69 x 10-3 kgO2/kWh at 0.511 l/s (1500 rpm) which was a lower
throat hole position of smallest throat length with lower flow velocity.
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Baylar, A., Ozkan, F. and Unsal, M. 2007a. On the use of venturi tubes in aeration. Clean. 35 (2): 183 –
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136
Energy analysis of different cucumber varieties in protected cultivation under
humid tropic condition of west coast India
Mathala Juliet Gupta, Paramesha V., Thangam M. and Arunachalam V.
1*
ICAR-Central Coastal Agricultural Research Institute, Old Goa, 403402, Goa, India
Corresponding Email:mathalajuliet@gmail.com
Abstract: Energy efficient agricultural production system is a prerequisite to achieve
sustainability.The effect of energy intensive inputs is directly associated with the cost of production
and environmental issues.In this regard, a study was conducted to assess the energy use pattern of
six cucumber varieties under greenhouse condition in west coast of India. The higher energy input
(64671 MJ/ha) and energy output (176176 MJ/ha) were observed in Gypsy, closely followed by Kian
(energy input 64096 MJ/ha and energy output 164780 MJ/ha) variety and lower values were
observed with variety Infinity. The results indicated that, among the six tested varieties the energy
use efficiency (2.72) and energy productivity (3.41 MJ/kg) were found higher in Gypsy (2,72 and 3.41)
and Kian (2,57 and 3.21) varieties respectively. The lower values were observed in Infinity variety
with an energy efficiency and energy productivity of 1.89 and 2.36 MJ/kg. The specific energy, energy
required to produce per unit of economic output was found lower in varieties Gypsy (0.29 kg/MJ)
and Kian (0.31 kg/MJ). The net energy was found maximum in Gypsy (111505 MJ/ha), closely
followed by Kian (100684 MJ/ha) indicating the cultivation of cucumber under protected cultivation
as energy intensive. Further the energy use pattern of cucumber production indicated that
nitrogenous fertilizer, labour, insecticide and fungicide arethe major energy consuming inputs for
cucumber production. In conclusion, growing varieties Gypsy and Kian would be a better option
under greenhouse condition in the West Coast to achieve the higher yield, energy efficiency and
energy productivity.
Keywords: Cucumber, Energy Efficiency, Energy Productivity, Greenhouse, Nitrogen
Introduction: Protected cultivation is emerging as major option in India (Anonymous, 2019) to
augment productivity and production during off-season. Vegetable crops like tomato, cucumber
(More et al., 1990; Gupta et al., 2018), capsicum(Singh et al., 2004) and ornamental crops like lilies,
orchids (Sugapriyaet al., 2012), chrysanthemum, and gerbera (Singh and Mandhar, 2004) are
extensively grown under greenhouses. Additional energy consumption in a greenhouse cultivation
due to the use of electricity and other inputs areinevitable. Fuel, fertilizers and electricity consume
3/4th of the energy in a greenhouse tomato cultivation (Hatirliet al., 2006). Vegetables grown in the
greenhouses when compared for energy consumption, cucumber emerged as the highest energy
consumer compared to pepper, eggplant and tomato (Ozkanet al., 2004). Cucumber crop grown in
Iran under greenhouse consume energy to the tune of 148,837 MJ/ha (Mohammadi and Omid,
2010). Energy use in a greenhouse cucumber production unit can be optimised by optimal allocation
of eight energy inputs (Omid et al., 2011; Kamali and Rasapoor, 2016). Energy inputs have significant
role in yield of the crops except seed and fertilizers (Mohammadi and Omid, 2010). Optimisation of
energy inputs is found to be essential to enhance resource use efficiency in perennial crops such as
areca plantations (Paramesh et al., 2018). Energy efficiency in crops grown under greenhouse can be
enhanced by improving the design aspects of greenhouse (Gupta and Chandra, 2002) and by input
efficiency. Drainage of excess irrigation back to greenhouse resulted in saving 1/3rd of water and
significant enhancement in nutrient use efficiency (Grewal et al., 2011).
Cucumber cultivars differ in potassium (Pettersson and Jensen, 1983) and iron uptake (Bacaicoa and
García-Mina, 2009) efficiencies. Choice of a cultivar with high energy efficiency is equally important
as the one with high yield. Cucumber cultivar Poinsett gave very high yield nearly 5.5 times higher
than PusaSanyog (More et al., 1990) in greenhouse during winter in Delhi, India. Two cultivars of
monkey cola fruit crop differed significantly for energy content (Ene-Obonget al., 2016). There are
very few studies where the energy efficiency of crops cultivars are compared for example two
cultivars were compared in olive (Taxidiset al., 2015) and plum (Tabatabaieet al., 2012). Hence the
current study was initiated to evaluate the energy consumption pattern of six indeterminate

137
cucumber cultivars grown under greenhouse condition in Goa state of India.
Materials and Methods
Structure:A single-span
modified greenhouse (plan
area 200 sq.m. ridge height:
4.5m, gutter height: 3.5m,
orientation: 12o NE-SW) was
used for the study. It had
1m plastic skirt and 2.5m
vents (with 50% shade net
and rollable PE covers on 3
sides - east, west and
north), and gutters along
east and west side.For roof
ventilation a vent of 0.5
width was provided along Modified single-span greenhouse
the ridge. On the northern
end it was fully covered by plastic with a (3m X 2m X 3m) isolation chamber. It had two horizontal
axial flow fans fixed inside the greenhouse to improve homogeneity of microclimate.
Cucumber Varieties Studied under Single-Span Greenhouse
Six varieties of cucumber viz., Pyramid’s Gypsy (F1 Hybrid),Seminis -RS-03602833 (F1 Hybrid),
Nunhems-Kian (F1 Hybrid) and Hilton (F1 Variety), SemillasFito India Ltd- Angel (F1 Hybrid), Holland
Seeds’ -Infinity( F1 Hybrid) have been evaluated under the single span greenhouses. Among the
evaluated varieties, Kian (2.38±0.28 kg/plant ) performed very well during Rabi season and Gypsy
(2.64±0.39) performed well during the Kharif.

GYPS KIAN

Energy analysis
The different input and output were converted to energy equivalent by following standard
procedure (Table 1). The inputs used per ha of cucumber production are: labour, machinery, plastics,
steel pipes, drip irrigation system, fertilizers, seeds and pesticides and cucumber yield was the
output. The following equation has been used for computation of different energy indices (Rafiee et
al., 2010).
(1) , kg/MJ

(2) , kg/MJ

(3) , kg/MJ
(4) , MJ/ha
(5) , MJ/kg

138
Table 1. Energy equivalents
-1
Inputs Unit (MJ Unit )
Human labor h 1.96
Petrol L 48.23
Farm machinery h 62.7
N kg 60.6
P2O5 kg 11.1
K2 O Kg 6.7
Pesticides Kg/L 120
3
Water for irrigation m 1.02
Plastic/polyethylene kg 90
Sprayer H 62.7
Steel pipe Kg 42
Drip irrigation system Kg 90
Cucumber Kg 0.8
Source: Heidari and Omid 2011; Devasenapathy et al. 2009
Results and Discussion
Energy Inputs: Based on Table 1 the energy inputs were calculated for common inputs for all
varieties viz. greenhouse structure, cover, irrigation system, sprayer, labour requirement and
converted to input in MJ/Ha. They are summarized in Table 2. It was observed that the cost of drip
irrigation system was the highest (21000 MJ/ha) followed by the UV stabilized PE Greenhouse cover
(16800 MJ/ha), labour cost (3528 MJ/ha), GI Pipe frame structure (2625 MJ/ha) and Sprayer (1630
MJ/ha).
Table 2. Common Energy Inputs
Input Units/ha Energy input, MJ/ha
Steel pipe frame (kg) 62.5 2625
Plastic films (kg) 187 16800
Drip irrigation system (kg) 233 21000
Labours (hr) 1800 3528
Sprayer (hr) 26 1630

The energy inputs for other variable inputs such as fertilizers, micronutrients, seeds, insecticides,
fungicides, irrigation and energy output of the produce, various indices calculated based on these
etc. are summarized in Table 3, 4 and 5. The results showed that Fertilizers comprised the maximum
energy input for the various varieties followed by water and hence judicious use of fertilizers and
water (optimal fertigation) could lead to sustainable production under greenhouses, similar results
were observed by Pahlavanet al. (2011). The highest energy input for cultivation was for Gypsy
(64671 MJ/ha) closely followed by Kian (64096 MJ/ha). The least energy input was for RS-2833
(63120 MJ/ha). Similarly, the highest output energy also was for Gypsy (176176 MJ/ha) followed by
Kian (164780 MJ/ha) and least was for Infinity (120274 MJ/ha).
Comparison of Energy Indices for Various Cucumber Varieties under Greenhouse
Table 5 summarizes the various energy indices for the various cucumber varieties grown under
greenhouse. The highest energy efficiency was for Gypsy variety (272), followed by Kian 2.57, RS-
2833 (2.33), Hilton (2.16), Mini Angel (1.93) and Infinity (1.89). Thus, though the variety Gypsy and
Kian are clearly best performers, the other varieties too show an energy efficiency of more than 1
indicating that greenhouse cultivation of all the chosen varieties was energy efficient. These
efficiencies were greater than the values reported for Cucumber production in Turkey by Canakci and
Akinci, (2006).The net Energy was maximum for Gypsy (111505 MJ/ha followed by Kian 100684

139
MJ/ha, RS-2833 84105 MJ/ha, Hilton 73306 MJ/ha, Mini Angel 59055 MJ/ha and Infinity 56661
MJ/ha, this agrees with earlier reports on greenhouse cultivation being energy intensive but
profitable (Chandra and Gupta, 2000, Canakci and Akinci, 2006, Pahlavanet al., 2011, Pandey,
2015).The Energy productivity, i.e. economic production of cucumber in kg per MJ of energy invested
also is highest for Gypsy (3.41 kg/MJ) followed by Kian (3.21 kg/MJ), RS-2833 (2.92 kg/MJ), Hilton
(2,70 kg/MJ), Mini Angel (2.41 kg/MJ) and Infinity (2,36 kg/MJ). These values were higher than values
for cucumber production in greenhouse reported by Pandey, 2015 (0.52 kg/MJ.
Table 3. Energy Inputs and Output for the Various Varieties Studied
Kian RS-2833 Gypsy Hilton Mini Angel
Energ Energ Energ Energ
Energy y y y y
equivale input input input input
nt of Quan , Quan , Quan , Quan , Quan Energy
inputs, tity, MJ/h tity, MJ/h tity, MJ/h tity, MJ/h tity, input ,
Inputs MJ/kg Kg/ha a Kg/ha a Kg/ha a Kg/ha a Kg/ha MJ/ha
8605.
Nitrogen 60.6 135 8181 122 7393 142 2 130 7878 140 8484
Phosphoru 1354. 1243.
s 11.1 112 1243 98 1088 122 2 112 2 122 1354
1440. 1299.
Potassium 6.7 188 1260 193 1293 215 5 194 8 169 1132
Micronutri
ents 8.8 4 35 4 35 4 35.2 5 44 3 26
Seeds 1 2.5 3 2.5 3 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 3
Insecticide
s 120 12 1440 12 1440 9 1080 10 1200 9 1080
Fungicides 97 15 1455 13 1261 12 1164 16 1552 10 970
Irrigation 1.02 4800 4896 4925 5024 5300 5406 4250 4335 4800 4896
2059 1647 1840 1472 2202 1761 1705 1364 1532
Total yield 0.8 75 80 30 24 20 76 55 44 30 122584

Table 4 Energy output and input (per ha)

Energy Energy
Yield
input output
(kg/ha)
Variety (MJ/ha) (MJ/ha)
Kian 64096 164780 205975
RS-2833 63120 147224 184030
Gypsy 64671 176176 220220
Hilton 63138 136444 170555
Mini
Angel 63529 122584 153230
Infinity 63613 120274 150343

Table 5. Energy Indices for Greenhouse Cultivation of Various Varieties Studied

Net Energy Specific Hunan Energy
Energy Energy, Productivity, energy, Profitability,
efficiency (MJ/ha) kg/MJ MJ/kg kg/MJ
Kian 2.57 100684 3.21 0.31 1.57
RS-2833 2.33 84105 2.92 0.34 1.33
Gypsy 2.72 111505 3.41 0.29 1.72
Hilton 2.16 73306 2.70 0.37 1.16
Mini Angel 1.93 59055 2.41 0.41 0.93
Infinity 1.89 56661 2.36 0.42 0.89

140
The specific energy too was lowest for Gypsy (0.29), followed by Kian (0.31 MJ/kg), RS-2833 (0.34
MJ/kg), Hilton (0.37 MJ/kg), Mini angel (0.41 MJ/kg) and Infinity (0.42 MJ/kg), showing Gypsy, Kian
and Rs-2833 were highly energy sustainable varieties for adoption under greenhouse conditions in
West Coast. These values were lower than 1.9 MJ/kg reported for cucumber production under
greenhouse by Pandey, 2015. Thus all the selected varieties were using less energy per kilo of
economic production.Human Energy Profitability values were also maximum for Gypsy (1.72 kg/MJ)
followed by Kian (1.57 kg/MJ), RS-2833 (1.33 kg/MJ), Hilton (1.16 kg/MJ), Mini Angel (0.93 kg/MJ)
and Hilton (0.89 kg/MJ) respectively. Thus per MJ of human energy used 0.89 -1.72 kg of cucumber
could be produced.
Conclusions
Six Varieties of cucumber were tested under a modified single span greenhouse and their energy
input and output patterns were analysed vis-à-vis various energy indices. The study showed that net
energy was found maximum in Gypsy (111505 MJ/ha), closely followed by Kian (100684 MJ/ha)
indicating the cultivation of cucumber under protected cultivation as energy intensive. Energy use
pattern of cucumber production indicated that nitrogenous fertilizer, labour, insecticide and
fungicide are the major energy consuming inputs for cucumber production. Higher energy input
(64671 MJ/ha) and energy output (176176 MJ/ha) were observed in Gypsy, closely followed by Kian
(energy input 64096 MJ/ha and energy output 164780 MJ/ha) variety and lower values were
observed with variety Infinity. Among Six tested varieties energy use efficiency and energy
productivity were found higher in Gypsy (2.72 and 3.41) and Kian (2.57 and 3.21) varieties
respectively. Infinity variety had lowest energy efficiency and energy productivity of 1.89 and 2.36
MJ/kg. Specific energy was found lower in varieties Gypsy (0.29 kg/MJ) and Kian (0.31 kg/MJ). Based
on the energy indices and cost coefficients it was found that all six varieties tested under single span
greenhouse were energy efficient and cost beneficial under west coast ecosystem. Growing varieties
Gypsy and Kian would be the best option under greenhouse condition in the West Coast to achieve
the higher yield, energy efficiency and energy productivity.
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142
 Application of GC-MS analysis for investigating presence of an antioxidant
components in Justicia adhatoda leaf extract
Hanumantharaju K N1Thangavel K2and Poornima D S3
1&3
Ph.D. Research Scholars, &2Professor and Head, Center for Post-Harvest Technology, AEC &RI,
Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore– 641003, India
Emai l: rajuknhgowda@gmail.com
Abstract: Justicia adathoda is one of the major medicinal plants in India known for its therapeutic
properties. The leaves and roots of the plant are being used since many years for treating cold, cough
and asthma without knowing the actual components present in it. Hence these ethanolic extract of
the Justiciaadathoda leaves was GC-MS analyzed to investigate the components present in the
extract. GC-MS analysis of the Justicia adhatoda leaf extract confirmed the presence of various
phytochemicals namely octodrine, topotecan and acetic acid. The presence of phytochemicals
extract confirmed the presence of antioxidant activity in the leaf extract and the antioxidant activity
was found to be 94.47μg/ml on 24th hour of extraction.
Key words: Justicia adhatoda, GC-MS Analysis, Antioxidant Property
Introduction:Ayurveda is one of the major health care treatment method followed in India and it
involves only plant-based materials. Now a days the chronic diseases are observed due to excessive
free radical activity in the human body which damages the tissue and also causes oxidative effects to
protein, lipid and DNA. Further, it leads to chronic diseases like cancer. These type of oxidative
damages to the cell or target molecule can be inhibited by the antioxidant compound (Horita et al.,
2016). Hence, herbal plants are getting popular in the Indian health care system due to presence of
abundant antioxidant compounds such as alkaloids, total phenolic, ketone compounds. Therapeutic
properties of medicinal plants are mainly described by the amount of phytochemical present in the
plant. Even though Justicia adhatoda plant is the most popular medicinal plant and well known for
curing cough and asthma, it is limitedly used due to its un exposed chemical composition (Pa and
Mathew, 2012). The compound present in the extract can be analyzed using Gas Chromatography
and Mass spectroscopy (GC-MS). GC-MS is the hyphenated analytical technique. In this Gas
Chromatography separates the chemicals into individual components and further evaluated in Mass
Spectroscopy(Lin et al., 2008). Helium, an inert gas is used as mobile phase to carry the sample
mixture in the stationary phase (selective chemicals present in the specified column). Based on the
interaction of stationary and mobile phase, sample mixture is separated into individual chemical
components. The compounds separated from the stationary phase from the column enters into the
detector. Detector is an electronic signaling element, which pass the signal to the computer based on
the specific compound. Greater concentration of component will have bigger signals. Signals are
processed in the computer and predicted as a retention time. Computer generates a graph from the
signal called as chromatography. Knowing the peaks in the chromatography it is possible to detect
the components(Poster et al., 2006). But in some cases, compounds having similar properties often
have similar retention time. Therefore, it requires further analysis for clear identification of
compounds. The individual components from the GC enters into electron ionization chamber in the
mass spectrometer. Each compound fragmented by bombarding with a stream of electrons in the
ionization chamber. Ionized particles are trapped in the ion trap chamber and time required to trap
ions called as ionization period. In these it generated entire mass spectrum based on the time taken
in an ion trap by m/z value(Alder et al., 2006). Hence, GC-MS analysis is one of the powerful
techniques for determination of chemical components in the sample. In the present study, the
ethanolic extract of Justicia adhatoda extract was analyzed using GC-MS analysis technique for
investigating compounds present in it.
Material and Methods
Justicia adhatoda plant leaves were collected and shade dried till it attains 6-8 % (w.b.). Dried plant
material was grounded to 40 mesh size particles. 10 grams of powdered materials was mixed with
100 ml of ethanol and incubated for 24 h. The extract was separated using Whatman No. 1 filter

143
paper and further analyzed using GC-MS analyzer.
GC-MS Analysis of the Justicia adhatoda leaf extract: The GC-MS analyses of Justicia adhatoda leaf
extract samples were performed on GC-MS (Model: TRIPLUS RSH, Thermo Fisher Scientific, USA). The
specification of column used in GC-MS was TR5MS, 0.25mm ID, 0.25uf, 30mm dimension. The
temperature of ion source in DSQ II was maintained at 2000°C. Initial temperature in Trace GC Ultra
was set to 400°C and withhold time of one minute. Temperature at inlet and MS transfer line was
maintained at 207° C and 265°C, respectively. Full scanning mode was used with scan rate of 500
amu. s-1 and mass range 15 to 120. Manual injection of sample was done in the sampling port in an
air tight syringe and 50 μl volume of sample was injected. Pre-injection and post injection flush was
given using nitrogen gas to avoid contamination. The time for pre-injection and post injection
flushing was 5 s and 30 s, respectively(Manikandan and Muhammad Ilyas, 2013).
Results and discussion
GCMS Analysis of Justicia adhatoda leaf Extract: The composition and identification of main
components present in the Justicia adhatoda extract are shown in the figure 1 and table 1. GC-MS
analysis of Justicia adhatoda leaf extract was found to contain 51 compounds out of those 12
compounds were major phytochemicals. The major phytochemicals with their retention time, peak
area, molecular weight (MW) and chemical formula are presented in the table 1., The main phenolic
compounds present in the leaf extract are octodrine, topotecan, amphetamine, phenylephrine,
benzenediol and acetic acid. These compounds are precursor for Vitamins E and K1 and common
antioxidants. Soniet al., (2008) quantified and confirmed the presence of alkaloids and
phytochemicals in the Justicia adhatoda leaf extract and Kaur et al.,(2013) also reported the
presence of phytochemicals inJusticia adhatoda leaf extract.

Ab
und
anc
e

Time
Fig.1: GCMS analysis of ethanolic fraction of Justiciaadhatodaleaf extract
Table.1. Phytochemicals identified in the Justicia adhatoda leaf extract by GC-MS analysis
Sl.No. Common name Retention Peak Area M.Wt. (g) Chemical
time % formulae
1 Topotecan 4.756 0.41 457.9 C23H23N3O5 •HCl

2 Octodrine 6.910 0.07 129.2 C8H19N

3 n-hexylmethylamine 8.519 0.16 115.22 C7H17N

4 Amphetamine 6.464 0.40 135.20 C9H13N

144
 5 Phenylephrine 7.716 0.90 167.20 C9H13NO2

6 Benzeneethanamine 2- 7.872 0.12 187.17 C8H10FN

fluro
7 Benezenemethanol. 8.238 0.15 165.232 C8H11N
alpha
8 1-Guanidinosuccinimide 8.801 0.18 99.09
C5H12N4O

9 1,2-Benzenediol 8.950 0.35 120.80 C7H8O2

10 2-Ethoxyamphetamine 10.476 0.81 165.23 C10H15NO

11 Actinobolin 12.619 0.07 300.311 C13H20N2O6

12 Acetic acid 9.484 0.07 60.05 C2H4O2 or

CH3COOH

Conclusion
The GC-MS analysis of Justicia adhatoda leaf extract was done for identifying major
phytochemical compounds and showed the presence of phytochemicals namely octodrine,
topotecan and acetic acid. These compounds are well known for their antioxidant properties. This
leaf extract can be recommended for further total antioxidant capacity and antimicrobial property
determination. This extract highly suitable for antioxidant rich fruit coating applications.
References
Alder, L., Greulich, K., Kempe, G., & Vieth, B. (2006). Residue analysis of 500 high priority pesticides: better by
GC–MS or LC–MS/MS? Mass spectrometry reviews, 25(6), 838-865.
Horita, C. N., Farías-campomanes, A. M., Barbosa, T. S., Esmerino, E. A., Gomes, A., Bolini, H. M. A., . . . Pollonio,
M. A. R. (2016). The antimicrobial , antioxidant and sensory properties of garlic and its derivatives in
Brazilian low-sodium frankfurters along shelf-life. FRIN, 84, 1-8. doi: 10.1016/j.foodres.2016.02.006
Kaur, R., Ruhil, S., Balhara, M., Dhankhar, S., & Chhillar, A. (2013). A review on Justicia adhatoda: A potential
source of natural medicine. African Journal of Plant Science, 5(11), 620-627.
Lin, D.-L., Wang, S.-M., Wu, C.-H., Chen, B.-G., & Liu, R. H. (2008). Chemical Derivatization for the Analysis of
Drugs by GC-MS--A Conceptual Review. Journal of Food and Drug Analysis, 16(1).
Manikandan, V., & Muhammad Ilyas, M. (2013). A study on antioxidant, proximate analysis, antimicrobial
activity and phytochemical analysis of Cissus quadrangularis by GC-MS. International Journal of
Biology, Pharmacy and Allied Sciences, 2(12), 2230-2236.
Pa, R., & Mathew, L. (2012). Antimicrobial activity of leaf extracts of Justicia adhatoda L . in comparison with
vasicine. Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Biomedicine, 2(3), S1556-S1560. doi: 10.1016/S2221-
1691(12)60452-3
Poster, D. L., Schantz, M. M., Sander, L. C., & Wise, S. A. (2006). Analysis of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
(PAHs) in environmental samples: a critical review of gas chromatographic (GC) methods. Analytical
and bioanalytical chemistry, 386(4), 859-881.
Soni, S., Anandjiwala, S., Patel, G., & Rajani, M. (2008). Validation of different methods of preparation of
Adhatoda vasica leaf juice by quantification of total alkaloids and vasicine. Indian journal of
pharmaceutical sciences, 70(1), 36.

145
 Development of a continuous popping and puffing machine
Hrishikesh A. Tavanandi1, Amit K. Das2, K.Venkateshmurthy1* and KSMS. Raghavarao1
1
Department of Food Engineering, 2Grain Science and Technology
CSIR-Central Food Technological Research Institute, Mysore-570 020, INDIA
Email : kvenkateshmurthy@yahoo.com
Abstract: Popping, puffing, drying and roasting of pulses and cereals are some of the most energy
intensive operations of food processing and temperatures used are normally in the range of
250~300°C. These have been traditionally practiced for enhancing storage life, improving
organoleptic properties and ease of incorporation in preparation of breakfast and ready-to-eat-
foods. Current practice for these operations is to employ batch type sand and electric
popping/puffing machines involving conduction mode of heat transfer. The major drawbacks of
these methods are high-energy consumption, scorching of grains, non-uniform product quality,
contamination (by sand and ash) and problems in scale-up. Since fluidization is known to increase
heat and mass transfer, a continuous fluidized popping/puffing machine (capacity 10-20 kg/h)
involving convective mode of heat transfer has been designed and developed. LPG was used as the
eco-friendly and economical fuel for generation of hot air. Process parameters such asexpansion
ratio, physical parameters of grains, fluidization velocity, terminal settling velocity, carry over
velocity, bulk density, and voidage were estimated for rice, maize, jowar (sorghum) and paddy.
Fluidization chamber was designed based on the terminal settling velocity of the grains and
volumetric air flow rate of the blower. Fluidization and carry over velocities for these grains were in
the range of 4-6 m/s and 2-7 m/s, respectively. Fluidization chamber designed was analyzed for heat
and mass transfer during popping/puffing of these grains at the optimized conditions. Convective
heat and mass transfer coefficients were estimated to be in the range of 103-187 W/m2 oC and 0.124-
0.162 m/s, respectively. Theoretical values for total heat and mass transfer were calculated and
compared with the experimental values and were found tobe similar.
Keywords: Puffing, Popping, Fluidization, Fluidized Popping/PuffingMachine.
Introduction
The demand for the ready-to-eat food is increasing day by day (Nath et al., 2007)and some of the
snack foods such as popcorn, puffed rice (Murmuri), puffed beaten rice (Avalakkipuri), puffed paddy
(Aralu) are popular in different parts of the world. Popcorn which is produced by heat expansion of
maize (popcorn variety), gained popularity as a favorite snack/breakfast cereal not only in India but
also in many other countries. Powder salt and other spices are added, mixed and cooled before
packaging. Popping/puffing process results in aerated, porous, texture and an increase in volume,
with the added benefits of dehydration. The main factors which affect puffing are puffing
temperature, puffing duration, initial moisture content of the material to be puffed and also starch
content of the raw materials (Arya, 1992),whereas the main factor affecting popping is the initial
moisture content of the raw material (Stewart, 1923).Current practice for these operations is to
employ batch type sand and electric popping/puffing machines involving conduction mode of heat
transfer and at the same time these machines are grain specific. The major drawbacks of these
methods are high-energy consumption, scorching of grains, non-uniform product quality(Nath et al.,
2007) and problems in scale-up. The popped material obtained from these conventional techniques
contain contaminants like sand, sawdust ash etc. and the popping operation is carriedout in non-
hygienic conditions.A single machine which is flexible enough to handle a wide variety of raw
material (maize, paddy, rice, sorghum etc) hygienically in a continuous mode depending on the
requirement of the small scale/cottage industry is not available in market. Different types of popping
machines are needed for different raw materials and each has its own drawbacks. Although the basic
kitchen methodology (know-how/do-how) for the production of traditional snack foods such as
puffed rice, puffed beaten rice, puffed paddy is known, considerable research and developmental
efforts are required to translate such methodologies into technologies for the large-scale production.
This requires major inputs from food engineers and technologists. In order to facilitate the

146
production of Indian traditional food and ready-to-eat snack food, extensive research has been
carried out on design and development of equipment (Venkateshmurthy, 2003a, b;
Venkateshmurthy, 2004, Tavanandi et al, 2013). Analysis of heat and mass transfer immensely help
in the design and development of such food processing equipments (Saxena et al., 1995;
Venkateshmurthy and Raghavarao, 2011). The popping/puffing of grains is a simultaneous heat and
mass transfer process. Fluidization is a process by which solid particles are transformed into fluid like
state through contact in an upward flowing fluid stream (Kunni and Levenspiel, 1962; Nedderman,
1992; Ennis, 1994). The surface area available for heat and mass transfer can be increased by
fluidizing the grains to be popped/puffed.Since degree of heat and mass transfer is directly
proportional to the surface area available for heat and mass transfer, fluidization can be used as an
effective and efficient technique to modify the structure of the grain in order to enhance the
organoleptic properties. Different forms of fluidization occur depending on the type of fluidization
medium and the properties of the particulate material (Smith, 2007; Wang et al., 2005). These have
an important effect on the type of process that can be carried out using fluidization. The application
of fluidization in the food industry has been exploited in two broad categories of products such as(1).
vegetables, which are fluidized directly and (2). packaged foods, which are fluidized in a bed, by inert
gases (Jowitt, 1977).Reports on application of fluidization for popping/puffing in food processing
industry are available (Nath et al., 2007; Chandrasekhar and Chattopadhyay, 1988; Shimoni et al.,
2002; Nelly and Jenny, 2002; Iyota et al., 2005; Marek et al., 2006; Inoueet al., 2009).In our earlier
work, fluidization was successfully used for roasting of grains (Venkateshmurthy et al., 2008). In gas
fluidized beds, rapid and vigorous mixing takes place in the area just above the distributor.This
means that the exchange of heat and mass between the fluid and solid can occur very easily. The
major advantages of fluidization are simple design, intimate gas to particle contact, uniform particle
exposure without mechanical agitation, ease of scale-up and low cost of maintenance (Heywood,
1978).The objective of the present study is to design and develop a continuous popping/puffing
machine (10-20 kg/hr of raw material) using flue gas/hot air (generated by burning the LPG) as the
fluidizing medium . This paper presents also the heat and mass transfer in popping and puffing of
different grains namely rice, maize, jowar and paddy at conditions standardized for achieving
maximum efficiency for grain expansion.
Theoretical Aspects: Heat and Mass Transfer: It is widely acknowledged that the mode of heat
transfer is more important than just supplying the required quantity of heat for obtaining the desired
characteristics of a food product such as flavor, crustiness and color (Standing, 1974; Saxena et al.,
1995; Boukadida et al., 2000; Rattanadecho et al., 2008).Hence, it was thought desirable to carry out
theoretical analysis of heat and mass transfer during popping/puffing of different grains and
compare them with the experimental values. In fluidized bed popping machine, the flue gas/hot air
fluidizes the grains and convection is the major mode of heat transfer. The equation for total heat
transfer to the grains (QT) can be written as,
QT  h F A P ( TI  TP ) (1)
where, hFisheat transfer coefficient between fluidized particles and surrounding heating medium
(W/m2 0C), AParea of heat transfer surface (m2), TIinlet hot air temperature and TPis expanded
(popped/puffed) grain temperature (0 C). In the present application, the fluid (hot air) is passing
through the grains while fluidizing them (flow past immersed objects) and heat transfer depends on
the different variables such as shape, moisture content and quantity of the particles, flow rate and
bulk fluid characteristics of hot air. For heat transfer between a flowing fluid and the surface of a
single sphere (for 1<NRe< 70,000 and 0.6<NPr<400) the Nusslet numbercan be written as (Heldman
and Singh, 1993)
N Nu  2  0.60 N 0Re.5 N 0Pr.33 (2)
where the Nusslet numberNNu=hdp/K; Reynolds number NRe=ρdpv/µ; Prandtl number NPr=Cpµ/K and
h is convective heat transfer coefficient (W/m2 0C), dpdiameter of the grain (m),K thermal
conductivity (W/m0C), ρ density (kg/m3), v velocity (m/s), µ viscosity (Ns/m2) and CPis specific heat of

147
hot air (kJ/kg 0C). The bulk fluid properties of the hot air are calculated at average temperature from
the following equation.
T  TM
Tf  R (3)
2
where Tf is average bulk fluid temperature, TRroom temperature (0 C) and TM is temperature of
medium (0 C). The total heat absorbed during the popping/puffing operations can be calculated from
the following equation
Q A  [{ W m C pw ( Tv  TR )}  { W p C pg ( Tp  TR )}  { Wd C pg ( Td  TR )}  {L  λ v } (4)
where, QAistotal heat absorbed (kJ), Wm mass of moisture in the grain (kg), Cpw specific heat of water
(kJ/kg 0C), Wp weight of popped grain (kg), Cpgspecific heat of grain (kJ/kg 0C), Tvtemperature of
vaporization (0 C), TRroom temperature (0 C). Wdweight of the unexpanded grain (kg), Tdsurface
temperature of the unexpanded grain (0 C), L weight of moisture evaporated (kg) and λvis latent heat
of evaporation (kJ/kg).
Three different types of mass transfer are common in gas fluidized bed operations (Beek, 1971).
1. Mass transfer between the fluidized bed and a wall or an object in the bed.
2. Mass transfer between the bed particles and the fluidizing medium.
3. Mass transfer between the bed particles and the gas bubbles in a bubbling bed.
In the present application, the second type of mass transfer is most appropriate than the other two.
This is because the mass transfer involved in popping or puffing is with respect to moisture loss from
the product during expansion, as the moisture present in the grain absorbs the heat from the
fluidizing hot air and gets evaporated. The corresponding correlation(Beek, 1971) is given by
2 0.5
3
kP  μ   Ud P 
 1  ε 
0.5
ε   ν  (5)
U  ρD   
where, kp is mass transfer coefficient (m/s),εvoidage, U fluidization velocity (m/s), dp diameter of the
particle (m), ν kinematic viscosity of the hot gas (Ns/m2) and D is the diffusion coefficient of moisture
in grains (m2/s).
For the mass transfer factor (JD), the correlation suggested by Chilton and Colburn, (1934)can be
written as
2
kp  μ  3
JD  (6)
U  ρD 
In addition, it may be noted that food materials are porous, and they will possess intra-particle
resistance to heat and mass transfer. These resistances are independent of fluidizing conditions.
During fluidized bed processing of foods, the external heat and mass transfer resistance are often
negligible in relation to intra-particle heat and mass transfer resistances.
Material and Methods
Design and operation: The prototype of fluidized bed popping/puffing machine was assembled and
the orthogonal (front) view/engineering drawing of the same is as shown in Figure 1a. It consists of a
combustion chamber (1) mounted on the centrifugal blower (2).The raw material is fed to the
popping machine by a screw feeder (3). The feed rate of the raw material iscontrolled by the rotation
of the screw feeder using a timer. A hot air distributor/wired mesh (4) is provided at the end of
combustion chamber which holds the grains and also allows hot air to pass through it, facilitating
fluidization andin turnpopping/puffing of grains. A thermocouple of the temperature indicator (5) is
provided inside the popping chamber for measuring the hot air temperature and temperature of
popping is varied to suit the given raw material. The popped material is conveyed out of the machine
pneumatically through the outlet chute (6). The hot air is generated in the combustion chamber by
burning liquid petroleum gas. The centrifugal blower (2) generates a stream of air to be mixed with
the flue and is blown through the hot air distributor. Regulating the supply of LPG varies the
temperature of the hot air. The machine is provided with a set of castor wheels (7) for easy mobility.

148
Main cover/electrical panel (8) houses the timer (9) and main switch (10).
Raw materials, pretreatment and capacity of processing:Certain pretreatments are essential for the
preparation of grains for puffing. For puffing, 500 gm of rice of moisture contents (10%) were
subjected to hydrothermal treatment prior to puffing. After preheating the rice to a temperature of
1500 C, 10% (w/v) water containing 15% (w/v) rock salt was added and kept for 10 minutes. The
sampleswere puffed at 2600 Cand expansion ratio of final productwas calculated. The popping variety
of maize was procured from the local market, and the moisture content was analyzed. The average
moisture content of 12-14% (weight basis) was found suitable for the preparation of popcorn.
Metzger et al. (1989) has observed similar range of moisture content. When corn is heated, the
natural moisture present inside the kernel turns into steam and the corn casing acts like a pressure
vessel which is holding the steam. When the pressure exceeds beyond a point the kernel breaks,
releasing the pressure (Hoseney et al., 1983) resulting in popping of grain. Similar procedure was
followed for jowar and paddy as well.
Determination of expansion ratio and popping/puffing efficiency: The ratio of volume of
popped/puffed grain to the initial volume of grain is termed as expansion ratio. A known quantity of
maize was taken in a measuring cylinder (100 ml volume) and the initial volume was noted. The
maize was subjected for popping/puffing at conditions standardized and volume of the popped
maize was measured. The ratio of the volume of popped maize to the initial volume (before popping)
was considered as expansion ratio for maize. Similar experimentswere conducted to determine
expansion ratio of rice, paddy and jowar.The ratio of weight of popped/puffed grain to the initial
weight of grain is considered as popping/puffing efficiency. A known quantity of maize was taken and
the initial weight was noted. The maize was subjected for popping/puffing at conditions standardized
and weight of the popped maize was measured. The ratio of the weight of popped maize to the
initial weight (before popping) was considered as popping/puffing efficiency for maize. Similar
experiments were conducted to determine popping/puffing efficiency of rice, paddy and jowar.
Design of Fluidization Chamber:In order to design suitable fluidization chamber it is desirable to
arrive at the appropriate fluidization chamber diameter to meet the fluidization requirements
(Fluidization velocity/Terminal Settling Velocity) of different grains during popping/puffingThe
fluidization chamber diameter was calculated using the equation of continuity as described below.
Velocity of air generated by the blower and employed for fluidization was measured at 0.25 m from
the outlet of blower using anemometer (Prova Instruments Inc., AVM 01). Based on the measured air
o
velocity, the volumetric air flow rate of blower ( Q blower m3/s) was calculated using following
equation.
o
Q blower  Ablower  vblower (7)
2
where Ablower is cross sectional area of blower outlet (m ), vblower is air velocity generated by blower
(m/s) Subsequently, the required diameter of the fluidization chamber (Dreq) for different grains has
been calculated by using the following equation.
o
4 Q blower
Dreq  (8)
πv T
where vT is the Terminal settling velocity of a given grain(m/s).
Since the grains are to be fluidized (for popping/puffing) using hot air, revised volumetric flow rate
( Qo bulk m3/s)has been calculated using the properties of hot air at bulk fluid temperature using
following equation.
o
ρ RT 
o Q blower
Q bulk  (9)
ρ bulk
where, ρRT and ρbulkare density of air (blower) at room temperature (kg/m3) and at bulk temperature

149
(kg/m3), respectively.
Accordingly, diameter of the fluidization chamber (Dfc) for popping/puffing with hot air was
calculated as
o
4 Q bulk
Dfc  (10)
πv T
Physical properties of grains:The popping/puffing variety of different grains were (rice, maize, jowar
and paddy) procured from the local market, and the moisture content was analyzed by using
moisture analyzer (M/s Wensar, HMB 100, German).The length, width and thickness of the grains
were measured using a vernier caliper by taking the average of 10 randomly selected grains and
average diameter for each grain was noted. Predetermined quantity of grain was taken in a
measuring cylinder and after measuring the volume toluene was added slowly till the lower meniscus
reaches the upper level of the grain bed in the measuring cylinder. The ratio of the volume of toluene
added and the total volume of grains was recorded as voidage. Toluene was used instead of water
because of its low surface tension and dissolution (Mohesin, 1980; Kashaninejad and Tabil, 2009).
Difference between Volume of grain in the measuring cylinder and Volume of toluene added gives
the actual volume of grain taken. Based on the average diameter of each grain, outer surface area
and volume of each grain were calculated. These values were used to determine the number of grain
particles and the total surface area available for heat and mass transfer.The bulk density of the grains
was determined for both expanded and unexpanded grains by calculating the ratio of the weight and
volume of the given grain. The values thus obtained were used for heat and mass transfer
calculations.
Terminal settling velocity: When a particle falls freely under gravity in a stagnant gas or liquid, it
accelerates until it reaches a velocity at which the drag exerted by the surrounding gas or liquid
exactly counterbalances the net gravitational (weight minus buoyancy) force. This velocity is called
terminal settling velocity (Cui and Grace, 2007)The terminal settling velocity of the
unexpanded/expanded (popped and puffed) grains was obtained by dropping the
unexpanded/expanded grains through a tube of 0.05 m diameter and 5.16 m length and the time
required for the vertical travel of the grains was recorded at room temperature (26±10C) using a
stop-watch.
Minimum fluidization velocity:The velocity at which the drag force exerted by the fluid on a particle
is balanced by the net weight of the particle and the particle suspends in the upward moving stream
of fluid is called fluidization velocity (Smith, 2007).
A known quantity of maize is taken and the average diameter of the grains was measured. These
grains were placed on hot air distributor/wired mesh of fluidization chamber of the popping/puffing
machine, forming a bed of 0.02 m height. A centrifugal blower, provided at the bottom of machine,
supplies the air, drawn from the ambient atmosphere. Air velocity was gradually increased, and was
measured by an anemometer (Prova Instruments Inc., AVM 01). The air velocity at which the bed just
becomes fluidized was noted as minimum fluidization velocity. The experiment was repeated for
different batches of the same grain and average minimum fluidization velocity for that particular
grain was calculated. Similarly, experiments were carried out for other grains (rice, jowar and paddy)
and corresponding fluidization velocities were obtained.
Carryover velocity: A known amount of popped maize was taken and placed on hot air
distributor/wired mesh of fluidization chamber of the popping/puffing machine, forming a bed of
0.02 m height. The velocity of air from centrifugal blower was gradually increased and flow rate of air
was measured by an anemometer(Prova Instruments Inc., AVM 01). The air velocity at which these
puffed/popped grainsof maize are transported sufficiently so as to leave the fluidized bed
column/chamber entirely along with the air is called the carryover velocity of popped maize (Smith,
2007).The experiment was repeated for different batches of the same grain and average carryover
velocity for that particular grain was calculated. Similarly, experiments were carried out for puffed

150
rice and other popped grains (jowar and paddy) and corresponding carryover velocities were
obtained.
Hot air velocity and temperature: Hot air velocity was measured with an anemometer (Prova
Instruments Inc., AVM 01) having the least count of 0.1 m/s. Digital temperature indicator (Model-
TFF200, make-EBRO, Germany, PT-100, Range: -50 to 2000C) was employed to measure the
temperature of the hot air as well as the product. The temperature indicator had a least count of
0.10C.
Heat balance and thermal efficiency (η) of machine: The sensible heat (Q1) and the latent heat (Q2)
of different grains of given quantity (rice, maize, jowar and paddy) were estimated and total heat
absorbed (QA) was obtained by adding Q1 and Q2.
Total heat supplied (QT) was calculated using the equation
QT= (m × Calorific value of LPG)(11)
where m is the weight of LPG (kg) consumed for the given quantity of grain and Calorific value of LPG
used was 48,651 kJ/kg
Thermal efficiency (η) of machine was calculated using the equation
QA
η  100 (12)
QT
Results and Discussion
Design of fluidization chamber:The physical properties of the grains such as voidage, bulk density
were estimated, and the results are presented in Table 1. Fluidization velocity, carry over velocity,
terminal settling velocity were determined, and the results are presented in Table 2. The fluidization
velocity for different grains was found to be in the range 4.18 to 5.78 m/s as shown in the Table 2.
Accordingly the blower was selected for fluidization that can generate an air velocity of 6.4 m/s (at
0.25 m from outlet) which is sufficient to fluidize the grains. The terminal settling velocity of different
grains was found to be in the range 2.86 to 3.68 m/s as can be seen from the Table 2. The volumetric
o
air flow rate ( Qblower ) of the blower was calculated to be 0.122 m3/s using the outlet cross sectional
area and air velocity generated by the blower. Subsequently, considering the terminal settling
velocity of the grains (over the range 2.86-3.68 m/s) and the volumetric air flow rate generated by
the blower (0.122 m3/s), the theoretical diameter of the fluidization chamber was calculated and is in
the range of 0.20-0.23 m for different grains.
o
Since the grains are to be fluidized (for popping/puffing) using hot air, volumetric flow rate ( Qbulk ) of
the hot air has been calculated using the properties of hot air at bulk fluid temperature. Accordingly,
revised volumetric flow rate of hot air was estimated to be in the range of 0.17~0.18 m3/s and an
equivalent diameter of chamber for fluidization employing hot air was calculated to be in the range
of 0.24~0.27 m.
The maximum value of the carry over velocity was observed to be 6.18 m/s (for popped jowar).
Accordingly the fluidization chamber diameter has been selected as 0.15 m, which generates air at a
velocity of 6.89 m/s for a volumetric flow rate of 0.12 m3/s generated by the blower. This is sufficient
to meet the carryover velocity ranging from 2.15-6.18 m/s, fluidization velocity ranging from 4.18 to
5.78 m/s and terminal settling velocity ranging from 2.86 to 3.68 m/s. The details of the calculations
for the determination of diameter of fluidization chamber are shown in Annexure-A. The fabricated
Fluidized popping/puffing machine is shown in Figure 1b.
Popping and puffing:Cereals such as rice, maize, jowar and paddy were fluidized by hot air (180-
2500C) at a velocity ranging from 2-7 m/s. In the hot air popping/puffing machine, the startup (heat
up) and shutdown are instantaneous and practically there is no loss of heat energy. The air velocity
was kept uniform during the experimentation. Bulk density of the puffed and popped grains was
found to decrease from 0.77-0.08 kg/m3 (Table 1), due to decrease in weight associated with
moisture loss and also increase in volume of the grains on popping/puffing. The air velocity that
aided the fluidization helped also to carry the popped/puffed material away from fluidization zone.

151
The expansion ratio of different popped/puffed grains were calculated as explained in Section 3.5.
The values of expansion ratio of different grains along with the corresponding feed rate are
presented in Table 2. The fluidized popping/puffing machine has a capacity of 10-20 kg/h depending
on the grain. Unstable fluidization and channeling of gas was observed during experimentation
which may be attributed to the fact that all the four grains fall into Geldart's group 'D' category
(Geldart, 1973).
Heat Transfer: The heat transfer equations (1) to (4) were used for the popping and puffing of grains
in the continuous fluidized bed. In applications where heat is added to the bed by fluidizing the
particles with hot gas, the temperature drop between the inlet hot air and the bed takes place over
only a very short distance (a few particle diameters), immediately above the hot gas distributor (wire
mesh). Temperatures throughout the bed will be uniform due to the rapid particle mixing. It is also
possible to use high inlet temperature without causing much thermal damage to temperature
sensitive food particles. Convective mode of heat transfer was found to be predominant, and heat
transfer coefficients were estimated in the temperature range of 230-2960C using equation (2) and
found to be in the range of 103-187 W/m2 0C as presented in Table 3. The gas-particle convective
heat transfer coefficients reported in the literature are in the range 170-230 W/m2 0C for the particle
of size 600 µm and 60-101 W/m2 0C for the particles of size 9000 µm (Smith, 2007).It can be observed
that the values obtained in the present work are for the particles of 2000 µm and hence falling in
between these ranges. At the same time, these heat transfer coefficients can be of even lower
magnitude (about 20 W/m2 oC) according to Botterill (1975). Total heat supplied for the
popping/puffing was calculated by considering calorific value of LPG as 48651.92 kJ/kg and arrived to
be in the range of 60815-72978 kJ for different grains and the experimental value for total heat
absorbed during popping/puffing of grains was found to be in the range of 4597-5463 kJ. Theoretical
values for total heat absorbed was calculated and arrived to be in the range of 573-4386 kJ. It can be
seen from the results (Table 6) that the theoreticalvalues for total heat absorbed during
popping/puffing are found to be of similar to that of experimental values except for maize.
Mass Transfer: Estimation of mass transfer coefficient is rather difficult due to the scarcity of
diffusion coefficient data for grains. In this study, it was considered as 2×10–9 m2/sec, based on our
earlier work (Rastogi and Raghavarao, 1994).
Mass transfer coefficient and mass transfer factor have been estimated using equations (5) and (6),
respectively and the results are given in Table 4. The mass transfer coefficients were found to be in
the range of 0.124-0.162 m/s and mass transfer factor in the range of 0.58×10-3-2.13×10-3 Ns/kg
(Table 5). The gas-particle mass transfer coefficients reported in the literature are in the range 0.188-
0.253 m/s for the particle of size 600 µm and 0.063-0.103 m/s for the particles of size 9000 µm
(Smith, 2007).It can be observed that the values obtained in the present work are for the particles of
2000 µm and hence falling in between these ranges.
The whole bed mass transfer coefficients, unlike single particle coefficient represent the transfer of
mass from all particles in the bed. In beds of large particles, at high Reynolds numbers, gas flow
through the bed is closer to plug flow and whole bed coefficient is approximated to the single
particle coefficient. On the other hand, in case of fine particles, the majority of gas passes through
the bed in bubble phase (as being the case even with heat transfer). Consequently the degree of gas
particle contact is less than that was assumed and the mass transfer coefficients reported were
lower than the predicted single particle coefficients.
Experimental value of Total mass transfer for the popping/puffing was calculated to be in the range
of 3.38×10-3-4.95×10-3 kg/s for different grains and the theoretical values for total mass transfer
during popping/puffing was found to be in the range of 0.61-2.43kg/s. It can be seen from the results
(Table 6) that the Theoretical and experimental values for total mass transfer are found to be of
comparable order of magnitude except for maize. It can be attributed to the very low volume of
material used for experimentation (about 0.87 kg).
Performance evaluation and energy efficiency of the machine: The performance evaluation of
popping/puffing machine was carried out at the rated capacity as described below with respect to

152
different grains. The maize to be popped was fed in to the popping chamber mounted on to the
combustion chamber. The maize was fed on to the hot air distributor (wired mesh) at a rate 18 kg /
h. The air velocity was set at 1.3-1.4 m/s at an air temperature ranging between 225-2350 C. The
popped maize was discharged through the out let chute of the popping machine and collected on to
the tray. The temperature of the popped material was around 55-600 C with the final moisture of
around 4-5% (dry basis), wherein the product is of uniform color and is crisp. Similarlythe paddy to
be popped was fed in to the popping chamber at a feed rate of 11.25 kg/h. The air velocity has been
set at 1.5-1.8 m/s, at an air temperature ranging between 295-3000 C. The popped paddy was
discharged through the out let chute of the popping machine and collected on to the tray. The
temperature of the popped material was around 65-700 C with the final moisture of around 3-5%
(dry basis), wherein the product is of uniform color and is crisp. Similar trials were carried out for
Rice and Jowar as well. Performance evaluation trials were carried out over the designed feed rate of
10~20 kg/h and found to be satisfactory with respect to the popping/puffing. The highest
popping/puffing was observed in case of Maize and Jowar with 88.23% popping efficiency and the
lowest puffing in case of Rice with 73.05% effeciency. The lowest unpopped material was observed in
case of Maize and Jowar (11.76%) and the highest in case of Paddy (23.51%). The expansion ratio of
the final product was satisfactory for all the grains. Jowar exhibited highest expansion ratio (12.5)
whereas the lowest was observed in case of Rice (6.37). Different grains were fed and the machine
was found to be able to handle all of them satisfactorily. The product obtained after popping is
uniform in color, texture and even unsorted raw materials couldbe used for popping. The
startup/heatup time and shutdown time of the popping are rather instantaneous unlike other
popping machines which need at least 25-30 minutes. The present continuous popping machine
using flue gas/hot air was found suitable for popping of the wide variety of raw material like maize,
paddy, rice, and sorghum, which is not possible in other types of popping machines. The total heat
(sum of sensible heat and latent heat) absorbed during popping and puffing grains was calculated
using the equation (4). The contribution of sensible and latent heat varied from 26-37% and 69-74%
as shown in Table 5 for the grains employed in the present study. The thermal efficiency of the
fluidized popping/puffing machine was calculated considering the total heat absorbed during
popping/puffing and total heat supplied by LPG and the values are given in Table 5. Recirculation of
hot air (an optional attachment) increases the thermal efficiency of a given machine
(Venkateshmurthy et al., 2008) can be explored as an optional attachment. However, there is scope
for improvement in the machine by enabling recirculation of hot air which will increases the thermal
efficiency of the popping machine.
Conclusion: A continuous popping and puffing machine (rated capacity of 10~20 kg/h) was designed
and developed employing fluidization by hot air, flexible enough to handle a wide variety of raw
material (maize, paddy, rice, sorghum etc) hygienically in a continuous mode. The fluidization
velocities, terminal settling velocities and carryover velocities of these grains before and after
popping/puffing were measured and used to determine appropriate fluidization chamber diameter
(to meet the fluidization requirements of different grains during popping/puffing) and arrived to be
0.15 m. The heat and mass transfer coefficients were found to be in the range of 103-187 W/m2 0C
and 0.124-0.162 m/s, respectively. Theoretical values for total heat and mass transfer were
calculated and compared with the experimental values and were found to be of comparable order of
magnitude except for maize. The thermal efficiency of the popping/puffing machine was found to be
7-8% for both popping and puffing. By conducting several trials, modifications were incorporated in
the prototype during several iterations, to improve the operational efficiency. Performance
evaluation trials were carried out over the designed feed rate and found to be satisfactory with
respect to the popping/puffingeffeciency (73-88%) resulting in product ofgood expansion ratio (6.37-
12.50) with minimum unpopped material left (11-23%). The machine was found to be able to handle
different grains satisfactorily.
Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully acknowledge the Director, CSIR-CFTRI, for the infrastructural facilities at the

153
institute.The authors are also thankful to Mr. S.G. Jayaprakashan, Mr. Dugeshwar Karley, Mr.
Manjunath, Mr. Pavan Kashyap and Mr. I. Mahesh for their involvement during the fabrication of the
machine
Nomenclature
Symbol Denotes equation Symbol Denotes Equation
number number
λv Latent heat of evaporation (kJ/kg) 4 o Volumetric flow rate of air at bulk 9,10
3
Q Bulk temperature (m /s)
2
µ Viscosity of the flue gas (Ns/m ) 5,6 QT Total heat transfer to grains (kJ) 1,11,12
Ablower Cross sectional area of Blower 7,8 Re Reynolds number 2
2
outlet (m )
2 0
AP Area of heat transfer surface (m ) 1 Td Temperature ofunexpanded grain ( C) 4
0 0
Cp Specific heat of flue gas (kJ/kg C) 2 TP Temperature of expanded grain ( C) 1,4
0 0
CPw Specific heat of water (kJ/kg C) 4 Tf Average bulk fluid temperature ( C) 3
0 0
CPg Specific heat of grain (kJ/kg C) 4 TI Inlethot air temperature ( C) 1
0
D Diffusion coefficient of moisture 5,6 TM Temperature of medium ( C) 3
2
in grains (m /s)
0
Dfc Diameter of the fluidization 10 TR Room temperature ( C) 3,4
chamber (m)
0
dp Diameter of the particle (m) 5 Tv Temperature of vaporization ( C) 4
Dreq Diameter required at ambient 8 U Minimum fluidization velocity (m/s) 5,6
temperature (m)
2 2
h Heat transfer coefficient (W/m 2 Ν Kinematic viscosity of the flue gas (Ns/m )
0
C)
hF Heat transfer coefficient between 1 v Velocity of the inlet air (m/s) 5
fluidized particles and
surrounding heating medium
20
(W/m C)
JD Mass transfer factor 6 vblower Air velocity generated by blower (m/s) 7
K Thermal conductivity of the hot 2 VT Terminal settling velocity (m/s) 8,10
0
air (W/m C)
kp Mass transfer coefficient (m/s) 5,6 Wm Moisture contentof grain (kg) 4
L Weight of the moisture loss (kg) 4 Wd Weight of the unexpanded grain (kg) 4
m Weight of LPG (kg) 11 Wp Weight of the expanded grain (kg) 4
η Thermal efficiency of machine 12 ε Voidage 5
3
Nu Nusselt number 2 ρ Density of the flue gas (kg/m ) 5,6
3
Pr Prondtl number 2 ρBulk Density of air at bulk temperature (kg/m ) 9
3
QA Total heat absorbed (kJ) 12 ρRT Density of air at room temperature (kg/m ) 9
o Volumetric flow rate of air at 7, 8, 9
3
Q Blower blower outlet (m /s)
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 Microencapsulation of bixin pigment from annatto (bixao rellana L.)
M. Balakrishnan, S. Gayathri and K. Thangavel
Centre for Post Harvest Technology Centre,
Agricultural Engineering College and Research Institute,
Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore – 641 003
E mail : bala_tnau@yahoo.com
Abstract: The objective of this study was to micro encapsulate the annatto extract using modified
starch and gelatin blend as wall material by spray drying method. Commercially available annatto
extract was used as a core material to produce the microcapsules and compared with microcapsules
of annatto extract. Modified starch and gelatin of different ratios of 100:0, 90:10, 80:20, 70:30 and
60:40 were selected as wall material for microencapsulation. Higher encapsulation efficiency of
86.18 and 86.37 per cent was recorded for the extracted and commercial annatto extract
microcapsules prepared with the wall material (MS:G) ratio of 60:40. Encapsulated extract recorded
higher stability against light, oxygen and heat, than the non-encapsulated.
Keywords: Annatto, Microencapsulation, Bixin, Stability
Introduction
Annatto is a natural colourant that has been used for centuries in food industries. It is a bright red
pigment obtained from the pericarp of the seeds of the tropical shrub BixaorellanaLinn, a member of
bixaceae family. Annatto (Bixaorellana)isa tropical shrub native to South America and other regions
of Central America, Africa and Asia. In India, it is cultivated to a small extent in the states of Gujarat,
Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh. Annatto seed is the only natural source for bixin. The
colouring compounds of annatto are cis-bixin and cis-nor-bixin. The principle pigment present in annatto
is bixin (C25H30O4), a unique carotenoid which is the mono-methyl ester of a carotenoid carboxylic acid
(Scotteret al. 1998). The Joint FAO/WHO Expert committee on Food Additives (JECFA) estimated the
Acceptance Daily Intake (ADI) for annatto as 2.5 mg/kg body weight per day (for a preparation
containing 2.6% carotenoids expressed as bixin) and 0.65 mg/kg body weight per day expressed as
the pure pigment (FAO 2006). Annatto being a carotenoid confers many health benefits. It acts as an
anti-oxidant and involves in various biological functions such as vitamin A activity, cancer preventing
effects, protective effect against cardio-vascular diseases and reducing risk of cataract. The medicinal
use of annatto includes anecdotal treatment of diabetes mellitus (Russel et al.2008), antimicrobial
activity (Galindo-Cuspineraet al. 2003) and methonolic extract of Bixaleaves exhibited
neuropharmacological, anticonvulsant, analgesic, antidiarrhoeal activity (Shilpi et al. 2006) and diuretic
activity (Radhika et al. 2010) and hepatoprotection. Bixin is formed by nine conjugated double bonds
and two carboxylic groups. The structure of bixin is not only responsible for its light absorption and
antioxidant activity but also for its poor water solubility, which impairs its usage in low fat foods.
Bixin is a carotenoid with two carboxylic acid groups, one of which is esterified, and norbixin is
derived from bixin by hydrolysis of the ester group. Both forms are less stable when comparing to
synthetic colour. They tend to oxidize in the presence of oxygen and loss its colour under light. The
colour loss also occurs upon prolonged exposure to light, higher temperature and presence of sulfur
dioxide. At higher temperature 9-cis bixin undergoes series of degradation reactions to produce a
range of products coloured pale yellow to orange (Preston and Rickard 1980). The formation of these
degradation compounds is accompanied by the release of m-xylene, toluene, toluic acid and toluic
acid methyl ester which are undesirable for intended food use. There is an increasing demand for
natural colourant, as a replacement for synthetic colourant and colours derived from minerals due to
its adverse health effects. The market for natural food colours is estimated to increase by approximately
10% annually(Rymbaiet al. 2010). The global demand for natural dyes is nearly 10,000 tonnes which is
approximately 1% of the synthetic dyes consumed worldwide (Sivakumar et al. 2011). There have
been extensive efforts in micro emulsion-based systems to dissolve water-insoluble pigments, especially
for beverage application. There is a great demand for food biopolymer-based delivery systems for water-
insoluble natural food colour like annatto. The strong colouring power of carotenoid justifies the wider

156
use of these compounds. The use of annatto colourant is limited due to the low solubility of the
principal component bixin under acid and neutral condition, oxidation in the presence of oxygen and
photo degradation in organic and aqueous solutions. Hence, there is a need to protect bixin from the
environmental factors and to increase the solubility under physiological pH conditions.
Microencapsulation is one of the alternative techniques to improve the stability of carotenoid
which entraps sensitive ingredient inside a coating material. Microencapsulation is defined as a process
in which tiny particles or droplets are surrounded by a coating, or embedded in a homogeneous or
heterogeneous matrix, to give small capsules with many useful properties (Gharsallaouiet al. 2007). It
increases the stability, solubility and bioavailability of the active ingredients and promotes its
controlled release. Spray-drying process has been used for decades to encapsulate food ingredients
such as flavors, lipids and carotenoids. Spray drying is the most common method of encapsulation for
these compounds because of it being more economical and used to produce dry powders, granules
or agglomerates. The wall materials that are most frequently used are gums, maltodextrin of
different dextrose equivalent and some proteins (Barbosa et al. 2005). Hence the present study was
conducted to investigate the microencapsulation of annatto extract using modified starch and gelatin
blend as wall material by spray drying method. The prepared microcapsules were analysed for the
morphological characteristics and stability against light, oxygen and heat.
Material and Methods
Raw Material: Annatto (Bixaorellana) seeds of local variety were purchased from M/s. KMA Exports,
Tindivanam, Tamil Nadu. Commercial annatto extract was purchased from M/s. Plant Lipids Private
Limited, Kolencherry, Kerela. Wall materials namely modified starch (food grade) was purchased
from M/s. Angel Starch Private limited, Erode, Tamil Nadu and gelatin (food grade) was purchased
from M/s. Vivega Agencies, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu. All other chemicals used for this study were of
analytical grade.
Preparation of emulsion: Different ratio of modified starch and gelatin (100:0, 90:10, 80:20, 70:30,
60:40) were used as wall material for microencapsulation of annatto extract by spray drying.
Modified starch and gelatin solutions were prepared by dissolving modified starch and gelatin in
distilled water at 600C. After the complete dispersion, the final volume was made up to 100 ml by
adding distilled water. Annatto extract in the proportion of 1:4 (core: wall) was taken as core
material for microencapsulation. 100 ml of carrier solution (30 % w/v based on the total solution) was
mixed with annatto extract and emulsified in a high – speed mixer for 30 min until the complete dispersion
of annatto extract. Two drops of Tween-80 was added to aid the emulsification process.
Emulsion viscosity:The viscosity of emulsions of annatto extract was determined using rheometer
(M/s. Anton paar, Germany). The emulsion viscosity was measured using parallel plate geometry
(PP50) of 75 mm diameter with gap of 0.2 mm at constant shear rate (100 s-1).
Emulsion stability index:Emulsion stability index of the annatto extract was determined by following
the method described by Cho and Park (2003). 10 ml liquid emulsion was transferred to a measuring
cylinder. Then the cylinder was capped and stored for 24 h. The volume of extract separated from
the emulsion was measured, from which Emulsion Stability Index (ESI) within a possible range from 0
to 1 was recorded.

Total volume of separated extract

Emulsion Stability Index = 1 - ….. (1)
Total volume of extract in emulsion
Preparation of Microencapsulated Annatto Extract Powder: The emulsion was kept at room
temperature (28±2ºC), and pumped into the lab model spray drier (M/s Labultima, Mumbai, India)
equipped with two fluid atomizer(0.7 mm diameter nozzle). The wall material ratio was varied as per the
experimental design and the prepared annatto extract emulsion was kept at room temperature (28 ±
2ºC), and pumped into the spray drier equipped with the two fluid nozzle atomizers. Emulsion was fed
into the main chamber through a peristaltic pump at the rate of 5 ml min-1. The pressure of compressed
air for the flow of the spray was adjusted to 5 bar. The vacuum pressure was 50 kg/cm2 below

157
atmospheric pressure. An inlet air temperature 150°C and air outlet temperature was maintained at
60°C. The microcapsules were collected from the drying chamber, collection bottle, cyclone
separator and collection pot.
Water solubility:The solubility test of the annatto extract microencapsulated material in powder
form was determined as described by Landim (2008). One gram of annatto extract microcapsule was
mixed with 100 ml of water using a magnetic stirrer at room temperature for 30 min. 25 ml of aliquot
of the supernatant solution was transferred to a 50 ml centrifuge tube and centrifuged at a speed of
15000 rpm for 15 min. The aliquot of the supernatant was taken in a pre-weighed aluminium
moisture dish and dried in an oven at 1100C for overnight. The cold water solubility was calculated
as:
4 x grams of solid in supernatant
Water solubility (%) = x 100 .….. (2)
grams of sample taken

Encapsulation efficiency :Encapsulation efficiency is the amount of bixin entrapped inside the wall
material to the total bixin present in encapsulated powder.
Total bixin – Surface bixin
Microencapsulation efficiency (%) = x 100 …... (3)
Total bixin
For the total bixin (TB) determination, 1 g of bixin microcapsule containing was homogenized
with 20 ml water in a mixer for 1 min, followed by exhaustive extraction of bixin with
dichloromethane.
Surface bixin (SB) was determined by direct extraction of 1 g of bixin microcapsule with 5 ml
dichloromethane in a mixer for 30 s, followed by centrifugation at 3000 rpm for 10 min. After phase
separation, the liquid phase containing the bixin available from the wall material was collected and
filtered through a filter paper. The bixin dissolved in dichloromethane was quantified in a
spectrophotometer at 470 nm, using extinction coefficient of 2826. The determination of the bixin level
in the microcapsules was carried out in triplicate.
Quantification of bixin in microcapsules:
Concentration of bixin in annatto extract microcapsules was estimated by dissolving the
microcapsules in distilled water followed by ethanol to form homogeneous solution. Then the
absorbance value of filtered solution was determined by spectrophotometer at 470 nm. Bixin
concentration in the solution was calculated using absorption value of the solution in equation 4.
AC — AS
% Bixin = x 100 .……… (4)
AC
where,
Ac = Control absorbance, nm
As = Sample absorbance, nm
Statistical Analysis: All experiments were done in triplicate. Factorial Completely Randomized Design
(FCRD) was followed for all the statistical analysis. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed to
determine the significant effect of the independent variables on the response variables. The
treatments and their interactions were compared at p ≤ 0.01 and p ≤ 0.05 level using least square
deference (LSD) test which was performed by the statistical analysis software AGRES.
Results and discussion
Viscosity of annatto extract emulsion:The viscosity of the emulsions prepared with different ratios
of wall materials are presented in Table 1. From the table, it is observed that the viscosity of the
annatto extract emulsion increased with increase in gelatin concentration. This might be due to
gelling ability as it has tendency of gelatin to form cross linking on mixing with polysaccharides like
starches. Among the different ratios of wall materials studied, the ratio of 60:40 (MS:G) recorded the
highest viscosity values of 49.76 cP and 55.97 cP for extracted and commercial extract respectively.

158
The huge difference in the viscosity of extracted and commercial annatto emulsion might be due to
the presence of additives (mono and diglycerides of fatty acids and sunflower oil) in the commercial
annatto formulation.
Emulsion stability index of annatto extract emulsion:Emulsion stability indices of the extracted and
commercial annatto extract emulsions are presented in Table 2. From the table, it is observed that
the emulsion stability index had increased with increase in concentration of gelatin in emulsions.
This might be due to structure of gelatin which has stabilizing ability and good film forming ability.
Quality characteristics of microencapsulated annatto extract powder:Effect of wall materials ratio
on quality characteristics of extracted and commercial annatto extract microcapsules are presented
in Table 3 and Table 4 respectively.
Encapsulation efficiency of microencapsulated annatto extract powder:Encapsulation efficiency of
the lab extracted and commercial annatto microcapsules ranged from 81.70 to 86.18 and 85.42 to
86.37 per cent, respectively. It is observed from the table that the higher encapsulation efficiency
was recorded for the microcapsules prepared with wall material (MS:G) ratio of 60:40. The
encapsulation efficiency increased with increase in gelatin concentration. This might be due to good
emulsifying property and stability of gelatin wall material. Higher concentration of gelatin resulted
with higher stability and smaller droplet size. The lowest encapsulation efficiency was recorded for
the microcapsules prepared with wall material ratio (MS:G) of 100:0. Similar results of encapsulation
efficiency of 86 per cent for the microencapsulated bixin using gum arabic as wall material (Barbosa
et al. 2005).
Bixin content of microencapsulated annatto extract powder:The bixin content oflab extracted and
commercial annatto microcapsules ranged from 0.253 to 0.286 g/100g and 0.244 to 0.294 g/100g ,
respectively. The bixin content was increased with increase in gelatin concentration The maximum
bixin retention was observed with microcapsules prepared with wall material (MS:G) ratio of 60:40.
Minimum bixin retention is observed with wall material (MS:G) ratio of 100:0.
Quality evaluation of optimized microcapsules of annatto extract:Optimum process parameters for
the microencapsulation of bixin were selected based on higher solubility, maximum encapsulation
efficiency and higher bixin content of microcapsules. From the results, it is observed that the extracted
and commercial emulsified with wall material (MS:G) ratio of 60:40 showed the better quality
characteristics which are significant (p ≤ 0.01) .Thus the wall material ratio of 60:40 was optimized for the
microencapsulation of extracted and commercial annatto microcapsules.
Conclusion
Optimum wall material ratio for the microencapsulation of extracted and commercial annatto extract
was selected based on the quality characteristics of microcapsules. Wall material ratio of 60:40 (MS:G)
was identified as the optimum wall material ratio for microencapsulation of annatto extract. This showed
that the microencapsulation enhanced the stability of bixin thereby indicating the potential of
microencapsulation as a sustained delivery medium.

Table 1. Viscosity of extracted and commercial annatto extract emulsion

Viscosity, cP
Wall material ratio
(MS:G) Extracted Commercial
100:0 34.79 ± 0.75 38.95 ± 1.06
90:10 37.69 ± 0.94 39.62 ± 0.55
80:20 35.60 ± 0.83 43.54 ± 0.96
70:30 43.62 ± 0.71 52.84 ± 0.91
60:40 49.76 ± 1.00 55.97 ± 0.66

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Table 2. Emulsion stability index of extracted and commercial annatto extract emulsion
Wall material Ratio Emulsion stability index
(MS:G) Extracted Commercial
100:0 0.70 ± 0.12 0.72 ± 0.14
90:10 0.74± 0.08 0.76 ± 0.06
80:20 0.78 ± 0.17 0.80 ± 0.16
70:30 0.82 ± 0.06 0.84 ± 0.17
60:40 0.85 ± 0.10 0.86 ± 0.02

Table 3.0 Effect of wall material ratio on encapsulation efficiency of lab extracted and
commercial annatto extract microcapsules

lab extracted annatto microcapsules

Wall material ratio (MS:G) Encapsulation efficiency
Total bixin (g/100g)
(%)
100:0 81.70 ± 0.19 0.253 ± 0.002
90:10 82.82 ± 0.08 0.264 ± 0.001
80:20 83.35 ± 0.28 0.277 ± 0.002
70:30 84.86 ± 0.09 0.280 ± 0.001
60:40 86.18 ± 0.06 0.286 ± 0.003
Table 4.0 Effect of wall material ratio on encapsulation efficiency of lab extracted and commercial annatto extract microcapsules

Commercial extracted annatto microcapsules

Wall material ratio (MS:G)
Encapsulation efficiency
Total bixin (g/100g)
(%)
100:0 85.42 ± 0.05 0.244 ± 0.001
90:10 86.09 ± 0.09 0.255 ± 0.002
80:20 86.24 ± 0.06 0.263 ± 0.003
70:30 86.13 ± 0.04 0.270 ± 0.004
60:40 86.37 ± 0.04 0.294 ± 0.003

References
AZIZ, H.A.., PEH, K.K. AND TAN.Y.T.F. 2007. Solubility of core materials in aqueous polymeric solution effect on microencapsulation of
curcumin. Drug Dev. Ind. Pharm. 33(11), 1263–1272.
CHO, Y.H. AND PARK, J. 2003. Evaluation of process parameters in the O/W/O multiple emulsion method for flavor encapsulation. J.
Food Sci. 68(2), 534–538.
DANVIRIYAKUL, S., MCCLEMENTS, D.J., DECKER, E., NAWAR, W.W. AND CHINACHOTI, P. 2002. Physical stability of spray-
dried milk fat emulsion as affected by emulsifiers and processing conditions. J. Food Sci. 67(6), 2183–2189.
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). 2006. Annatto extracts: chemical and technical assessment, in:
67th Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives, Rome, Italy.
GALINDO-CUSPINERA, V., WESTHOFF, D.C. AND RANKIN. S.A. 2003.Antimicrobial properties of commercial annatto extract
against selected pathogenic, lactic acid, and spoilage microorganisms. J. Food Protect. 66 (6), 1074-1078.
GHARSALLAOUI, A., ROUDAUT, G., CHAMBIN, O., VOILLEY, A. AND SAUREL, R. 2007. Applications of spray-drying in
microencapsulation of food ingredients: an overview. Food Res. Int. 40(9), 1107–1121.
LANDIM, E.M.C. 2008. Obtaining, characterization and evaluation of the stability of natural pigments microencapsulated,
Master thesis, State University of Ceara, Fortaleza, Brazil, 1-90.
PRESTON, H.D. AND RICKARD. M.D. 1980. Extraction and chemistry of annatto. Food Chem.5, 47–56.
RADHIKA, B., BEGUM, N., SRISAILAM, K. AND REDDY. V.V. 2010. Diuretic activity of BixaorellanaLinn. Leaf extracts. Indian J.
Nat. Prod. Resour.1(3), 353-355.
RUSSEL, K.R., OMORUYI, F.O., PASCOE K.O. AND MORRISON. E.Y.2008. Hypoglycemic activity of Bixaorellanaextract in the
dog. Methods Find Exp and ClinPharmacol.30(4), 301-305.
RYMBAI, H., SHARMA, R.R. AND MANISH, S. 2010. Biocolourants and its implications in Health and Food Industry: A Review.
Int. J. PharmTech Res. 3(4), 2228-2244.
SHILPI, J.A., TAUFIQ-UR-RAHMAN M.D., UDDIN, S.J., ALAM, M.S., SADHU, S.K. AND SEIDEL, V. 2006.Preliminary
pharmacological screening of BixaorellanaL. leaves. J. Ethnopharmacol.108(2), 264-271.
SIVAKUMAR, V., VIJAEESWARRI, J. AND LAKSHMI ANNA.J. 2011. Effective natural dye extraction from different plant
materials using ultrasound. Ind. Crop. Prod.33(1), 116-122.

160
 Assessment of landslides in Kodagu district using remote sensing and
gis technique
Ravikumar D, Shoba S,Devagiri G M andBabu K
College of Forestry, Ponnampet, Karnataka, India
Email : sho_123@rediffmail.com
Abstract: Kodagu district is located in South-Western part of Karnataka state with a total
geographical area of 4102 sq km. This region is mainly covered by pristine forest, interspersed with
coffee plantations and paddy fields in valley region. During August 2018, Kodagu district witnessed
multiple landslides due to varied reasons. Therefore the present study was undertaken to assess the
causes for landslides using field survey and RS & GIS Techniques. It was observed from the present
study that an area of 629.158 ha was affected by landslides alone excluding the area lost by
sediment. High rainfall, occurrence of earthquake, blockage of drainage, manipulation of slope toe
and lineaments were identified as the major causes for the landslides in Kodagu district which is
mainly dominated by Sandy loam type of Soil. Slope Stabilization and erosion control measures need
to be initiated to control downstream sedimentation in lower catchments.
Keywords: Kodagu, Landslide, Remote Sensing, GIS and Slope
Introduction: Kodagu district is located in the South-West part of Karnataka State which lies between
the latitudes 11˚56'00” to 12˚50’00” N and longitudes 75˚22’00” to 76˚11'00” E. This region is mainly
covered by pristine forest, interspersed with coffee plantations and paddy fields in valley region.
During August 2018, Kodagu district witnessed multiple landslides due to varied reasons. Landslide is
defined as the movement of a mass of rock, debris or earth down the slope, when the shear stress
exceeds the shear strength of the material (Cruden, 1991). The Causes of landslides can be broadly
classified as intrinsic and extrinsic factor. The probability of landslide occurrence depends on both the
intrinsic and extrinsic factors. Geology, slope gradient, slope aspect, elevation, soil textural
properties, vegetation cover, and long-term drainage patterns are some of the intrinsic factors that
contribute to landslide. The extrinsic factors such as heavy rainfall, glacier outburst, seismic activity,
etc initiate slope failures in susceptible areas. Therefore the present study was undertaken to identify
the casual factors using remote sensing and GIS techniques.
Methodology : The following methodology was adopted for the present study
Pre fieldwork: Review of literature; Collection of secondary data; Collection of SOI topo-sheets on
1:50,000 scales.
Field investigation: Identification of landslides in the study area and collection of their coordinates
using GPS. Collection of attribute data. Documentation of affected areas with the feedback from
local people etc.,
Post fieldwork: Creation of Digital database of secondary data and toposheets etc. Geo-referencing
of maps and images, generating Digital elevation model (DEM), slope and aspect maps of study area
preparation of final map tables and diagrams.
Results and Discussions
Spatial mapping of landslide prone zones :The satellite imagery and remote sensing data was used
to assess the effect of casual factors on landslides as shown in Fig. 2. Fig. 1 shows landslide prone
area before the incidence of landslide. The satellite data was processed in Geographical Information
System (GIS). The final outputs were validated by field surveys. It was observed from the satellite
images that a total of 629.158 ha of land was affected in Kaloor, Mukkodlu, Makkandur,
Hebbettageri, Kandanakolli, Monnangeri, Muvathoklu, Madikeri, Subraya Devarkanad made &
Forest, Kedakal Negadal, Katakeri, Kalakeri Nedugane, Hammiyala, Galibeedu and Forest, Anjanageri
Bettageri and Uluguli villages. It was observed from DEM that majority of area under landslide had
slope percentage of 10 to 15% (85.165 ha). Further between 15 to 35% of slope 80.964 ha of land
was affected. It was also observed that an area under valley regions having slope of 0 to 1% (76.597
ha) and 1 to 3% (23.655 ha) was adversely affected due to the deposition of the landslide materials
and debris from the higher altitudes in Kaloor,Mukkadlu and Makkandur villages

161
 Fig. 1 Before landslide (April 27th 2018)

Fig. 2.After landslide (September 9th 2018)

To identify causal factors of landslides using information collected from fieldwork, government
agencies and remote sensing;
Earthquake : An earthquake is the shaking of the surface of the earth, resulting from the sudden
release of energy in the earth's lithosphere that creates seismic waves. It was observed that on 9th
July 2018 a tremor of 3.4 intensity was recorded in Madikeri (NCS, MoES).
Rainfall:It was observed that during the South-West monsoon period i.e., from June to September
2018 the District as a whole recorded an actual amount of 3463.7 mm of rainfall as against the
normal rainfall of 2181.9 mm with percentage departure from normal being (+)59 % as shown in
Fig.3. Therefore, rainfall is one of the major cause for landslide occurrence.

162
 Fig.3 Rainfall distribution in Kodagu district
Conclusion
It was observed from the satellite data that atotal of 629.158 Ha of land was affected due to
landslides in Kodagu district during 2018. The field investigation revealed that high rainfall, occurrence of
earthquake, blockage of drainage and manipulation of slope toe were the major causes for the landslides
in which is mainly dominated by sandy loam type of soil.

163
Development and evaluation of solar photovoltaic operated paddy winnower
M.H. , A.G . , Y.P. Khandetod3, D.S. Thorat
1
Ph.D. Scholar, ICAR-Central Institute of Agricultural Engineering, Bhopal, 462038.
2
Head, Department of EOES, CAET, DBSKKV, Dapoli.3 Dean,CAET, DBSKKV, Dapoli.4Scientist,
ICAR-Central Institute of Agricultural Engineering, Bhopal
Email :manisha.jagadale.123@gmail.com
Abstract: The paddy winnowing is the major time consuming post-harvest operation which required
large manpower and depend on natural wind velocity when carried out manually. It required
uninterrupted and costly power supply when carried out using electrical winnowers. The Solar
photovoltaic (SPV) powered paddy winnower was developed and evaluated to overcome the above
problems in the field. The power characteristic of the solar photovoltaic panel used for the winnower
was evaluated. The SPV operated winnower was evaluated for no load and load conditions as per the
standard testing procedures. It was observed that, newly developed portable solar photovoltaic
(SPV) operated paddy winnower is suitable for winnowing of paddy at the feed rate of 120 kg/h. The
overall output capacity at 30 cm distance was found to be maximum (119.77kg/h), as compared to
output capacity at 20 cm (119.30 kg/h) and 10 cm (118.74), respectively. The weighted average
cleaning efficiency at 30 cm distance (93.00%) was found to be maximum as compared to cleaning
efficiency at 20 cm (89.13%) and 10 cm (62.24 %), respectively. The average cleaning efficiency of
SPV operated paddy winnower is more than 90% with low operating cost of 0.25 Rs./kg. The
developed SPV operated paddy winnower provided the solution for on farm paddy winnowing
without dependency on natural wind velocity and secure electric supply.
Keyword: Solar Photovoltaic, Cleaning Efficiency, Output Capacity, Energy Consumption.
Introduction
Paddy is very important crop amongst all food grains. Among 33% of population of world consumes
rice as staple food as major constituent of their daily diet. India is world’s second largest producer
and consumer next to china.In2017, China was the leading country with a production volume of
some 210.1 million metric tons. India followed on rank second with a rice production volume of
approximately 166.5 million metric tons, that year. In Maharashtra, Konkan region contribution is
higher in case of production. Large number of farmers in India follows old practice of threshing such
as trampling of paddy under feet of animals, hand beating of sheaves of paddy on hard surface but
small farmers or stakeholders of Konkan region can’t afford costly machinery due to small land
holding. In present days hold on type paddy threshers are used in some areas of konkan but such
threshers do not have cleaning facility. As winnowing is done by manual method or by hold on type
winnowing operation. Winnowing operation is carried out to separate dust, straw from clean paddy
grains. The winnowing operation is carried out by separation of straw or bhusa from paddy by
creating air draft or natural wind (Singh et.al.2007). In villages winnowing is done by pouring grains
from higher elevation to ground in the prevailing wind direction so that draft of air will blow away
straw from clean grains and clean grains can be collected at ground. But this method is time
consuming, uncomfortable and laborious and totally depends on wind conditions. Labour is required
to stand at higher platform and pour grains from higher to lower elevation with unsuitable body
conditions which increases drudgery of labour (Kadam et.al,2013). Considering these limitations now
day’s small fans are used but it also involves drudgery as labour has to stand in front of fan and pour
grains in prevailing direction of wind. This method has also one limitation that percentage of blown
grain was high due to improper position of operator. Also these operations are carried out in open
yard and subjected to inclement weather conditions. Considering these limitations small solar
photovoltaic power operated paddy winnower was developed in CAET Dapoli. The threshed paddy
crop will be fed through hopper the blower will separate the mixture into grains and straw.
Methodology: The solar photovoltaic system for paddy winnowing (Fig.1) consists of Solar
Photovoltaic Panel, D.C. Motor, Centrifugal Blower, Hopper, Speed regulator, Castor wheel, Switch,
Frame. The SPV operated winnower with 24 Watt solar panel was used for operating 18 watt D.C.

164
motor and centrifugal blower. The photovoltaic panel converts solar energy into electricity. The
generated electricity was used to operate centrifugal blower with the help of D.C. motor. The speed
regulator was used to regulate the air velocity. On /off switch was provided to stop or start the
supply of power. The feed from hopper was adjusted through feed control plate.
Field testing of solar photovoltaic system for paddy winnowing
The field tests were conducted at Department of EOES, CAET, BSKKV, Dapoli. The field testing of SPV
operated paddy winnower was conducted at Department of Agronomy, Dr. BSKKV, Dapoli. The
different operating parameters were recorded as per RNAM test code for field testing of winnower.
The results obtained are described on the basis of cleaning efficiency and output capacity. The SPV
operated paddy winnower was evaluated using following test parameters.
Name of crop - Paddy Operating time - 15 min
Variety of crop – Ratnagiri-1 Moisture content (w.b) -12.87%
Grain to straw ratio - 0.89 Grain input – 30 kg

Top view Side view

Fig.1 Schematic view of solar photovoltaic system for paddy winnowing

Measurement of crop parameter

Determination of moisture content :The moisture content of paddy was measured with the help of
hot air oven by oven dry method. The sample with the known weight was kept in oven at +105ºC till
the constant weight. The moisture content of sample was determined as (ASTM D-3173).

165
 Moisture content (% wb) = X 100……… (1)
Where,
W1 = weight of crucible,
W2 = weight of crucible + sample, g
W3 = weight of crucible + sample, after heating,

Determination of grain ratio : The grain ratio was determined by dividing weight of grain in sample
to the weight of the total sample. The weight of grains and weight of straw were measured
separately from a selected lot of total sample.
Grain Ratio= ……(2)

Determination of winnower parameter: The performance of developed solar photovoltaic system

for paddy winnowing was conducted at different distances from centrifugal blower (10, 20, 30 cm)
and at constant feed rate 120 kg /h. The performances were carried out for whole day in winter
season from 9:00 to 17:00 h to evaluate the effect of solar intensity. The mixture of paddy along with
straw was feed with the help of feeding hopper. The feed mixture was controlled by feed control
plate. The feeding mixture contain about proportion of 89 % paddy and 11 % straw. As per RNAM
test code, each test of 15 minutes and three tests per hour were carried out to determine the
different operating parameters of paddy winnower. The contaminant in outlet-1 and outlet-2 (as
shown in fig.2) were separated. The weight of straw collected at outlet was weighted individually
with the help of electric weighing balance. Various parameters as cleaning efficiency, grain to
strawratio, percentage grain blown and power consumption were determined.
Feed rate: The SPV operated paddy winnower was evaluated for performance at three different
distances from centrifugal blower at constant feed rate. It was determined as,
Feed rate (Kg/h) = …….(3)
Percentage of blown grain: Percentage of blown grain = x 100 ……..(4)
Where, F= Quantity of whole grain collected at chaff outlet per unit time, kg.
A= Total grain input per unit time by weight, kg.
Cleaning efficiency:
Cleaning efficiency = x 100 (5)
Where,
I =Weight of whole grain per unit time at main grain outlet, kg.
J = Weight of whole material per unit time at the main outlet, kg
Determination of output capacity (kg/h) :The output capacity was determined by measuring weight
of clean grain from both outlet on hourly basis by noting the weight of clean grain per unit time.
Measurement of energy consumption: Energy consumption for winnowing was measured by
multimeter. Total energy used for winnowing was noted as product of voltage and current gained by
motor to operate centrifugal blower.

166
 Fig.2 Field testing of solar photovoltaic system for paddy winnowing
.
Economics of SPV operated paddy winnower:The economic evaluation of developed SPV operated
winnower was carried in terms of fixed cost, variable cost, total cost and operating cost as Rs./kg of
paddy. The economical values were compared with different winnowing systems like power
operated winnower, power operated fan, manual operated fan and manual winnowing method.
i. Fixed Cost includes:
a. Cost of winnower (C)
b. Depreciation rate (Rs. /h)  C  S
LH
Where,
C = Initial cost or cost of machine, Rs.
H= Annual use of machine, h
I = Interest rate, %
L = Total life of machine, Yrs.
S = Salvage value, Rs.

167
 c. Interest rate (Rs./h)  (C  S )  I
2 H
I = Interest rate (i.e10 % of fixed cost)
d. Insurance and taxes (Rs /h) =2% of initial cost
e. Housing (Rs./h) = 1.5% of initial cost
f. Total fixed cost = Depreciation + Interest + Insurance + Housing
Variable Cost
a. Electricity cost (Rs./ h)
= Electricity consumed (kWh) x electricity charge
b. Operating cost of labour (Rs./h)= Wage of operator / Working Hours
c. Repair and maintenance (Rs. /h) = 5 % of initial cost
d. Total Variable cost = Electricity cost (Rs./ h) + Operators cost (Rs. /h) + Repair
and maintenance (Rs. /h)
Total operating cos= Fixed Cost + Variable Cost

Results and Discussion

Performance of SPV operated paddy winnower at 10 cm distance from blower
The variation of cleaning efficiency and output capacity with respect to time of operation was
studied. The variation of cleaning efficiency and output capacity at outlet 1 when the feed was
dropped at 10cm distance from blower is shown in Fig.3.

Fig.3 Variation of cleaning efficiency and capacity at outlet-1 at 10 distance from blower
It was observed that, cleaning efficiency and outlet capacity were nearly constant during the
operating period. The cleaning efficiency for outlet-1 ranged from 94.55% to 96.99%. The peak value
was observed at 13:00 h (96.99%). The output capacity at outlet-1 was varied from 107.56 kg/h to
109.06 kg/h. The peak value of output capacity was observed at 13:00 h (109.06 kg/h).
The cleaning efficiency as well as output capacity at outlet-1 was nearly constant for operating
period from 9:00 to 17:00 h. This revealed the least effect of solar intensity variation on cleaning
efficiency and output capacity of paddy winnower.
Similarly, the variation of cleaning efficiency and output capacity at outlet -2 with respect to time
were studied.The variation of cleaning efficiency and output capacity at outlet -2 when feed dropped
at 10 cm distance from outlet of blower is shown in Fig.4.

168
 Fig.4. Variation of cleaning efficiency and capacity at outlet-2 at 10 cm distance from blower

It was observed that, the cleaning efficiency of outlet-2 was very low as maximum straw was
collected in outlet-2. The cleaning efficiency was ranged from 13.31% to 45.14%. The minimum value
was observed at 13:00 h (13.31%). The output capacity at outlet-2 was varied from 9.54 kg/h to
11.32 kg/h. The cleaning efficiency as well as output capacity was low at outlet-2, because most of
straw was collected at outlet-2. The smooth operation of SPV operated paddy winnower from 9:00
to 17:00 hrs with high cleaning efficiency and output capacity, revealed its suitability of its operation
at distance of 10 cm from blower.
Performance of SPV operated paddy winnower at 20 cm distance from Blower
When the feed was dropped at 20cm distance from blower is shown in Fig.5 the variation of cleaning
efficiency and output capacity at outlet-1 was studied.It was observed that, the cleaning efficiency
and outlet capacity were nearly constant during operating period. The cleaning efficiency ranged
from 86.45 % to 89.51%. The peak value was observed at 15:00 h (89.51%). The outlet capacity at
outlet-1 was varies from 39.79 kg/h to 46.12 kg/h. The peak value was observed at 15:00 h (46.12
kg/h).

Fig.5. Variation of cleaning efficiency and capacity at outlet-1 at 20 cm distance from blower

The output capacity at outlet-1 at distance of 20 cm from blower was lower due to position of outlet-
1 i.e. only half of opening was covered by feed. The half of feed was dropped over the outlet-2.
Similarly the variation of cleaning efficiency and output capacity at outlet-2 with respect to time of
operation is shown in Fig.6.It was observed that, cleaning efficiency for outlet-2 at 20 cm distance
ranged from 89.25 % to 91.31 %. The peak value was observed at 9:00 h (91.31 %). The output
capacity at outlet-2 was varied from 72.95 kg/h to 79.75 kg/h. The peak value was observed at 16:00
h (79.75 kg/h).

Fig.6. Variation of cleaning efficiency and capacity at outlet-2 at 20 distance from blower

Performance of SPV paddy winnower at 30 cm distance from blower

The variation of cleaning efficiency and output capacity at outlet-1 and outlet-2 when the feed was
dropped at 30 cm distance from blower are shown in Fig.7 and Fig.8.The cleaning efficiency at outlet-
1 and outlet-2 for 30 cm distance from blower was ranged from 95.4 % to 98.40 % and 89.04% to

169
89.19% resp. The output capacity at outlet-1 was varied from 0.8 kg/h to 1.49 kg/h.and for outlet-2 it
was varied from 118.24 kg/h to 119.03 kg/h. The peak value was observed at 16:00 h (1.49 kg/h).

Fig.7. Variation of cleaning efficiency and capacity at outlet-1 at 30 cm distance from blower

Fig.8. Variation of cleaning efficiency and capacity at outlet-2 at 30 cm distance from blower
The cleaning efficiency at outlet-1 for 30 cm distance from blower was maximum because only
bolder seeds were dropped in outlet-2. The cleaning efficiency was constant for operating period and
output capacity was found to be maximum at 30 cm distance from outlet of blower because feed
drop directly above the outlet-2.
The result of SPV operated paddy winnower at different distances from blower in term of
cleaning efficiency and output capacity is summarised in Table 1.
Table 1. Economics of SPV system of paddy winnowing
Sr.No Economical parameters Particulars
1 Cost of SPV operated winnower (Rs.) 8320
2 Total fixed cost ( Rs./h) 5.98
3 Total variable cost (Rs./h) 24.16
4 Capacity of winnower (kg/h) 120
5 Operational cost (Rs./kg) 0.25

The output capacity of SPV operated paddy winnower obtained at 30 cm distance from
blower was maximum at oulet-2 however, the cleaning efficiency was less. The maximum cleaning
efficiency of paddy winnowing was obtained at outlet-1 when feed was dropped at 30 cm distance
from blower. However, the output capacity is very low at same condition. Based on comparative field
performance it was recommended to operate the newly developed SPV operated paddy winnower at
distance 30 cm from blower to obtain the better cleaning efficiency (93.00%) and output capacity
(119.775 kg/h).
Economics of SPV operated paddy winnower
The economic parameters of SPV operated paddy winnower for the feed rate of 120 kg/h was carried
out. The economics of different paddy winnowing machine like power operated paddy
winnower,power operated fan, manual operated fan and manually winnowing operation was

170
calculated.It was observed that, the operating cost of SPV operated paddy winnower was found to
be 0.25 Rs./kg for the feed rate 120 kg/h which is less than power operated paddy winnower 0.30
Rs./kg (Kadam,2013), power operated fan 0.58 Rs./kg (M/s. Benson Agro Engineering,2014), manual
operated fan 0.82Rs./kg (M/s. Benson Agro Engineering),manual winnowing operation 1.5Rs./kg.
Thus the performance of SPV operated paddy winnower (for feed rate 120 kg/h) is economically
feasible than other winnowing operation.
It was revealed that, SPV operated winnower had very low operating cost than power operated
paddy winnower, power operated fan, manual operated fan and manually winnowing operation.
There was no need of supply grid power to operate the SPV operated winnower.
Conclusions
 The overall output capacity at 30 cm distance was found to be maximum (119.77kg/h), as
compared to output capacity at 20 cm (119.30 kg/h) and 10 cm (118.74), respectively.
 The weighted average cleaning efficiency at 30 cm distance (93.00%) was found to be
maximum as compared to cleaning efficiency at 20 cm (89.13%) and 10 cm (62.24 %),
respectively.
 The developed SPV operated paddy winnower provided the solution for on farm paddy
winnowing without dependency on natural wind velocity and secure electric supply.
References
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Benson Agro Engineering, Nashik, Maharashtra, India.
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Codes, R. T. (1983). Procedures for Farm Machinery. Pacific Regional Network for Agricultural
Machinery and the Economic and Social Commission for Asia, 70-71.
Singh,S. P. and L. P. Gite. 2007. Ergonomic Evaluation of a Hand Operated Paddy Winnower by
Women Workers. Journal of Agricultural Engineering, 44 (4): 67- 71
Ayman, H.A.Y.2009.Physical and aerodynamic properties of flaxseeds for proper separation by using
airstream.Journal of Food Process Engineering.34 (4):983-1012.
Kadam,R.G. 2013. Performance evaluation of power operated paddy winnower. Unpublished B. Tech.
(Agril. Engg.)Thesis. College of Agricultural Engineering and Technology, Dr. Balasaheb
Sawant Konkan Krishi Vidyapeeth, Dapoli. 1-3.

171
 Development and evaluation of tractor operated onion seed drill
Sharanappa Jangandi , Rajashekhar D. Barker, and Nageshkumar, T.
Zonal Agricultural and Horticultural Research Station (ZAHRS), Babbur Farm, Hiriyur-577598
Email: sjangandi@yahoo.co.in
Abstract: Onion is the one of the major vegetable crop of Chitradurga district in Central Dry Zone –VI
of Karnataka. Area under onion cultivation in Chitradurga is 16,054 ha with production of 3,15,620
MT. Manual and animal drawn onion seeder was developed, but its capacity was low so there is a
need to develop a tractor drawn, high capacity machine for timely sowing of onion and to cover large
area under the crop. The development of the onion seed drill was carried out in the workshop, Zonal
Agricultural and Horticultural Research Station (ZAHRS), Babbur Farm, Hiriyur. Onion seed drill was
developed based on the crop and machine parameters. The major components are bund former,
ground wheel, seed metering mechanism and seedbox. The vertical rotors with cells are used as seed
metering mechanism. The power to drive the feed shaft is taken from the ground wheel through
chain and sprocket with speed ratio of 1:1. The unit consists of 09 slit type furrow opener. Tractor
operated onion seed drill was tested for its performance at Research Field, ZAHRS, Hiriyur. The seed
rate of the seed drill was 4 kg/acre. The field capacity and field efficiency was observed as 0.41 ha/h
and 81 per cent, respectively. The developed onion seed drill was worked satisfactorily for sowing
onion and also reduced the labour requirement in both seeding as well as bund making.
Introduction
India is producing 17,511.10 thousand million tonnes of onion from an area of 1,087.26 thousand ha
with an average productivity 16.10 t/ha. In Karnataka, it is grown about 177.20 thousand million ha
with an average production of 2,451.20 thousand million tonnes and productivity 13.83 t/ha
(Umamaheswarappa et al. 2018).Onion is the one of the major vegetable crop of Chitradurga district
in Central Dry Zone –VI of Karnataka. Area under onion cultivation in Chitradurga is 16,054 ha with
production of 3,15,620 MT.The farmers generally plant onion seeds by manual method, which is
labour intensive and time consuming. It requires about 60 to 82 man-days to plant one hectare of
land by maintaining row to row spacing of 15 cm and plant to plant spacing of 10 cm for better plant
population and growth. Therefore, farmers are taking this crop in very small area(Grewal, 2014). In
case of rain fed condition, the onion seeds are broadcasted to save the labour and the yield
of around 4.5 tones ha-1 is obtained (Gireeshet al., 2017). The poor yield is recorded due to non-
uniform spacing of seed that affects the size of the onion bulbs. Because of high requirement
and shortage of labour, the area under onion cultivation is low and can be increased by
mechanization of this crop. Onion can also be grown by direct seeding method which is an evolving
technology and thiscan also help in saving labour. Direct sowing of onion is more economical as
compared to transplanting as there is saving in labour cost and time(Kumar et al., 2016). Manually
and animal drawn onion seeder was developed, but itscapacity was low so there is a need to develop
a tractor drawn, high capacity machine fortimely sowing of onion and to cover large area under the
crop. By considering all the above factors, a study was planned todevelopeatractor drawn onion seed
drill and evaluated for its performance and percentage germination of seeds was also tested.
Materials and Methods
The development of the onion seed drill was carried out in the workshop, Zonal Agricultural and
Horticultural Research Station (ZAHRS), Babbur Farm, Hiriyur. Onion seed drill was developed based
on the crop and machine parameters. The major components are bund former, ground wheel, seed
metering mechanism and seedbox. The isometric view of onion seed drill is shown in Fig.1.
Main frame: The main frame of 142 cm × 32.5was fabricated by MS angular of size 50 × 50 mm. It
was provided with an arrangement to fix the seed box, bund maker, transmissions system and
furrow openers.
Seed metering mechanism:The vertical rotors with cells are used as seed metering mechanism
because of its lower cost as compared to vacuum seeders and precise metering as compared to drum
seeders.Size and shape of the cells was selected according to size and shape of onion seed.Nine

172
rotors having six number of cells/rotor were selected owing to closer spacing requirement of onion
crop.Cells can accommodate more than two seeds at time.
Seed box: Seed box was made from mild ironsheet of 2 mm thickness and having length and width of
76.5 × 30.5 cm. Seed box has two compartment separated by MS sheet to avoid the overload to seed
metering mechanism. Seed metering was placed at the bottom portion of the seed box. Isometric
view of seed box is shown in fig. 2.
Ground wheel: A lugged ground wheel was provided for giving drive to seed metering
mechanism.The ground wheel of 450 mm diameter and 40 mm width was fitted with twelve
trapezoidalshaped lugs on the periphery for the positive rotation under the stubble field conditions
during the sowing operation for reducing wheel slip and missing of seedmetering mechanism.
Power transmission for metering mechanism: The power transmission was provided from ground
wheel through sprockets andchain for seed metering. Aeighteen teeth chainsprocket was used at
ground wheels to transmit power to twelve teeth sprocket on the mainshaft. The power from the
main shaft with twelve teeth sprocket was transmitted tosecondary shaft with eighteen teeth
sprocket. . The power to drive the feed shaft is taken from the ground wheel through chain and
sprocket with speed ratio of 1:1.
Bund maker: V-shaped bund maker was fabricated and attached to bottom of the main frame. This
bed maker was made from mild steel iron sheet of 3 mm thickness. This bed maker also acted as
depth control device.
Furrow opener: NineSlit type furrow openers, one for each row were used to open the soil for
placement of seeds. The seeds were conveyed through plastic tubes from metering mechanism to
the furrow opener. The properties of the onion seed namely, size, sphericity, thousand seed weight
and germination percentage were studied in the laboratory.Germination test was done by placing
onion seeds on a moistened germination paper and then in an incubator for required temperature
conditions. Germination count was taken after fourteen days and converted into
percentage.Germination percentage of the seeds was 80.67 % . Tractor operated onion seed drill was
tested for its performance at Research Field of ZAHRS, Hiriyur. The machine was operated with a 45
hp tractor. The field parameters such as forward speed and field capacity were measured as per
standard procedure mentioned in Indian Standard: IS: 7640-1975 (Reaffirmed, 1999). The economics
of developed tractor drawn onion seed drill was compared with broadcasting.The Performance of
tractor operated onion seed drill is shown in Plate 1.
Results and Discussion
Field performance evaluation: The field capacity and field efficiency was observed as 0.41 ha/h and
81 per cent, respectivelyand average fuel consumption of the tractor was 3.2 l/h when speed of
tractor was 2.5 km/h.Observed parameters of tractor operated onion seed drill are presented in
Table 1. It is clear from the table that, area coverage was 6-7 acre/day.

Table 1.Observed parameters of tractor operated onion seed drill

Sl. No. Particulars Tractor drawnSeed drill

1 Length of the seed drill (cm) 100

2 Width of the seed drill (cm) 45
3 Seed to seed spacing (cm) 5.5
4 Row to Row spacing (cm) 10 x 10
5 No of furrow openers (slit type) 9
6 Seeds drop/hill 2
7 Required seed/Acre 3.5-4.0 kg

8 Area coverage 6-7 Acre/day

9 Labour requirement 01

173
The cost observed for Tractor drawnSeed drillwas Rs. 3750/acre compared to Rs.5400/acre of
broadcasting method (Table. 2).The reduction in cost was observed about 44 per cent this is due
seed rate in case of tractor operated onion seed drill is less whereas, in broadcasting, seed rate is
depends on the experience of the labour.
Table 2. Economic comparison of tractor operated onion seed drill with respect to broadcasting.
Tractor drawn onion seed drill Broadcasting Method
Customhrin Labour Seeds Total Bund Labour Seeds Total
g charges requiremen requiremen Cost making/acr requiremen requiremen Cost
/acre t /acre t /acre (Rs./acre e t for t /acre (Rs./acre)
) broadcastin
g /acre
Men (1) : 4 kg Men (4) : Men (02) = 6 kg
Rs. 300 (Rate: Rs. 1200 Rs. 600 (Rate:
(Area 800/kg) Rs. 3750 women (02) 800/kg) Rs.
Rs. coverage 6 =00 Rs. = Rs. 300 5400/Acr
500/Acre Acre/day) Rs. 3200 300/Acre Rs. Rs. e
Rs. 50/Acre =00 300/Acre 4800/Acre

Total cost for tractor operated onion seed drill: Total cost for broadcasting of seeds : Rs.5,400/acre
Rs.3750/acre

Conclusion
The developed onion seed drill was worked satisfactorily for sowing onion and also reduced the
labour requirement in both seeding as well as bund making. The seed rate of the onion seed drill was
4 kg/acre. The reduction in cost was observed about 44 per cent compared to broadcast method.

Fig. 1. Isometric view of tractor drawn onion seed drill

174
 Fig. 2. Isometric view of seed box

Plate 1. Performance evaluation of tractor operated onion seed drill

Reference
Gireesh,B. Sujatha, G., Sunitha, B., Rajkiran, B. and Ramana, M.V., 2017, Modification and
Performance Evaluation of Animal Drawn Onion Seeder. Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci.,6(10):
2749-2763.
Grewal,R.S., 2014, development and evaluation of tractor operated planter for onion crop.
unpublished M.Tech Thesis, Punjab Agricultural University.
IS:7640, 1975, Test code for disc harrows ,FAD 21: Farm Implements and Machinery.Indian Standards
Institution. 1-23.
Kumar, S., Thakur, S. S. and Chandel, R., 2016, Design, development and field evaluation of raised
bed inclined plate planter for direct sowing of onion (allium cepa l.) seed on beds. Scientific
Journal Agricultural Engineering. 4:1-10.
Umamaheswarappa, P, Chandrappa, D. and Parashuram, C.,2018, Performance of onion (Allium cepa
L.) varieties for growth and yield parameters under central dry zone of Karnataka. Journal of
Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry, 1: 344-346

175
 Enabling food security through consumption of millets rather than
carbohydrate foods
Jayanth DR.1, Rajesh Kumar NK. 2,
1
Packing Team Leader, George Weston Foods, Sydney, Australia
2
Research Associate, COAE, GKVK, UAS, Bangalore, India
Abstract: Urbanisation and changes in present day lifestyle have made the current generation to opt
for consumption of more carbohydrates (cereals) rather than protein rich foods (millets) and leafy
vegetables. This is more likely to result in various ailments including diabetes and other problems like
obesity. The advantages of cultivation and consumption of millets are discussed herein.Today’s world
is facing agrarian as well as nutritional challenges. Agricultural lands with irrigation facilities have
been very highly exploited, and hence we need to focus on dry lands to further increase grain
production. Owing to low fertility, utilization of dry lands to produce sufficient quality grains is a
uphill challenge. Millets are seen as climate change compliant crops and score highly over other
grains like wheat and rice in terms of marginal growing conditions and high nutritional value. These
nutri-cereals are a rich source of vitamins, minerals, essential fatty acids, phyto-chemicals and
antioxidants that can help to eradicate the plethora of nutritional deficiency diseases. Millets
cultivation can keep dry lands productive and ensure future food and nutritional security.
Keywords : Millets, Food Security, Nutritional Value
Introduction: Advances in scientific knowledge and technological innovations have led mankind into
yet another stage of modern civilization. Application of novel research strategies into fundamental
and translational research has brought an all-round development. In agriculture, strategized
technological innovations, viz. development and selection of high yielding variety, use of synthetic
fertilizers and pesticides, mechanization and irrigation facilities, have resulted in sufficient availability
of food. Estimated global cereal production was 2605 million tons in 2016 and was forecasted to be
2597 million tons in 2017 [1]. Several short-sighted measures have enhanced productivity but have
undermined sustainability and are eroding the very capacity of resource base leading to nutrient
deficient saline soil and lowering water beds. In addition, changing climatic conditions have further
hastened the vulnerability of farmers towards declining crop production. Dry lands constitute 40% of
the global land surface and are home for about 1/3rd of the global population. These low fertile soils
are predicted to elevate up to 50–56% in 2100 AD, and 78% of dry land expansion is expected to
occur in developing countries [2, 3, 4]. According to the report of World Bank, hunger is a challenge
for 815 million people worldwide [5]. The spate of farmer’s suicides in an agriculture-based country
like India has reached to an average of 52 deaths/day, and reports of farmers selling their blood to
earn a livelihood in drought-hit region of the country depict the severity of the agrarian crisis [6].
Sustainable crop substitutes are needed to meet the world hunger (cereal demand) and to improve
income of farmers. Role of millets cannot be ignored for achieving sustainable means for nutritional
security (Fig. 1). International crops research institute for the semi-arid tropics (ICRISAT) is focusing
on increasing the productivity of millets and has included finger millet (Eleucine corcana) as sixth
mandatory crop [3, 4]. Millets abode vital nutrients and the protein content of millets grains are
considered to be equal or superior in comparison to wheat (Triticum aestivum), rice (Oryza sativa),
maize (Zea mays) and sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) grains [7]. The role of millets in designing the
modern foods like multigrain and gluten-free cereal products is well known [8]. Due to the richness of
millets in polyphenols and other biological active compounds, they are also considered to impart role
in lowering rate of fat absorption, slow release of sugars (low glycaemic index) and thus reducing risk
of heart disease, diabetes and high blood pressure. Due to increased awareness regarding the health
promoting profile of millets, inclination towards their consumption has been observed. Present
review envisages the agrarian requirements, nutritional information and health benefits imparted by
these grains. Review also explores the millet-based products made traditionally along with the latest
researches conducted worldwide.

176
 Fig. 1. Benefits of millets in a nutshell
Agrarian importance of millets: The demand of food will increase proportionately with growth in world
population. At present about 50% of world's total calorie intake is derived directly from cereals [9]. Rice,
wheat and maize have emerged as the major staple cereals with a lesser extent of sorghum and millets.
Sharma [10] reported that an increase in the areas of crops with intense water requirements like rice,
sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum) and cotton (Gossypium) has resulted in the increase in 0.009% in the
distance between the ground level and ground water table and this loss is approximately equivalent to a
loss of 7191 L of ground water per hectare. There is a lesser possibility of increasing the production of
major staple cereals as the world is already facing the challenges of increase in dry lands and deepening of
ground water level [3, 10]. According to the report of the National Rainfed Area Authority (NRAA) even
after realizing the full irrigation potential, about half of the net sown area will continue to remain rainfed
[11]. This alarms the need of shifting to the alternative of current cereal staples.
Millets cultivation can be a solution to this problem as these can grow on shallow, low fertile soils with a pH
of soil ranging from acidic 4.5 to basic soils with pH of 8.0 [12]. Millets can be a good alternative to wheat
especially on acidic soils. Rice is very sensitive to saline soils and has poor growth and yield on a soil having
salinity higher than 3dS/m [13]. On the other hand, millets like pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum) and
finger millet can grow up to a soil salinity of 11–12 dS/m. Millets have a low water requirement both in
terms of the growing period and overall water requirement during growth. The rainfall requirement of
certain millets like pearl millet and proso millet (Panicum miliaceum) is as low as 20 cm, which is several
folds lower than the rice, which requires an average rainfall of 120–140 cm [13]. Most of the millets mature
in 60–90 days after sowing which makes them a water saving crop. Barnyard millet (Echinochloa
frumentacea) has the least maturation time of 45–70 days among millets, which is half to the rice
maturation (120–140 days) time [14]. Millets fall under the group of C4 cereals. C4 cereals take more
carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and convert it to oxygen, have high efficiency of water use, require
low input and hence are more environment friendly. Thus, millets can help to phase out climatic
uncertainties, reducing atmospheric carbon dioxide, and can contribute in mitigating the climate change.
The major millets and their growing conditions in comparison to the staple cereals, i.e. rice and wheat, are
tabulated in Table 1. Scientific interventions in terms of the use of molecular biomarkers, sequence
information, creation of mapping populations and mutant have led to the development and release of high
yielding varieties of millets throughout the world [22, 29]. Newly developed hybrids are resistant to
diseases and has increased per hectare production as compared to their parent varieties [29, 30].

177
Table 1. Optimum agrarian conditions for major cereals and millets
Crop Scientific Optim Heig Temper pH Soil Rainfa Matu Refere
name um ht ature salinity ll rity nces
soil rang (dS/m) requir time
type e ed (days
)
Rice Oryza sativa Heavy Sea 21– 6.5 Less Range 100– [13]
to level 37 °C to than 100– 160
sandy up 8.5 3.0 dS/ 300 c
loam to m m
2500 Avera
m ge
120–
140 c
m
Whea Triticum Light Sea Range 6.0 6.0 dS/ Range 90– [15, 16]
t aestivum L. clay level 1.3– to m 30– 125
or to 35 °C 7.0 100 c
heavy 2500 Average m
loam m 15.5 °C
Sorgh Sorghum Clay Sea Range 5.0 4– 40– 90– [17, 18]
um bicolor loamy level 7–30 °C – 6 dS/m 100 c 120
soils to Average 8.0 m
to 3000 26–
shallo m 30 °C
w
soils
Pearl Pennisetum Loam Sea 30– 6.0 11– 20– 60– [19]
Millet glacum y level 34 °C – 12 dS/m 60 cm 70
soils, to *can 7.0 *yields
shallo 2700 grow up *c are
w m to 46 °C an economi
soils, gro cally
soils w well up
with up to ECe
clay, to 8dS/m
clay 8.0
loam pH
and
sandy
loam
textur
e
Finge Eleusine Rich Sea 26– 4.5 11– 50– 90– [20]
r coracana loam level 29 °C to 12 dS/m 60 cm 120
millet to to *lower 7.5
poor 2300 producti

178
 Crop Scientific Optim Heig Temper pH Soil Rainfa Matu Refere
name um ht ature salinity ll rity nces
soil rang (dS/m) requir time
type e ed (days
)
uplan m vity
d below
shallo 20 °C
w
soils
Proso Panicum Sandy 1200 20– 5.5 – 20– 60– [21]
millet miliaceum loam, – 30 °C to 50 cm 90
slightl 3500 6.5
y m
acidic, abov
saline, e
low sea
fertilit level
y soils
Foxtai Setaria Sandy Sea Range 5.5 6 dS/m 30– 75– [22, 23,
l italicaL. to level 5–35 °C – 70 cm 90 24]
Millet loamy to Average 7.0
soils 2000 16–
m 25 °C
Barny Echinochloa, Medi Sea Range 4.6 3– – 45– [25, 26]
ard E. um to level 15– – 5 dS/m 70
Millet frumentacea heavy to 33 °C 7.4
(Indian soils 2000 Average
barnyard m 27–
millet) and E. 33 °C
esculenta(Ja
panese
barnyard
millet),
Kodo Paspalum Fertile Up 25– – – 800– 100– [27]
millet scrobiculatu to to 27 °C 1200 140
mL.) margi 1500 mm
nal m
soils
Little Panicum – Up – – – – 80– [27, 28]
Millet sumatrense to 85
2100
m

Millets have abundant natural diversity, and the release of new hybrids increases this variation by several
folds. For example, pearl millet has approximately 140 species or subspecies belonging to the
genus Pennisetum [31] and further maintenance of the gene bank accessions has increased this number

179
to 65,400. The primary global collection of pearl millet is at ICRISAT with 33% of the world’s gene bank
accessions. The largest gene accessions for finger millet, i.e. approximately 27% of the world’s total
35,400 accessions, are maintained by Bureau for Plant Genetic Resources, India. Chinese Institute of Crop
Germplasm Resources (ICGR) maintains world’s 56% of the accessions of foxtail millet (Setaria italica),
while National Institute of Agrobiological Sciences in Japan maintains the largest proso millet accessions
collection with 33% of the world’s approximately 17,600 genebank accessions [32]. In addition to the
improvement in varieties, the advancements in the post-harvest operations of millets have eased their
processing. In past, due to the lack of suitable machinery, traditional methods like pounding, winnowing,
etc., were used for the decortication of millet grains. These methods were labour intensive, and hence,
the production of edible millets was limited [33]. Millet-specific threshers, decorticator, destoners and
polishers have been designed by intervention of government agencies as well as private companies. These
recent developments in post-harvest operations of millets have eased their processing and have paved
way for utilization of millets in the development of food products. The cultivation of millets can provide an
overall solution to the existing agrarian challenges and can prove a milestone in achieving United Nations
commitment to end malnutrition in all its forms by 2030 [34].
Nutritional importance: World is in the clinch of several health disorders and chronical diseases. As per
2016 Global Nutrition report, 44% population of 129 countries (countries with available data) experience
very serious levels of undernutrition, adult overweight and obesity [35]. A nutrient imbalanced diet is
responsible for most of these diseases. According to the estimates of United Nations Food and Agriculture
Organization, about 795 million people (10.9% of world population in 2015) were reported
undernourished. While on the other hand more than 1.9 billion (39% of world’s population) adults
≥ 18 years of age were overweight and further 13% were reported to be obese [36, 37]. The average body
mass index (BMI) of the world’s population was reported to be 24 kg/m2 in 2014 which is above the WHO
standards for optimum health (21 to 23 kg/m2) [38]. Obesity-related complications like cardiovascular
diseases and diabetes have already been declared as epidemic by the world health organization. India is
the home of world’s largest undernourished population. About 194.6 million people, i.e. 15.2% of total
population of India, are undernourished. According to the 2017 Global Hunger Index report, India ranked
100th among 119 countries. The score of India is even poorer than Nepal, Sri Lanka and Bangladesh [39].
Protein energy malnutrition (PEM) was reported to result in 4,69,000 deaths with 84,000 deaths from the
deficiency of other vital nutrients such as iron, iodine and vitamin A [40]. Obesity is also a major health
concern in India with the prevalence rate of 11% in men and 15% in women. Status of malnutrition in
world and India is presented in Table 2. Millets secure sixth position in terms of world agricultural
production of cereal grains and are still a staple food in many regions of world. These are rich source of
many vital nutrients and hence, promise an additional advantage for combating nutrient deficiencies in
the third world countries.
Macronutrients: Millets are nutritionally similar or superior to major cereal grains. The additional benefits
of the millets like gluten-free proteins, high fibre content, low glycaemic index and richness in bioactive
compounds made them a suitable health food [27]. The average carbohydrates content of millets varies
from 56.88 to 72.97 g/100 g. Least carbohydrate content has been reported in barnyard millet [8, 46]. The
protein content of all the millets is comparable to each other with an average protein content of 10 to
11%, except finger millet, which has been reported to contain protein in the range of 4.76 to 11.70 g/100 g
in different studies [47, 48, 49]. Finger millet protein is rich in essential amino acids like methionine, valine
and lysine, and of the total amino acids present, 44.7% are essential amino acids [50]. This content is
higher than the required 33.9% essential amino acids in FAO reference protein [51]. The mean value of
protein reported from different studies depicts that proso millet has the highest protein content among
millets (Table 3). The protein present in proso millet is comparable to wheat, but the amount of essential
amino acids like leucine, isoleucine and thiamine is much higher in proso millet. The lipid content of millets
as a group is comparable to that of wheat and rice (2.0% in wheat and 2.7% in rice) and ranges from 1.43
to 6 g/100 g. Among millets, the least lipid content has been reported in finger millet while the highest
lipid content has been reported in pearl millet [46, 49, 52].

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 Table 2. Status of malnutrition in world and India
Agencies/studies References
World
2 billion people suffer from micronutrient malnutrition United Nations [34, 35]
800 million people suffer from calorie deficiency International Children’s
2 million adults are overweight Emergency Fund,
One in 12 adults has type 2 diabetes International Food
159 million children under age 5 are stunted (too short Policy Research
for their age) Institute
50 million children under age 5 are wasted (Less
weight for their height)
41 million children under age 5 are overweight (More
weight for their height)
India
60 million children underweight (highest in world) World bank [41]
30% low birth weight babies
75% pre-school children suffer from iron deficiency
anaemia
85% districts have endemic iodine deficiency
35.7% of children under five are underweight; 58.4% of National Family Health [42]
children between 6 and 59 months are anaemic; 53% Survey 2015–2016
of (non-pregnant) women are anaemic;
Global hunger index score = 31.4 (serious hunger Global hunger index [39]
situation) 2017
21% of children in India suffers from wasting
Ranked 34th among leading countries with a
serious hunger situation
Ranked third behind only Afghanistan and Pakistan (In
south Asia)
17.3% stunted Rapid Survey on [43]
15.1% wasted Children 2013–2014
29.4% children underweight (subjects—pre-school
9.4% severely underweight children)
51 million people suffer from diabetes which is Kaveeshvar and [44]
expected to increase to 79.4 million by 2030 (the Cornwall
increasing consumption of highly polished rice grains
and decreasing consumption of coarse cereals
contributes to this trend)
18.5% children overweight Misra et al. [45]
5.3% children obese
Millets are richest source of fibres, i.e. crude fibre as well as dietary fibre. Barnyard millet is the richest
source of crude fibre with an average content of 12.8 g/100 g [8]. The highest dietary fibre content, i.e.
38% and 37%, has been reported to be in little millet (Panicum sumatrense) and kodo millet (Paspalum
scrobiculatum), respectively. This content is 785% higher than rice and wheat; this make millets low
glycaemic foods and hence a good choice for diabetic patients. In vitro studies of the soluble

181
polysaccharides of finger millet (arabinose and xylose mainly) have proved them to be potent prebiotics
and also possess wound dressing potential [53, 54]. This resistant starch contributes towards dietary fibre,
which acts as a prebiotic and hence enhances the health benefits of the millets [55]. Resistant starch also
helps in the production of desirable metabolites such as short-chain fatty acids in the colon, especially
butyrate, which helps to stabilize colonic cell proliferation as a preventive mechanism for colon cancer
[56]. Table 3gives the mean and standard deviation of the macronutrient content of millets as reported by
various researchers.
Table 3. Proximate composition of different millets (per 100 g) [7, 8, 46, 48, 57, 58, 59]
Millet Carbohydrates Protein Fat Crude Ash Calorific
type fibre value
Rice 82.86 ± 7.53 4.99 ± 1.38 1.90 ± 1.03 1.63 ± 0.42 0.99 ± 0.42 369 ± 27.82
Wheat 69.88 ± 1.66 13.78 ± 1.40 2.81 ± 0.18 1.77 ± 0.15 1.63 ± 0.26 438 ± 1.75
Sorghum 72.97 ± 2.25 10.82 ± 2.45 3.23 ± 1.60 1.97 ± 0.35 1.70 ± 0.66 329.0
Pearl 69.10 ± 1.52 11.4 ± 0.8 4.87 ± 0.12 2.0 ± 0.55 2.13 ± 0.21 363.0
millet
Foxtail 67.30 ± 5.70 11.34 ± 0.91 3.33 ± 0.76 8.23 ± 1.66 3.37 ± 0.12 352 ± 1.41
millet
Finger 71.52 ± 3.59 7.44 ± 0.87 1.43 ± 0.12 3.60 2.63 ± 0.06 334 ± 2.82
millet
Barnyard 56.88 ± 6.86 10.76 ± 1.11 3.53 ± 1.19 12.8 ± 2.4 4.30 ± 0.26 300.0
millet
Proso 67.09 ± 4.79 11.74 ± 0.86 3.09 ± 1.18 8.47 ± 3.4 2.73 ± 0.72 352.5 ± 1.62
millet
Kodo 63.82 ± 7.94 9.94 ± 1.6 3.03 ± 1.03 8.20 ± 2.3 2.83 ± 0.40 349.5 ± 4.95
millet
Micronutrients: The minerals and vitamins are known as micronutrients as they are required in very small
quantities. Minerals play an important role in the building of bones, clotting of blood, sending and
receiving signals, keeping normal heart beat, cell energy production, transportation of oxygen, metabolize
and synthesize fats and proteins, act as co-enzymes, provide immunity to the body and help nervous
system work properly [60]. The mineral content in millets ranges from 1.7 to 4.3 g/100 g, which is several
folds higher than the staple cereals like wheat (1.5%) and rice (0.6%). Calcium and iron deficiency is highly
prevalent in India [61], and a large chunk of adult population is suffering from osteoporosis. Calcium
content of finger millet is about eight times higher than wheat and being the richest source of calcium
(348 mg/100 g) it has the ability to prevent osteoporosis. Barnyard millet and pearl millet are the rich
source of iron, and their consumption can meet the iron requirement of pregnant women suffering from
anaemia. The iron content of barnyard millet is 17.47 mg/100 g which is only 10 mg lower than the
required daily value. Foxtail millet contains highest content of zinc (4.1 mg/100 g) among all millets and is
also a good source of iron (2.7 mg/100 g) [57]. These nutrients, i.e. zinc and iron, play an important role in
enhancing the immunity. Millets are also good source of β-carotene and B-vitamins especially riboflavin,
niacin and folic acid. The thiamine and niacin content of millets is comparable to that of rice and wheat.
The highest thiamine content in millets, i.e. 0.60 mg/100 g, is found in foxtail millet. Riboflavin content of
the millets is several folds higher than the staple cereals, and barnyard millet (4.20 mg/100 g) has the
highest content of riboflavin followed by foxtail millet (1.65 mg/100 g) and pearl millet (1.48 mg/100 g).
The detail of micronutrient content of millets has been discussed in Table 4. The incorporation of millets in
the diet can help to eradicate nutritional deficiencies. Platel [62] has proposed for the use of millet flour as

182
a vehicle for iron and zinc fortification in India.
Other health benefits: Sireesha et al. [66] has demonstrated the anti-hyperglycaemic and anti-lipidemic
activities of the aqueous extract of foxtail millet (Setaria italica) in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. In
the study, they reported the dose of 300 mg of Setaria italica seed aqueous extract per kilo gram (kg) body
weight produced a significant fall (70%) in blood glucose in diabetic rats after 6 h of administration of the
extract. They also found lower levels of triglycerides, total LDL (low-density lipoproteins) and VLDL (very
low-density lipoproteins) cholesterol and an increase in the levels of HDL (high-density lipoproteins)
cholesterol in diabetic treated rats compared to those in diabetic untreated rats which demonstrates the
hypolipidemic effect of aqueous extract. Choi et al. [67] studied the effect of dietary protein of Korean
foxtail millet and found its importance in increasing insulin sensitivity and cholesterol metabolism. A
remarkable reduction in insulin concentration of the rats fed with foxtail millet was demonstrated by this
experiment. Lee et al. [68] investigated the effect of millet consumption on lipid levels and C-reactive
protein concentration; it was found that hyperlipidemic rats fed with foxtail millet had decreased levels of
triglycerides, which was in contrast to its previous researches [67]. Levels of C reactive protein, which is an
indicator of inflammation, were also found to decrease in foxtail millet fed rats. Aqueous and ethanolic
extracts of kodo millet have been reported to produce a dose-dependent fall in fasting blood glucose [69].
Further millets are gluten free and might have anti-carcinogenic properties [65]. The health benefits of
millets in a nutshell are given in Table 6.
Table 6. Benefits of millets in a nutshell
Disease Functional factor Mechanism of action References
PEM Optimum carbohydrate Sustainable crop option in arid and [8]
and high quality protein semi-arid regions
Micronutrient High content of Iron, Inclusion of millets in diet [70, 71]
deficiencies iodine, zinc, calcium, Bio-fortification of staple cereals
magnesium and other
micronutrients
compared to other
cereals
Obesity Dietary fibre Controls release of carbohydrates [72]
Soluble fibre leads to highly viscous
intestinal contents that possess
gelling properties and could delay
the intestinal absorption of
carbohydrates
Low glycaemic index
Diabetes Dietary fibre Slow glucose release and low [72]
glycaemic load
Protein concentrates Seed coat phenolics act as inhibitors [71]
rich in antioxidants which decrease postprandial
hyperglycaemia by blocking the
action of complex carbohydrate
hydrolyzing enzymes (amylase,
alpha-glucosidase); increase in
adinopectin concentration may
improve insulin sensitivity
Cardiovascular Protein concentrate of Elevated levels of adinopectin which [67]
diseases foxtail millet protects cardiovascular tissues by:

183
Disease Functional factor Mechanism of action References
(1) Inhibition of pro-inflammatory
and hypertrophic response
(2) Stimulation of endothelial cell
responses
Administration of Reducing plasma triglycerides, LDL [68]
proso/foxtail millet through improved cholesterol
metabolism
Lower C reactive protein: a marker
of inflammation and a stronger
predictor of cardiovascular events in
clinical applications
Phenolic extracts from Kodo millet exhibited higher [63]
seven millet varieties inhibition to lipid peroxidation,
(kodo, finger proso, analogous to butylated
foxtail, little and pearl hydroxyanisole at 200 ppm
millet
Cancer Phenolic extracts from Inhibition of lipid peroxidation in [63]
seven millet varieties liposomes, singlet oxygen quenching
(kodo, finger proso, and inhibition of DNA scission
foxtail, little and pearl Millet extracts inhibited H-29 cell
millet proliferation in the range of 28–
100% after 4 days of administration
35 kDa protein FMBP FMBP, homologous to peroxidase [73]
extracted from foxtail suppress colon cancer cell growth
millet bran extract through:
(1) Induction of G1 phase arrest
(2) Loss of mitochondrial trans-
membrane potential resulting in
caspase-dependent apoptosis in
colon cancer cells
Inflammation Antioxidants: Enhances dermal wound healing [74]
and wound 50 g of finger millet per process in diabetes with oxidative
healing 100 g feed in diabetic stress-mediated modulation of
and non-diabetic rats inflammation
Administration of Lower C reactive protein [68]
proso/foxtail millet
Ageing Antioxidant: Inhibit glycation and cross-linking of [69]
Methanolic extract of collagen
finger millet Scavange free radicals in protection
against ageing
Anti-microbial Protein extracts, Anti-fungal and antibacterial activity: [75]
activity polyphenols active against Bacillus cereus,
Aspergillus niger

184
 Disease Functional factor Mechanism of action References
Seed coat phenolic Loss of fungal functionality by: [76]
extract (1) Oxidation of microbial
membranes and cell components by
the free radicals
(2) Inactivation of enzymes due to
irreversible complex formation with
nucleophilic amino acids
(3) Complex formation of phenolic
compounds with biopolymers such
as proteins, polysaccharides and
metal ions making them unavailable
to micro-organisms
Ocular diseases Polyphenols, flavanoids: (1) Direct scavenging of reactive [77, 78]
and disorders Wistar rats maintained oxygen species (ROS), anti-apoptotic
on 5% finger millet seed activity, and phase 2 induction
coat matter (SCM) for (2) Inhibiting nitric oxide (NO)
6 weeks production
(3) Inhibiting certain enzymes
responsible for the production of
superoxide anions (xanthine oxidase
and protein kinase C)
(4) Prevents the accumulation of
sorbitol by inhibiting aldose
reductase by non-competitive
inhibition and reduce the risk of
diabetes-induced cataract diseases
Coeliac Disease Protein of all millets Absence of gluten in millet protein [79]
prevents coeliac disease and related
complications
Effects of processing on millets: Processing of millets decreases the anti-nutritional factors in millets and
improves the bio-accessibility of nutrients. Many processing methods have been used traditionally like
roasting/popping, soaking, germination and fermentation [80]. All these methods have been reported to
have a significant impact on the nutritional value of the grain. Malting of millets improves access to
nutrients and has been reported to increase the bio-accessibility of iron by 300% and of manganese by
17% [81]. The anti-nutritional factors decreased significantly with an increase in germination time due to
hydrolytic activity of the enzyme phytase that increases during germination. The phytate content of
millets can be reduced by germination as during the germination the hydrolysis of phytate phosphorus
into inositol monophosphate takes place which contributes to the decrease in phytic acid. The tannins are
also leached during soaking and germination of grains, and hence it results in the reduction in tannins
[82, 83]. Boiling and pressure cooking also result in reduction in tannins. Fermentation is known to reduce
the anti-nutritional factors and hence improves the protein digestibility. Irradiation has also shown
inhibitory effect against anti-nutrients, and it enhances the protein digestibility [84]. Extrusion cooking or
high temperature short time (HTST) processing has been reported to reduce anti-nutrients like phytates,
tannins and increase bioavailability of minerals [52].
Millet-based contemporary foods: Nutritional quality and drought-resistant properties of millets have
drawn attention of various research agencies all over the world and have increased focus to improve the
millet varieties and to enhance their use in processed food products. A schematic diagram for the

185
preparation of composite foods from millets is shown in Fig. 2. Some of the research work carried on the
utilization of millet crops is discussed in this section.

Conclusions
Millets can easily thrive in extreme conditions like drought, and some wild varieties can even prevail
in flooded areas and swampy grounds. These have low glycaemic index, abode gluten-free protein
and are rich in minerals (calcium, iron, copper, magnesium, etc.), B-vitamins and antioxidants. These
extraordinary traits make them nutritious and climate change compliant crops. These can not only
serve as an income crop for farmers but also improve the health of the community as a whole.
Existing limitations, i.e. the presence of anti-nutritional factors and low sensory acceptability of
millet-based products, can be overcome by the scientific interventions. The anti-nutritional factors
can be inactivated by processing methods like cooking, roasting, germination and fermentation. The
sensory acceptability of millet-based products can be enhanced by mixing millet flours with other
flours of high acceptability and preparing composite foods. The use of millets in
commercial/packaged food will encourage farmers to grow millets and will open new opportunities
and revitalize the farmers. The inclusion of millet-based foods in international, national and state-
level feeding programs will help to overcome the existing nutrient deficiencies of protein, calcium
and iron in developing countries.

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 Spray deposition studies in cotton
Jayashree G.C.1, Anantha Krishnan D. and R. Thiyagarajan
Assistant Professor, (Farm Machinery), Professor (Retired), (Farm Machinery)
Assistant Professor, (Farm Machinery)
College of Agricultural Engineering, GKVK, UAS, Bangalore-560024
Email : jayashreegc@gmail.com
Abstract: Pesticides are widely used in agriculture for the management of pests (weeds, insects or
pathogens). They are generally applied as a spray to cover the target (e.g. an insect, leaf surfaces or
part of a plant) with pesticide-laden droplets. Spray may, however, be lost to non-target areas within
a crop through deposition on to the soil or on non-target plant surfaces. The plant architecture of the
crop and weed species can influence the distribution of the spray droplets. The action of wind may
also result in spray moving away from the spray area. By selecting and using spray equipment and
techniques that maximise deposition of pesticides onto the target it is possible to both maximise the
effectiveness of the pesticide application and reduce the amount of off-target deposition and
damage. Hence it is neccessary to measure the distribution of spray deposits in the leaves of
different crop canopies in relation to droplet size, droplet trajectory, spray application volume and
canopy structure. A study on the deposition of spray chemicals on cotton crop was conducted using
three methods namely i) Gravimetry method ii) Leaf Area Index and iii) Quechers method and the
efficiencies of the methods in the determination of the effective volume of spray chemicals required
for unit cropped area was determined.
Keywords: Spray Deposition, Leaf Area Index, Quechers Method
Introduction
Traditional pesticide application is intended to deliver chemicals for the complete crop area, but
increasing concern about environmental contamination in recent decades has resulted in
considerable effort being devoted for developing new methods to control pesticide application to
target area or create new types of bio-pesticide, in order to promote crop yield and minimize
damage to the environment. Pesticide reduction and biological efficacy depend on the accuracy of
the equipment and controller response time. Pesticides are widely used in agriculture for the
management of pests (weeds, insects or pathogens). They are generally applied as a spray to cover
the target (e.g. an insect, leaf surfaces or part of a plant) with pesticide-laden droplets. Spray may,
however, be lost to non-target areas within a crop through deposition on to the soil or on non-target
plant surfaces. The plant architecture of the crop and weed species can influence the distribution of
the spray droplets. The action of wind may also result in spray moving away from the spray area. By
selecting and using spray equipment and techniques that maximize deposition of pesticides onto the
target it is possible to both maximize the effectiveness of the pesticide application and reduce the
amount of off-target deposition and damage. The purpose of this study was to measure the
distribution of spray deposits in the leaves of different crop canopies in relation to droplet size,
droplet trajectory, spray application volume and canopy structure. As well as providing useful
information on the proportion of spray reaching the intended target, this will provide data that
subsequently can be used to improve models of spray interception by plant canopies. Stermer et al.
(1988) compared several artificial targets to collect spray droplets, and concluded that depositions
on collectors that most nearly modeled the live plants in physical size, orientation and shape had the
highest correlation with deposits on the plant leaves. They found that water-sensitive cards could
provide useful information on uniformity of swath and coverage and relative droplet size.
Monofilament has also been used to collect spray deposit and a dual-side leaf washer was developed
to elute spray deposit separately from either surface of cotton leaves (Carlton, 1992a, b). Richardson
and Newton (2000) measured Spray deposition within plant canopies of bracken fern (Pteridium
aquilinum) and greenleaf manzanita (Arctostaphylos patula) following ground application of a spray
mixture containing water, a fluorescent tracer and surfactant. A high proportion of spray (35-38 %)
reached the ground through manzanita canopies whereas only 1-13 % reached the ground through a

193
bracken canopy. Spray deposition was closely linked to the quantity of foliage projected on a plane
normal to the trajectory of droplets passing through the canopy. Fritz et al., (2009) evaluated
Deposition and droplet sizing characterization of a laboratory spray table Small- scale laboratory
studies to assess the various materials on the various crops and pests at varying rates and spray
spectra can identify promising combinations for field evaluation. Sonnentag et al., (2007) evaluated
using direct and indirect measurements of leaf area index to characterize the shrub canopy in an
ombrotrophic peatland Leaf area index (LAI) is an important ecological parameter that characterizes
the interface between a vegetation canopy and the atmosphere. Indirect measurements of LAI using
optical techniques such as the LAI-2000 plant canopy analyzer have been routinely conducted for
different vegetation canopies including forests and agricultural crops.
Materials and Methods
Determination of size of spray droplets: The deposition of spray chemical on the plant canopy
depends on the size of spray droplets and distribution of spray droplets. Droplet size ranging
between 100 and 200 µ provides appreciable deposition on plants. Droplets below 100 µ size are
susceptible to wing resulting in loss of chemicals through drift. Droplets above 200 µ size are large
enough to be subjected to free flow under the action of gravitational force without being deposited
on the plant canopy. The droplet size depends mainly on the pressure of application. Hence, the
pressure of application needs to be optimized to atomize the spray liquid to a droplet size of 100 to
200 µ, for conducting the spray deposition studies. The droplet size was determined by measuring
the diameter of circles formed by droplet deposition on white photographic paper. Methylene blue
solution was used as the dye solution, at a concentration of 10 g l-1. The photographic paper was cut
into 70 X 70 mm size. The photographic paper was kept on a horizontal surface directly below the
nozzle. The target was enclosed in a ring and covered by a top sheet. The nozzle was made to spray
at different nozzle pressure, and top cover was momentarily opened and closed, so that the samples
obtained were allowed to dry without disturbance. The samples were analyzed by using image
analysis software. The images were captured using digital photo micrographic equipment then the
droplet images were digitalized and transferred for analysis to personnel computer. The image
analysis software developed by using MATLAB was used to study the samples collected with respect
to Volume Mean Diameter (VMD), Numeric Mean Diameter (NMD), VMD /NMD ratio, applied
volume and percent area covered and the results were recorded.
Volume Mean Diameter (VMD): Volume Mean Diameter (VMD) is the diameter of spray droplet
which divides the volume of the spray into two equal halves. In other words, it is the diameter of the
spray droplet, which divides the droplet spectrum into two halves where the total volume of spray
droplet, which is smaller in size, will equal the total volume of spray droplets which are larger in size.
Numeric Mean Diameter (NMD): is the average diameter of the droplet, which divides the number
of droplets into two equal halves. In other words it is the diameter of the spray droplet, which
divides the droplet spectrum into two halves. Where the total number of spray droplets, which are
smaller in size, will equal the number of spray droplets which are larger in size.
VMD/NMD ratio: VMD/NMD ratio is a factor used for indicating of breadth of the spectra. The
VMD/NMD ratio was calculated for results obtained in the droplet size measurements.
Determination of quantity of spray deposition: There are two methods commonly used for the
determination of the quantity of spray deposition namely,
i. Destructive method and,
ii. Non destructive method.
In destructive method (crude method), the plants are totally uprooted from the field and
taken to the laboratory for further study. Gravimetry method was used for the quantification of the
spray deposits. In non destructive method, the observations are recorded either in the field itself or
by collecting representative samples of plant parts, preferably leaves and analyzing in the laboratory.
Destructive method (Gravimetry method): In this method, five plants were selected randomly in the
field and uprooted and roots were washed to remove soil particles. The weight of the plant was
measured using electronic balance. Then the plant was clamped vertically in a stand to simulate the

194
field condition and prophenophos at a concentration of 3.5ml/lit was sprayed on the plant in the
laboratory condition (Plate 2). The plant was shaken lightly to remove any free chemical on the plant
and the weight of the plant with spray deposition was determined. The weight of chemical deposited
on the plant was calculated as detailed below.
W=W2-W1
where,
W = Weight of spray deposition, g
W1 = Weight of plant before spraying, g
W2 = Weight of plant after spraying, g
Fig 1. Cotton plant is clamped in a stand for spraying in laboratory setup

Leaf Area Index: Leaf Area Index (LAI) is an important structural property of crop canopy. LAI is
defined as the ratio of total upper leaf surface of vegetation divided by the surface area of the land
on which the vegetation grows. LAI is used to predict the photosynthesis capacity of a crop and as a
reference tool for crop growth. Leaf Area Index can be measured by two methods; they are direct
measurement method and indirect measurement method.
Direct Measurement: Direct measurements of LAI are considered to be the most accurate but all
direct measurements have the disadvantage of being very time consuming; they are two-step
processes consisting of leaf collection by either harvesting (e.g., destructive sampling) or non-
harvesting (e.g., litter traps) methods, and subsequent leaf area calculation based on either
planimetric (e.g., scanning planimeter LI-3000, LICOR, Lincoln, NE, USA) or gravimetric (e.g.,
predetermined green leaf area-to-dry weight-ratios) methods (Jonckheere et al., 2004).
Five plants were selected randomly in the field and twenty leaves in each plant at different heights
were plucked. The maximum length and width of the leaves were measured. The area of the
corresponding leaves were measured using a Leaf Area Meter and tabulated. A linear relation
between the length, width and area of leaves was established by regression analysis.

Fig.2. Leaf area meter for measuring leaf area

Quechers method
Sample leaves of 50 to 100 g were collected from the same plants used in the gravimetry method at
random after 5 minutes of spray at different height of plants and taken for analysis by quenchers
method. The sample leaves of 50 to 100 g were also taken from the unsprayed plants in the field for
comparison. The sample leaves were blended separately. 10 g of sample leaves was taken in 50 ml
centrifuge tube. The sample was mixed with 20 ml ethyl acetate + 4 g magnesium sulphate + 1 g
sodium chloride. After the addition, the mixture was stirred well at 10000 rpm for10 min in
centrifuge. Four ml of supernatants was taken from the extract of the sample in 30 ml centrifuge
tube with screw type cap and mixed with 100 mg primary and secondary amine + 600 mg magnesium
sulphate and shaken well for 2 min at 500 rpm for 5 min in centrifuge. One ml of hexane was added
to that tube, rinsed well and transferred to the Injection vial for analysis in Gas Chromatography
(GC) and Gas Chromatography Mass Spectrometry (GCMS). The spray deposition on leaves was
calculated by using Quechers formula given below.
Sample area Nanagramo standard Final volume of entract
Residue in ppm  X X
Standard area Weight of sample Injected volume of entract

195
Results and Discussion
Determination of spray droplet size:- Volume Mean Diameter (VMD): Images of the deposits on
photographic paper are shown in Plate 1. The results on Volume Mean Diameter (VMD), Numeric
Mean Diameter (NMD), VMD /NMD ratio, applied volume and percent area covered were analysed
and graphically represented in Fig.1, Fig.2 and Fig. 3.

Fig.3. Spray droplets on photo sheet

It was observed from the Fig 1 that, as the pressure increased the VMD is decreased. At a pressure of
1.0 MPa, the VMD is high and observed as medium spray. At pressure 0.15 to 0.4 MPa VMD is
maintained in a significant range and classified as fine spray.
VMD/NMD ratio: The value of VMD/NMD recorded almost nearer to 1.0 as presented in Fig 2. At
pressure 0.1 MPa VMD/NMD ratios is 1.92. For the pressure range of 0.15 MPa to 0.4 MPa the
droplet spectrum was uniform. The VMD/NMD ratio arrived at pressure range 0.15 to 0.4 MPa
pressures are nearly 1.0 which is classified as ideal (Senthil Kumar, 1995).
2.5

350
Volume Mean Diameter

2
VMD/NMD ratio

300
250 1.5
200
1
150
100 0.5
50
0
0
0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4
0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4
Pressure, MPa
Pressure, MPa

Fig.4 Effect of pressure on VMD Fig.5 Effect of pressure on VMD/NMD ratio

0.21
Applied volume (micro

0.2

0.19
liter/cm2)

0.18

0.17

0.16

0.15
0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4
Pressure, MPa

Fig.6. Effect of pressure on applied volume

Applied volume: It is observed that applied volume is less in lower pressures and uniformity is
maintained in all pressures except at 0.1 MPa. The applied volume measured in pressure range 0.15
to 0.4 MPa is uniform as presented in Fig. 3.
Determination of quantity of spray deposition:
Gravimetry method (Crude method): Number of leaves and plant weight before and after spraying
and the calculated amount of spray deposition were presented in table1.
Table 1. Plant parameters and spray deposition
S.No Total number of Weight of the sample before Weight of the sample Amount of spray
Plant No
leaves spraying(g) after spraying(g) deposited(g)
1 P1 30 338 78 42000
2 P2 54 734 116 91000
3 P3 28 283 66 35000
4 P4 30 283 68 35000
5 P5 21 340 46 42000

196
Leaf Area Index
The length, width and area of leaves were recorded and a mathematical model was
developed by regression analysis correlating the area, length and width of the plant.
CORRELATION MATRIX
AREA LENGTH WIDTH

AREA 1.000 0.976** 0.969**

LENGTH 0.976 1.000 0.991**
WIDTH 0.969 0.991 1.000

REGRESSION EQUATION: Y = -36.93 + 10 (LENGTH) + 1 (WIDTH)

COEFFICIENT STANDARD ERROR T-TEST
LENGTH 10.4028506 3.18517294 3.27**
WIDTH 1.21133769 2.70791116 0.45ns
Applying the above relation the total canopy area of the crop can be determined by
multiplying with the number of leaves per plant and the plant population per unit area and
accordingly the amount of chemical actually deposited on the plants can be determined.
Quechers method
The deposition of chemical on plant is calculated using the Quechers formula and the results
were tabulated in table 2.
Sample area Nanagramo standard Final volume of entract
Residue in ppm  X X
Standard area Weight of sample Injected volume of entract
Sample area = 10764905
Standard Area = 434208
Sample weight =1g
Final volume of sample = 5 ml
Injected volume = 1 µl
Standard Concentration = 1 ppm

Table 2. Amount of spray deposition

Weight of the sample Amount of spray
S.No Plant No
plant (g) deposited(g)
1 P1 338 41912
2 P2 734 91016
3 P3 283 35092
4 P4 283 35092
5 P5 340 42160
Conclusion
It is found that the quantity of chemical deposited as calculated by quechers method and
gravimetry method is almost same. Hence the quenchers method can be adopted to find the amount
of chemical deposited without destroying them as in case of gravimetry method. The comparisons
between the gravimetry method quechers method are given in table 3. Also leaf area calculated
using the mathematical model Y= -36.93 + 10 (LENGTH) + 1 (WIDTH) for cotton crop from which the
vegetative area per unit land area can be determined and the amount of chemical to be sprayed on
the target can be determined based on the recommended dose.

197
Table 3. comparisons between the gravimetry method quechers method
Quantity of chemical deposited
S.No Plant No
Gravimetry method (ppm) Quechers method (ppm)
1 P1 42000 41912
2 P2 91000 91016
3 P3 35000 35092
4 P4 35000 35092
5 P5 42000 42160

References
1. Richardson.B and M,Newton (2000). Spray deposition within plant canopies. New Zealand Plant
Protection 53:248-252.
2. Senthil Kumar, T. 1995. Studies on hydraulic energy nozzles for orchard spraying. ME Thesis, Dept. of
Farm Machinery, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore.
3. Dufrene, E., and N. Breda. 1995. Estimation of deciduous forest leaf area index using direct and
indirect methods. Oecologia 104:156–162.
4. Gower, S. T., and J. M. Norman. 1991. Rapid estimation of leaf rea index in conifer and broad-leaf
plantations. Ecology 72:1896–1900.
5. Hicks, S., and R. Lascano. 1995. Estimation of leaf area index for cotton canopies using the LI-COR
LAI 2000 plant canopy analyser. Agronomy Journal 87:458–464.
6. Norman, J.,Welles, J., 1991. Instruments for indirect measurements of canopy architecture.
Agron. J. 82, 818–825.

198
 Optimization of process parameters of spray drying for production of
pineapple juice powder
Abhilasha K.R., Suresha B., Babu Rajaram Mohan Ray, Mohith Kumar G.V. and Ramachandra M.
College of Agricultural Engineering, University of Agricultural Sciences, GKVK, Bengaluru-560065
Abstract: A study was conducted to produce spray dried pineapple juice powder using two types of
carrier materials (Maltodextrin and Gum Arabic) at four concentrations (10, 15, 20 and 25%) and
inlet air temperatures (140, 150, 160 and 170°C). The effect of these different process parameters on
the physico-chemical properties of the powder namely moisture content, pH, loose bulk density,
tapped bulk density, Carr’s Index, Hausner Ratio, solubility index and colour were studied. The results
showed that the variations in the processing parameters had a significant effect (p<0.05) on the
properties of the powder. Optimization was determined using general factorial methodology
(Experimental Design 7.7.0 software). The results indicated that the optimum quality powder was
obtained for the juice with Maltodextrin at 10 per cent and dried at 170°C.The properties of the
optimum quality powder were: moisture content, 3.16 per cent; pH, 3.60; loose bulk density, 0.47
g/cc; tapped bulk density, 0.61 g/cc; Hausner ratio, 1.30; Carr’s index, 23.10 per cent; solubility,
91.62 per cent; and colour, 91.03 (L*), 1.35 (a*), 22.24 (b*), respectively. The average moisture
content of the optimized spray dried pineapple juice powder was found to be 3.27 per cent (w.b.)
and is less than 5 per cent of moisture content and could be classified as microbiologically safe and
can be stored for long-term.
Introduction
Pineapple (Ananascomosus L) is rich in carbohydrates, fibers, vitamins (Vitamin A, B1, B2, B3, B5 and
C) and minerals (Ca, P, Fe, Na and K). It belongs to the family Bromeliaceae and originated from
South America. Pineapple is an important tropical fruit acquiring a third position in the production of
fruits in the world, after bananas and citrus. Pineapples are consumed as a fresh fruit as well as in a
processed form. Main processed products of pineapples are canned slices, squash, jam and jelly
(Bose et al., 2005). Pineapple juice is preferred by the consumers due to its attractive aroma, flavor
and health benefits. Spray drying technique is extensively used in food industries for the
transformation of wide-range of juices into powder form. Spray drying results in powders of good
quality by retaining nutritive values. Spray drying and storage of fruit juice powders have stickiness,
hygroscopicity and low solubility problems due to the presence of low-molecular-weight sugars have
low glass transition temperatures (Tg). These problems can be avoided by adding carrier or wall
material to the feed solution before the atomization. Carrier materials are food additives which have
a high molecular weight which helps to increase the product glass transition temperatures (Tg). In the
fruit juice spray drying, Maltodextrin and Gum Arabic are used as carrier agents because of their high
solubility and low viscosity, which facilitates easy spray drying. The quality parameters of the spray
dried powder such as moisture content, bulk density, flowability, solubility index and color are mainly
depends on the spray drying parameters such as inlet air temperature, air flow rate, feed flow rate,
atomization speed, type of carrier materials and their concentration (Cheginiet al., 2008).
Keeping the above facts in mind, the objective of present study was optimization of spray drying
parameters (Inlet drying air temperature, carrier materials and their concentration)for production of
desire quality pineapple juice powder.
Materials and Methods
Preparation of juice and Spray drying process: Fresh pineapples (Ananascomosus) were selected
according to the similar size, ripeness, colour and freshness and were procured from the local
market, Bengaluru, India. Fruits were washed with water and peeled to removethe outer skin and cut
into small slices using stainless steel knife. The sliced fruitswere made into fine pulp using a food
blender and filtered through a folded muslin cloth. Filtered pineapple juice was mixed with different
concentration (10, 15, 20 and 25 per cent) of pre calculated carrier materials like Maltodextrin (MD)
(Himedia, Mumbai) and Gum Arabic (GA) (Fisher Scientific,Bengalore) separately with at a speed of
200 rpm for 10 min. using a magnetic stirrer.

199
The prepared samples with different carrier materials at various concentrations were spray dried
using Tall Type Spray dryer (Model: S M Scientech, Kolkata).The sample was fed through a peristaltic
pump with feed pump rate of 16 rpm. The spray drying was carried out at various inlet drying
temperatures of 140, 150, 160 and 170 °C, pressure of 2 bar and blower rate of 2400 rpm. The
different powders were collected from the collecting chamber and cyclone separator were sealed air
tightly in aluminum foil pouches and stored at 4ºC until further analysis.
Moisture content: The moisture content of samples weredetermined using oven method (AOAC,
2000). Five gram of sample was dried at 100±2°C for 5 h in hot air oven until a constant weight was
obtained.
Bulk density: The Loose and Tapped bulk density of powders were measured according to the
procedure described by Caparinoet al. (2012) and Lebrun et al. (2012). Determination of loose bulk
densityof samples was carried out by adding 2 g of powder into an empty 10 mL graduated cylinder
and note down the volume. The loose density is calculated by the following formula:

After observing the initial volume, the cylinder was mechanically tapped, and volume was
recorded until reached to constant volume and this volume is called as tapped powder volume. The
tapped density is calculated by the following formula.

Flowability and Cohesiveness: The spray dried pineapple juice powders were evaluated for their
flowability and cohesiveness in terms of Carr’s Index (CI) and Hausner Ratio (HR), respectively and
calculated according to formula given by Olayemiet al. (2008).

pH:A digital pH meter (Model: MICROPRO, Labmate) was used to measure the pH of samples at 25°C.
Solubility Index:The solubility of the samples was measured according to the method reported by
Zhang et al. (2013). One gram of juice powder was added to10 ml distilled water (30±2°C). The
mixture was left to operate at high velocity for 5 minutes. An aliquot of supernatant was then
transferred and placed to a pre-weight petri dish and dried immediately in an oven at
105ºC for 2 h. The solubility percentage was calculated by the weight difference.
Table 1 Specifications for Carr’s Index and Hausner Ratio
Sl. No Flowability Carr’s Index (%) Hausner Ratio
1 Excellent 0-10 1.00-1.11
2 Good 11-15 1.12-1.18
3 Fair 16-20 1.19-1.25
4 Possible 21-25 1.26-1.34
5 Poor 26-30 1.35-1.45
6 Very poor 32-37 1.46-1.59
7 Very very poor >38 >1.60
Source: Lebrun et al. (2012)
Colour: Bench-top spectrophotometer (Model: Konica Minolta; spectrophotometer CM-5) was used
for the measurement of colour of pineapple juice powder (Fonseca et al., 2011). The 3-dimensional
scale L*, a* and b* was used. The L* is the lightness coefficient, a* represents greenness and redness
and b* represents yellowness and blueness.
Statistical analysis
The analysis of variance (ANOVA) and least significant difference at p < 0.05 was calculated using the
Design Expert software version 7.7.0 (Statease Inc., Minneapolis, USA). The data were expressed as
mean±SD.

200
Optimization process
The general factorial methodology was used for the optimization of the multiple depended variables
using Design Expert software version 7.7.0(Statease Inc., Minneapolis, USA). The values of all the
responses at operating conditions were converted to a desirability function. The desirability values of
the minimum and maximum were configured as 0 and 1, respectively. The goals for each
independent variables and response were chosen, based on desired characteristics of pineapple juice
powder (Table 5).
Results and Discussion
Moisture content: The moisture content of the spray dried pineapple juice powder was significantly
decreased by increasing in the inlet drying temperature mainly due to the greater temperature
difference between the drying medium and the particles, which provides the driving force for
moisture removal (Goula and Adamopoulos, 2010).The moisture content was found to be lowest
using MD as carrier material (Table 3). A similar result was reported by Ferrari et al. (2012). At higher
concentration, moisture content of powder was decreased. It is mainly due to the increase of total
solid content in the feed solution and decrease in water content for evaporation (Kha et al., 2010).
Bulk density: The loose and tapped bulk density was found lowest using MD as coating material
(Table 3). MD may cause an increase in the volume of air trapped in the particles (Goula and
Adamopoulos, 2010). Statistical analysis revealed that interaction of carrier materials and inlet
temperature as well as interaction of all spray drying variable had non-significant (p>0.05) effect on
the density of powder (Table 2). The bulk density of the powder decreased when the inlet air
temperature increased. This could be due to the faster evaporation and more porous structure or
fragmented structure of the dried powder which is implying a lower shrinkage of the droplets and
giving lower density of the powder (Fazaeliet al., 2012; Karaaslan and Dalgic, 2014).
Flowability and cohesiveness: In terms of handling properties, the spray dried pineapple juice
powder had similar flow characteristics for all treatments in the present study and were considered
as “possible” and “fair” powders by their CI and HR given in Table 3 as classified in Table 1. From the
results, it can be noticed that the CI and HR were found lowest using MD as carrier material and
which indicates their better flowability. This may be due to lower moisture content of powder using
MD as a carrier material (Kim et al., 2009).
pH: Statistical analysis (Table 2) revealed that the pH of spray dried pineapple juice powder was
significantly affected by the carrier materials and their concentrations, inlet air temperature as well
as interaction of spray drying variables (p˂0.05). It was evident from the result that pH was found
lowest in the powder with MD as coating material. The obtained result indicates that the pH value
was in the range of 3.55-4.06, which means all the treatments are in high acidic range (Table 4).
Shruthi (2017) also observed similar results for microencapsulated Roselle anthocyanin extract.
Solubility index: From the results, it could be seen that solubility of the powder increased when the
inlet air temperature and carrier material increased (Table 3). This could be due to the effect of inlet
air temperature on residual moisture content(Karaaslan and Dalgic, 2014). The solubility was found
highest using MD as a coating material (Table 5). MD of different dextrose equivalent (DE) are
commonly used as carrier material by its high water solubility, low viscosity, low sugar content and
their solutions are colourless(Robert et al., 2010).
Colourvalue: The colour values were expressed by L*, a* and b* values corresponding to lightness,
redness and yellowness are represented in the table 4. The GA added powders were found the
darkest one which could be related to the original colour of GA which is cream rather than white as
compared to the Md. GA includes different sugars along with arabinogalacto-protien complex
(Mahendran et al., 2008), which possibly made it more sensitive to the non-enzymatic browning
reaction during spray drying. The high concentration of MD resulted in whiteness of the powder. The
result revealed that a* and b* values of juice powder were decreased with increase in concentration
of carrier materials. Similar result was reported by Shruthi (2017). Increased in the inlet air
temperature resulted in decrease in L* and b* value and Increase in a* valueof the powder. It means
the colour of the powders become darker at higher inlet air temperature. It may be results of some

201
non-enzymatic browning reaction such as caramelization and maillard reactions during the spray
drying (Ferrari et al., 2012). But, b* values of pineapple juice powder was slightly decreased at 150°C
and again increased with increase in the inlet air temperature at different MD concentrations
Table 2 : Mean squares from analysis of variance of physic-chemical properties of the spray-dried
pineapple juice powder
Moistur Colour
Source of Solubilit
df e pH LBD TBD HR CI
variance y
content
L* a* b*
*
A-Carrier 0.850 0.016* 0.022* 0.000 NS 214.81* 216.380
1 0.4** * NS 1.300 10.72** 71.360**
Material * * * **

B-Carrier *
0.066 0.023* 0.016* 0.015 71.20* 114.43* 25.040*
Material 3 1.92** * 6.81** 41.240**
* * ** * * *
Concentration

*
C-Inlet air 0.003 0.030* 0.019* 0.032 145.05 174.72*
3 3.65 * 9.780** 1.61** 3.430**
temperature * * ** ** *
*
NS 0.005 0.002* 0.001* 0.017 77.100
AB 3 0.023 * 3.65** 4.800** 1.1** 7.950**
* * ** **
* N
NS 0.006 0.000 0.001* 0.004 14.480
AC 3 0.038 * S NS NS 2.73** 0.850** 0.19** 21.470**
*

*
0.003 0.002* 0.001* 0.009 40.360
BC 9 0.32** * 7.83** 2.260** 0.096** 0.920**
* * ** **
* N
NS 0.004 0.001 0.001* 0.004 16.650
ABC 9 0.031 * S NS NS 7.8** 2.670** 0.18** 0.670**
*

3
Pure Error 0.021 0.001 0.000 0.000 0.003 9.500 0.32 0.002 0.0008 0.001
2

NS
, nonsignificant (P > 0.05): **, significant at P < 0.05: df, Degrees of freedom.
LBD, Loose Bulk Density: TBD, Tapped Bulk Density: HR, Hausner Ratio: CI, carr’s Index

202
 Table 3 Effect of inlet air temperatures, carrier materials and their concentration on moisture
content, tapped bulk density, loose bulk density, Carr’s Index, Hausner ratio of spray
dried pineapple juice powder

Inlet air
Paramete Maltodextrin (%) Gum Arabic (%)
temperat
r
ure (°C)
10 15 20 25 10 15 20 25
3.58±0.37 4.22±0.01 3.92±0.06 5.19±0.09
140 5.31±0.153 3.62±0.058 4.40±0.053 3.94±0.043
7 9 0 5
Moisture 3.34±0.14 3.95±0.07 3.81±0.15 4.66±0.06
150 4.07±0.071 3.52±0.366 4.19±0.157 3.87±0.077
content 1 4 1 8
(%) 3.13±0.03 3.57±0.15 3.51±0.01 3.87±0.07
160 3.45±0.100 3.31±0.390 3.53±0.162 3.67±0.044
2 5 8 6
3.04±0.11 3.15±0.04 2.93±0.05 3.47±0.01
170 3.27±0.128 3.12±0.059 3.22±0.033 3.23±0.053
6 3 5 1
0.62±0.01 0.63±0.01 0.65±0.00 0.73±0.00
140 0.72±0.009 0.73±0.025 0.70±0.007 0.63±0.026
1 2 6 5
Tapped 0.61±0.00 0.61±0.01 0.61±0.00 0.72±0.01
150 0.70±0.008 0.63±0.005 0.71±0.003 0.63±0.024
bulk 4 5 5 3
density 0.60±0.01 0.60±0.00 0.58±0.00 0.69±0.00
160 0.65±0.030 0.63±0.006 0.66±0.016 0.64±0.023
(g/cc) 2 9 2 7
0.60±0.00 0.59±0.00 0.54±0.00 0.63±0.00
170 0.62±0.020 0.60±0.007 0.60±0.002 0.58±0.002
7 5 8 9
0.50±0.01 0.59±0.00 0.53±0.00 0.65±0.00
140 0.60±0.011 0.55±0.009 0.62±0.013 0.53±0.052
2 6 4 3
Loose 0.48±0.01 0.49±0.00 0.46±0.01 0.65±0.00
150 0.55±0.003 0.49±0.003 0.52±0.037 0.48±0.002
bulk 1 8 2 3
density 0.47±0.00 0.48±0.02 0.45±0.01 0.56±0.07
160 0.50±0.002 0.48±0.027 0.50±0.036 0.48±0.007
(g/cc) 8 2 0 5
0.47±0.00 0.44±0.01 0.43±0.00 0.52±0.00
170 0.48±0.012 0.45±0.007 0.49±0.04 0.46±0.020
6 0 7 1
16.79±0.42 19.38±0.4 6.56±0.36 18.54±0.4 12.06±0.4 24.52±0.43 11.66±0.35 15.97±0.40
140
8 18 5 12 73 7 5 8
21.01±0.27 21.61±0.0 19.36±0.3 24.86±0.2 10.45±0.1 22.76±0.15 27.08±0.28 24.02±0.37
150
Carr’s 8 75 06 50 84 6 6 5
index (%) 23.27±0.34 20.89±0.2 19.39±0.4 22.41±0.2 19.05±0.1 23.99±0.03 23.62±0.23 25.51±0.40
160
0 70 35 77 79 6 3 9
23.59±0.61 21.79±0.1 25.84±0.2 19.41±0.3 16.73±0.3 24.61±0.12 18.03±0.03 20.05±0.10
170
3 96 58 75 42 8 58 4
1.24±0.05 1.07±0.01 1.23±0.02 1.14±0.01
140 1.20±0.008 1.33±0.067 1.13±0.013 1.19±0.066
3 1 1 4
1.28±0.00 1.24±0.01 1.33±0.01 1.12±0.01
150 1.27±0.020 1.30±0.003 1.38±0.104 1.32±0.045
Hausner 1 4 5 5
ratio 1.26±0.00 1.24±0.07 1.29±0.01 1.25±0.15
160 1.31±0.050 1.32±0.088 1.31±0.062 1.34±0.067
4 0 3 7
1.28±0.02 1.35±0.02 1.24±0.00 1.20±0.06
170 1.31±0.011 1.33±0.037 1.22±0.016 1.25±0.049
0 3 7 1

203
Table 4 Effect of inlet air temperatures, carrier materials and their concentration on pH, Solubility
index, colour (L*, a* and b*) value of spray dried pineapple juice powder
Inlet air
Maltodextrin (%) Gum Arabic (%)
Parameter temperatur
e (°C)
10 15 20 25 10 15 20 25
140 3.58±0.007 3.65±0.000 3.55±0.007 3.72±0.000 3.80±0.007 3.82±0.007 3.91±0.005 3.95±0.007
150 3.61±0.008 3.62±0.001 3.67±0.000 3.69±0.007 3.76±0.000 3.89±0.007 3.92±0.000 3.93±0.008
pH
160 3.61±0.007 3.66±0.007 3.72±0.000 3.76±0.006 3.78±0.000 3.87±0.014 3.86±0.006 3.96±0.000
170 3.59±0.007 3.64±0.000 3.57±0.000 3.74±0.007 3.85±0.014 3.82±0.006 3.91±0.007 4.06±0.001
83.86±0.11 87.95±0.12 83.59±0.43 85.00±0.17 80.94±0.19 83.29±0.26 81.48±0.35 83.47±0.30
140
3 7 7 7 5 9 4 4
84.88±0.14 89.35±0.35 86.85±0.25 94.81±0.22 81.76±0.26 87.66±0.39 84.84±0.07 87.94±0.07
150
Solubility 1 5 5 6 2 6 8 1
index (%) 86.42±0.42 91.71±0.29 87.33±0.33 95.12±0.05 82.34±0.20 88.00±0.02 86.12±0.12 89.54±0.46
160
3 5 9 7 5 8 0 7
91.09±0.03 91.74±0.18 96.71±0.24 96.91±0.07 84.74±0.28 92.30±0.36 87.74±0.34 92.54±0.34
170
5 5 0 1 3 8 6 6
92.33±0.03 92.57±0.04 94.06±0.01 94.83±0.00 89.17±0.08 90.47±0.03 91.12±0.03 88.20±0.07
140
5 2 4 7 5 5 5 8
92.39±0.01 92.65±0.03 93.82±0.01 94.72±0.02 87.54±0.13 89.74±0.01 91.76±0.03 92.14±0.02
150
4 5 4 8 4 4 5 1
L*
92.06±0.02 92.35±0.02 92.82±0.02 93.76±0.00 85.71±0.01 87.05±0.05 90.12±0.04 91.17±0.02
160
1 1 1 7 4 7 2 1
91.07±0.05 91.76±0.02 92.44±0.00 92.84±0.01 84.81±0.02 90.18±0.04 89.20±0.04 89.25±0.02
170
7 8 7 4 1 2 2 8
140 1.06±0.014 0.41±0.014 0.08±0.007 0.03±0.008 1.78±0.021 1.16±0.042 0.50±0.085 0.47±0.014
150 1.10±0.021 0.66±0.021 0.22±0.014 0.24±0.015 1.97±0.022 1.55±0.057 0.91±0.028 0.52±0.021
a*
160 1.17±0.028 0.76±0.027 0.64±0.014 0.27±0.027 3.32±0.014 1.79±0.049 0.93±0.007 0.75±0.014
170 1.38±0.021 0.85±0.028 0.65±0.016 0.67±0.035 3.57±0.015 2.11±0.028 1.17±0.021 0.79±0.035
17.47±0.02 15.67±0.02 15.27±0.01 14.83±0.04 15.34±0.00 15.34±0.02 13.89±0.02 13.54±0.03
140
8 6 4 9 8 7 8 5
17.30±0.01 14.43±0.05 12.22±0.03 11.96±0.00 15.32±0.01 14.67±0.02 13.89±0.02 13.33±0.04
150
4 7 5 7 4 8 6 2
b*
19.05±0.02 15.29±0.02 14.21±0.02 13.03±0.03 14.25±0.00 13.85±0.00 12.17±0.02 12.07±0.01
160
1 8 8 5 1 7 8 4
21.20±0.02 17.02±0.03 15.68±0.04 14.43±0.02 13.31±0.02 11.77±0.00 11.77±0.02 10.74±0.02
170
2 5 9 1 8 9 1 8

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 Table 5 Process parameters and responses achieved from general factorial design in Design Expert
Software 7.7.0
Sl. No. Name Goal LowerLimit UpperLimit
1 Carrier Material is in range Maltodextrin Gum Arabic
2 Carrier Material Concentration (%) is in range 10 25
3 Inlet air temperatures (°C) is in range 140 170
4 Moisture Content (%) minimize 2.89 5.42
5 pH minimize 3.54 4.06
6 Loose bulk density (g/cc) minimize 0.431 0.648
7 Tapped bulk density (g/cc) minimize 0.533 0.743
8 Hausner ratio minimize 1.06 1.45
9 Carrs index (%) minimize 5.88 30.98
10 Solubility index (%) maximize 80.09 96.96
11 L* minimize 84.79 94.83
12 a* maximize 0.02 3.58
13 b* maximize 10.72 21.21
Optimization of process parameters:The objective of the optimization was to obtain the
combinations of the three process parameters, which produced the desired powder quality. Based
on desirability value, powder containing Maltodextrin (MD) as coating material at concentration of
10 per cent and drying temperature of 170°Cresults highest desirability value of 0.568 (Fig. 1) was
selected as optimized spray drying process parameters for production of pineapple juice powder.
Inlet air temperature = 170°C

0.580

0.435
Desir
abilit
0.290
y
0.145

0.000
Gum Arabic
Carr 10
ier 15
mate Carrier
20 Material concentration
rial Maltodextrin
25

Fig. 1 Desirability of optimum processing parameters of spray dried pineapple juice powder
However, many treatments with smaller variations could be tried in future studies for obtaining the
higher desirability. Similarly, Shruthi (2017) optimized the microencapsulated Roselle anthocyanin
powder using general factorial methodology in Design-Expert software and the results revealed that
optimized condition was Maltodextrin (MD) as coating material and temperature of 170°C with
desirability of 0.97.
Conclusion
The optimization of process parameters was carried out using the general factorial method in Design
Expert 7.7.0 software on the basis of goal of response. The optimized condition was obtained at 10
per cent MD concentration and 170°C inlet air temperature. The results also indicated that the
powder moisture content, bulk density, L* value and b* value were decreased and solubility index

205
and a* value increased with increase in inlet drying temperature. The different types of carrier
material and their concentration were significantly (p<0.005) affected to the physico-chemical
parameter of the powder. The developed spray dried pineapple juice powder with long shelf life
could help in availability of pineapple juice throughout the year by eliminating seasonal
disadvantages. It could be prime and important ingredient for utilizing not for fruit juice industry but
also for other food industries in formulating various pineapple based products.
Acknowledgment:The author is thankful to College of Agricultural Engineering, UAS, GKVK,
Bengaluru, for giving their support for smooth conduct of research.
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Establishment of agro- processing industries in view of startup India-stand up India
Dattatreya M. Kadam, P.G. Patil, P.S. Deshmukh and V.G. Arude
ICAR-CIRCOT, Mumba-400019
Email : kadam1k@gmail.com
Abstract: Post-harvest Management and Value addition to agro produce is half the story of
agriculture. Proper technological interventions can save the losses (3-18%) and thus increase product
availability more than that by increase by production alone. Increasing urbanization, better living
standard, nuclear families, needs of dual income families are important factors which have
influenced a shift in consumption pattern of the Indians. This is topped by suplus food production in
India. Dairy, wheat, fruits and vegetables, and poultry are the segments having largest growth
potential. The Indian food industry is assured to grow to US$ 310 billion by 2015 and US$ 344 billion
in 2025 - at an approximate compounded annual growth rate of 4.1%. The report estimates the food
processing Industry to reach a gross value of Rs. 5 Lakh Crore. Whereas, market for cotton processing
is estimated at US$ 59.7 billion in 2018 and is projected to grow at a CAGR of 4.0% from 2018 to
2023, to reach US$ 72.6 billion by 2023. Increase in demand in textile industry, adoption of
cottonseed meal as feed for ruminants, and rising number of surgeries and operations have been
propelling consumption of cotton, leading to the rising demand for cotton processing globally. Value
added products are expected to grow at a much faster rate.Many people dream of starting up their
own business, but due to financial or other similar issues are unable to do so. So, Govt of India and
Many state Govts have started nationwide program- “Start Up India” and “Stand Up India” with lots
of schemes, subsidy and benefits to upcoming entrepreneurs. Start-up India is a flagship initiative of
the Government of India, intended to build a strong eco-system for nurturing innovation and Start-
ups in the country that will drive sustainable economic growth and generate large scale employment
opportunities. The Government through this initiative aims to empower Start-ups to grow through
innovation and design. “Start-up” has been defined to mean an entity incorporated or registered in
India and working towards innovation, development of new products, or services driven by
technology or intellectual property. Start-ups shall be allowed to self-certify compliance, Single
Window Platform for registration, Fast Track Patent Approval at Lower Costs, Fund of Funds, Credit
Guarantee Fund for Start-ups, Tax Exemptions, Start-up India hub, Start-up Fest, Incubator set up by
PPP and Launch of Atal Innovation Mission (“AIM”).Standup India was launched to support
entrepreneurship among women and SC & ST communities. The scheme offers bank loans of
between Rs. 10 lakh to Rs.1 crorefor SC & ST and women setting up new enterprises. The secret of a
well-plannedagro (fruit and vegetable) -processing centre is that it must be designed to operate for
as many months of the year as possible.
Keywords: Business Planning, Incubation, Start-Up, Agro Processing, Food, Cotton, Industry,
Employment
Introduction
Prosperity of any developing country depends upon the prosperity of its rural areas and that is
possible only when the villages become self-sufficient. There is frustration and feeling of insecurity
among the villagers especially youth due to unemployment, under-employment, idleness etc.
Villagers tend to migrate to urban areas because of rural push due to hard boring work, long hours,
little money, few services, no prospects and dwindling land holdings due to division of lands among
family members and on urban pull due to better chances of jobs, higher income, better health care
and education facilities etc. A venue of gainful employment has to be found out and they have to be
found right in the villages themselves. To create more employment opportunities, there should be
even expansion and diversification of agricultural products. Green revolution has made possible self-
sufficiency in food production in India from ship-to–mouth stage prevailing three and half decades
ago. Public investment in infrastructure, research and extension during green revolution period, have
significantly helped to expand food production and diversified the consumers food basket. Surplus
production of any commodity affects the market price of that commodity, often resulting selling
price at less than production cost. The transportation and storage of durable crops such as food grain

207
and maintaining freshness of the perishable crops for longer duration without post-harvest losses are
costly affair in Indian conditions. Along with edible parts, non-edible parts also are transported,
which increases the cost of storage and transportation (Ex. Edible cauliflower curd is only half weight
of the product). Processing of these materials, resulting high to low volume would save the storage
and transportation. Processed products require less space as compared to raw produce, add value to
the product and improve livelihood. Increasing income is always accompanied by a change into food
basket. Contemporary consumers prefer to purchase the value-added processed products for various
reasons viz; saving of time to cook food, less storage space in small urban houses, better present-
ability and paucity of time to the working women’s. Rural industrialization or development of
suitable agro-processing models / complexes including cotton ginning is, therefore, a potent tool to
prevent the migration of this surplus manpower to the urban areas and boosting developmental
facilities at the village level for socio-economic uplift of rural masses. The processing of agro-food
material and cotton into value added products will not only increase the income of the farmers, but,
will also provide significant employment opportunities to the rural youth. Thus, the processing sector
lately became very important sector for all round economic development. Post-harvest processing is
a necessary step in conversion, value addition and loss prevention of agricultural produces. In
addition, a huge amount of post-harvest losses, especially in cereal, foods and vegetables can be
reduced by establishing such agro-processing complexes at the village level/ at the focal points in
districts. The problems of post-harvest handling are generally location specific and thus require
development of technology suited to such situations. On-farm primary processing of agricultural
produce has now become a very important tool of boosting our economy through scientific
conservation of food, feed and fibre materials, efficient and appropriate use of wastes and by-
produce of agriculture, generation of appropriate technologies, which leads to the development of
rural agro-processing industries, enabling the farmers to sell their value added products. Almost all
the items of agriculture produce which are used by human beings are consumed only after some kind
of processing which is the most important post-harvest operation. The processing of the food
commodities at the village level will not only check the post-harvest losses but also provide
additional employment (both direct and indirect) to the local people. Processing of food
commodities is an essential step in value addition. Rural people have been using traditional methods
of small scale processing and single unit which is often time and labour intensive. It is mostly done
manually resulting into very small quantity and poor quality and also involves drudgery especially of
women. The processed products have recently become more important because of consumers’
preferences. A trend of shifting this industry from its rural base has set in. This trend started only
with the advent of commercial methods of crop processing because these new methods saved the
human beings from the drudgery and tardy nature of traditional methods. However, the commercial
methods raised the cost of the end product to quite a high level because of the involvement of the
middle men of the trade firstly for the raw produce and secondly for the end product. Moreover, the
quality of the product is never assured. In view of these drawbacks it will be worthwhile to bring back
the processing industry to villages, but without its drawbacks of drudgery. This change over will also
increase the employment opportunities in the rural areas. Such agro-processing centres will generate
employment; process the raw produce and good quality finished product will be sold in the rural
areas to strengthen faith of the rural people towards appropriate modernization in the area of post-
harvest technology. Those persons, who are engaged in procurement, processing and marketing of
the food grains, will directly be benefited by APC. Rural entrepreneurship through suitable agro-
processing models/ complexes is essential to increase the income of the farmers, provide significant
employment opportunities to the rural youth and reduce huge amount of post-harvest losses
especially in cereals, fruit and vegetables.
Prioritization of Commodities: The prioritization of commodities can done on the basis of the
percentage area under the concerned crop. On the basis of prioritization, cereals, pulses, oil seed
and spices can be listed and a thorough discussion can be carried with the local people, potential
farmers, opinion leaders and market functionaries. Finally, important crops of region say wheat,

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maize, millet, soybean, pigeon pea, mustard, turmeric, coriander, chilies and cotton etc can be
selected for processing, packaging and marketing with specific brand named, if required.
Start up India: Startup India is a flagship initiative of the Government of India, intended to build a
strong ecosystem that is conducive for the growth of startup businesses, to drive sustainable
economic growth and generate large scale employment opportunities. The Government through this
initiative aims to empower startups to grow through innovation and design. Several programs have
been undertaken since the launch of the initiative on 16th of January, 2016 by Hon’ble Prime
Minister, to contribute to his vision of transforming India into a country of job creators instead of job
seekers. These programs have catalyzed the startup culture, with startups getting recognized
through the Startup India initiative and many entrepreneurs availing the benefits of starting their
own business in India. The 19-Point Startup India Action Plan envisages several incubation centres,
easier patent filing, tax exemptions, ease of setting-up of business, a Rs. 10,000 Crore corpus fund,
and a faster exit mechanism, among others. In order to meet the objectives of the initiative,
Government of India is announcing this Action Plan that addresses all aspects of the Startup
ecosystem. With this Action Plan the Government hopes to accelerate spreading of the Startup
movement:
• From digital/ technology sector to a wide array of sectors including agriculture,
manufacturing, social sector, healthcare, education, etc.; and
• From existing tier 1 cities to tier 2 and tier 3 citites including semi-urban and rural areas.
The Action Plan is divided across the following areas:
• Simplification and Handholding
• Funding Support and Incentives
• Industry-Academia Partnership and Incubation
With the intention to build a strong eco-system for nurturing innovation and Startups inthe country,
the Hon’ble Prime Minister launched Startup India Action Plan on January16, 2016 in New Delhi. The
Government through this initiative aims to empowerStartups to grow through innovation and design
and to accelerate spreading of theStartup movement. Given below is a glimpse of the progress
Startup India has made:
Amended Definition of Startup and Simplified Recognition Process: Acknowledging the long
gestation period for Startups, the definition has been amendedwhere an entity shall be considered
as a Startup for up to 7 years (from earlier 5 years) and aBiotechnology Startup for up to 10 years
from the date of its incorporation/ registration. Also,scope of definition has been broadened to
include scalable business model with high potentialof employment generation or wealth creation.
Additionally, no letter of recommendation froman incubator/industry association shall be required
for either recognition or tax benefits.
Recognition: Out of the applications received, 14,036 have been recognised as Startups by DIPP.
91Startups have been approved for availing tax benefits by IMB, as of 3rd week of Nov, 2018.
Startup India Hub: Startup India hub was operationalised on 1st April, 2016 to resolve queries and
providehandholding support to Startups. The hub has handled more than 1,14,000 queriesfrom
Startups through telephone, email and Twitter. To seek clarifications pertainingto Certificate of
Recognition as a “Startup”, Certificate of Eligibility to avail tax benefits,seeking information on
incubators or funding, one can get in touch with the Hub on TollFreenumber: 1800115565 or Email
ID: dipp-startups@nic.in. The hub has mentoredmore than 660 Startups for incubation, funding
support, on business plans, pitchingsupport, etc. Startup India Online Hub was launched to serve as
an online platformwhere all the stakeholders of the Startup ecosystem can collaborate and synergize
theirefforts. More than 2.7 lakh users have registered.
Atal Innovation Mission: The guidelines for harnessing private sector expertise to set up incubators,
organizingannual grand challenge for innovative solutions to problems faced by industry and
thoseposed by Ministries as well as establishment of tinkering labs have been formulated
andpublished on NITI Aayog’s and Startup India’s website.
Establishment of Tinkering Labs: As per the Startup India Action Plan, more than 5000 Tinkering Labs

209
are being established.NITI Aayog has selected 5441 schools for establishing Tinkering Labs. Out ofthe
selected,2071 Tinkering Labs have received a Grant-in-Aid of INR 12 Lakh each.
Establishmentof Incubators: New incubation centres are being established under Atal Innovation
Mission across Indiathrough financial support. The incubators would provide necessary infrastructure
andassistance to Startupsin their early stages of growth. NITI Aayog has received applications for
setting up Atal Incubation Centres (AICs) in publicand private sector as well as scaling up of
Established Incubation Centres (EICs). In respectto establishment of new incubators in institutions
and as well as in the private sector,NITI Aayog has approved 22 institutes to establish new incubators
with a total grant ofINR 54 Crores. A grant-in-aid of INR 10 Crore would be provided to each
Established Incubator Centre (EIC)for a maximum of 5 years to cover the capital and operational
costs in running a centre. 8established incubators have received a total scale-up grant of INR 34
Crore.
Research Parks: The objective of setting up Research Parks is to propel successful innovation
throughincubation and joint Research and Development (R&D) efforts between academia
andindustry. 8 Research Parks are being setup under Startup India initiative. Research Park atIIT
Kharagpur is under construction and INR 100 crore has been released. The ResearchPark at IIT
Gandhinagar is being set up by DST which has sanctioned INR 90 crore anddisbursed an initial
instalment of INR 40 crore. The remaining 5 are being set up byMinistry of Human Resource
Development (MHRD) at IIT Guwahati, IIT Hyderabad, IITKanpur, IIT Delhi and IISC Bangalore with a
budget of INR 375 crore. In addition, anotherResearch Park at IIT Bombay is under construction and
INR 34 crore has beenreleased.
Promoting Startups in the Biotechnology Sector: Under Biotech seed fund, INR 11 crore has been
sanctioned and INR 7 crore disbursed to 11 Bio-incubators. A fund of funds with a corpus of INR 150
Cr has been approved. A total of 31 bio-incubators have been supported (sanction amount of INR
235 Cr) by DBT. The impact has been multi-fold as over 710 Startups have received benefits from
these bioincubators under various programmes like Biotechnology Ignition Grant, IIPME (Industry
Innovation Programme on Medical Electronics), Sparsh, Grand Challenges, BioNEST, etc. 3 BIRAC
Regional Centres have been operationalized in Hyderabad, Bengaluru and Pune. 4 (out of 5) bio
clusters have been sanctioned INR 401 Cr by DBT. 4 entrepreneurs have joined the Harvard
University, USA under Bharat-Boston Biotech Gateway.
Technology Business Incubators (TBIs): The objective is to propel successful innovation through
augmentation of incubation and R&D efforts. 15 TBIs are being set up in top educational institutes.
11 TBIs have been approved and other 4 are in advanced stages. INR 42 crore has been sanctioned
and INR 17 crore has already been disbursed to 11 TBIs.
UcchatarAavishkarYojana(UAY): The objective of UAY is to promote industry and outcome-oriented
research projects by students. INR 475 crore for 2016-18 has been earmarked under UAY and 85
research proposals from IITs have been approved. Under this scheme, INR 162 crore has been
disbursed for research proposals from IITs.
Million Minds Augmenting National Aspirations and Knowledge (MANAK) Scheme: INSPIRE Awards
scheme has been rechristened as INSPIRE Awards-MANAK. 10 lakh ideas will be targeted from 5 lakh
schools of all boards across the country in a Financial Year. Over 1 lakh INSPIRE Awardees competed
at District & State Level out of which 588 were selected to participate in the 6th National Level
Exhibition and Project Competition, Delhi. Top 60 projects were showcased at the Annual Festival of
Innovations in RashtrapatiBhavan from 4th -10thMarch 2017. 30,678 students have been selected,
who have received a grant of INR 10,000 each.
Startup India Yatra: The Startup India Yatra is a platform which aims to help entrepreneurs
(especially from non-metropolitan cities) realize their startup dream. The Startup India Yatra aims to
reach each and every district of the country. So far, Startup India Yatra has been conducted in 12
States namely Gujarat, Odisha, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh,
Jharkhand, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Himachal Pradesh and Jammu & Kashmir.
NIDHI (National Initiative for Development and Harnessing Innovations): The 8 components under

210
NIDHI would provide a range of funding support to Startups from idea to market. Ignition
grant/award of INR 10 lakh to be given. Guidelines and pro-forma for submission of proposals have
been published on the website. 19 new TBIs have been established and 9 TBIs supported for Seed
Support System (SSS). 10 NIDHI-PRAYAS and 10 NIDHI-EIR have been sanctioned. Also, Grand
challenge was conducted to promote entrepreneurship amongst student community. 224
applications were received and out of 30 finalists selected, 12 student run teams were awarded 10
Lakh each.
Faster Exit for Startups: The Insolvency and Bankruptcy Board of India has been constituted and the
provisions regarding corporate insolvency resolution have been implemented on 1st December,
2016. The provisions related to liquidation have been notified on 9th December, 2016. On 16th June
2017, Ministry of Corporate Affairs (MCA) notified the relevant sections 55 to 58 of Insolvency and
Bankruptcy Code, 2016 pertaining to the Fast Track process and also notified that the process shall
apply to Startup (other than the partnership firm) as defined by DIPP. With this notification, Startups
shall now be able to wind up their business within a period of 90 days from making an application for
the same as compared to the 180 day period or other firms.
Stand-up India: endeavour and prosper
The Stand-Up India Scheme launched to coincide with the celebration of the 125th birth anniversary
of Dr. BabasahebBhimraoAmbedkar, seeks to leverage the institutional credit structure to reach out
to the underserved sector of people such as Scheduled Caste, Scheduled Tribe and Women
entrepreneurs so as to enable them to participate in the economic growth of the nation. The scheme
will benefit atleast 2.5 lakh borrowers through 1.25 lakh bank branch network located across the
country. The objective of the Stand-Up India Scheme is to facilitate bank loans between 10 lakh to
100 lakh to atleast one Scheduled Caste (SC) or Scheduled Tribe (ST) borrower and at least one
Woman borrower per bank branch of all scheduled commercial banks for setting up a greenfield
enterprise.
The Stand-Up India Scheme
1. The objective of the Stand-Up India scheme is to facilitate bank loans between 10 lakh
and 1 Crore to at least one Scheduled Caste (SC) or Scheduled Tribe (ST) borrower and at least one
woman borrower per bank branch for setting up a greenfield enterprise. This enterprise may be in
manufacturing, services or the trading sector. In case of non-individual enterprises at least 51% of
the shareholding and controlling stake should be held by either an SC/ST or Woman entrepreneur.
2. The Stand-Up India scheme is based on recognition of the challenges faced by SC, ST and
women entrepreneurs in setting up enterprises, obtaining loans and other support needed from time
to time for succeeding in business. The scheme therefore endeavors to create an eco-system which
facilitates and continues to provide a supportive environment for doing business. The scheme, which
covers all branches of Scheduled Commercial Banks, will be accessed in three potential ways:
 Directly at the branch or
 Through SIDBI’s Stand-Up India portal (www.standupmitra.in) or
 Through the Lead District Manager ((LDM)
The portal will be the crucial interface layer for parameters/ metrics of the borrower
(obtained through a set of about 8-10 questions listed below) and will provide information and
feedback to such borrowers. A potential borrower will have the option of registering on the portal
right away or simply visiting it and registering later. This portal may be accessed at home, at
Common Service Centers (CSCs), through a bank branch (through the nodal officer for MUDRA at the
branch) or through the LDM. In branches where internet access is restricted, the branch will guide
the potential borrower to an internet access point.
The approach of the Stand-Up India portal, for handholding is based on obtaining answers to
a set of relevant questions at the initial stage. Based on the response, the portal provides relevant
feedback and helps categories the visitor to the portal as a ready borrower or a trainee borrower.
Ready Borrower: In case the borrower requires no handholding support, then registration on the
portal as a Ready Borrower starts the process of application for the loan at the selected bank. At this

211
stage an application number will be generated and information about the borrower shared with the
bank concerned, the LDM (posted in each district) and the relevant linked office of NABARD/ SIDBI.
The offices of SIDBI and NABARD shall be designated Stand-Up Connect Centres (SUCC). The loan
application will now be generated and tracked through the portal.
Trainee Borrower: In cases where the borrower indicates a need for handholding, then registration
as a Trainee Borrower on the portal will link the borrower to the LDM of the concerned district and
the relevant office of SIDBI/ NABARD. This process which would be electronic, could be done at the
borrower’s home by himself/ herself or at a CSC or through a bank branch by the officer dealing with
MUDRA.SIDBI (79 offices) and NABARD (503 offices) as Stand-Up India Connect Centers will then
arrange for support for such trainee borrowers
Stand-Up India Portal: The Stand-Up India Portal is interactive. It hosts information about various
entities providing handholding support to the borrower. This includes:Training (Technical or/ and
Financial), DPR preparation, Margin money support, Shed / workplace identification, Raw material
sourcing, Bill discounting, E-com registration, Registration for taxation. The Portal is designed to
obtain application forms, gather and provide information, enable registration, provides links for
handholding, assists in tracking and monitoring. As more facilities become available it shall be further
refined into an end to end solution. The Stand-Up India scheme endeavors to create an eco system
to make borrowers ready. This system is now meant for supporting Stand-Up Borrowers but will be
extended in due course to other schemes.

Nature of Loan: The loan shall be a Composite Loan i.e. to meet requirements of assets such as plant
and machinery and working capital. It is expected to cover 75 % of project cost and the rate of
interest would be lowest applicable rate of the bank for that category (rating) not to exceed (base
rate (MCLR) + 3%+ tenor premium). It shall be repayable in up to 7 years with a moratorium of up to
18 months. A Rupay card will be issued to enable operation of the working capital component. (The
stipulation of the loan being expected to cover 75% of the project cost would not apply if the
borrowers contribution along with convergence support from any other scheme exceeds 25% of the
project cost).
Credit Guarantee/ Collateral: The scheme for Credit Guarantee for loans under Stand-Up India has
been notified (www.ncgtc.in). The norms in this respect are aligned with existing CGTMSE norms.
Margin Money: The Scheme envisages 25% margin money which can be provided in convergence
with eligible Central / State schemes. While such schemes can be drawn upon for availing admissible
subsidies or for meeting margin money requirements, in all cases, the borrower shall be required to
bring in minimum of 10% of the project cost as own contribution. To illustrate, if a State scheme
supports a borrower with 20% of the project cost as subsidy, then the borrower will be required to
contribute at least 10% of the project cost. Any subsidy received by a unit which was not foreseen
during loan appraisal will be credited to the loan account. In cases where a subsidy was included
during appraisal but received after commissioning, the same may be released to the borrower to
repay any loan taken for arranging margin money. A list of Central / State wise subsidy/incentive

212
schemes will be provided on the Portal. New schemes will be added as they become available.
District Level Credit Committee: The District Level Credit Committee (DLCC) under the Collector with
the LDM as Convener shall periodically review cases of both types of borrowers, meeting at least
once each quarter. SIDBI and NABARD officers will join the review meetings.
Assistance after loan disbursement:Events will be organized at District level, as frequently as
necessary and at least once in each quarter, involving stakeholders to share best practices, review,
problem solving and guide potential entrepreneurs. These events will also provide means for
facilitating registration for bill discounting services, e-market places, taxation etc. NABARD will
organize these events with the support of SIDBI.

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 “Lulc and change detection and its impacts on forest ecosystem in Yellapur
taluka using geospatial techniques”
Arjun.G. Koppad1, Malini P.J2
1
Professor and University Head (NRM), UAS Dharwad, College of Forestry, Sirsi 581401 2Research
Associate, NISAR Project (NRM) UAS Dharwad, College of Forestry Sirsi 581401
Email : 1koppadag@uasd.in 2malinipj6@gmail.com
Abstract: The geospatial technology is used to identify the variation of the impact on forest
ecosystem and mapping the land use and land cover for different classes and assess the impacts
of rainfall on forest in Yellapur Taluka, which lies between latitude of N14° 4´ 3´´ and N15° 6´ 40´´
and longitude of 74° 1´ 10´´ and 74° 5´ 8´´ E with total area of 131171 hectares. The land use and
land cover map was processed with ground truth data using satellite images using ERDAS
software. An attempt was made to identify the impact of rainfall, temperature and relative
humidity on forest ecosystem. To analyze the impact on forest ecosystem, NDVI analysis was
carried out using MODIS TERRA data and NCEP reanalysis, Relative Humidity were used. The
results shows that the dense forest area is decreases because it may changes from dense to
sparse forest and other classes such as agriculture is decreases, and rainfall decreases and relative
humidity increases annually from 1998 to 2017.
Keywords: climate change, Modis data, NCEP Reanalysis data, LULC and NDVI map.
Introduction: Forest play an important role in water balancing, by holding the rain water, reducing
the runoff, helps in infiltration and increases the ground water table. The natural forest as such
maintains the ecological balance in terms of soil, water and vegetation. Anthropogenic pressure on
forest leads to degradation and deforestation, which in-turn accelerates the erosion, loss of natural
resources and final affects on climate change. Weather change and forest are interrelated to each
another due to several criteria. Due to change in the land use and land cover change detection it
affects forest ecosystem in a number of ways (Chilar, J.2000). Such as including through changes in
average temperatures, rainfall and other parameters. Weather is depends on the air pressure,
temperature and moisture differences between one place to another place. It is measured by
assessing the patterns of variation in temperature, Relative humidity, atmospheric pressure, wind,
precipitation, atmospheric particle count and other meteorological variables in a given region over
long periods of time. (Pavithra CJ. 2013). The Grid Analysis and Display System (GrADS) is an
interactive desktop tool that is used for easy access, manipulation, and visualization of earth science
data. The format of the data may be either binary, GRIB, NetCDF, or HDF. Relative humidity is
expressed as percentage; if the Relative Humidity percentage is increases then the air–water mixture
is more humid. The Relative Humidity is a ratio of the actual amount of water vapour in the
atmosphere compared to the saturation amount of water vapour. The relative Humidity will
increases as temperatures decrease.
Study area:The study was conducted in Yellapur taluk, the map of Yellapur taluka is given in fig. 1.
Resource-sat Series satellites Landsat-5 1998 and IRSP6 LISS-4 data with spatial resolution of 30m
and 5.8m was used for assessing the Landuse/Landcover classes and data is used These data sets
were imported in ERDAS Imagine version 10.1. (Chilar, J.2000 ). Satellite image processing software
to create a false colour composite (FCC). Normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) was mapped
to know the vegetation chlorophyll were used to classify the Landsat-8 and LISS-4 images using the
formula (Kachhwala, T.S. 1985)
Processing NetCDF data in Grads: The data sets obtained from MODIS (TERRA), NCEP/NCAR etc are
in NetCDF formats. The commands used in Grads in windows 7 for processing NetCDF datasets are
presented below
Write commands “grads” in terminal to open the grads window
Use “sdfopen” command to open the file
To see what variables and their name type “q file “

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 To display the image type “d var name and result”
d aave,(varname,lat=x,lat=y,lon=u,lon=v,)
(Dr. K.C Gouda.et.al 2018)
FORMULAS = NDVI=NIR-RED/NIR+RED
NDMI=RED-NIR/RED+NIR
NDWI= GREEN-NIR/GREEN+NIR
Collection of Data: The watershed delineation and drainage assessment was done using Cartosat
dem downloaded from the Bhuvan website; data was processed in ArcGIS software.
Field data collection: In the catchment area of Tattihalla dam of Haliyal taluka, transact was laid out,
there were four plots with size 20 X 20m was laid out randomly over the catchment area and
observation on growth parameters i.e girth at breast height (GBH) at 1.37m above the ground level
and tree height was recorded with diameter tape and Ravi altimeter respectively in all the plots. The
plot latitude and longitude and elevation were recorded with GPS. Similarly four plots were selected
in command area from just below the dam and away from the dam at downstream side and
recorded all the parameters as did in catchment area.
The basal area was determined by the formuia (Chaturvedi and Khanna,1984).
Basal area= πd2/4 or g2/4π. The total wood volume was determined by using formula
Volume = Total height x Basal area x Form factor. (Chaturvedi and Khanna, 1984)
Biomass: Above and below ground biomass was calculated separately by using standard formulae’s
and expressed in tonnes per hectare.
Above ground biomass (tonnes /ha) = Volume of tree X Density of wood (Mac dicken ,1997)
Below ground biomass (tonnes/ha)=Above ground biomass X0.26 (Ravindranath et al ,2008)
Density of wood: Wood sample of square shaped was cut from each species and weighed in
weighing balance and also volume of that square shaped wood sample was calculated by using
formulae volume of cube
Density of wood (g/cc) = Mass of wood sample
-----------------------------
Volume of that wood sample

Carbon Sequestration (tonnes/ha): The above ground biomass of standing trees was estimated to
work out the amount of carbon sequestration by reducing the total biomass yield to its 50% or
converting biomass by multiplying 0.5 (Mac Dicken., 1997).
Carbon sequestration=Total biomass(AGB+BGB) x0.5
Soil parameters: Soil samples was collected from representative sample plots from 0-30 cm depth
after scraping away the litter.The soil samples were air dried, powdered and allowed to pass through
2mm sieve and analyzed for chemical properties. The soil properties such as Electrical Conductivity
whci was analysd by Conducto metric method. Bulk-density by Core Sampler method, pH by using
Potentiometric method (Jakson,1973) and soil Organic carbon (%) was estimated by Wet oxidation
method (Walkely and Black, 1934)
Results and Discussion

Fig.2 showing the flow chart

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The field data recorded on tree species both at catchment (Upstream) and command (Down stream)
area is given in table 1 and 2. On upstream area i. e in the catchment area of Tattihall dam there are
seven tree species with different numbers in each species, majority of the trees were teak,
Terminelia and Lagestromia species. The average volume of wood was 301.25 m3/ha. The plot to
plot wood volume variation was from m3/plot. The elevation of the plots was from 484 m to 501 m
in the catchment area. On downstream side i.e in command area of Tattihalla dam there is more
number of species present as compared to catchment area. The total volume in transact plot was
varied from 17.813 to 47.840 m3/plot. The average wood volume in catchment area was 710 m3/ha.
The results indicated that more than double volume of wood was recorded in command area as
compared to catchment area; this variation in wood volume was due to the influence of water
source stored in the dam. The study clearly indicated that water storage in forest is very much
essential for the growth of tree and higher wood volume.

Places PH EC(μŚ/dm) Bulk density Organic

(g/cc) carbon %
Catchment 5.69 95.55 1.13 1.87
area
Command 6.43 136.01 1.33 2.22
area

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 Table. 3 Soil properties in catchment and command area of Tattihalla Dam

The soil samples collected from catchment and command area from all the transact plots were
analysed. The results are given in table 3. The results indicated that PH is slightly increased in
command area towards neutral from acidic. The electric conductivity was increased from 95.55 to
136.013 for μŚ/dm. The bulk density was increased slightly and organic carbon in soil was also
increased from 1.87 to 2.22. The higher organic carbon returned to the soil via litter fall is an
important source of nutrients for vegetation. Organic carbon content in surface soil is higher
command area due to highe leaf litter and less soil erosion (Dutta and Singh,2007). Based on the
volume of the wood, the carbon sequestration was estimated as shown in table 4. It was found
that the carbon sequestration was 147.61 tonnes /ha in catchment area where as it was 348.17
tonnes /ha in command area. There was a significant increase in the carbon sequestration in tree

217
 species present in command area. This was due to the influence of storage water in the dam.
Table.4: Wood Volume and carbon sequestration as influenced by water resource

SL.NO Place Volume Carbon

m3/ha sequestration
t/ha
1 Catchment 301.25 147.61
area
2 Command 710.56 348.17
area

Fig.3 Land use and Land cover map of Yellapur Taluk 1998

Table.5. Land use and Land cover different classification area details in Ha 1998

LULC Classes Area (ha) % Area

Dense forest 79188.67 60.34
Sparse forest 35531.5 27.07
Agriculture 5852.34 4.45
Water bodies 2534.00 1.93
Horticulture 3641.13 2.77
Settlement 4479.14 3.41
Total 131226.78 100

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 Fig.4 Land use and Land cover map of Yellapur Taluk 2018
Table 6. Land use and Land cover different classification area details in Ha 2018

LULC Classes Area (ha) % Area

Dense forest 73126.43 55.72
Sparse forest 38353.03 29.22
Agriculture 5127.93 3.90
Water bodies 2634.00 2.00
Horticulture 5670.43 4.32
Settlement 6314.96 4.81
Total 131226.78 100

Fig.5 Normalised difference vegetation Index map of Yellapur Taluk 1998

The NDVI map for 1998 is shown in Fig.4 indicating the higher vegetation density with
higher NDVI value towards open land and water body, the NDVI value ranges from -0.285 to
0.582.

The NDVI map for 2018 is shown in Fig.5 indicating the higher vegetation density with
higher NDVI value towards open land and water body, the NDVI value ranges from -0.083 to
0.509.(Mehta, et.al) 2012

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 Fig.6 Normalised difference vegetation Index map of Yellapur Taluk 2018

Table.7. Change detection in Land use and Land cover of different classification area details in Ha

LULC Classes 1998 2018 Change

detection
Area
Area (ha) (ha)
Area (ha)
Dense forest 79188.67 73126.43 -6062.24
Sparse forest 35531.5 38353.03 2821.53
Agriculture 5852.34 5127.93 -724.41
Water bodies 2534.00 2634.00 100.0
Horticulture 3641.13 5670.43 2029.3
Settlement 4479.14 6314.96 1835.82
131226.7
Total 131226.78 8

Watershed delineation maps along with basin and dem is shows Fig.5 and 6. The elevation of the
study area varies from -47 to 702 m with drainage networks.

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 Fig.7 Elevation map with dem of Yellapur Taluka

Fig.8 Watershed delineation with drainage network map of Yellapur Taluka

The drainage delineation map indicated that there are total of 2474 drainage lines are present in the
study area having more than 5 watersheds. These drainage patterns of the watersheds influences the
vegetations patterns in the Yellapur Taluka (Subhash .G. Chavare 2015)

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Weather data analysis from KSNDMC data:

Fig.9 Total rainfall in mm for Yellapur Taluk from 1998-2017

Fig.11 Average minimum temperature for Yellapur

Taluk from 2000-2017

Weather data analysis from NCEP-Reanalysis data:

Fig.12 Average RH in mm for Yellapur Taluk from 2000-2017

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 Fig.13 LULC area statistics in Yellapur Taluk from 1998-2018

Conclusion: Change detection of LULC from 1998 and 2018 indicated that there is increase in sparse
forest, water bodies, horticulture and settlement whereas dense forest and agriculture as shown
decreases in area, the change was due to the anthropogenic activities. Therefore this is impacted and
resulted there is strong variation in rainfall has shows decreases indicated that the negative sign in
the regression coefficient equation r2= 0.055. So that due to increase in the relative humidity, the
maximum and minimum temperature is decreases in trend line from 1998 to 2017.
Acknowledgement: Authors gratefully acknowledge the UAS, Dharwad and ISRO, Ahmadabad for
financial support for conducting the research study in Uttara Kannada district.

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 Biosynthesis of silver nanoparticles using neem leaves (azadirachta indica)
and assessment of its antibacterial activity
Madke Megharaj Mahadev. Sharanagouda Hiregoudar. Udaykumar Nidoni
Nagaraj Naik. P.F. Mathad.
Dept. of Processing and Food Engineering, College of Agricultural Engineering, University of
Agricultural Sciences, Raichur-584 104, India
Email : drsharancae@gmail.com
Abstract: The antimicrobial effects of silver (Ag) ion or salts are well known, but the effects of silver
nanoparticles on microorganisms and antimicrobial mechanism have not been revealed clearly. In
the present study we reported the environment friendly route for biosynthesis of silver nanoparticles
using Neem leaves (Azadirachta indica) extract as reducing as well as capping agent. Stable
biosynthesized silver nanoparticles were prepared and their shape and size distribution characterized
by UV-Visible spectrophotometer analysis, Dynamic light scattering analysis (DLS) and Scanning
Electron Microscope (SEM). It observed that biosynthesized silver nanoparticles round and sheet
shaped and average size is 30 nm. The antibacterial activity of biosynthesized silver nanoparticles
was evaluated against Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus has
been measured using sterile filter paper disc method. The result showed biosynthesized silver
nanoparticles prepared by using neem leaves extract, have a potential to inhibit the growth of
bacteria.
Keywords Biosynthesis, Silver Nanoparticles, Neem Extract, DLSA, SEM, Antibacterial Activity.
Introduction : With the emergence and increase of microbial organisms resistant to multiple
antibiotics and the continuing emphasis on health-care costs, many researchers have tried to
develop new and effective antimicrobial reagents free of resistance and cost. Such problems and
needs have led to the resurgence in the use of silver based antiseptics that may be linked to broad-
spectrum activity and far lower propensity to induce microbial resistance than antibiotics [1]. The
antimicrobial property of silver is related to the amount of silver and the rate of silver released. Silver
in its metallic state is inert but it reacts with the moisture in the skin and the fluid of the wound and
gets ionized. The ionized silver is highly reactive, as it binds to tissue proteins and brings structural
changes in the bacterial cell wall and nuclear membrane leading to cell distortion and death. Silver
also binds to bacterial DNA and RNA by denaturing and inhibits bacterial replication [2, 3]. Recently,
Panacek and co-worker reported a one step protocol for synthesis of silver colloid nanoparticles.
They found high antimicrobial and bactericidal activity of silver nanoparticles on Gram-positive and
Gram-negative bacteria including multi resistant strains such as methicillin resistant S. aureus [4].
Reducing the particle size of materials is an efficient and reliable tool for improving their
biocompatibility. In fact, nanotechnology helps in overcoming the limitations of size and can change
the outlook of the world regarding science [5]. Furthermore, nanomaterials can be modified for
better efficiency to facilitate their applications in different fields such as bioscience and medicine.
There are numerous methods available using various approaches including physical, chemical and
biological methods for the synthesis of nanoparticles. Physical methods of synthesis of nanoparticles
are attrition and pyrolysis. In attrition, initially the macro or micro scale particles are ground in a ball
mill, or a planetary ball mill, or by other size reducing mechanism. However, it seems that the
productivity of synthesis of nanoparticles by physical methods is very low and expense of energy and
pressure is much higher [6]. Chemical method of synthesis is advantageous as it takes short period
of time for synthesis of large quantity of nanoparticles. However, in this method capping agents are
required for size stabilization of the nanoparticles. Moreover, chemicals reagents used generally for
nanoparticles synthesis and stabilization are toxic and lead to byproducts that are not environment
benign. The need for eco-friendly non-toxic methods for nanoparticles synthesis is developing
interest in biological method which are free from the use of toxic chemicals as byproducts. A variety
of natural sources are there for metal nanoparticles synthesis including plants, fungi, yeast,
actinomycetes, bacteria etc. The unicellular and multicultural organisms can produce intracellular

225
 and extra cellular inorganic nanoparticles [7]. In this present study an attempt has been done to
biosynthesis of silver nanoparticles using aqueous Neem leaves (Azadirachta indica), characterization
of these silver nanoparticles and to investigate the antibacterial activities of this biosynthesized silver
nanoparticles on Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus bacteria.
Materials and Methods
Raw materials: The neem leaves (Azadirachta indica) were collected from University of Agricultural
Sciences, Raichur campus. All chemicals used in this experiment were of analytical grade and
obtained from Sigmaaldrich (Bangalore, India). Bacteria such as Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas
aeruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus were obtained from the MTCC (Microbial Type Culture
Collection), Institute of Microbial Technology, Chandigarh, India to carry out the antibacterial
analysis.
Preparation of the Neem Leaves Extract: Fresh leaves were washed thoroughly with distilled water
and dried. These leaves were ground to get the fine powder. 30.0 g of dried powder was boiled in
100 ml of distilled water for 30 min. After cooling at room temperature, it was centrifuged at 6000
rpm for 10 minutes and filtered. The filtrate was stored at 4 °C for further experiments [8].
Synthesis of silver Nanoparticles using Neem leaves extract:-The plant extract of neem leaves (18.00
ml) was mixed with 50 ml distilled water with concentration of 0.5, 1.0 and 1.5 mM silver nitrate
(AgNO3) solution in a conical flask under aseptic condition. A change in the color from light red to
dark brown was observed and this indication was the formation of silver nanoparticles (Fig.1).

Fig. 1 Biosynthesized silver nanoparticles solution, synthesized by reducing AgNO3 using neem leaves
extract
Size reduction of biosynthesized silver nanoparticles:The biosynthesized silver nanoparticles from
neem leaves were further reduced in particle sizes by using different processes listed below.
Ultrasonication: The biosynthesized silver nanoparticles solution was kept in digital ultrasonication
bath (Labman Scientific Instruments, LMUC-2.8L, India) for 30 min. at 3 different temperatures of 50,
60 and 70 ºC for reducing the size of silver nanoparticles.
High speed centrifugation: The ultrasonicated sample of biosynthesized silver nanoparticles were
centrifuged using a high speed centrifuge (MPW Med. Instruments, MPW–350R, Poland) at 3 different
speeds viz., 5000, 10000 and 15000 rpm for 30 min. The centrifuged sample was filtrated using filter
paper (Whatman No.1) for removal of residues and to get clear filtrate.
High pressure homogenization: After ultrasonication and high speed centrifugation, the sample was
passed through a high pressure homogenization (Stansted Fluid Power Ltd., SPCH10, United Kingdom)
at 3 different pressures of 1406, 2109 and 2812 kg/cm2.
Characterization of biosynthesized silver nanoparticles
UV-Visible spectrophotometer analysis: The reduction of the silver ions by the supernatant of the
plant extracts in the solutions and formation of silver nanoparticles were characterized by UV-Visible
spectroscopy, monitored by sampling the aqueous component (2.0 ml) and measuring the UV-Visible
spectrum of solutions in the UV-Visible spectrophotometer (Perkin Elmer, Lamda 35, Germany). The
bio-reduction of silver ions in aqueous solution was monitored by UV-Visible spectra of the solution
between 300 – 600 nm. Distilled water was used to adjust the baseline [8].
Dynamic light scattering analysis: A laser diffraction method with a multiple scattering technique was

226
used to determine the particle size distribution of the biosynthesized siler nanoparticles sample using
a Zetasizer Nano Instrument (ZETA Sizer, nano383 issue 5.0, Malvern, England) operating with a 633
nm laser. In order to find out the particle size distribution, the biosynthesized silver nanoparticles
sample at 37 ºC [9].
Scanning electron microscopy: Scanning electron microscopic (SEM) analysis was done using (EVO 10,
Carl Zeiss Microscopy, Germany). Two hours after the reaction biosynthesized silver nanoparticles, thin
layer of gold platinum was coated to make the samples conductive using sputter coater. Then the
samples were characterized in the SEM at an accelerating voltage of 20 KV [10].
Antibacterial activity of biosynthesized silver nanoparticles: The antibacterial activity of the
biosynthesized nanoparticles was investigated against Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and
Staphylococcus aureus were determined using sterile filter paper disc method. For the sterile filter
paper disc method, 10 ml of growth medium and 4 ml of inoculum were mixed and poured in separate
sterilized petriplates. Each mixture was thoroughly shaken to ensure uniform distribution of inoculum.
Experiment was carried out in three replicates. The sterile paper, discs measuring 6 mm diameter were
dipped in different concentration of biosynthesized silver nanoparticles were 50, 100 and 150 µl/ml of
synthesized silver nanoparticles by prepared using 0.5, 1.0 and 1.5 mM silver nitrate solution. After 10
min of absorbance, about 0.1 ml of the biosynthesized silver nanoparticles solution paper disc was put
on media poured petriplates. All the test petriplates were kept at 37 ºC for 48 h. the diameter of
inhibition zone was measured using caliper. Distilled water was used individually as control [11].
Results and Discussion
The biosynthesis of silver nanoparticles was carried out using silver nitrate (AgNO3) solution from
neem leaves. The neem leaves extract was added into 0.5, 1.0 and 1.5 mM aqueous (AgNO3) solution.
After 3 h reaction, a colourless mixture (light red) was turned into dark brown colour which indicated
the formation of silver nanoparticles. The color change was due to active molecules present in the
extract which reduced the silver metal ions in silver nanoparticles [12]. The average size of
biosynthesized silver nanoparticles was found to be 586.38, 618.85 and 706.94 nm using 0.5, 1.0 and
1.5 mM silver nitrate (AgNO3) solution, respectively. The size of nanoparticles was found to be larger at
the higher silver nitrate concentration. This was in agreement with Ning and Weihong suggested that
silver ions absorbed on the surface of preformed nuclei, where the secondary reduction process
occurred leading to formation of larger nanoparticles. To obtain small size silver nanoparticles, 0.5 mM
silver nitrate solution concentration was preferred [13].
Effect of different process parameters on size of biosynthesized silver nanoparticles using 0.5, 1.0
and 1.5 mM silver nitrate solution:The size of biosynthesized silver nanoparticles using 0.5, 1.0 and
1.5 mM silver nitrate solution were reduced using different processes. The size of nanoparticles of
30.17 nm was observed the for treatments (i.e., ultrasonication at 70 ºC for 30 min, centrifugation at
10000 rpm for 30 min and homogenization at 2812 kg/cm2,the size of nanoparticles 30.00 nm was
observed for the treatment (i.e., ultrasonication at 60 ºC for 30 min, centrifugation at 5000 rpm for 30
min and homogenization at 1406 kg/cm2) and the size of nanoparticles 30.04 nm for the treatment
(i.e., ultrasonication at 60 ºC for 30 min, centrifugation at 5000 rpm for 30 min and homogenization at
a pressure of 2812 kg/cm2).
UV-Visible spectrophotometer analysis: The reduction of silver ions into biosynthesized silver
nanoparticles during exposure to plant extracts was observed as a result of the colour change from
light red to dark brown. The colour change was due to the surface plasmon resonance (SPR)
phenomenon. The sharp bands of biosynthesized silver nanoparticles were observed around 420 nm in
biosynthesis of silver nanoparticles from neem leaves. The biosynthesized silver nanoparticles
prepared by using 0.5, 1.0 and 1.5 mM silver nitrate solution had the absorbance of 1.975, 1.917 and
1.857 as shown in Fig. 2. The figure shows that the effect of silver nitrate concentration on the
formation of silver nanoparticles. Peak absorbance increased and shifted to the higher wavelengths
with an increase of silver nitrate concentration [13].

227
Fig. 2 UV–Visible spectrum analysis of biosynthesized silver nanoparticles from Neem leaves extract
(Azadirachta indica) with different concentrations of silver nitrate solution
Scanning electron microscopy: Scanning electron microscopy images provided information about
the morphology and size of the biosynthesized silver nanoparticles. The biosynthesized silver
nanoparticles prepared using 0.5 and 1.0 mM silver nitrate solution were observed spherical in shape
as shown in Fig.. 3 Where as the biosynthesized silver nanoparticles prepared using 1.5 mM silver
nitrate solution silver nitrate solution was observed to be spherical and sheet in shape shown as in
Fig 4. The shape of biosynthesized silver nanoparticles is conformity with the shape of earlier
reported biosynthesized silver nanoparticles using the flower extract of millingtonia hortensis it
exhibit spherical and rod in shape [14].

Fig. 3 SEM image for biosynthesized silver nanoparticles using .5mM and 1.0 mM silver nitrate
solution (spherical shape)

a b

Fig. 4 SEM image for biosynthesized silver nanoparticles using 1.5 mM silver nitrate solution (a)
spherical and (b) sheet shape
Antibacterial activity of biosynthesized silver nanoparticles: The antibacterial activity of silver

228
nanoparticles evaluated against Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus
aureus as it showed a clear zone of inhibition. The minimum zone of inhibition was observed in
biosynthesized silver nanoparticles prepared by using 0.5 mM silver nitrate solution (average size of
30 nm) for Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus were 14.00, 12.00
and 11.33 mm for concentrations of 50 µl/ml, whereas, the maximum was observed in
biosynthesized silver nanoparticles prepared by using 1.5 mM silver nitrate solution (average size of
30 nm) were 21.66, 21.00 and 30.66 for concentrations of 150 µl/ml, respectively as represented in
Fig. 5. The concentration of silver nitrate and concentration of silver nanoparticles increased zone of
inhibition increased. This might be due to the higher silver nitrate concentration, indicating that
more nanoparticles per unit volume were formed when the concentration increased and the highest
concentration of silver nanoparticles with maximum zone of inhibition was shown against food
pathogens Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus in Fig. 6, 7 and 8,
respectively [15].

Fig. 5 Antibacterial activity of biosynthesized silver nanoparticles against Escherichia coli,

Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa
Several mechanisms have regarding antibacterial activity of biosynthesized silver
nanoparticles have proposed. It seems that DNA molecules are in relaxed state and the replication of
DNA can be effectively conducted, but when DNA is in condensed form it loses its replication ability
hence, the DNA molecules turns into condensed form and loses its replication ability leading to cell
death, when the silver ions penetrate inside the microbial cell [16] According to another report,
major mechanism of action of biosynthesized silver nanoparticles were found, through which
biosynthesized silver nanoparticles manifest antibacterial properties was either by anchoring or
penetrating the bacterial cell wall and modulating cellular signaling by dephosphorylating putative
key peptide substrates on tyrosine residues [17].

Fig. 6 Antibacterial activity of biosynthesized silver nanoparticles against Escherichia coli

229
Fig. 7 Antibacterial activity of biosynthesized silver nanoparticles against Pseudomonas aeruginosa

Fig. 8 Antibacterial activity of biosynthesized silver nanoparticles against Staphylococcus aureus

In conclusion, this present study emphasizes the use of Neem leaves (Azadirachta indica) extract for
the synthesis of silver nanoparticles with potential antibacterial effect. This green chemistry
approach has many advantages such as eco-friendly and easily scaled up to large scale synthesis. The
biosynthesized silver nanoparticles from neem leaves were further reduced in particle sizes to 30 nm
by using different processes viz., ultrasonication, high speed centrifugation and high pressure
homogenization with variable process. The synthesized silver nanoparticles were characterized by
UV-Visible spectroscopy, DLS and SEM measurements. Further, the above biosynthesized silver
nanoparticles revealed to possess an effective antibacterial property against Escherichia coli,
Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus. Applications of biosynthesis of silver
nanoparticles based on this research may lead to valuable discoveries in various fields such as
medical devices and antimicrobial systems.
Acknowledgment:The research was supported by the Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana Project and the
experiments were carried out in the Nanotechnology laboratory and also in Quality control
laboratory of the Dept. of Processing and Food Engineering, College of Agricultural Engineering,
Raichur.
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7. Vithiya K, Sen S (2011) Biosynthesis of nanoparticles. Int J Pharm Sci Res 2(11): 2781-2785.
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using extract of Neem leaf and Triphala and evaluation of their antimicrobial activities. Int J
Pharm Bio Sci 3(3):88 – 100.
9. Barkat A, Mujeeb M, Samim M, Shashikant V (2014) Biosynthesis of Silver Nanoparticles
Using Callus Extract of Catharanthus roseus var. alba and Assessment of Its Antimicrobial
Activity. British J. Pharm. Res. 4(13): 1591-1603.
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Plants. Int. J. Nanomaterials and Biostructures 2(4):60-64.Doi: 20.12/v.2i4.2
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13. Ning Y, Weihong L (2013) Mango peel extract mediated novel route for synthesis of silver
nanoparticles and antibacterial application of silver nanoparticles loaded onto non-woven
fabrics. Ind Crops Products 48: 81– 88. Doi:10.1007/2/Fs13204/015/0401-2.
14. Gnanadhas G, Mahendran V, Kanniah P, Shanmugam R, Chelladurai M, Gurusamy A,
Cellapandian K (2013) Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using millingtonia hortensis and
evaluation of their antimicrobial efficacy. Int J Nanomaterials Biostructures 3(1):21-25.
15. Ericka R, Ramon I, Rosa E, Ronaldo HU, Judith TC, Amir M (2013) Synthesis of silver
nanoparticles using reducing agents obtained from natural sources (Rumex hymenosepalus
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276X-8-318

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 Physico-chemical properties of donkey milk
Madhusudan Nayak, C., Ramachandra, C. T., Udaykumar Nidoni,
Sharanagouda Hiregoudar, Nagraj Naik and Jagjivan Ram
Department of Processing and Food Engineering, College of Agricultural Engineering,
University of Agricultural Sciences, Raichur 584 104, Karnataka, India
Correspondent Email: nayaka.nayakas.madhu@gmail.com

Abstract: The present study was carried out on donkey milk samples of Large white breed to evaluate the
physico-chemical properties such as moisture content, solid not fat, fat, protein, lactose, ash, pH, titratable
acidity, L*, a*, b*, water activity, lysozyme, particle size and minerals. The study revealed that average physico-
chemical properties of donkey milk viz. moisture content, solid not fat, fat, protein, lactose, ash, pH, titratable
acidity, L*, a*, b*, water activity, particle size, calcium, chromium, copper, iron, magnesium, potassium, sodium
and zinc were 89.75% (w.b.), 8.68%, 1.57%, 1.84%, 6.53%, 0.31%, 7.12, 0.051, 88.90, -1.76, 4.96, 0.97 and
1194.00 mg.L-1, 374.40 d.nm, 403.38, 0.15, 0.39, 3.39, 122.30, 1050.94, 311.46 and 30.74 mg.L-1, respectively.
Keywords: Fat, Lactose, Lysozyme, Minerals and Protein.
Introduction: India stands 8th position in donkey population of 3,00,000, after China, Pakistan, Iran, Afghanistan,
Yemen, Iraq and Uzbekistan. The donkeys can be used in different ways, mainly as pack animals for load
carriage, many of which are similar to those of the horse, like trekking, meat production, pet therapy and brain
gym, which is a program of physical movements that enhance learning and performance in all areas (Wolfsont,
2002). Donkeys are essential for rural economies in semiarid and mountain areas of the world to perform work
(building material transportation such as stones, sand, tree poles, hay, teff, wheat straw, to fetch water)
(www.atnesa.org). In recent years, donkey milk is gaining a growing interest in human nutrition due to its
distinctive composition and physiological aspects (Fantuz et al., 2001a). Donkey milk has lower content of fat,
protein and inorganic salts, and higher content of lactose in comparison to bovine milk. Low casein content, high
percentage of essential amino acids, protein and lipid profiles similar to those of human milk (Fantuz, 2001b;
Salimei et al., 2004 and Vincenzetti et al., 2008). Donkey milk has a potential to be a new dietetic food and a
good alternative for infant nutrition in the case of cow’s milk protein allergy (CMPA) (Iacono et al., 1992; Monti
et al., 2007 and Vita et al., 2007). Several studies reported that donkey milk active fraction-IV, a fraction of whey
protein with a molecular mass >10 kDa, prevents the anti-inflammatory effect (Ellinger
et al., 2002 and Jirillo et al., 2010) atherosclerosis (Tafaro et al., 2007), anti-proliferative and anti-tumor effect on
human lung cancer cells (Mao et al., 2009). High concentration of polyunsaturated fatty acids, vitamins A, B, C
and low cholesterol level contribute to donkey milk functionality (Solaroli et al., 2009). Lysozyme is the main
protein in donkey milk that plays an important role of fighting infections in breastfeeding infants (Lowe et al.,
2010). Lysozyme is also reported to have other physiological functions, including immune-regulatory activities,
inactivation of viruses against Listeria monocytogenes and Staphylococcus aureus bacteria and it could be
effective in the treatment of listeriosis and staphylococcosis (Ibrahim and Aoki, 2003), donkey milk is proposed
as a nutraceutical food because of bioactive compounds in the diet of infants and patients with atherosclerosis
(Chiofalo et al., 2011). Donkey milk contains a series of anti-microbial factors, and in particular proteins, which
play an important role in the immuno modulatory system for milk. Donkey milk produces beneficial effects on
the gastrointestinal system in people with weak immune systems because of its antimicrobial factors (Gubic et
al., 2015). Donkey milk is now configured as “pharma food” for its nutritional, nutraceutical, and functional
properties. The lack of comprehensive evidence regarding the level of safety and the nutritional value of donkey
milk in Indian large white breed, as well as its potential uses, have been the main focus for this study. Hence, the
objective of the present investigation was to evaluate the physico-chemical properties of donkey milk of Large
white breed for further development of processing equipment, understanding the technological, engineering
design, operation of milk processes and determination of milk microstructures and to know the chemical
reactions occur in donkey milk and donkey milk powder.
Material and Methods
Procurement of donkey milk :Fresh milk from large white breed donkeys was procured from the donkey keepers
of Adoni town, Kurnool Dist. of Andhra Pradesh, India. Milking was performed in the morning hours by selecting

232
four to five donkeys randomly, their teats were washed with clean water prior to milking. The collection of milk
samples was carriedout during August 2016, using clean and sterilized polyethylene terepthalte bottles and
stored at freezing temperature of -20±1 °C (Renzo et al., 2013) before further experimentation. The physico-
chemical properties and minerals of fresh donkey milk collected from large white breeds were determined by
following standard methods.
Determination of physico-chemical properties of donkey milk: The moisture content of donkey milk was
determined by hot air oven method No.990.20 (AOAC, 2005). Fat was determined by the Gerber method
No.2000.18 (AOAC, 2005). Solids-not-fat was calculated by method No.990.21 (AOAC, 2005). The nitrogen
content was estimated by Kjeldahl’s method No.991.20 (AOAC, 2005). The total ash content was determined at
550 °C for 5 h by muffle furnace No.925.23 (AOAC, 2005). Titratable acidity was determined by the method
No.947.05 (AOAC, 2005). The lactose content was determined by difference method No.1656 (I.S, 1997).
Lactose (%) = 100 - (moisture content + fat + protein + ash) ... (1)
The pH of donkey milk was measured using digital pH meter. Hunter lab colourimeter was used for the
measurement of colour of fresh donkey milk. The L* is the lightness coefficient, ranging from 0 (black) to
100 (white), a* represents greenness and redness (+100 for red and -80 for green) while b* represents
yellowness and blueness (+70 for yellow and -80 for blue). The water activity of donkey milk was
measured by water activity analyzer at a room temperature (Model: aw-HP23) (Ravula and Ramachandra,
2016). Lysozyme in donkey milk samples was determined by ultra high pressure liquid chromatography
(Vincenzetti et al., 2008). Particle size measurement was performed by Zetasizer (Park et al., 2007).
Minerals were determined by Inductively coupled-plasma mass spectrometry (Ammann, 2007; Parson and
Barbosa, 2007).
Results and Discussion
Table 1. Physico-chemical properties of donkey milk of large white breed
Sl. No. Composition Range Mean values SD CV SEm±

1 Moisture content (%, w.b.) 89.69-89.82 89.75 0.04 0.04 0.02

2 Solids not fat, SNF (%) 8.63-8.72 8.68 0.03 0.33 0.01
3 Fat (%) 1.55-1.61 1.57 0.02 1.41 0.009

4 Protein (%) 1.81-1.88 1.84 0.03 1.35 0.01

5 Lactose (%) 6.46-6.60 6.53 0.05 0.72 0.02

6 Ash (%) 0.28-0.33 0.31 0.02 4.94 0.006

7 pH 7.06-7.16 7.12 0.04 0.55 0.02

8 Titratable acidity 0.04-0.05 0.051 0.002 4.28 0.001

*
L 88.82-88.94 88.9 0.04 0.04 0.02
*
9 a 1.74-1.78 -1.76 0.02 -0.89 0.006
*
b 4.94-4.98 4.96 0.02 0.30 0.006

10 Water activity (aw) 0.96-0.98 0.97 0.006 0.64 0.003

-1
11 Lysozyme (mg.L ) 1192-1196 1194.00 1.63 0.14 0.94
12 Particle size (d.nm) 373.60-375.20 374.40 0.65 0.17 0.38

SD= Standard Deviation; CV= Coefficient of Variation

Physico-chemical properties of donkey milk: The physico-chemical properties of donkey milk samples are
presented in Table 1. The moisture content of donkey milk sample was found to be 89.75% (w.b.). The
results were in good agreement with the literature values of Swar (2011), Aurelia et al. (2016) and Koutab
et al. (2016) who reported the moisture content of donkey milk as 89.80, 89.45 and 90.35% (w.b.),
respectively. The significant variation of moisture content with respect to literature values and present
investigation might be due to the season of milking, donkey primiparous, multiparous, pluriparous, and
stages of lactation reported by Aurelia et al. (2016). The SNF content of donkey milk was found to be
8.68%. The results obtained were relatively lower than the earlier studies reported by Nikkhah (2011), as

233
9.00% of SNF, whereas Salimei et al. (2004) reported the lower value of SNF content in donkey milk as
8.46%. The average fat content of donkey milk was found to be 1.57%. The results obtained were higher
than the earlier studies of Salimei et al. (2004), Rathore et al. (2011) and
Koutab et al. (2016) reported the fat content of donkey milk as 0.38 % in Italy, 0.38% in Rajasthan, India
and 0.80% in Cluj country for donkey milk. Swar, (2011) reported the higher values of fat content in
donkey milk as 2.00% in Sudan. There was relatively higher variation in fat content in donkey milk, it might
be due to the season of milking, age of animal, donkey primiparous, multiparous and pluriparous (Aurelia
et al., 2016) and also stage of lactation (Salimei et al., 2004 and Cosentino et al., 2012 ). The average
protein content of donkey milk was found to be 1.84%. Malissiova et al. (2016) in Greece, Rathore et al.
(2011), Swar (2011) and Polidoriet al. (2009) in Italy reported that the protein in donkey milk as 1.22, 1.72,
1.50and1.50to1.80%,respectively. Aurelia et al. (2016) in Romania studied the protein content in
multiparous donkey milk in the season of summer and winter are reported as 1.96 and1.85%, respectively.
The variation in protein content with respect to literature values might be due to the influence of season
(Aurelia et al. 2016) and days of lactation (Salimei et al. 2004). The lactose content of donkey milk was
found to be 6.53%. The results were similar to those stated by Swar (2011), Rathore et al. (2011), Chiavari
etal.(2005)inItalyand Koutab et al. (2016) reported the lactose content in donkey milk as 6.30, 6.88, 6.73,
and 6.40, respectively. Lactose content in Ragusana breed of donkey milk in Italy, at autumn, winter,
spring and summer seasons were 6.30±0.1%, 6.60±0.2%, 6.20±0.2% and 6.60±0.2%, respectively, as
reported by Giosue (2008).The variation of lactose content with respect to literature values might be due
totheseasonofmilking,ageofananimal,donkeymultieven(Aurelia et al., 2016) and also breed. The ash
content of donkey milk was found to be 0.31%. Similar results were reported by Swar (2011), Koutab et al.
(2016) and Salimei et al. (2004) for ash content in donkey milk as 0.40, 0.39 and 0.32%. Significant
variation was found in the ash content of donkey milk, it might be due to influence of stage of lactation,
foaling season and age of animal (Cosentino et al., 2012) and also type of feeding ratio or grazing. The pH
of donkey milk was found to be 7.12. Cosentino et al. (2012) reported the pH of donkey milk in different
lactation stages of 30, 60, 90, 120 and 150th day in the spring season as 7.29, 7.21, 7.38, 7.15, 7.29 and in
summer season it was 7.48, 7.38, 7.20, 7.33 and 7.55, respectively. Significantly higher variation was found
for the pH content of donkey milk, it might be due to days of post foaling, season and stages of lactation
(Cosentino et al., 2012), donkey primiparous, multiparous and pluriparous (Aurelia et al., 2016). The
titratable acidity of donkey milk was found to be 0.051. The results obtained were higher than the earlier
studiesof Salimei et al. (2004) as 0.06%. Cosentino et al. (2012) reported the titratable acidity of donkey
milk in Italy, in different lactation stages at 30, 60, 90, 120 and 150th day in the spring season was 0.06,
0.052, 0.0506, 0.061, 0.045 and in summer season it was 0.056, 0.045, 0.056, 0.060 and 0.056,
respectively. Significant variation was found between the literature values it might be due to the lower
casein and phosphate contents in the milk samples as reported by
Salimei et al. (2004). The colour values viz., L*, a* and b* of donkey milk were found to be 88.90, -1.76 and
4.96, respectively and the values were comparable with Kneifel, (1992) for pasteurized cow milk with <1%
fat content were 81.8, -4.8 and 4.1, respectively. The variation of colour values might be due to the lack of
β-carotene (Ravula and Ramachandra, 2016), and also handling and storage conditions of fresh milk. The
aw of donkey milk was found to be 0.97. Similar results of aw value was obtained for Osmanabadi goat milk
as 0.95±0.01 (Reddy et al., 2014). Significant variation of aw between the present investigation and
literature values might be due to variation of complex of biochemical compositions in the milk samples
(Parekh and Subhash, 2008). Lysozyme is an antimicrobial agent, helps in function of infant’s digestive
tract to reduce the incidence of gastrointestinal infections. The average lysozyme content of donkey milk
was found to be 1194 mg.L-1. Similar results were reported by Vincenzetti et al. (2008), Cosentino et al.
(2016), Saric et al. (2014) and Massouras et al. (2017) for donkey milk lysozyme content as 1000, 1089.58,
670-3540 and 1200-2540 mg.L-1, respectively. Gubic et al. (2014) reported the lysozyme content as 2970
mg.L-1 at 45th day and 1040 mg.L-1 at the 280th days of lactation in donkey milk of domestic Balkan breed in
Serbia of southeast Europe. There was higher significant variation was found between the literature
values, it might be due to the stage of lactation as reported by Gubic et al. (2014). Particle size of milk
sample gives valuable information about colloidal systems (Beliciu and Moraru, 2009). Determination of

234
fat globule size is one of the determinants helping to work out optimal parameters for homogenization of
a given product, as well as to carry out an evaluation of its efficiency directly after production and during
storage (Nowak et al., 2017). Average particle size of fresh donkey milk sample was 374.40 d.nm at
95.90% intensity and it confirms that equal distribution of particles. Size distribution of fresh donkey milk
has the shape of a lognormal distribution with monomodal, referred to two peaks as reported by Stocker
et al. (2016). Attaie and Richtert (2000) reported the particle size of cow and goat milk as 0.92 to 15.75,
0.73-8.58 μm whereas in colostrum whey milk, it was 129.7 to 148 nm in diameter reported by Sats et al.
(2014). The significant variation of present values might be due to difference of fat content in the milk
sample (Sats et al., 2014), physiological status, disease incidences and stages of lactation (Mootse et al.,
2014). The minerals of donkey milk samples are presented in Table 2. The minerals (23 No.) of fresh
donkey milk viz., silver, aluminium, boron, barium, bismuth, calcium, cadmium, cobalt, chromium, copper,
iron, gallium, indium, potassium, lithium, magnesium, manganese, sodium, nickel, lead, strontium,
thallium and zinc were 0.00, 9.46, N.D, 0.19, 0.00, 403.48, 0.01, 0.01, 0.15, 0.39, 3.39, 0.03, 0.00, 1050.94,
0.02, 122.30, 0.31, 311.46, 0.02, 0.09, 3.86, 0.00 and 30.74 mg. L-1, respectively. The results obtained were
higher than the earlier studies of Salimei et al. (2004), Fantuz et al. (2012) at Italy, who reported the K, Na
and Mg content of (497.2 and 746.61), (218.3 and 140.94), (37.3 and 81.68) mg.L-1 and lower content of Ca
is 676.7 and 807.9 mg.L-1. There is higher variation of results obtained in the studies of Potorti et al. (2013)
for donkey milk in three different farms in Italy, the Cu, Fe, Mn, Zn, Cd, Ni, Pb and Cr content were
Table 2. Minerals of donkey milk of large white breed
Sl. No. Minerals Mean values (mg.L-1)
1 Silver 0.00
2 Aluminium 9.46
3 Boron N.D
4 Barium 0.19
5 Bismuth 0.00
6 Calcium 403.48
7 Cadmium 0.01
8 Cobalt 0.01
9 Chromium 0.15
10 Copper 0.39
11 Iron 3.39
12 Gallium 0.03
13 Indium 0.00
14 Potassium 1050.94
15 Lithium 0.02
16 Magnesium 122.30
17 Manganese 0.31
18 Sodium 311.46
19 Nickel 0.02
20 Lead 0.09
21 Strontium 3.86
22 Thallium 0.00
23 Zinc 30.74
N.D: Not Detected

(0.125±0.070, 0.165±0.058, 0.199±0.124), (1.633±0.509, 2.220±1.179, 0.733±0.197), (0.024±0.013,

0.046±0.018, 0.010±0.001), (4.567±0.469, 2.419±0.352, 1.403±0.627), (3.96±2.93, 11.19±5.58, 5.04±1.03),
(36.00±26.00, 30.00±15.00, 350.00±18.00), (9.77±14.38, 13.11±4.76, 18.11±5.88) and <1.21 mg.L-1, an
average with respect to different composition of feeding to the Italian donkeys of three different farms.
The significant variation of values to the present study might be due to the difference in forage, feed

235
composition and environmental conditions (Potorti et al., 2013).
Conclusions: The present study was carried out on donkey milk samples of large white breed to evaluate
the physico-chemical properties such as moisture content, solid not fat, fat, protein, lactose, ash, pH,
titratable acidity, L*, a*, b*, water activity, lysozyme, particle size and minerals. The study revealed that
average physico-chemical properties of donkey milk viz. moisture content, solid not fat, fat, protein,
lactose, ash, pH, titratable acidity, L*, a*, b*, water activity, particle size, calcium, chromium, copper, iron,
magnesium, potassium, sodium and zinc were 89.75% (w.b.), 8.68%, 1.57%, 1.84%, 6.53%, 0.31%, 7.12,
0.051, 88.90, -1.76, 4.96, 0.97 and 1194.00 mg.L-1, 374.40 d.nm, 403.38, 0.15, 0.39, 3.39, 122.30, 1050.94,
311.46 and 30.74 mg.L-1, respectively. The observed result on physico-chemical properties of donkey milk
of large white breed produces nutritious milk. The result could contribute to the overall knowledge of
donkey milk as a food source, pharmaceutical and cosmetic industry. The composition of donkey milk may
vary with breeds, feeding ratio, lactation stage, primiparous and multiparous, climatic conditions and
physiological status of donkey health. The milk can be used to infants, young and elder people and also it
could be considered as alternative source to infants who are deprived and allergic to cow’s milk.
Availability of donkey milk is limited to particular places hence, development of milk powder from donkey
milk makes availability of donkey milk powder in all the places where there is need.
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 Effect of Crop-Machine Parameters on Energy Consumption of a Garlic
Peeling Machine
M Manjunatha and BA Anand
College of Agril Engg, UAS, GKVK, Bangalore-65
Email: drmanjunatham9@yahoo.com
Abstract: Effect of crop-machine parameters on energy consumption (EC) was observed with the
developed garlic peeler having capacity of about 27 kg/h. Crop-machine parameters viz., cylinder
speed (29, 36 and 42 rpm), cylinder-concave clearance (8, 10 and 12 mm), moisture content (23.05,
27.75, 33.40 and 40.50% w.b.) and concave mechanism (MS Square wire mesh 8×8 screen, Square
wire mesh 4×4 screen and concave-3 plastic square mesh 3×3 screen) were used to see the effect on
energy consumption. Garlic segments were dried partially as a pretreatment prior to machine
peeling with an intention to reduce EC and to increase garlic peeling efficiency. Statistical analysis
showed that cylinder speed had maximum influence on EC followed by moisture content, cylinder-
concave clearance and concave mechanism. All the crop-machine parameters influenced EC
significantly at 5% level of significance. Second order interactions were significant, for the energy
consumption, only in cases where speed was associated. Only the cylinder speed×cylinder-concave
clearance×moisture content combination, among the higher order interactions, influenced EC
significantly. The EC was in the range of 1.07 1.28 kW-h.
Introduction: Garlic (Allium sativum L.) processing involves bulb breaking, peeling, dehydration,
grinding, etc. Garlic peeling is one of the most important and essential key unit operations prior to
any subsequent garlic processing activity. Traditional peeling methods such as hand peeling, flame
peeling, oven peeling and chemical peeling consume more time and labor, and cost than mechanical
peeling method. During mechanical peeling, the thin membranous skin, inedible part, is to be
removed off from the garlic segments by applying various principles. Few researchers have
conducted work on mechanical garlic peeling. A manually operated garlic peeler having cylinder and
concave principle was developed by the ICAR-IIHR, Bangalore, India. The garlic peeler demonstrated
with peeling efficiency (79.56%), capacity (11.66 kg/h) and cost of peeling (INR 1.43/kg) [1]. Previous
studies on peeling methods by different researchers have shown that pretreatment (heat treatment
etc.) of garlic segments prior to peeling facilitated the easy removal of peel from the garlic segment.
It was reported that heating garlic bulbs to 40 ºC a few min before processing facilitated skin removal
[2]. Garlic cloves were heated in tray dryer at different temperatures for different periods of time i.e.
60 ºC (30 and 45 min), 65 ºC (30, 45 and 60 min), and 70 º C (15, 30 and 45 min) to remove surface
moisture and to find its effect on peeling efficiency. Results revealed that peeling efficiency (83.41%)
was highest at conditioning temperature of 70 ºC for 30 min [3]. A manually operated green pea
peeler was found suitable to peel the green pea pods (80.2% w.b.) at roller concave clearance of 12
mm and roller speed of 45 rpm [4]. The information on effect of crop-machine parameters on energy
consumption of the garlic peeler appears to be lacking. Energy requirement and a method to reduce
energy consumption is an important parameter among other parameters for design and
development of any agricultural processing machine with the present scenario of available energy as
well as trend of mechanization. Therefore, the present investigation was undertaken to study the
effect of crop-machine parameters viz., moisture content of garlic, concave mechanism, cylinder
speed and cylinder-concave clearance on energy consumption of a garlic peeling machine.
Materials and methods
The crop: The garlic cultivar (G-282) was used for the experiment as this has been identified as a
suitable variety for processing [5]. The fresh, well matured and cured garlic bulbs were procured
from market. The material was packed in glass vessel and kept in cold storage (at 2 ºC and 65%
relative humidity) until use. Uniform sized garlic bulbs were selected and broken off by hand to get
garlic segments which were then graded manually after blowing the thin papery skin.
Moisture content: Moisture content of the garlic segments was determined by convection method

239
as suggested by Madamba et al. [6]. The garlic segments were peeled and sliced into small pieces.
Three samples of 15 g each were weighed and placed in moisture boxes. The samples were heated
(100±0.5 °C) until constant weight was obtained, then the samples were cooled in desiccators and
weighed in electronic balance having accuracy of 0.001 g. The moisture content of garlic was
expressed as % wet basis (w.b.).
Fabrication of garlic peeler: A power operated garlic peeler consisted of feed hopper, cylinder-
concave unit, blower and power transmission system was fabricated. The feed hopper with
rectangular top and trapezoidal bottom type was made from mild steel sheet (MS) of 18 gauge and it
was mounted on the cylinder-concave unit to feed garlic into peeling unit. The cylinder was made up
of 244 mm diameter mild steel hollow pipe having a thickness of 4 mm. The length of cylinder was
357 mm with both ends closed. The outer surface of the cylinder was coated with 5 mm thick high
quality semi hard white rubber (IRHD Shore-A55, International Rubber Hardness Durometer). The
concave-1, concave-2 and concave-3 made with MS square mesh (8×8 screen), MS square mesh (4×4
screen) and plastic square mesh (3×3 screen), respectively were used for the experiment. The
topside of cylinder which was not covered by concave was covered with 1 mm thick sheet and bolted
to the frame of the machine. The cylinder and concave unit was positioned below the feed hopper
horizontally and supported by an angle frame. The cylinder-concave clearance was varied with the
help of a nut and screw mechanism provided beneath concave supported by frame of the machine.
The cylinder-concave clearance was varied from 20 to 24 mm at inlet (top side) and from 8 to 12 mm
at outlet (bottom side). Peel cleaning was done with the help of blower. Two 2 hp single phase
alternating current (AC) motors having 1440 rpm were used to drive cylinder and blower separately
for experiment. A gear reduction, a step pulley and v-belts were used to vary the cylinder speed. One
mm thick MS sheet curved to the shape of similar and slightly larger curvature than that of concave
screen and provided beneath the concave screen to support it. By this arrangement, the concave
could be removed, cleaned and replaced easily and quickly.
Pretreatment: Manually sorted and graded segments were partially dried as pretreatment at 60 °C in
tray drier for different air drying periods (0, 15, 30 and 45 min) prior to machine peeling. The
corresponding moisture contents on drying were 40.50, 33.40, 27.75, and 23.05% w.b. Single layer
of garlic segment was maintained during drying.
Test procedure for experiment :The test on experimental garlic peeler was conducted using garlic
variety G-282 as this has identified as a suitable variety for processing and export purpose [7]. While
testing, the peeler was installed on level ground and operated at no load to ensure that each
component of the peeler was working properly. For each test, five kg of sample was fed into the
hopper at a feed rate of about 27 kg/h. Three replications were taken at each combination of
variables.
Power transmission and energy consumption: The power was provided by AC electric motors. Two
AC motors of same capacity (2 horse power, single phase, 1440 rpm) were used for the experimental
testing of the peeler. A gear reduction (1:40) and a three step pulley was used to vary the speed of
the roller. Two pulleys (35 mm diameter each) were used to connect the shafts of motor and gear
reduction with the help of v-belt. The roller was provided with three different speeds with the help
of a step pulley (30, 35, and 43 mm diameter) connected and driven by 35 mm diameter pulley
mounted on gear reduction unit. The blower was driven by 2 hp motor at 1200 rpm. The electrical
circuit consisted of digital energy meter to measure energy consumed by the peeler. The energy
requirement was calculated by measuring energy consumption of the peeler with the help of a single
phase digital energy meter. The difference between the final and initial energy meter readings was
recorded to calculate the energy consumption. The energy consumption per unit quantity of peeled
garlic was calculated with all the crop-machine parameters.
Statistical analysis: The data on energy consumption with crop-machine variables were analyzed
with the help of Microsoft Excel and General Linear Model (GLM) procedure of Statistical Analysis
System (SAS). Artificially created randomized block design was used. Analysis of variance (ANOVA)

240
was done for the performance corresponding to the different levels of variables.
Results and discussion

Table 1. Analysis of variance for energy consumption

Source DF Mean square F-Value Pr > F

N 2 0.38 1698.13 S
C 2 0.0018 8.44 S
G 2 0.02374 105.96 S
M 3 0.041 182.55 S
N*C 4 0.0006 2.82 S
N*G 4 0.0014 6.44 S
N*M 6 0.001 4.51 S
C*G 4 0.00007 0.33 NS
C*M 6 0.00027 1.21 NS
G*M 6 0.0003 1.36 NS
N*C*G 8 0.00016 0.72 NS
N*C*M 12 0.00026 1.19 NS
N*G*M 12 0.00041 1.87 S
C*G*M 12 0.00007 0.34 NS
N*C*G*M 24 0.00011 0.50 NS
Model 107 0.00903 40.3 S
Error 216 0.00022 - -
Corrected Total 323 - - -
S=Significant at 5% level; NS=Non-significant at 5% level; DF=Degree of freedom; Pr>F=Predicted
value more than F value; N=Cylinder speed, C=Concave mechanism; G=cylinder-concave clearance, M
=Moisture content.
The ANOVA of the EC for all the tests of the study revealed that the cylinder speed had maximum
influence on EC followed by moisture content, cylinder-concave clearance and concave mechanism.
All the crop-machine parameters influenced EC significantly at 5% level of significance. Second order
interactions were significant, for the energy consumption, only in cases where speed was associated.
Only the cylinder speed×cylinder-concave clearance×moisture content combination, among the
higher order interactions, influenced EC significantly.The average values of EC at different crop-
machine parameters are shown in the Table 2. Minimum, maximum and average values of EC at
different crop-machine parameters tabulated in the Table 3. The lowest EC (1.07 kW-h) was observed
with the combinations N1×C1×G3 and N1×C3×G3 at moisture content of 23.05 % w.b. The highest EC
(1.28 kW-h) was observed with the combination N3×C2×G1 at moisture content of 40.50 % w.b.
Effect of crop-machine parameters on energy consumption: The energy consumption (EC) was an
important criterion for performance evaluation of garlic peeler at different crop-machine
parameters. The analysis of variance (ANOVA) of the EC at different crop-machine parameters is
summarized in Table 1.
Table 2. Mean values of energy consumption at different crop-machine parameters
Moisture content, % w.b.
Treatment
23.05 27.75 33.40 40.50
N1C1G1 1.09 1.10 1.12 1.14
N1C2G1 1.10 1.11 1.13 1.15
N1C3G1 1.09 1.10 1.12 1.14
N2C1G1 1.15 1.16 1.18 1.19
N2C2G1 1.17 1.18 1.20 1.21
N2C3G1 1.15 1.16 1.18 1.19
N3C1G1 1.22 1.23 1.25 1.27

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 N3C2G1 1.23 1.24 1.26 1.28
N3C3G1 1.22 1.23 1.25 1.27
N1C1G2 1.08 1.09 1.12 1.13
N1C2G2 1.08 1.10 1.13 1.14
N1C3G2 1.08 1.09 1.12 1.13
N2C1G2 1.14 1.16 1.17 1.18
N2C2G2 1.15 1.16 1.17 1.19
N2C3G2 1.14 1.15 1.17 1.18
N3C1G2 1.20 1.21 1.22 1.25
N3C2G2 1.19 1.21 1.23 1.26
N3C3G2 1.18 1.20 1.21 1.25
N1C1G3 1.07 1.08 1.10 1.11
N1C2G3 1.08 1.09 1.10 1.12
N1C3G3 1.07 1.08 1.10 1.11
N2C1G3 1.11 1.14 1.15 1.17
N2C2G3 1.12 1.14 1.16 1.18
N2C3G3 1.12 1.14 1.15 1.17
N3C1G3 1.18 1.19 1.21 1.24
N3C2G3 1.18 1.20 1.21 1.25
N3C3G3 1.17 1.18 1.20 1.24
Critical difference at 5 % level of significance for N×C×G×M=0.023
M=Moisture content (4 levels); C=Concave mechanism (C1=MS Square wire mesh 8×8 screen, C2=MS Square
wire mesh 4×4 screen, C3=plastic square mesh 3×3 screen); G=Cylinder-Concave clearance (G1=8 mm, G2=10
mm, G3=12 mm); N=Cylinder speed (N1=29 rpm, N2=36 rpm, N3=42 rpm);
The EC was increased with increase in speed and moisture content. The loosened peel of garlic on
drying (pretreatment) was the main reason to consume less energy at lower moisture content. The
EC was increased with decrease in cylinder-concave clearance due to more compression and shear
force between garlic segments and cylinder and as well as garlic segments and concave mechanism
at lower clearance.
Table 3. Energy consumption at different crop-machine parameters
Energy consumption, kW-h
Level of variables
Minimum Maximum Average
1. Moisture content, % w.b.
40.50 1.11 1.28 1.20
33.40 1.10 1.26 1.18
27.75 1.08 1.24 1.16
23.05 1.07 1.23 1.15
2. Concave mechanism
C1 1.07 1.27 1.17
C2 1.08 1.28 1.18
C3 1.07 1.27 1.17
3. Cylinder speed, rpm
29 1.07 1.15 1.11
36 1.11 1.21 1.16
42 1.17 1.28 1.23
4. Cylinder-concave clearance, mm
08.00 1.09 1.28 1.19
10.00 1.08 1.26 1.17
12.00 1.07 1.25 1.16
C1=MS Square wire mesh 8×8 screen; C2=MS Square wire mesh 4×4 screen; C3=Plastic square mesh 3×3
screen; kW-h=Kilowatt hour
The EC by concave-2 (MS Square wire mesh 4×4 screen) was slightly higher (Table 2 and 3) than the
EC by concave-1 (MS Square wire mesh 8×8 screen) and concave-3 plastic square mesh 3×3 screen)
due to difference in aperture size, number of openings per unit size and surface characteristics of the

242
concave mechanism. More contact time between apex (pointed) ends of garlic segments and
concave-2 (more aperture size and less openings) could be the reason to consume more energy than
concave-1. More surface smoothness of the concave-3 could be the reason to consume less energy
though concave-3 had more aperture size and fewer openings as compared to concave-1 and
concave-2.From the results it was observed that the differences in EC due to change in moisture
content, clearance and change in concave mechanism were very small as compared to the difference
in EC due to change in speed. From the overall observations it could be concluded that the EC
increased directly with speed, decreased with a reduction in moisture content and concave
clearance. The concave-2 (MS Square wire mesh 4×4 screen) consumed slightly more energy than the
other concaves.
Conclusions: Statistical analysis showed that cylinder speed had maximum influence on energy
consumption (EC) followed by moisture content, cylinder-concave clearance and concave
mechanism. The lowest EC (1.07 kW-h) was observed with the combinations N1×C1×G3 and
N1×C3×G3 at moisture content of 23.05 % w.b. The highest EC (1.28 kW-h) was observed with the
combination N3×C2×G1 at moisture content of 40.50 % w.b. The concave-2 (MS Square wire mesh
4×4 screen) consumed slightly more energy than the other concaves used for the experiment. From
the overall observations it could be concluded that the energy consumption increased directly with
speed, decreased with decrease in moisture content and concave clearance.
References
[1] Anon. Annual workshop report of AICRP on PHT, Maharana Pratap University of Agriculture and
Technology, Udaipur, Rajastan, India, 2005;23-30.
[2] Constenla DT and Lozano JE. Effect of pretreatments and processing conditions on the chemical,
physical, microbiological and sensory characteristics of garlic paste. J of Food Process Eng
2005;28(3): 313.
[3] Umesha. Evaluation of garlic peeler and storage studies on peeled garlic. M.Tech. Thesis.
University of Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore, India, 2005.
[4] Sharma SK, Madhyan BL. Development and evaluation of green pea peeler. J. Agric Eng
1988;25(3):63-68.
[5] Anon. Garlic cultivation in India. Technical Bulletin No. 7, National Horticultural Reasearch and
Development Foundation (NHRDF), Nasik, India, 2001.
[6] Madamba PS, Driscoll RH, Buckle KA. Moisture content determination of garlic by convection
oven method. ASEAN Food J 1993;8(2):81-83.
[7] Anon. Garlic cultivation in India. Technical Bulletin No. 7, National Horticultural Reasearch and
Development Foundation (NHRDF), Nasik, India, 2001.

243
 Performance Evaluation of Composite Peeler cum Juice Extractor for Kinnow
and Sweet Orange
Manoj Kumar Mahawar, Kirti Jalgaonkarand Bibwe Bhushan
Horticultural Crop Processing Division, ICAR-CIPHET Abohar (Punjab), India-152116
Email : manojmahawar362@gmail.com
Abstract: A composite peeler cum juice extractor was designed and developed for simultaneous
peeling and juice extraction of kinnow and sweet orange fruits. Based on the recommended design
and prior optimization of operational parameters for peeling of both the frutis, a functional
prototype was developed. Major components of the machine includes, spur gear assembly of (Φ101
mm and Φ 76 mm), two fruit holders (Φ 30 mm), revolving shaft with length 570 mm, clearance of
the tool for peeling 25 mm and knife with length 80 mm, respectively. This peeler was operated
using a motor (0.5 HP, 1440 rpm) and using the gear assembly. The juice extractor was also fitted
with aconical hopper having flattened base in order to facilitate the juice extraction of peeled
fruits.For performance evaluation, the indepdendent parameter was taken as fruit rotation speed
and was varied at 220, 260, 280, 300, 360 rpm, whereas peeling time (s), peeling efficiency (%),
weight of peel remained on fruit (g) and amount of juice (%) were taken as dependent
parameters.The machine gave best performance at fruit rotational speed of 220 rpm (kinnow) and
260 rpm (sweet orange), respectively. For kinnow, the peeling and juicing operation requires 40-60
s/kg of fruit and for sweet orange, it requires 60-70 s/kg of fruit. This composite peeling cum juice
extractor machine can finds its applicability in cottage fruit processing industries as well as for the
domestic juice sellers.
Keywords: Composite peeler, kinnow, sweet orange, juice extractor
Introduction:Kinnow comes in ‘Mandarin’ group of citrus fruits which is produced prominently in
India and Pakistan. The fruit was initially developed at University of California Citrus Experiment
Station in the year 1935 (Rashid et al., 2005) and was introduced in India during early 1940’s (Singh
et al., 1978). Kinnow is a hybrid of two citrus cultivars namely 'King' (Citrus nobilis) and 'Willow Leaf '
mandarin (Citrus deliciosa) (Sharma et al., 2007). In India, the production of orange group including
mandarin and kinnow was about 4.75 million tonnes that has been obtained from an area of 0.43
million hectares (Anonymous, 2018). Sweet orange (Citrus sinensisL. Osbeck.) also belongs to citrus
fruits and it contributes 71% of the total citrus production in the world. Brazil is largest producer of
sweet orange, while India stands 3rdin production of sweet orange under the area of 0.323 Mha and
with annual production of 3.52 million MT (National Horticultural Database, 2014).The major sweet
orange growing states in India are Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Punjab,
Rajasthan, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh.The ideal season for cultivation of sweet orange is from July to
September.Among the 3 Citrus species (Mandarin, Sweet oranges and Acid lime), 60% area is under
mandarins, 25% is under sweet oranges and the remaining 15% is under acid limes and other citrus
fruits like lemons,pummelos andgrape fruits etc. Both these fruits of northern states of India used to
have their peak production during the winter and autumn months and are being processed into
juices by the industry as well as fruit vendors. Most of this processing is in semi-
organized/unorganized sector where, utmost times fruit along with its peel and seeds are crushed
while juice preparation which as a result degrades the quality of juice. This turns out to be a
hindrance for the juice consumption as well as its acceptability. Therefore, it would have been a
better option to remove these components by physical or mechanical means and then proceed
further for juice extraction. Peeling therefore appeared to be necessary for both kinnow and sweet
orange before going for juice extraction. According to Somsenet al. (2004), ideally a peeling process
which removes onlythe skin and surface defects, leaving the rest of the tissueunattached is desirable
in industrial stages. However, peeling such kind of fruits is not an easy task as there are several
problems that can be encountered during theprocess. One of the problems is the round shape of the
fruit which may prevent itfrom rotation during peeling. The thick outer skins demand that it can only
be peeled with sharp toolslike knives, making the process prone to injury to hand. Another problem

244
associated with this kind of manual peeling processis breakage of cellulose juice bearers leading to
the loss of juice. The most common way of peeling sweet orange and kinnow is by use of bare hand
and sharp knifethough frequently resulting to injury. Apart from problem of injury, this manually
based process is limited to lowproductivity per period. Peels,if properly removed can be supplied to
industry for use as raw material for added economic value (Ademoh and Akaba 2015). Since both
sweet orange and kinnow are of commercial importance especially in Abohar (Punjab), and presently
the peeling and juice extraction is done manually. This existing process is laborious and time
consuming, and thus it is necessary to mechanizethe peeling and juicing operation so as to improve
upon the existing food processing techniques. Keeping in view of the above facts, the objective of
this study was to develop a composite peeler cum juice extractor for sweet orange and kinnow with
a capacity suitable for small scale industry/local vendors.
Materials and Methods: A semi-automatic peeler composite juice extractor for kinnow and sweet
orange based on the principle of shearing was conceptualized.
Machine components and their function: Considering the physical properties of both kinnow and
sweet orange, structural requirement and ease of fabrication, the operational and functional design
was conceptualised and prepared. Based on the preliminary studies performed, individual machine
components were finalized and fabricated to the design specifications. The machine components
were then integrated appropriately to obtain a single composite structure. The peeling device was
conceived to have multiple components that are expected to perform thefollowing functions as
listed below:
 Fruit holders: The two holders (Φ 30 mm) would function as arms that firmly hold and support the
fruit to be peeled. Two set of hexa blades are fitted in the holders so as to facilitate in firmly
holding of fruit while peeling. Both the holders are fitted parallel to each other. One holder is fixed
position and the other one will perform the needed hortizontal placement for keeping the fruit.
Both the holders rotates in clockwise direction when connected with power source. This adjustable
holder is connected to a arm that can be perform linear motions for fruit placement to adjust and
support different sizes and shapes of fruits. The holders are connected to a system of spurgears
which are mounted on the base.
 Peeling blade:This would be made of a stainless steelso that it does not quickly corrode as it shears
through the fruit peel and get wetted by fluids oozing from outer skin. It will be a thin edged flat
flexible razor-like metal sheet that can readily bend and curved into semi-circular shape and
contours as dictated by the shape of the fruit mounted for peeling. The dimensions of the peeling
blade are, 38 mm (diameter), 5 mm (width) and 0.8 mm (thickness). The peeling blade assembly is
fixed on a threaded shaft (572 mm length) which moves in parallel with fruit rotation. The fruit gets
rotated between the holders, and the rotary arm is rotated by a motor and the fruit gets rubbed
against the sharp edge peleing bladeto effect peeling by shearing through skin. Provision is made
for easy removal and replacement of blade whenever it skips, jams up, clogged with peels or gets
worn outand blunt. Two cutting knives were also fitted on a separate shaft for removing the
unpeeled portion from the fruits driven by a lever.
 Power: A motor (Make: Crompton greaves, 0.5 HP, 1440 rpm) is fitted to the systematic
arrangement of pulleys to provide the synchronized and desired motion to the machine
components.
 Set of spur gears: The spur gears system serves as intermediary transmitter of motion between the
shaft connected to the driven pulley and that on which the fruit holders are fitted. The spur gear
train performs the two basic functions of transmitting power and motion. Four spur gears i.e. larger
gear (Φ 102 mm) and smaller gear (Φ76 mm) were combined into the system.
 Machine base: The base will bear and provide structural support/housing for all the component
membersof device including a set of spur gears, motor, juicer, peeled fruit otlet and peel outlet.
The dimesions of the total machine frame is 610×457×762 mm.

245
 Operation of the machine linkages: By the arrangements of the machine component linkages, the
shaft connected to motor provides rotation to the shaft below fruit holders via set of spur gears.
The fruit holder shaft is connected to the thereaded shaft (fitted with peeling blade) with the
assembly of bevel and spur gears.
Design assumptions
 Fruit holder must hold the fruit firmly during peeling and the space between them must be
adjustable according to fruit diameter/grade.
 Shape (width and thickness) of the peeling blade is most important,as it should remove the
peel efficiently with minimum friction and fruit damage.
 After peeling, the fruits must be pressed automatically into the juicer.
 The speed of fruit rotation must be sufficient enough for peeling and the fruit must not drop
out during peeling. Based on the fruit rotation, the range of speed was kept as 220, 260, 280,
300, 360 rpm. Speed lower than 220 rpm and higher than 360 rpm did not work better for
peeling.
 There should be forth and back movement of threaded shaft on which the peeling blade is
mounted so as to enhance the capacity of the machine.
 Frame has sufficient strength for whole system during idle and peeling operations.

Fig 1: Schematic (top view) diagram of composite peeler and juice extractor
(All dimensions are in mm)
Shearing force required for peeling: The average shearing stress was needed to be used as a basis
for analyzing the stress that is required to be overcome by peeling blade. This is determined
analytically by equation given below (Khurmi and Gupta, 2003).

Where, ‘ is shear stress; ‘F’is force to initiate a cut on fruit skin and ‘A’is the area of peeling blade.

246
 Side view of the developed peeler cum juice Three dimensional view of the developed peeler
extractor cum juice extractor
Fig 2: Side view and three dimensional view of the developed peeler cum juice extractor
Performance Evaluation: The developed peeler composite juice extractor was tested as per the
procedure given below.
Material selection: Freshly harvested kinnowand sweet orange fruits were brought from the local
market of Abohar (Punjab), India. The fruits were initially cleaned by washing them with the tap
water before subjecting to peeling operation. The performance was evaluated by manually feeding
of single kinnow or sweet lime fruit at a time.
Performance indicators: The variation in speed of fruit rotation was achieved by making a right
combination of driven and drive pulley. The combination of pulleys to achieve the desired rotation
speed is given below:

Table 1: Combination of pulleys to achieve desired speed

Motor Driven pulley diameter(mm) Drive pulley Resultant speed
specifications diameter(mm) (rpm)
355.6 76.2 220
355.6 63.5 260
1440 rpm and 279.4 63.5 280
0.5 hp 254 63.5 300
254 76.2 360

The developed prototype was evaluated while taking the speed of fruit rotation as independent
variable and the different speeds were achieved by combination of pulleys. For performance
evaluation, the fruit rotation speed was varied at 220, 260, 280, 300, 360 rpm and peeling time (s),
peeling efficiency (%), weight of peel remained on fruit (g) and amount of juice (%) were taken as
dependent parameters.
Peeling efficiency

Percentage peel loss: Peel loss refers to the mass fraction the peel remaining on the fruit after
peeling. This is minor and negligible compared the peel removed by the peeler. The peel loss is
calculated using formula given below:

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Juice loss: Juice is nothing but it is result of friction between fruit and peel cutting blade. The cutting
blade movement is adjusted automatically by providing spring. Because of round shape of fruit small
portion of blade enters in the fruit while peeling and juice loss occurs. The juice loss is calculated by
the formula given below.

Physico-chemical properties of fruits and juice:The physical properties including the fruit
dimensions, thickness of peel was measured by a verniercaliper (Make: Mitutoyo, Japan, ±0.01 mm).
The weight of whole fruit, peeled fruit, flavedo, albedo, pomace, juice were determined by means of
a digital electronic balance (Make: Shimadzu Corporation, Japan, ±0.001 g ). Volume of fruits is
determined by liquid displacement method as followed in determining in true density.Moisture
content of the peel was examined using AOAC 2012,(Method 925.10). Total soluble solid (TSS) and
pH of juice was measured as °Brix using a hand refractometer (Erma, Tokyo, Japan) and pH meter
(Make: Eutech, range: 1-14), respectively. Titratable acidity and ascorbic acid was determined by
method given by Ranganna, 1986. Turbidity of juice is measured using digital turbidity meter (Make:
Systronics, range: 0-1000 NTU).
Cost economics: Cost of the developed machine was estimated by considering the material and
fabrication cost of the components.
Statistical Analysis: The data are presented as mean of 15 replications ± standard deviation
(SD).Univariate analysis in general linear model was done for analysis of variance at 5% level of
significance.
Results and Discussion
Physical properties:The physical properties of both kinnow and sweet orange were evaluated by
following the standard procedures and the data is shown in Table 2.
Table 2: Physical properties of kinnow and sweet orange
S. No Parameters Kinnow Sweet orange F value
1. Fruit weight (g) 177.62±21.1 224.67±21.44 26.58S
2. Fruit volume (ml) 218.40±33.7 261.50±25.02 16.53S
3. Major intercept (mm) 60.00±3.6 72.17±4.49 32.60S
4. Minor intercept (mm) 74.00±4.6 77.36±3.00 2.41S
5. Intermediate intercept (mm) 73.01±4.13 77.14±2.82 9.16S
6. Circumference (mm) 242.12±16.90 246.80±9.28 0.748 NS
7. Bulk density (g/ml) 0.82±0.09 0.86±0.06 2.33NS
8. No. of vesicles 10.60±4.35 10.60±1.35 0.00NS
9. No. of seeds 19.40±9.28 15.60±4.65 3.78NS
10. Weight of flavedo (g) 51.30±21.45 57.44±11.21 2.12NS
11. Weight of albedo (g) 2.54±0.36 4.34±0.85 1.74S
12. Thickness of peel (mm) 4.01±1.72 4.19±0.83 0.36NS
13. Peel (%) 28±0.04 29±0.11 1.60NS
14. Juice (%) 38±0.16 40±0.06 0.64NS
15. Pomace (%) 25±0.11 28±0.15 0.50NS
16. Peel moisture content (% w.b.) 73.36±30.12 70.19±3.69 4.26NS
17. Total soluble solids (°B) 11.30±4.80 7.88±0.49 52.44S
18. pH 4.69±1.92 5.03±0.24 8.013S
19. Juice turbidity (NTU) 227.60±9.30 337.90±8.72 1.23E3S
20. Vitamin C (mg/100g) 2.70±1.24 6.96±0.46 595.22S
Values are mean of 15 replications ± SD

Average shearing force required for peeling: The firmness of kinnow and sweet orange fruits was

248
measured using Texture analyzer. The firmness was 80.41 N and 92.56 N, respectively. The area of
peeling blade was 9mm2 and therefore the average shearing strees was 8.93 N/mm2 (kinnow) and
10.28 N/mm2 (sweet orange), respectively.
Peeling and juice extraction: The graded fruits were subjected to peeling using developed machine
and different performance indicators with respect to kinnow (Table 3) and sweet orange(Table 4)
were recorded. For kinnow, it can be observed that at higher rotational speed (220-260 rpm), the
peeling time decreases (11.97- 6.45 s) and juice loss increased (5.70-14.98 %). Owing to the irregular
roundness of the fruit, variation in the contact area of peeling blade occurred which further results in
increased oozing of juice. The weight of peel remained on fruit (2.00-3.09 %) was linearly associated
with rotational speed. The adequate time and force required for uniform removal of peel is lacking at
higher speed. The peeling efficiency (95.63-90.24) was inversely proportional to the rotational speed.
The average peel thickness obtained during the peeling operation was 1.86 to 3.50 mm. For kinnow,
the peeling and juicing operation requires 40-60 s/kg of fruit.Considering all the parameters, the
optimum fruit rotation speed for kinnow was 220 rpm.
Table 3 : Peeling trials conducted on kinnow
Fruit rotational Peeling time(s) Wt. of peel remained Juice(%) Peeling efficiency(%)
speed(rpm) on fruit (%)
220 11.97 2.00 5.70 95.63
260 10.86 2.71 7.66 94.50
280 8.29 2.85 8.48 93.88
300 7.60 2.92 10.74 90.69
360 6.45 3.09 14.98 90.24

In case of sweet orange also, the peeling time (13.67-8.25 s) decreased and juice loss
increased (6.60-15.74 %) with increase in fruit rotational speed. The weight of peel remained on fruit
(2.16-2.97 %) was linearly associated with rotational speed. Since the flavedo percentage is
compartatively higher in sweet orange than kinnow, the peeling time is higher. Similar to the case in
kinnow, the adequate time and force required for uniform removal of peel is lacking at higher speed.
The peeling efficiency (96.43-95.82) was inversely proportional to the rotational speed (Table 4). The
average peel thickness obtained during the peeling operation was 2.50 to 2.69 mm. For sweet
orange, thepeeling and juicing operation requires 60-70 s/kg of fruit. Considering all the parameters,
the optimum fruit rotation speed for sweet orange was 260 rpm.
Table 4 : Peeling trials conducted on sweet orange
Fruit rotational Peeling time Wt. of peel remained Juice Peeling efficiency
speed(rpm) (s) on fruit (%) (%) (%)
220 13.67 2.16 6.60 96.43
260 11.18 2.58 8.78 99.01
280 9.37 2.72 9.86 97.43
300 8.90 2.80 11.92 99.02
360 8.25 2.97 15.74 95.82

The overall trials suggested that the approximate weight of peeled fruit (55-57%), peel (35-37%) and
juice (6-10 %), for both kinnow and sweet orange. The average thickness of unpeeled portion was
7.25 ± 1.60 mm (kinnow), 10.03 ± 3.04 mm (sweet orange), respectively.

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 Fig. 3 Pictorial view of the peeled kinnow and sweet lime fruits

Fig. 4 : Variation of peeling time, peel remained on fruit, juice percentage and peeling efficiency at
different rotational speed for kinnow

Fig. 5 Variation of peeling time, peel remained on fruit, juice percentage and peeling efficiency at
different rotational speed for sweet orange
Cost analysis: The respective quantity of material used for fabrication was recorded and the
approximate cost was calculated. The details of cost analysis are given in Table 5.

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Table 5: Cost analysis of the developed machine
Material Quantity Amount (Rs.)
M.S. Angle (30×30×3 mm) 1070 mm 170
M.S. Angle (35×35×3 mm) 10640 mm 1680
M. S. Sheet 4885×4055 mm 400
S. S. Sheet 1885×1250 mm 200
M. S. Flat (25×3 mm) 1626 mm 80
M. S. Flat (13×6 mm) 280 mm 15
M. S. Shaft (25 mm diameter) 1372 mm 70
M .S. Shaft (27 mm diameter) 597 mm 30
M. S. Shaft (16 mm diameter) 165 mm 10
S. S. Shaft (30 mm diameter) 635 mm 30
S. S. Shaft (13mm diameter) 254 mm 15
S. S. Shaft (12 mm diameter) 230 mm 10
S. S. Shaft (10 mm diameter) 742 mm 40
S. S. Shaft (6 mm diameter) 508 mm 25
S. S. Pipe (20 mm diameter) 483 mm 25
Motor (0.5 HP 1440 rpm) 1 5000
Spear Gear (36 teeth) 2 300
Spear Gear (30 teeth) 2 300
Bevel Gear (10×16 teeth) 5 900
Pulley (50 mm diameter) 5 1750
Pulley (100 mm diameter) 2 700
Pulley (250 mm diameter) 1 350
Belt (V 46) 1 600
Belt (V 13) 1 100
Belt (V 11) 2 200
Bearing with brackets (204) 6 2100
Bearing (608) 2 500
Bush 4 600
Spring (18 mm) 1 50
Spring (20 mm) 1 50
Spring (13 mm) 1 50
S. S. Knife 2 20
Juicer 1 1300
Peeling Blade Unit 1 (400 g) 20
Sliding Bar Unit 1 (1370 g) 200
Nut Bolt (100× 9 mm) 31 310
Nut Bolt (40×9 mm) 10 100
Nut Bolt (25×9 mm) 12 120
Nut Bolt (50×9 mm) 10 100
Nut Bolt (20×7 mm) 15 150
Fabrication Charges 15000
Total 33670

251
Conclusion: The developed composite peeler composite juice extractor resulted in highest efficiency
for peeling and juice extraction of both the fruits. The machine gave best performance at fruit
rotational speed of 220 rpm (kinnow) and 260 rpm (sweet orange), respectively. For kinnow, the
peeling and juicing operation requires 40-60 s/kg of fruit and for sweet orange, it requires 60-70 s/kg
of fruit. This machine can results in time and cost saving for juice processing industries. The feeding
of fruit can be mechanized and the handling capacity can also be increased for better performance.
References
Ademoh NA, Akaba TA (2015). Development of manually operated orange peeling device for
domestic use. Industrial Engineering Letters.5 (5): 52-63.
Anonymous. (2018). Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare, Government of India.
(https://www.indiastat.com/table/agriculture-data/2/orange-mandarin
kinnow/17439/1116103/data.aspx Accessed on 27.12.2018)
AOAC (2000). Official method of analysis of the Association of Official Analytical Chemists. Seventeen
ed. Washington, DC.
Ranganna S (1986). Handbook of analysis and quality control for fruit and vegetable products. 2. New
Delhi: Tata Mc Graw-Hill Publ. Co. Ltd.
Somsen D,Capelle A, Tramper J (2004).Manufacturing of par-fried French-fries: Part 2: Modelling
yield efficiency of peeling.Journal of Food Engineering. 61(2): 199-207.
Sharma N, Kalra KL, Oberoi HS, Bansal S (2007). Optimization of fermentation parameters for
production of ethanol from kinnow waste and banana peels by simultaneous saccharification
and fermentation, Indian Journal of Microbiology. 47: 310–316.

252
 Soil moisture and soil temperature variation in maize (zea mays L.) as
influenced by different organic mulches and green manuring in alfisols of
eastern dry zone of Karnataka
1 1 2 3 4
Md. Majeed Pasha, K.S. Rajashekarappa, T. Chikkaramappa, K. Devaraja and Thimmegowda M.N.
1
Department of Agricultural Engineering, Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, 3,
2
4
AICRP on Dryland Agriculture Project
University of agricultural sciences, GKVK, Bengaluru-560 065
Email: 786012pasha@gmail.com
Abstract: A field experiment was conducted at Department of Agricultural Engineering, University of
Agricultural Sciences, GKVK, Bengaluru to study the influence of different organic mulches and green
manuring on soil moisture and soil temperature in Alfisolsof eastern dry zone of Karnataka. The study
revealed that the observation are recorded on soil moisture at 0-15 cm and 15-30 cm depth at 60,
75, 90 and 105 DAS. At a same time temperature is recorded at 5 cm and 10 cm depth at 60, 75 and
90 DAS. Growing sun hemp in between maize rows as intercrop and incorporating as insitu green
manuring resulted in better soil moisture at 15 cm depth ( 14.53, 16.21, 15.87 and 15.03 %) compare
to other treatments. The similar trend of soil moisture at 30 cm depth recorded as (16.13, 19.03,
19.42 and 18.23 percent). The soil temperature at 5 cm depth (22.83, 22.57 and 25.43 °C ) at 10 cm
depth (23.50, 24.27 and 26.07 °C) recorded in the same treatment.
Key words: Soil Moisture, Green Manuring, and Maize
Introduction : The biggest challenge in present day in agriculture is to produce more food grains per
drop of water to feed the global population from the very limited natural water resources without
deterioration of land, water and environment under changing climatic condition. India is the seventh-
largest country by area (2.4 per cent of the world area and second-most populated 1.32 billion
people constituting 17.74 per cent of the world population) of the world, is expected to produce 350
mt of food grain by the year 2050. Presently, India’s total food grain production is 276.5 mt out of
which 9 per cent (22.23 mt) is contributed by maize crop. In Karnataka, maize is grown over an area
of 1.18 million hectares with production of 3.27 million tonnes and average productivity of 27.73 q
ha-1 (Anon., 2016). In our state most of the traditional crops like cotton, groundnut, ragi, sorgum
have been replaced by maize. Soil moisture is one of the major factor limiting crop production under
rain fed situation, suitable conservation measures lead to higher yields. Maize is most exhaustive
crop and depletes the soil moisture and nutrients resulting in loss of productivity.Mulching is
effective in conserving soil moisture, reducing evaporation and regulating soil temperature (Ratan,
2004). The use of green manure cover crops (GMCC) is one of the low cost technology, which helps in
improving soil fertility. Green manure cover crops have several advantages, among them, regulating
soil surface temperatures due to their higher surface ground cover, increasing soil organic matter
content to the soil thus improving soil physical properties, controlling soil erosion and conserving soil
(Buckles et al., 1998).
Material and Methods
A field experiment was conducted at Department of Agricultural Engineering, University of
Agricultural Sciences, GKVK, Bengaluru to study the influence of different organic mulches and green
manuring on soil moisture and soil temperature in Alfisolsof eastern dry zone of
Karnataka.Composite soil sample from 0-30 cm depth was collected randomly from the experimental
area before sowing of the crop. The soil was red sandy loam in texture and slightly acidic in reaction
(pH 5.80) with electrical conductivity was 0.15 dsm-1, medium in soil organic carbon (0.42 per cent)
and low in available nitrogen (159 kg ha-1) and medium in available phosphorus (17.60 kg ha-1) and
potash (109 kg ha-1). The field experiment laid out in a Randomized Complete Block design with three
replication and nine treatments with different organic mulches and green manuring the treatment
combination include, T1: Mulching with paddy straw, T2: Mulching with dry leaves, T3: Mulching with
coconut fronds , T4: Mulching with saw dust, T5: Horse gram (insitu green manuring), T6:Sunhemp
(insitu green manuring), T7:Glyricidia (exsitu green manuring), T8: Pongemia (exsitu green manuring)

253
andT9: Control (no mulched treatments). Mulching with paddy straw, dry leaves, coconut fronds, saw
dust, glyricidia and pongamia leaf was done to respective treatment plots at 30 DAS.Sun hemp and
Horse gram sown in between maize rows along with maize in respective plots and incorporated at 30
DAS.The soil samples were collected with the help of screw augar from 0 to 15 cm and 15 to 30 cm
depths from each plot at 60, 75, 90 and 105 DAS. The soil samples were drawn at three spots, one at
the middle and remaining two samples on either side of the plot. The moisture content was
determined by gravimetric method (Piper, 1966).The soil temperature was studied by using soil
thermometer at 5 cm and 10 cm depth of each plot at 60, 75 and 90 DAS.
Results and Discussion
Effect on soil moisture content:The data pertaining to soil moisture at 0-15 cm depth is presented
Table 1. At 0 -15 cm depth, the soil moisture content differs significantly at all stages except 60 days
after sowing (DAS). However, at 60DAS, insitu green manuring with Sunhemp recorded the higher
soil moisture content of 14.53 per cent closely followed by green leaf manuring with glyricidia and
intercropping of Horse gram. At remaining stages too, insitugreen manuring with sunhemp
recorded significantly higher moisture content of 16.21 per cent, 15.87, and 15.03 at 75, 90 and 105
DAS, respectively, which were significantly superior over other treatments and it was closely
followed by glyricidia green leaf manuring and intercropping of horse gram. The control treatment
recorded the lowest soil moisture content at all growth stages.The soil moisture content measured at
15-30 cm depth at different crop growth stages presented in Table 2. It indicates that the treatments
differed significantly at all stages. Except 60 DAS Insitugreen manuring with sunhemp recorded
significantly higher moisture content of 19.03, 19.42 and 18.23 at 75, 90 and 105 DAS, which were
significantly superior over control treatments. In all stages, insitugreen manuring with sunhemp,
green leaf manuring with glyricidia and intercropping of horse gram are in the order of merit and are
on par with green manuring of sunhemp. The probable reason for significant variation in soil
moisture content among different mulching treatment could be due to organic mulches covers the
soils betweenmulches and green manuring the crop rows helps in infiltration of rainwater, reducing
runoff and soil loss. In addition, mulching materials helps to prevent evaporation of soil moisture,
increases infiltration rate and improves soil structure. Another main reason could be the control of
weeds by different organic mulches might facilitated better moisture conservation. These results
were in accordance with findings of Arul et al. (2008).
Effect on soil temperature:The soil temperature recorded at 5 and 10 cm depths did not influence
significantly among different organic mulches. However, the treatments where sunhempgrown as
intercrop in between crop rows of maize and incorporated as insitu recorded numerically lower
temperature of 22.83 OC, 22.57 OC and 25.43 OC at 60, 75 and 90 DAS at 5 cm depth and 23.50 OC,
24.27 OC, 26.07 OC respectively, at 10 cm depth.
Table 1 Soil moisture content (%) at 0 - 15 cm depth in maize as influenced by different organic
mulches and green manuring

Soil moisture content (%)

Treatment
60 DAS 75 DAS 90 DAS 105 DAS
T1 :Mulching with paddy straw 13.02 14.50 14.53 13.60
T2 :Mulching with dry leaves 12.82 14.65 14.27 13.09
T3:Mulching with coconut fronds 12.71 13.69 14.12 12.75
T4:Mulching with saw dust 12.50 13.97 13.91 12.30
T5:Horse gram (insitu green manuring) 13.47 14.95 14.83 14.53
T6:Sunhemp (insitu green manuring) 14.53 16.21 15.87 15.03
T7:Glyricidia (exsitu green manuring) 13.62 15.18 15.30 14.78
T8:Pongemia (exsitu green manuring) 13.60 14.86 14.57 13.76
T9:Control. 12.34 13.06 12.07 12.23
S.Em+ 0.68 0.83 0.62 0.50
CD (P=0.05) NS 2.50 1.85 1.50

254
Tabl

Soil moisture content (%)

Treatment
60 DAS 75 DAS 90 DAS 105 DAS
T1 :Mulching with paddy straw 14.40 16.00 16.76 17.07
T2 :Mulching with dry leaves 14.27 15.10 16.70 16.83
T3:Mulching with coconut fronds 14.13 14.97 16.34 16.33
T4:Mulching with saw dust 13.63 14.43 15.97 16.22
T5:Horse gram (insitu green manuring) 15.03 17.93 18.05 17.60
T6:Sunhemp (insitu green manuring) 16.13 19.03 19.42 18.23
T7:Glyricidia (exsitu green manuring) 15.20 18.87 18.36 18.02
T8:Pongemia (exsitu green manuring) 14.52 16.43 17.83 17.57
T9:Control. 13.37 13.97 14.05 15.06
S.Em+ 0.94 1.04 0.97 0.56
CD (P = 0.05) NS 3.11 2.90 1.67

Table 4. Temperature (°C) at 10 cm depth as influenced by different organic mulches and

green manuring
Soil Temperature (°C)
Treatment
60 DAS 75 DAS 90 DAS
T1 :Mulching with paddy straw 24.17 24.83 26.53
T2 :Mulching with dry leaves 24.33 24.97 26.73
T3:Mulching with coconut fronds 24.53 25.37 27.17
T4:Mulching with saw dust 24.93 25.83 27.73
T5:Horse gram (insitu green manuring) 23.77 24.60 26.30
T6:Sunhemp (insitu green manuring) 23.50 24.27 26.07
T7:Glyricidia (exsitu green manuring) 23.60 24.43 26.17
T8:Pongemia (exsitu green manuring) 24.10 24.80 26.93
T9:Control. 25.07 25.90 27.67
S.Em+ 1.03 1.10 1.27
CD (P =0.05) NS NS NS

The lower temperature was recorded in all the treatments as compared to the control treatment.
This might be due to the dense canopy created an environment of low temperature, poor light and
high humidithy, which is not favorable for weed growth. These results are in complimentary with the
findings of Musambasiet al. (2005)
From the present study, it is concluded that introduction of one row of sunhempin between
maize rows as addition and incorporating at 30 DAS has helped in found not only superior with
respect to moisture and temprature and also caused for overall soil improvement

255
Fig. 1. Soil moisture content at 0 - 15 cm depth in maize as influenced by different organic mulches
and green manuring

Fig. 2. Soil moisture content at 30 cm depth in maize as influenced by different organic mulches and
green manuring

256
Fig. 3. Soil temperature at 5 cm depth as influenced by different organic mulches and green
manuring

Fig. 4. Soil temperature at 10 cm depth as influenced by different organic mulches and green
manuring
References
ANONYMOUS, 2016, Area, production and productivity of major cereals in India. www.Indiastat.com.
ARUL, K. P., SHINDE, V. S., SOLUNKE, P. S., KUBDE, K. J AND KADAM, V. D., 2008, Influence of in-situ
soil moisture conservation techniques on moisture use
efficiency, yield andeconomics of maize under rainfed condition. Annals of Plant
Physiology. 22(2): 202- 204.
BUCKLES, D., TRIOMPHE, B. AND SAIN, G., 1998, Cover crops in Hillside Agriculture. Farmer
innovation with mucuna. IDRC/CIMMYT, Canada, pp. 218
HEGDE AND SRINIVAS., 1989, Effect of mulch and anti - transpirants on growth yield and water use of
banana. Prog. Hort., 21: 44-47.
Musambasi, D., Chivinge, O. A., Bunya, D. R and Mabasa, S. 2005. The role of deferent component
crops grown in association with maize and their residues in controlling strigaasiatica (L) Kuntze in
Zimbabwe. Crop Res. 29(1):47-55.

257
PIPER C. S., 1966, Soil and Plant Analysis Hans Publications, Bombay.
RATAN, L. 2004, Effect of mulching on maize (Zea mays L.) higher growth rate and vigour. J. of Plant
and Soil. 40 (1): 49-67.
STONE, P. J., SORENSEN, I., AND JAMIESON, P.D., 1999, Effect of soil temperature on phenology,
canopy development, biomass and yield of maize in a cool temperatureclimate. FieldCrops
Res., 63(2): 169-178.
TAYE, T., BEEKELE, N., AND SHIMALIS, Y. 2015, Response of maize to inter row mulch application at
different growth stage of maize for small scale agro-pastoralist. Global j. food sci. Tech.3(7):
204-206

258
 Effect of packaging materials on shelf life of mango processed food products
Mohithkumar G.V.*, Chowde Gowda M., Kumargoud V. and Shankar M.
University of Agricultural Sciences, GKVK Bengaluru
Email : gvmohith.471@gmail.com

Abstract: Proper packing, labeling and storage of mango processed food products play an important
role to increase its shelf life and to attract the consumers and market .There are several raw mango
processed food products available commercially in the markets under different brand names. Each
mango processed product is packed with polythene/ tetra packs/ LDPE bags / HDPE containers /
plastic cans/glass jars, etc. Because of manual methods and unhygienic handling of mango fruit and
its processed products at various stages of processing, the quality of these processed products are a
matter of concern. The aim of this study is to find out the effect of different packaging materials on
processed mango products and to analyzethe quality parameters of selected mango processed
products. Sensory evaluation was made to find out the characteristics of the fresh and stored food
products such as its appearance, texture, flavour, taste and acceptability for storage period of nine
months in different packaging materials. It was observed that the pickle samples kept in glass jar
after 6 months of storage scored highest as compared to all other packaging material. The shelf life
of pickles made manually cut slices /cubes was 180 to 210 days, whereas the pickles made of
mechanically cut slices /cubescan be preserved 300 to 365 days.
Key words: raw mango, shelf life, packages, organoleptic, pickles.
Introduction: Mango (Mangiferaindica L.) is one of the most important tropical fruits in the world
India is the major mango growing country contributing nearly 47.00 per cent of the world’s area in
mango cultivation and 40.00 per cent of the World’s production (Sekhar et al 2014). Mango fruit
both in its immature and mature stages serve as raw material in the processing industries for making
value added products like pickles, chutneys, candies, juice, dried powder (Amchur), beverages and
jams. The ripe fruits besides being used for dessert, it is also used for preparing several value added
products like pulp, canned slices, squashes, syrups, nectars, jams, jellies, fruit bars, soft drinks etc.,
are developed by constant research in India as well as in other parts of the world to satisfy the
consumer's needs (Krishnaveni et al 2013). The mango processed food products demand in the
domestic market increasing every year due to growing urbanization and changing lifestyle and
spending pattern. There are several raw mango processed food products available commercially in
the markets under different brand names. Each mango processed product is packed with polythene/
tetra packs/ LDPE bags / HDPE containers / plastic cans/glass jars, etc.
Methodology
The objective of this study is to find out the effect of different packaging materials on processed
mango products in Karnataka, Andra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu states of Southern India. Commercially
available raw mango pickle samples of different brands which were prepared manually and
mechanically (4 samples each) were procured from the retail outlets and local shops of selected
citiesand subjected for organoleptic sensory evaluation, during the storage period at regular intervals
at initial stage (0), three months, six months and nine months.All the samples collected were
analyzed for estimation of various chemical quality parameters like pH, Acidity, Ascorbic acid,
reducing sugars, non-reducing sugars, total sugars, phenolic substances, crude proteins, microbial
contamination, shelf life and sensory analysis. The organoleptic sensory evaluation was carried out
on manually and mechanically prepared mango processed products to study the shelf life of
processed products scores were compared and analyzed statistically.The different parameters
studied were as:
pH: The pH was measured using pH meter L1-120 manufactured by Elico India.
Acidity: The acidity of the samples was determined by titrating known weight of pickle samples
against standard sodium hydroxide (0.01N) using methyl orange as indicator till orange red colour
changes to yellow and expressed as per cent acidity.

259
Ascorbic acid (mg/ 100g): Acorbic acid was estimated by indicator method based on stoichiometric
reduction of the dye 2,6- Dichlorophenol indophenol by ascorbic acid to colorless compound.
Reducing sugars (per cent): Five (5.0) gram of sample was boiled with 50mL distilled water, cooled,
clarified by 2mL neutral lead acetate (45%) and allowed to stand for 10 minutes. Excess of lead was
precipitated by using freshly prepared potassium oxalate solution (22%), filtered and suitable dilution
was made. 5 mL of filtrate was taken, reducing sugar was estimated by Shaffer- somogyi micro
method (Ranganna 2002).
Total sugars (per cent): A known quantity of filtrate was hydrolyzed by mixing with 5ml of
hydrochloric acid (1:1) and keeping over night for inversion. Then it was neutralized with sodium
hydroxide using phenolphthalein as indicator and diluted suitably. An aliquot of 5mL was taken; total
sugar was estimated using shaffer-somogyi micro method (Ranganna 2002).
The per cent sugars were calculated using the formula:
Amount of sugar present x Dilution x 100
Total sugars % =
Aliquot taken for estimation x Weight of sample x 106

Non-reducing sugars: Non-reducing sugar was estimated using formula,

Non reducing sugar (%) = Total sugar (%) - Reducing sugar (%) g.
Phenolic substances estimation (mg/ 100 g):Sample of 0.25g was ground with 10ml of ethanol using
pastel and mortar and centrifuged the homogenate at 10,000 rpm for 20 minutes. From the standard
curve the concentration of phenol was calculated and expressed as mg phenol per 100g sample.
Crude protein (mg/100g): It was done by lowery method. Absorbance of solution was read at
660nm. From the standard curve, the concentration of proteins was calculated.
Microbial contamination (CFU): The samples prepared under manual and mechanized conditions
were analysed for total bacteria and fungi by, standard serial dilution plate count method using
nutrient Agar.
Shelflife (days):A panel of 11 judges observed the samples prepared under manual and mechanized
conditions by visual method at monthly interval throughout storage period like pH, Acidity, Ascorbic
acid, reducing sugars, non-reducing sugars, total sugars, phenolic substances, crude proteins,
microbial contamination, shelf life and sensory analysis.
Results and Discussion
Proper packing, labeling and storage of mango processed food products play an important role to
increase its shelf life and to attract the market and consumers. The data in Table.1 indicates that
different mango food products have different shelf life irrespective of their brand name. The shelf
life of the products varies from product to product and brand to brand. We could see from the data
that shelf-life of mango pickles vary from 6 to 12 months, mango chutney from 6 to 9 months and
raw mango powder from 6to 12 months. The shelf-life of Mango RTS drinks, Mango juice drink,
Mango Jelly pud and Mango Ice candy vary from 3 to 6months. The shelf life of Mango
squash,Mango fruit bar,Mango fruit strip vary from 6 to 9 months. The reason for variation of shelf-
life may be due to the moisture content of the product at the time of packing and method of
preservation / packing.The data further reveals that different manufacturers use different types of
packaging materials. It is seen that different mango processed food products have different types of
packaging materials of the same brand. LDPE bags, HDPE containers, Plastic cans, Glass jars,
Polyethylene terephalate (PET)/ metallocene polyethylene(MPE) flexible packaging materials are
used by the mango processing units in the study area.The data in Table 2 indicates that, the chemical
composition of various mango pickle samples prepared by manual and mechanized techniques.
pHcontent of manually prepared pickle samples was in the range of 1.61 to 2.10 whereas pH content
of mechanically prepared samples was ranging from 2.64 to 2.80. The corresponding increase in
acidity could be responsible for decrease in pH. Acidity of manually prepared samples was found in in
the range of 2.57 to 2.71 per cent whereas the mechanically prepared samples were in the range of
2.18 to 2.25 per cent. The decrease in acidity percent values in mechanically prepared samples may

260
be due to hydrolysis of polysaccharides and non-reducing sugars, where acid is hydrolysed
converting them to hexose sugars or complexing in the presence of metal ions (Hussain 2004) and
the degree of reduction in acidity is governed by concentration of sugar (Bhatia et al 1956).
Table. 1 Storage life of commercially available different mango processed food products
Sl. Storage life
Processed Products Type of packing
No. (months)
LDPE bags, HDPE containers, Plastic cans, Glass
1. Raw mango tender pickle 6 - 12
jars
2. Ripe mango pickle 6-9 LDPE bags /HDPE/ Glass jars/ Plastic cans,
3. Cut mango in brine 6-9 LDPE bags /HDPE/ Glass jars
LDPE bags /HDPE/ Glass jars/composite
4. Mango chutney 6 - 12
packages
5. Raw mango candy 6 - 12 PET/MPE /composite packages
6. Ripe mango candy 6 - 12 LDPE bags /HDPE//composite packages
7. Mango RTS drink (1lt) 3-6 Glass bottles/ HDPE containers,
8. Mango juice drink (1lt) 3-6 Glass bottles/ HDPE containers,
Organa Fruit Drink Rich Pulpy
9. 3-6 Glass bottles/ HDPE containers,
(1lt)
10. Mango fruit bar 6-9 Polyethylene terephalate(PET)/
11. Mango fruit strip 6- 9 Polyethylene terephalate(PET)/
12. Mango fruit bits 6 - 12 LDPE/PETE/ Polypropylene
13. Mango Jelly pud 3-6 LDPE/ Flexible Plastic Packaging
14. Dry mango powder 6 - 12 LDPE/ Flexible Plastic Packaging
15. Mango squash 6- 9 HDPE/ Glass jars/composite packages
16. Mango jam 6-12 HDPE/ Glass jars/composite packages
17. Mango ice candy 3-6 Poly ethylene/ MPE

The reducing sugar, non-reducing sugar and total sugar percent of manually prepared samples were
found as 1.20 to 1.50, 0.50 to 0.60 and 1.70 to 2.10 respectively. Whereas the reducing sugar, non-
reducing sugar and total sugar percent from mechanically prepared samples were found to be 2.35
to 2.50, 0.70 to 0.77 and 3.12 to 3.23 respectively. The change of sugars may be due to the addition
of preservatives like potassium metabisulphite (Roy &Singh 1979 and Hussain 2004).
The ascorbic acid of manually prepared pickle samples was 77.0 to 79.0 mg/100 g and the ascorbic
acid of mechanically prepared samples was 75.8 to 77.0 mg/100 g. The increased value of ascorbic
acid in manually prepared samples may be due to low pH in samples and similar results were
obtained by Braverman (1963).
The crude protein values of manually prepared samples ranges from 0.40 to 0.45mg/100gm and the
mechanically prepared samples was found in the range of 0.54 to 0.58 mg/100g. The phenolic
substances were found in the range of 4.95 to 5.20mg/100g in manually prepared samples while in
the mechanically prepared samples it was 5.50 to 5.92 mg/100g. The poor quality of manually
prepared samples may be due to manual cutting resulted in more injury to substrate cells of mango
which in turn resulted in the release of more carbohydrates in to the medium and further
fermentation of the cells leading to the more acid production.
The shelf life of manually prepared pickle samples was in the range of 180 to 210 days, whereasthat
of mechanically prepared samples was in the range of 300 to 365 days.
The microbiological analysis revealed that, the fungi load was in the range of16x103 to24x103 CFU in
manually prepared samples. Whereas in the case of mechanically prepared samples the fungi load
was not noticed. The bacteria load in manually prepared samples was in the range of 36x104to
52x104 and that of mechanically prepared samples was in the range of 20x104 to 30x104 CFU.Increase

261
in the moisture content during storage, might have increased the bacterial count and similar results
have been reported by Hashmi et al (2007).
Table.2 Quality parameters of manual and mechanically prepared raw mango pickles
Microbial
Non Total Ascorbic Phenolic Crude Shelf
Acidity Reducing Contamination
Samples pH Reducing Sugars acid Substances Proteins life
(%) Sugars (%) Fungi Bacteria
sugars (%) (%) (mg/100g) (mg/100g) (mg/100g) (days)
(CFU) (CFU)
3 4
M1 1.97 2.64 1.20 0.50 1.70 77.0 4.95 0.40 210 16x10 36x10
3 4
M2 2.10 2.71 1.10 0.54 1.64 79.0 5.12 0.42 180 18x10 48x10
3 4
M3 1.61 2.57 1.50 0.60 2.10 78.5 5.20 0.45 180 24x10 52x10
4
Me1 2.80 2.13 2.35 0.77 3.12 77.0 5.92 0.58 365 0.0 22x10
4
Me2 2.64 2.25 2.45 0.70 3.15 75.8 5.65 0.55 300 0.0 30x10
4
Me3 2.70 2.18 2.50 0.73 3.23 76.2 5.50 0.54 330 0.0 20x10
CD 0.51 0.26 0.90 0.12 0.73 1.3 0.28 0.07 59 6.0 11
(0.05%)
Sem ± 0.16 0.08 0.30 0.04 0.24 0.43 0.09 0.02 19.6 1.9 3.66

The bacteria load is not a big problem but the fungi load needs to be checked and the contamination
of fungi load may be due to unhygienic conditions of manual processing of pickles prepared with
bare hands in spices mixing, cutting of mangoes, manual packing etc,. It is clear from the data that
mechanization of pickle making can produce quality product apart from saving of man-hour, time
and cost of production.
Effect of different packaging materials on mango pickles during storage period:
The results presented in Table 3 and Figure 1 shows the storage of mango pickles for nine months in
different packaging materials.The fresh samples were procured from retail outlets in the study area
and subjected for organoleptic sensory evaluation, during the storage period at regular intervals at
intial stage (0), three months, six months and nine months. The sensory scores were compared
between the four different packaging materials viz., Low Density Polyethylene (LDPE) bag, High
Density Polyethylene (HDPE) containers/pouches, Plastic Can (PC) and Glass Jar (GL). The evaluated
sensory scores were analysedstastically and the attributes were compared for their level of
significance.
Almost all the attributes in mango pickles found to have significantly different between the
characters such as colour, appearance, taste, texture, flavour and overall acceptability. The slight
rancidity was found in the pickle samples stored after six and nine months in LDPE bags.

Table.3 Organoleptic evaluation scores of raw mango pickles stored in different packing materials
Days of Appearance Colour Texture Taste Flavour
Overall
Storage Acceptability
LD HD PC GL LD HD PC GL LD HD PC GL LD HD PC GL LD HD PC GL LD HD PC GL
0 Day 4.4 4.4 4.4 4.4 4.6 4.6 4.6 4.6 4.4 4.4 4.4 4.4 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.3 4.3 4.3 4.3 4.44 4.44 4.44 4.44

3 Month 4.0 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.3 4.3 4.0 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.0 4.1 4.3 4.4 3.7 3.9 3.9 4.0 3.98 3.72 4.16 4.22

6 Month 3.5 3.7 3.8 4.0 3.6 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.4 3.4 3.5 3.9 3.2 3.4 3.5 3.7 3.2 3.4 3.5 3.8 3.38 3.5 3.6 3.84

9 Month 2.8 2.9 3.0 3.5 3.1 3.2 3.4 3.6 2.7 2.9 3.0 3.6 2.8 2.9 3.3 3.6 2.7 2.9 3.0 3.3 2.82 2.96 3.14 3.52

Mean 3.6 3.8 3.85 4.02 3.87 3.9 4.0 4.07 3.62 3.67 3.75 4.02 3.62 3.72 3.9 4.05 3.47 3.62 3.67 3.85 3.65 3.65 3.83 4.0

F-value 0.10 0.05 0.12 0.13 0.09 0.10

CD at 5% 0.31 0.17 0.36 0.41 0.29 0.30

LD=LDPE bag, HD= HDPE containers, PC=Plastic can, GL= Glass jar

262
The samples packed in HDPE containers are also fair but off-flavour was noticed after nine months of
storage. In plastic can/containers the mango pickle samples were fair but the sample was soft and
mashy in texture. Though there was no significant difference between packaging materials, the
product stored in glasses were found to be good compared to other three packages even after nine
months of storage. Among the different packaging materials used, it was observed that the pickle
samples kept in glass jar after 6 months of storage scored highest as compared to all other packaging
material.

Fig. 1. Effect of different packaging materials on mango pickles during storage period

Organoleptic Evaluation of Mango Pickle Products Prepared by Manual and Mechanized

Technique:
A panel of 11 judges evaluated the samples of mango pickles prepared by manual and mechanized
techniques for its quality attributes like appearance, colour, Texture, taste and overall acceptability
with five point hedonic scales.
Table : 4 Organoleptic evaluation of manually and mechanically prepared raw mango pickles
Samples Appearance Colour Texture Taste Overall Total Score
Acceptability
M1 4.0 3.0 2.0 3.0 3.0 15.0
M2 3.0 3.0 3.0 2.0 3.0 14.0
M3 3.0 3.0 2.0 3.0 2.0 13.0
Me1 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 20.0
Me2 4.0 3.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 22.0
Me3 5.0 4.0 5.0 3.0 4.0 21.0
Very good :>25Good: 20-24 Fair: 15-19Poor: 10-14 Verypoor:5-9
M1,M2,M3=Manually prepared samplesMe1,Me2,Me3=Mechanically prepared samples

The data from the Table 4 shows that, the mechanically prepared samples scored
maximum of 22 points indicating very good condition by sensory analysis. Whereas among the three
manually prepared samples, manually prepared sample M1 got the total score of 15 adjudged as
good, followed by manually prepared samples M2 and M3 with total scores of 14 and 13 respectively
adjudged as fair as shown in Figure2.

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 Fig. 2. Organoleptic evaluation of manually and mechanically processed mango pickles
Conclusion:
It is evident from the study that adding ingredients play an important role in making ripe and raw
mango products to define its nutritional value, shelf life of the product, product quality, flavour, taste
and appearance. Proper packing, labelling and storage of mango processed food products are
important to increase their, shelf life and to attract the market and consumers.Among the different
packaging materials used, it was observed that the pickle samples kept in glass jar after 6 months of
storage scored highest as compared to all other packaging material.The mango processed food
products maintains shelf life for 3-12 months depending upon the type of product, moisture content
and manually or mechanically prepared .The shelf life of pickles made manually cut slices /cubes was
180 to 210 days, whereas the pickles made of mechanically cut slices /cubescan be preserved 300 to
365 days.
References:
 Bhatia, BS, Siddappa, GS &Lal, G 1956, ‘Physico-chemical changes in jackfruit squash during
storage’. Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences, vol.24,no.4,pp.403-414.
 Braverman, JBS 1963, ‘Introduction to the biochemistry of foods’. Elsevier Publishing
Company, London.
 Hussain, S.Z., JavareGowda, S &Mandhar, SC 2004, Indian Journal of Agriculture Research,
vol.38, no.2, pp.106 - 110.
 Krishnaveni, A, Manimegalai,G, Vennila,P&Saravanakumar,R 1999,‘Storage stability of jack
fruit bar in different packaging materials,’ Indian food packer,vol.12,no.3, pp.67-71.
 Ranganna, S2002, Handbook of analysis and quality control for fruits and vegetable products,
Tata Mc. Graw Hill Pub.Co.Ltd., New Delhi, pp.84-91.
 Sekhar, CM, Selvarajan, Pounraj, A &Prahadeeswaran, M 2013, Production and export of
Mango in India – AParadigm to the Developing Nations, American International Journal of
Research in Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences,vol. 4, no.1, pp. 78-87.

264
 Subsurface drip irrigation anovel technology for enhancing productivity,
profitability and water use efficiency in sugarcane under cauvery command
areas of Karnataka
Nagaraju, Ningaraju, G. K., Ramachandra, C., Thimmegowda,P.,
Prakash, P. and Anusha, S.
University of Agricultural Sciences, GKVK, Bengaluru-65
Email : nagarajuagroforestry@gmail.com
Abstract: On farm research wascarried out during 2013, 2014 and 2015 to assess the performance of
sub-surface drip irrigation and fertigationin sugarcane under Cauvery command areas of Mandya
district, Karnataka. The results revealed that, subsurface drip irrigation and fertigation recorded
29.90 to 84.14 per cent higher cane yield with more average gross returns (Rs. 358171), net returns
(Rs. 230315) and B:C ratio (2.80)as compared to surface flood irrigationmethod of sugarcane
cultivation [average yield (97.3 t ha-1),gross returns (Rs.225972),net returns (Rs. 119472) and B:C
ratio(2.12)].The average water use efficiency of sugarcane in sub surface drip irrigation and
fertigation was 1.28 t ha-cm-1 where as under farmers practice with normal planting was only 0.54 t
ha-cm-1. Further, it was observed that sugarcane production and water use efficiency was enhanced
by 59.06 and 137 per cent respectively with sub surface drip irrigation. The improvement in yield and
water use efficiencywas attributedby maintenance of optimum moisture in the root zone throughout
the crop growth period with substantial water saving which resulted in enhanced production and
water productivity under subsurface drip irrigation.
Keywords: Sub Surface, DripI, Fertigation, Sugarcane, Yield
Introduction: Sugarcane (Saccharum sp.) is the world’s most important commercial crop for the
sugar industry. In India, sugar industry is one of the largest agro based processing industries.
Globally, sugarcane is cultivated in an area of 24.5 million hectares with an annual production of
1850 million tonnes and an average productivity of 75.5 t ha-1 (FAO, 2015). In India, it is grown in an
area of 5.3 million hectares with a production of 366 million tonnes and productivity of 69 t ha-1
contributing 19.98 per cent of world’s total sugar production. In Karnataka, it is cultivated in an area
of about 3.70 lakh hectares with a production and productivity of 47 million tonnes and 94.0 t ha-1,
respectively (Anon, 2017). In India Karnataka stands 3rd in cane production next to Uttar Pradesh and
Maharashtra states and 2nd with respect to sugar recovery after Maharashtra. Sugarcane is grown in
16 districts of the state, Belgaum, Bagalkot, Bijapur, Mandya, Mysore, Chamarajanagar and Bidar are
the major sugarcane producing districts. The average yield of sugarcane has come down from a high
of about 101 tonnes per hectare in 2009-10 to 73 tonnes per hectare in 2016-17, largely because of
continuous irrigation, indiscriminate use of fertilizers and the practice of ratoon or stubble cropping.
Sugar industry is the 2nd largest industry (Rs. 30,000 crore industry) in the agro-processing sector,
next to textiles and represents the principal livelihood of 35 million farmers and 50 million others
who are employed in its 571 sugar-related industries in India. Apart from this, sugarcane is in great
demand for various other uses like fodder, fibre, bio-fuels, co-generation etc. In a typical sugar mill,
100 t of sugarcane on an average produces 10 t of sugar, 4 t of molasses from which ethanol is
produced, 3 t of press mud which is converted into bio-fertilizer, 30 t of bagasse used for
cogeneration of power to yield 1,500 kw electricity and for manufacturing paper. Besides, about 30 t
of cane tops and leaves are generally left in the field, which through recycling further adds to the
economic value of the crop. Sugarcane being a long duration crop produces huge amount of biomass
and requires large quantity of water compared to other crops. Water requirement of sugarcane
under conventional method of cultivation varies from 2000 to 2500 mm depending upon soil type
and climate (Arulkaret al., 2004 and Rajegowdaet al., 2004). Vagaries of monsoon and declining
ground-water resource due to over exploitation have resulted in shortage of fresh water supply for
agricultural use. Further, India’s water demand will nearly double by 2030 from the present 740
billion m3 to 1.3 trillion m3, thus necessitating efficient water management for improving agricultural
productivity (Vibha Dhawan, 2017). In conventional method of irrigation and fertilizer application,

265
there is considerable loss of water and leaching of mobile nutrients, particularly nitrogen (Rosegrant,
1997) which in turn leads to pollution of water bodies and deterioration of soil health. Drip irrigation
has gained wide spread popularity as an efficient method for fertigation because both time and rate
of application of nutrients can be controlled to meet the requirements of a crop at each growth stage
(Bar-Yosef, 1997). Drip fertigation is an important practice in precision farming that permits the
farmer to apply optimum fertilizers through drip irrigation, which enhance productivity (Boyhan and
Keeley, 2001). The soluble fertilizers are conveyed directly to the root zone through frequent
application of soluble fertilizers in small quantities through drip irrigation. It gives advantages such as
higher use efficiency of water and fertilizers, minimum loss of nitrogen due to leaching, supplying
nutrients directly to root zone, control of nutrient concentration in soil solution. It offers the
possibility to optimize the water and nutrient distribution over time and space (Nanda, 2010). Thus,
fertigation becomes important for increasing productivity of most of the crops under drip irrigation
(Jataet al., 2013). Providing optimum soil condition throughout the growing period of sugarcane is of
paramount importance to realize higher yields. Therefore, drip fertigation, one of the promising
potential technologies offers the great scope to increase the cane productivity up to 200-220 t ha-1
by saving 40-50 per cent irrigation water with increase in nutrient efficiency by 40 per cent (Senthil
Kumar, 2009). Keeping these views,on farm research were laid inCauvery command areas of
Karnataka, Mandya District in particular.
Materials and Methods
Large scale field demonstrations were carried out in different villages of Mandya district under
Cauvery command area to know the effect of subsurface drip irrigation and fertigation on yield and
economics of sugarcane production with suitable agro techniques. The sugarcane variety Co-86032
was selected and planted with 3 eye budded setts in dual row with zig zag pattern after laying
laterals at 10 cm deep in sub-surface layer at a distance of 180 cm. The emitters were discharge rate
of 4l hr-1 with a spacing of 40 cm from one emitter to another emitter. Irrigation was scheduled on
alternate days during summer and in kharif based on soil moisture condition. Fertigation was
scheduled at 2-4 days intervals up to 9 months of crop duration.
Profitability: It is defined as the net income of the farmer from agriculture and allied enterprises
expressed in rupees. This variable was measured by using the procedure developed by Shivaprasad
(1982) where the net income of the farmer from agriculture and allied enterprises was taken into
consideration to measure the profitability.
Net returns= Gross returns - Cost of cultivation
Benefit: cost ratio (B: C)
The benefit: cost ratio was calculated as follows.
Gross returns (Rs. ha-1)
B:C ratio = ----------------------------------
Cost of cultivation (Rs. ha-1)

Results and Discussion:

The results revealed that, subsurface drip irrigation and fertigation recorded 29.90 to 84.14 per cent
higher cane yield compared to surface flood irrigation and nutrient application. The cane yield, gross
returns, net returns and B:C ratio were 132.50 t ha-1, Rs. 307797,Rs.179941 and 2.41 in Keelara, 145
t ha-1,Rs. 336835Rs.208978 and 2.63 in Kothathi, 145.42 t ha-1, Rs. 337810, Rs.209954 and 2.64 in
Puttegowdanadoddi, 155 t ha-1, Rs. 360065, Rs. 232208 and 2.82 in Thylur, 153.75 t ha-1, Rs. 357161,
Rs.229304 and 2.79 in Neelakantanahalli, 168.23 t ha-1, Rs. 390798, Rs.262941 and 3.06 in Shivalli,
162.3 t ha-1, Rs. 377022, Rs.249165.9 and 2.95 in Goravale, 159.6 t ha-1, Rs. 370750 Rs.242894 and
2.90 in Kurikoppalu, 165.9 t ha-1, Rs. 385385, Rs.257529 and 3.01 in Holalu and154.15 t ha-1, Rs.
358090,Rs.230233 and 2.80 in Gunayakanahalli under sub-surface drip irrigation as compared to
surface flood irrigation method(102 t ha-1, Rs. 236946, Rs. 130446 and 2.22 in Keelara, 104 t ha-1, Rs.
241592, Rs. 135092 and 2.27 in Kothathi, 96.0 t ha-1, Rs. 223008, Rs. 116508, and 2.09 in
Puttegowdanadoddi, 98.5 t ha-1, Rs. 228815, Rs. 122315 and 2.15 in Thylur, 93.6 t ha-1, Rs.217432,

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Rs.110932, and 2.04 in Neelakantanahalli, 91.4 t ha-1, Rs.212229, Rs. 105729 and 1.99 in Shivalli, 92.6
t ha-1 Rs. 215109, Rs. 108609 and 2.02 in Goravale, 94.5 t ha-1, Rs. 219523, Rs. 113023 and 2.06 in
Kurikoppalu, 99.2 t ha-1, Rs. 230441, Rs. 123941 and 2.16 in Holalu and 101 t ha-1, Rs.234623, Rs.
128123 and 2.20 in Gunnayakanahalli)(Table 1 and Fig. 1).Increased cane yield under subsurface drip
irrigation and fertigation was mainly due to better performance of the crop by effective utilization of
available water and nutrients that were supplied at regular intervals throughout the crop growth
period in the root zone to meet the crop demand. Subsurface drip irrigation allows uniform soil
moisture, minimize the evaporative loss and delivery water directly to the plant root zone which
increases use efficiency and yield (Douhet al. 2013). The results are also conformity with Rajkumaret
al. (2014), Chandrashekaraet al.(2014) and Chandra Gupta et al. (2014). The overall improvement in
average yield of subsurface drip irrigation with dual row planting across the demonstrations was
154.18 t ha-1 with 59per cent increase in yield with a corresponding increase in water productivity of
1.28 t ha-cm-1 with an enhanced water productivity of 137 per cent. The average water requirement
for surface irrigation in sugarcane with normal planting across the demonstrations was 1800 mm as
compared to 1200 mm in case of subsurface drip irrigation with dual row planting. The subsurface
drip irrigation recorded average water productivity of 1.28 t ha-cm-1 as compared to 0.54 t ha-cm-1 in
surface irrigation method of sugarcane cultivation. Higher water use efficiency under subsurface drip
fertigation over conventional method was due to higher yield with less use of irrigation water.Water
saving in drip fertigation was due to reduced percolation and seepage losses in addition to least
conveyance and evaporation losses. Ravi et al. (2007) also reported 44 per cent savings in water with
drip irrigation over furrow method of irrigation. Irrigation efficiency could be improved by drip
irrigation by reducing evaporation and drainage losses and maintaining favourable soil moisture
condition for crop growth (Batchleret al., 1996).It clearly indicates that adoption of subsurface drip
irrigation in sugarcane will enhance the yield by effective utilization of resources such as water and
nutrients. In Karnataka sugarcane is cultivated in an area of about 3.70 lakh hectares, considering the
present water use efficiency under flood irrigation method annually required 235.2 TMC of water for
sugarcane cultivation. Meanwhile, if we bring the entire sugarcane cultivation area under subsurface
drip irrigation annually required only 156.8 TMC with saving of mobile nutrients. The remaining
water (78.4 TMC) can be diverted into enhance the area under irrigation to other crops.
Conclusion: This study showed the superiority of subsurface drip irrigation and fertigation for
sugarcane cultivation in different villages of Mandya district under Cauvery command area in respect
of both cane yield and water use efficiency as compared with surface irrigation and fertilizer
application practice by the farmers. Subsurface drip irrigation is water saving irrigation technique
that can provide optimum moisture condition throughout the growth period with minimal human
intervention. Therefore, it may be a sustainable irrigation method for sugarcane cultivation in
command areas to solve the water crisis in tail end regions.
References
ANONYMOUS, 2016, Annual Report of 2015-16. Indian Institute of Sugarcane Research, Lucknow, pp-
15.
ARULKAR, K. P., HIWASE, S. S. AND DEOGINKAR, A. A., 2004, Water requirement estimation from
climatological data by probability analysis for sugarcane crop in Nagpur district. New Agric.,
15:75-78.
BAR-YOSEF, B., 1997, Trickle irrigation and fertigation of tomatoes in sand dunes: Water, N and P
distributions in the soil and uptake by plants. Agron. J., 69:486-91.
BATCHLER, C., LOVELL, C. AND MURATA, M., 1996, Simple micro irrigation technique for improving
irrigation efficiency on vegetable gardens. J. Agric. Water Manag., 32: 37- 48.
BOYHAN, G. AND KEELEY, W. T., 2001, Onion Production Guide Bulletin. College of Agricultural and
Environmental Sciences, University of Georgia. p.56.
CHANDRA GUPTA, D., ESTHER SHEKINAH, B., SUNDARA AND RAKKIYAPPAN, 2014, Drip irrigation
under Different planting methods of Sugarcane: A cooperative study in tropical region of
Tamil Nadu, Proceedings of the National seminar on recent advances and challenges in

267
 sugarcane research, 23-24 January 2014, Mysore India. p.67
CHANDRASHEKARA, C. P., CHITTAPUR, B. M., BIRADAR, D. P., HIREMATH, S. M. AND PATIL, V. C.,
2014, Resource management in sugarcane through drip irrigation, fertigation and planting
pattern, Proceedings of the National seminar on recent advances and challenges in
sugarcane research, 23-24 January 2014, Mysore India. p.67
DOUH, B., BOUJELBEN, A., KHILA, S., BELHAJ MGUIDICHE, A., 2013, Effect of subsurface drip irrigation
system depth on soil water content distribution at different depths and different times
after irrigation. Larhyss J., 13: 7-16
FOOD AND AGRUCULTURAL ORGANIZATON, 2015, http:/www.faostast.com.
JATA, S. K., NEDUNCHEZHIYAN, M., SAHO, T. R. AND SAHOO, V., 2013, Fertigation in high value tuber
crops- A Review. Odisha Rev., pp. 68-77.
NANDA, R. S., 2010, Fertigation to enhance farm productivity. Indian J. Fertilizers, 6(2):13-6.
RAJEGOWDA, M. B., MURALIDHARA, K. S. AND RAVINDRABABU, B. T., 2004, Application of water
balance studies in irrigated sugarcane. J. Agro Meteorology, 6:138-141.
RAJKUMAR, R. H., ANJANAPPA, V., HANCHINAL, S. Y., 2014, Effect of fertigation on yield of sugarcane
under subsurface drip irrigation in Karnataka-A success story, Proceedings of the National
seminar on recent advances and challenges in sugarcane research, 23-24 January 2014,
Mysore India.p.67
RAVI, B., SUJATHA, S. AND BALASIMHA, D., 2007, Impact of drip fertigation on productivity of areca
nut (Areca catechu L.). Agric. Water Manag., 90: 101-111.
ROSEGRANT, W. M., 1997, Water resources in the twenty first century: Challenges and implication of
action. Food and Agriculture and the Environment Conference, Washington, USA.
SENTHIL KUMAR, R., 2009, Feasibility of drip irrigation in sugarcane. M.Sc. project work submitted to
Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore.
SHIVAPRASAD, M. V., 1982, An analysis of farming system with reference to cropping pattern,
profitability and behavioral characteristics of farmers of the southern dry zone of
Karnataka state. M. Sc. (Agri.) Thesis, Univ. Agric. Sci., Bangalore.
VIBHA DHAWAN, 2017, Water and Agriculture in India, In: Global Forum for Food and Agriculture,
January 2017, Germany, p. 27.

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Table1. Yield, economics and WUE of sugarcane as influenced by subsurface drip irrigation and
farmers practice

Yield Yield Water use

-1 Gross returns Net returns B:C ratio
(t ha ) increase efficiency
Sl.No. Name of the village
in SDI
SDI FP SDI FP SDI FP SDI FP SDI FP
(%)
1 Keelara 132.5 102.0 29.90 307797 236946 179941 130446 2.41 2.22 1.10 0.57

2 Kothathi 145.0 104.0 39.42 336835 241592 208978 135092 2.63 2.27 1.21 0.58
3 Puttegowdanadoddi 145.4 96.0 51.48 337810 223008 209953 116508 2.64 2.09 1.21 0.53
4 Thylur 155.0 98.5 57.36 360065 228815 232208 122315 2.82 2.15 1.29 0.55
5 Neelakantanahalli 153.7 93.6 64.26 357161 217432 229304 110932 2.79 2.04 1.28 0.52
6 Shivalli 168.2 91.4 84.14 390798 212229 262941 105729 3.06 1.99 1.40 0.51
7 Goravale 162.3 92.6 75.27 377022 215109 249165 108609 2.95 2.02 1.35 0.51
8 Kurikoppalu 159.6 94.5 68.89 370750 219523 242893 113023 2.90 2.06 1.33 0.53
9 Holalu 165.9 99.2 67.24 385385 230441 257528 123941 3.01 2.16 1.38 0.55
10 Gunnayakanahalli 154.1 101.0 52.62 358090 234623 230233 128123 2.80 2.20 1.28 0.56
Average 154.18 97.3 59.06 358171 225972 230315 119472 2.80 2.12 1.28 0.54
Note: SDI-Subsurface drip irrigation
FP-Farmers practice (surface irrigation and fertilizer application)

Fig. 1: Effect of sub surface drip irrigation and farmers practice on yield of sugarcane

269
 Positive seed knocking device assisted vertical plate seed meter for planting
pea seeds - a comparative performance
P.T. Sharma1 and K.N. Dewangan2
1
Ph.D. Scholar and 2Professor and Dean (Administration)
Department of Agricultural Engineering, North Eastern Regional Institute of Science & Technology
(NERIST), Nirjuli, Arunachal Pradesh, India
Email : ptsharma4@gmail.com and kndewangan2001@yahoo.co.in
Abstract: A study was carried out to design and compare performance of three different shapes of
positive seed knocking devices for cell type vertical plate seed meter using pea seeds. The seed
metering plates tested under laboratory condition at three different speeds of operation were of
three depths and three left side angle of cell. All the experiments each of five replications and
without seed knocking device produced at least one jammed cell with seeds whereas no cells were
jammed when tested with positive seed knocking device. The marginal mean miss index of the seed
meter with and without seed knocking device was found significantly different at 5% level of
significance. The mean seed spacing with convex shape and 40o left side angle of cell were 9.95,
10.07 and 10.10 mm at operating speeds of 37.04, 44.45 and 51.86 rpm respectively and was closest
to the theory spacing. Among the three shapes of the positive seed knocking device with cell depth
of 8.48 mm, miss indicesobserved varied from 2.0%, 2.5% and 3.5% in case of convex shape with 40o
cell left side angle to 5.5%, 7.0% and 7.5% in case of concave shape with 30o cell left side angle at
speeds of 37.04, 44.45 and 51.86 rpm respectively.
Keywords: Convex, Jammed, Miss Index, Knocking, Positive
Introduction: Sowing of seed is a very important and labour intensive farm operation for cultivation
of field crops. Traditional method of sowing and planting is still practiced in many of the poorly
mechanized fields in the country but this method is known inefficient and causes high losses of costly
input. The present highly competitive agriculture needs use of improved tools and implements for
carrying various farm operations. To get proper yield, one of the important farm operation is to sow
the seeds in rows so that plants get uniform nutrients, moisture and sunlight as well as proper
intercultural operations can be performed with mechanical tools and implements. The row spacing,
plant to plant spacing, and seed depth requirements depend on the crop and other local factors.
Manual broadcasting of seeds do not maintain uniform depth in the soil and plant spacing which
hinders the growth and produce. The area under multiple cropping is also increasing day by day to
produce more from the same available area which in turn require application of improved tools and
implements. Different types and sizes of advanced seed drills and planters for various crops are being
used in agriculturally developed parts of the country. Precision planting of seeds is required for high
yielding variety and costly seeds. Precision planters are usually designed to place single seed in each
hill at proper seed spacing and depth into the soil. However, use of seed drills and planters is still
negligible in north eastern states of the country. The major reasons are due to unavailability of
suitable seed drills and planters, unaffordability of farmers in addition to difficult topography of hilly
terrain. Therefore, broadcasting method of sowing field crops is still widely practiced in this region.
On the other hand, commonly usedseed metering mechanisms in seed drills are mass flow type and
not economical for costly seeds and also usually require thinning operation which further increases
the cost of operation. Metering device are important in precision planters and affect the planter
performance. Seed meter is a vital component of a seed planter. It aims to pick seeds from the
hopper and drop a single seed in each hill at required seed spacing.The roller type seed meters has
many advantages such as simple structure, light weight, easy adjustment, capability for high speed
planting and low cost, etc. (Navidet al., 2012). With the use of planters, the seed germination
efficiency could be increased and seed-rate reduced (Dixitet al, 2011). Jayan and Kumar (2004)
considered various seed physical properties to design the thickness and cell diameters of the seed
meter. The flow characteristics of the seeds through different components of a planter were
reported to be influenced by the size, shape, sphericity, true density and angle of repose of seeds.

270
Suitable design of seed meter was considered to achieve proper performance of sowing implements
(Khandaiet al, 2015).Bakhtiari and Ahmad (2015) used moisture dependent physical and
aerodynamic properties and developed a vacuum type pneumatic planter of garlic cloves. In
precision planting, each cell is to hold only one seed whereas the entry of seeds to the cell depends
on seed physical parameters. Variations to select or drop a single seed results in large or non-uniform
spacing between the seeds. The matching of size of the cells to the size of the seed is also very
important and highly affect the performance of the seed metering unit (Wankhade and Kotwal,
2014). A planter mechanism could be utilized for various rainfed crops just by minor modifications on
the seed rotor. Singh et al. (2017) designed and developed a single row manual/ bullock drawn
multicrop planter using cell type single roller seed metering roller having four different type/size of
cell to suit line sowing of wheat, maize, soybean, lentil, pea, mustard, millet etc. in hilly areas.The
type of seed rotor mechanism, the operating speed, overall gear ratio between drive wheel and seed
rotor and up to some extent on seed quality influence in achieving the required seed rate and plant
spacing (Reddy and Adake, 2013).A mechanism for improving seed spacing uniformity using a motor-
driven air-suction seed meter, a motor-driven belt type seed delivery device and a control system for
a maize planter was developed. Higher qualities of feed index and lower coefficient of variation at 10
km/h, 12 km/h and 14 km/h speeds of operation were observed with the system when compared
with traditional seed tube delivery (Liu et.al., 2018). (Ryu and Kim, 1998; Ahmadi et al., 2008)
considered the groove shape as the most important affecting seed dropping process from the groove
of a seed meter.Increasing meter speed was found to decreaseavailable time for seed to enter in the
cell and increase in groove length improved better sliding of the seeds in the cell. A triangular groove
was created on each cell of the roller for better sliding of seeds and considered roller speed of 49
rpm and 10 mm groove length as optimum in precision planting using 4 mm diameter tomato
pelleted seeds with miss index of 8.58% (Navidet al., 2012). Hongxinetal. (2015)developed four plate
series of vertical disc seed metering device to develop minimum planter plate series which will cover
seed sizes of all soybean varieties in China. Planter plates with hole diameters of 7, 9, 12 and 16 mm
were found appropriate for seed size ranges of 4.5-6.0, 6.0-8.0, 8.0-10.5 and10.5-13.0 mm,
respectively to be operated at optimum speeds of 9, 8, 7 and 6 km h-1, respectively.A tractor
operated six row planter using inclined plates of 18, 24 and 30 number of grooves for direct sowing
of onion seeds was developed and tested by Grewal, et al. (2015)
under laboratory condition. Increase in forward speed resulted
increase in miss index which was attributed due to lower exposure
time of cell to seed in the hopper and higher centrifugal force at
higher speeds which might throw the seed out of cell prematurely.
Materials and Methods
This study was carried out to design and comparethe performance
of three different shapes of positive seed knocking devicesforcell
type vertical plate seed meterusing pea seeds. The positive seed
knocking deviceswereconsidered important to avoid missing of
seedscaused due to occurrence of jammedcells by positively Fig. 1. Seed meter with positive
knocking them out of the cells and to prevent from the rotor seed knocking device
run repeatedly with jammed cells. Suitable sizes of seed meter
plates and cells were designed for selected field pea variety.
Seed meterand positive seed knocking device
The seed meter was vertical plate type metering device with cells
of similar shapes and sizes cut away around the periphery of the
seed meter roller plates. The seed meter roller consisted of a pair
of metering plates with cells with a gap of 1.5mm in between
them. A mechanical positive seed knocking device was held by
spring tension and made to slide in between the roller plates over
the circular surface of amiddle gap plate (Fig.1).

271
Some of the design parameters mentioned by Ryu and Kim (1998)
were used in designing the cells of the roller plates. The depths of
the cells (dC) under the study was 1.15times the average length of
the seeds. The left (seed delivery) side angle of cells (βL) were
made inclined downward for improving the uniformity of seed
released from the seed meter. The right side angle of each cell (βR)
in this study was 0o for all the plates (Fig.2). The bottom diameters
of the cells(DC) were same as the depth of the cells. The developed
seed meters were evaluated under laboratory condition using
grease belt methodat three speed of operation.Five replications
were conducted for each experiment and 40 seed to seed spacing
were recorded in each replication. Fig.2. Cell design parameters
The diameters of seed meter plates and the number of cells were
determined using the formula given bySharma and Mukesh, 2013.The seed meter plates were 86 mm
in diameter having nine numbers of cells of required shape and size around the periphery.
Miss index and multiple index
Miss index and multiple index were considered to evaluate the performance of the seed meters. The
percentage miss index and multiple index of the seeds droppedwere calculated by the following
equations (Singh et al., 2012):

where,
= miss index, %
= multiple index, %
= total number of spaces
= number of spaces > 1.5 times the theory space
= number of spaces ≤ 0.5 times the theory space
Quality of feed index
The quality of feed index is the percentage of spacing of the
seeds not less than 0.5 times but not greater 1.5 times the theory
spacing. The quality of feed index was calculated by the equation
(Bakhtiari and Ahmad, 2017).

Fig. 3. Shapes of positive seed

Or knocking device studied

Performances of seed meter plates with three cell depths of 1.15,

1.20 and 1.25 times the average length of the seeds each with
20o, 30o and 40o left side angle were first tested with and without
a convex shape seed knocking device. Based on the results, two
plates having cells of combinations 30o and 40o left side angle and
8.48 mm depth were found with lowest miss indices and selected
for further study. Performance of the seed meter was then tested
for seed metering performance for three shapes of seed knocking
device viz. concave, convex and straight edge (Fig.3).
Results and discussions
All the experiments for all depth-angle-speed combinations
resulted in at least one or more cells jammed with seeds when

Fig. 4. A jammed cell and carried

272 over in rotation
the seed meter was operated without seed knocking device (Fig.4). The jammed cells were
considered to occur due to additional seed or portion of seed/s slide and filled into the cell. Seeds
loosely held on the jammed cells fell down when the cell reaches the lowermost part or after few
rotations. However, seeds tightly held on the jammed cells did not fall and continue rotating in turn
repeating missing hills. Whereas, all the experiments of the seed meter for all depths and left side
angles of cell with positive seed knocking devicedid not produce any jammed cells at all speeds of
operation. This is observed due to the seeds in each cell were push out positively at the same
position irrespective of nature of holding the seeds in the cell further making each cell ready for
picking new seed from the hopper. The combined missing hills of all three levels of speeds with seed
knocking device were found lower than that of seed meter without seed knocking device. The
marginal mean miss index of the seed meter with seed knocking device was observed significantly
different from marginal mean miss index of the seed meter without seed knocking device. Higher
miss index for seed meter without positive seed knocking device were due to occurrence of
emptycells, jammed cells or combination of empty and jammed cells.Increase in mean value of miss
index with increase in speed was also noticedfor the seed meterstested with convex shape positive
seed knocking device.The miss indices were 2.0%, 2.5% and 3.5% forcell dimensions of 8.48 mm
depth with 40o left side anglewhereas it was 4.0%, 5.0% and 5.5% for cell of 8.48 mm depth and 30o
left side angle at speeds of 37.04, 44.45 and 51.86 rpm respectively. Comparative study of the three
shapes of positiveseed knocking devices showed significant difference of seed uniformity. The seed
to seed spacing of the seed meter with convex shape seed knocking device was found significantly
different with that of concave and straight shape. However, the seed to seed spacing were not
significantly different between concave and straight shape at 5% level of significance. The seed to
seed spacing was also found significantly different between roller plates having 30o and 40o left side
angle of cell. For plate having 30o left side angle, the closest mean spacing of 10.31 mm to the theory
space at the speed of 37.04 rpm was found in case of concave shape. Whereas mean spacing of 10.33
mm at 44.45 rpm and 10.43 mm at speed of and 51.86 rpm for 30o left side angle of cell were
observed with convex shape seed knocking device.In case of plate with 40o left side angle of cell, the
average seed to seed spacing was closestto the theory spacing with convex shape seed knocking
device. The mean seed spacing with convex shape and 40o left side angle of cell were 9.95, 10.07 and
10.10 mm at operating speeds of 37.04, 44.45 and 51.86 rpm respectively. It is therefore observed
that, the mean seed to seed spacing were optimum with convex shape seed knocking device and 40o
left side angle of cell at all the three speeds of operation. Better uniformity of spacing in case of
convex shape seed knocking device might due to dynamic configuration of convex shape with right
side surface of cell in addition to suitable depth and left side angle of cell create better and uniform
flow path of the seeds leaving the cells at uniform interval of time as compared to that of concave
and straight shapes. Among the three shapes of the positive seed knocking devicesfor cell depth of
8.48 mm, highest miss indices of 5.5%, 7.0% and 7.5% were observed in case of concave shape with
30o cell left side angle. Lowest miss indices of2.0%, 2.5% and 3.5% were observed in case of convex
shape with 40o cell left side angle at speeds of 37.04, 44.45 and 51.86 rpm respectively. The average
multiple indices of all the three speeds varied from no multiple for convex shape and 30o cell left side
angle to 1.17%in case of concave shape and 30o cell left side angle. The average multiple indices for
the cell of 40o left side angle with concave, convex and straight shape seed knocking devices were
0.50, 0.50 and 0.33% respectively. Highest quality of feed index with convex shape seed knocking
device and 40o left side angle of cell at 44.45 rpm speed was 97.5% while the lowest Iq of 91.0% was
recorded in case of concave shape seed knocking device and 30o left side angle of cell at speed of
51.86 rpm.
Conclusion
Among the concave, convex and straight shape positive seed knocking devices, the seed spacing were
significantly different between meter plates with 30o and 40o left side angle of cell at 5% level of
significance. The closest mean seed to seed spacingto theory spacing of9.95, 10.07 and 10.10 mm at
operating speeds of 37.04, 44.45 and 51.86 rpm respectively were observed with convex shape seed

273
knocking device having 40o left side angle of cell.
Comparing the three shapes of the seed knockout devices with cell depth of 8.48 mm, lowest miss
index was observed in case of convex shape with 40o cell left side angle.Among the combination of
concave, convex and straight shape seed knocking devices with 30o and 40o cell left side angle of cell,
percentage seed damage varying from 1.27% to 2.75% were observed.
References
1. Ahmadi, E., Ghassemzadeh, H.R., Moghaddam, M., Kim, K.U., 2008. Development of a precision
seed drill for oilseed rape. Turk J. Agric. For. 32, 451-458.
2. Bakhtiari, M.R., Ahmad, D., 2015. Determining physical and aerodynamic properties of garlic to
design and develop of a pneumatic garlic clove metering system. Agric. Eng. Int. : CIGR
Journal 17 (1), 59-67.
3. Bakhtiari, M.R., Ahmad, D., 2017. Design of a vacuum seed metering system for kenaf planting.
Agric. Eng. Int. : CIGR Journal 19 (3), 23-31.
4. Dixit, A., Mahal, J.S., Manes, G.S., Khurana, R., Nare, B., 2011. Comparative performance of
tractor-operated inclined plate and pneumatic planters. Agric. Eng. Today35(1), 33-37.
5. Grewal, R.S., Khurana, R., Manes, G.S., Dixit, A., Verma, A., 2015. Development and evaluation of
tractor operated inclined plate metering device for onion seed planting. Agric. Eng. Int. :
CIGR Journal 17 (2), 31-38.
6. Hongxin, L.,Lifeng, G., Lulu, F.,Shifa, T., 2015. Study on multi-size seed-metering device for
vertical plate soybean precision planter. Int. J. Agric. Biol. Eng. 8(1), 1-8.
7. Jayan, P.R., Kumar, V.J.F., 2004. Planter design in relation to the physical properties of seeds. J.
Trop. Agric. 42(1-2), 69-71.
8. Khandai, S., Mahapatra, N., Ghosal, M.K., 2015. Development of a shoe attachment to the
existing furrow opener of tractor drawn seed cum fertilizer drill and its
performance evaluation. Int. J. Sc. Eng. Res. 6(11), 1082-1089.
9. Liu, Q., Cui, T., Zhang, D., Yang, L., Wang, Y., He, H., Wang, M., 2018. Design and experimental
study of seed precise delivery mechanism for high-speed maize planter. Int. J. Agric. Biol.
Eng. 11 (4), 81-87.
10. Navid, H.,Ghassemzadeh, H.R., Moghaddam, M., 2012. Determination of some design
parameters for roller type seed metering device. J. Agric. Sc. Tech. A2, 845-850.
11. Ryu, I.H., Kim, K.U., 1998. Design of roller type metering device for precision planting. Trans.
ASAE 41(4), 923-930.
12. Sharma, D.N., Mukesh, S., 2013. A book on Farm machinery design : Principles and problems, 3rd
edition. Published by Jain Brothers, New Delhi.
13. Singh, M.K., Kumar, N.,Verma, P., Garg, S.K., 2012. Performance evaluation of mechanical
planters for planting of chickpea and pigeonpea. J. Food Legumes 25(2), 131-134.
14. Singh, S., Sahoo, D.C., Bisht, J.K., 2017. Development and performance evaluation of
manual/bullock operated multicrop planter for hilly region. Agric. Eng. Int. : CIGR Journal 19
(1), 81-86.
15. Wankhade, C.P., Kotwal, M.R., 2014. A review paper on various seed sowing metering devices.
Int. J. Pure and Applied Res in Eng and Tech. 2(9), 429-435.

274
Study on Hydraulic Performance of Drip Irrigation System under Field Condition
Ajay Kumar H.P.1 and H.G Ashoka2
University of Agricultural Sciences, Bengaluru
Abstract: A field study was undertaken to evaluate the performance of 4 lph capacity inline drip
emitter in farmer’s field at 0.75 kg/cm2 and 1.00 kg/cm2 operating pressure. The efficient water
application through drip irrigation is mainly depends upon the hydraulic parameters of the system,
which includes the effect of pressure on coefficient of manufacturer variation, emitter flow variation,
emission uniformity, uniformity coefficient, application efficiency and distribution efficiency.The
results of the hydraulic parameters evaluation revealed that the coefficient of manufacturer
variation, emission uniformity, uniformity coefficient, application efficiency and distribution efficiency
were found to be excellent at both 0.75 and 1.00 kg/cm2 operating pressure for all the farmers’ fields.
However, among the farmers field,emitter flow variation wasobserved to be in only for 33.33%
farmers’ fields at 1.00 kg/cm2 operating pressure and it wasnot acceptable at 0.75 kg/cm2 for all the
farmers’ fields.
Introduction: Drip irrigation system is defined as “an irrigation which maximises the application
efficiency of water and fertilizerby allowing water drop by drop to the root zone of plants, either in to
thesoil surface or directly in to the root zone, through a network system ofvalves, pipes, tubing and
emitters”. The objective of the drip irrigation is to provide continuous supply of water to each plant to
meet the requirement of water for the plant to the healthy growth and to meet the transpiration
demands (Karmeli and Keller, 1974). Efficient drip irrigation system needs to be free from suspended
materials, organic matter, sand and clay and it is achieved by installing the different types of filters. The
control valve is installed in the pumping station to maintain the required pressure head for operating
the system (Hensenet al., 1980; Bralts and Wu, 1979).
The improvement of irrigation water management is becoming critical to increase the efficiency of
irrigation water use and to reduce water losses. Drip irrigation evaluation in the field under a set of
operating conditions is very important to ensure the desired discharge to all the growing crops.
A best and desirable feature of trickle irrigation is the uniform distribution of water and it is governed
by proper design, management and adoption of the system. Ideally, a well-designed system applies
nearly equal amount of water to each plant to meets its water requirements in addition to rational
designand economics. The causes of theirrigation discharge variations are mainly due to manufacturing
variations, pressure differences, emitter plugging, aging, frictional head losses, change in irrigation
water temperature and the emitter sensitivity results in flow rate variations even between two
identical emitters (Mizyed and Kruse, 2008)
Materials and methods: Experimental site: The present study was carried out during 2017-18 in
the farmer’s field of different villages of Nelamangala, Devanahalli, Doddaballapura and Hosakote
taluks of Bengaluru rural district. There were 15 different irrigating field involved for the study.
Hydraulic parameters for drip irrigationsystem:
Discharge of emitters: The study was conducted in the farmers’ fields having a 4 lph dripper spaced at
40 cm on laterals. The distribution of water application and discharges from emitters along the lateral
are measured using ASAE Standards. The procedure was based on measurements of emitter discharge
like;
1. The four lateral lines were selected on a sub main - one at the inlet, one at the far end and the two
in the middle which was at the one-third and two-thirds positions.
2. The four dripper positions were tested on each lateral - one at the inlet, one at the far end and the
two in the middle which was at the one-third and two-thirds positions.
Therefore, there were 16 measurement positions used for the study. The discharge was measured by
collecting the water from individual drippers using measuring cylinders. The discharge was collected for

275
ten minutes period and continued for different pressure ranges like 0.75 kg/cm2 and1 kg/cm2. The
procedure was repeated thrice and the average of the volume of the water was considered as the
discharge for a particular position (Capra and Scieotone, 1998).
Coefficient of Manufacturer’sVariation (Cv)
Co efficient of manufacturer’s variation is defined as the ratio of the standard deviation of flow to the
mean flow for as ample number of emitters (Keller and Karmeli, 1974). Co efficient of manufacturer’s
variation is a statistical parameter and expressed as:
Cv = * 100
Where,
= standard deviation of flow
( )
=
( )
qave =mean flow for a sampled number of emitters
………..
= * 100
1, 2, 3, = are the discharges (lph)
n = number of emission devices tested
The recommended classification of manufacturer’s co efficient of variation as per ASAE are;
Emitter type Cv range (%) Classification
<5 Good
5 to 10 Average
Point Source
10 to 15 Marginal
> 15 Unaccepted
< 10 Good
Line Source 10 to 20 Average
> 20 Marginal
Emission uniformity (Eu)
The EU during the field test is the ratio expressed as a percentage of average emitter discharge from the
th
lower1/4 of emitter to the average discharge of all the emitters of the drip system (Burt et al., 1997).
th
Theaverage of lowest 1/4 of emitter was selected as a practical value for minimum discharge, as
recommended by the United States soil conservation services for field evaluation of irrigation systems
and is expressed by the equation.
= * 100
Where,
EU = the field test emission uniformity, percentage
th
qm = average of the lowest 1/4 of the field data emitter discharge, lph
a = average of all the field data emitter discharge, (lph)
The Recommended classification of emission uniformity as per ASAE are;
EUrange Ratings
90% or greater Excellent

80 to 90% Good

70 to 80% Fair

Less than 70% Poor

276
Emitter flow variation
These condmethod of field evaluation of emission uniformity relies on the design procedure based on
estimat in gemitter flow variation (Wu and Gitl in, 1973 and 1974). It consists of finding the minimum
and maximum pressure in the sub-unit sand the emitter flow variation (Qvar) was worked out using the
following equation.
Qvar = 100 1 − …..(3)
Where,
Qvar = emitter flow variation in percentage
Qmin = minimum emitter discharge rate in the system, lph
Qmax = average or design emitter discharge rate, lph
General criteria for Qvar values are 10 per cent or less (desirable) and 10 to 20 per cent Acceptable and
greater than 25 per cent Not Acceptable.
Uniformity coefficient (UC)
The uniformity coefficient was worked out using Bralts andKesner, (1982) equation.
UC = 100 (1- Vq) = 100 (1 - ) …..(4)
Where,
UC =Statistical uniformity coefficient (%)
Vq = coefficient of variation emitter flow
Sq = standard deviation of emitter flow
qa =mean emitter flow rate, lph
Recommended classification of uniformity coefficient as per ASAE are;
UCrange Ratings
90% or greater Excellent
80 to 90% Very good
70 to 80% Fair
60 to 70% Poor
Less than 60% UnAcceptable
Distribution efficiency (Ed)
The distribution efficiency determine show uniformly irrigation water can be distributed through a drip
irrigation system in to the field. It can be determined from the emitter flow variation along a lateral line
in a drip irrigation system layout in the field and can be expressed by the equation,
∆
Ed = 100 * 1 − …..(5)
Where,
Ed = distribution efficiency in percentage
qm= mean emitter flow rate, lph
qa= average absolute deviation of each emitter flow from the mean emitter flow
∆qa = * 100
qr= rated flow, lph
qavg= Average emitter flow rate, lph
Application efficiency (Ea)
The application efficiency is defined as the ratio of water required in the root zone to the total amount
of water applied. It shows how well irrigation water is applied that is, what percentage of water applied
is stored in the root zone as required and is available for plant use (Mane etal; 2018)
The water required in the root zone is assumed to be applied at the minimum flow rate and over the
total irrigation time. Therefore, application efficiency can be expressed as,

277
 .
Ea= ×100
Where,
Ea= application efficiency,%
N = total number of emitter
Qmin= minimum emitter flow rate, lph
T = total irrigation time,
Vw = total volume of water applied, l
Since, the mean emitter flow (Qavg)is,
Qavg =
.
The application efficiency can also be expressed as,
Ea = * 100
Where,
Qmin = minimum emitter flow rate, lph
Qavg = average emitter flow rate, lph

Results and discussion: Drip irrigation system was operated under different operating pressures to
study the different hydraulic parameters of drip irrigation system. For this purpose, drip irrigation
discharges were measured at different operating pressures for 4 lph emitter discharge. The Average
Emitter flow rate of 3.67 lph was found to be maximum at 1.00 kg/cm2 operating pressure in F2 fields
and a minimum of 2.15 lph at 0.75 kg/cm2 operating pressure in F14 fields (Table 5).
The coefficient of manufacturer variation of 0.0549 and emitter flow variation of 47.75 % was found
maximum at 0.75 kg/cm2 operating pressure for F15 and F7 fields. It was minimum of 0.0123 and 17.12
% at 1.0 kg/cm2 operating pressure for F2 and F1 fields (Table 1 and 2). Thus, for a particular spacing,
coefficient of variation and emitter flow variation and operating pressure having inverse relation for all
emission devices. To decide whether the system is good, average, marginal and excellent, it is
necessary to determine the manufactures coefficient of variation either for point source or line source.
It is observed that, Cvfor 4 lph discharge of drippers comes under the range of classification as good for
both the operating pressure. The Qvaris acceptable at 1.00 kg/cm2 operating pressure for F1, F2, F3, F4
and F6 fields. However, it is not acceptable at 0.75 kg/cm2 for all the fields. From the Table 1 and 2, it is
evident that when the operating pressure of drip irrigation system is higher, coefficient of
manufacturer variation and emitter flow variation is lower and therefore the pressure directly affect
the discharge rate of emitter.
Emission uniformity of the system decides the uniformity distribution of discharge by each emitter or
uniformity distribution of water to each crop. The emission uniformity of 98.73% and the uniformity
coefficient of 98.68% for 4 lph emitter were found to be maximum at 1.0 kg/cm² operating pressure for
F1 and F3 fields. While it is minimum of 92.79% and 94.15% at 0.75 kg/cm² operating pressure for F15
field (Table 3 and 4). It is observed that EU and UCfor 4 lph discharge of drippers comes under the
range of classification as excellent for both the operating pressure. Thus, for a particular spacing,
emission uniformity and uniformity coefficient increases as the operating pressure increases for all
irrigation systems. The emission uniformity increases due to increase in the ratio of the minimum rate
of discharge to the average rate of discharge. At a particular spacing emission uniformity (EU) increases
due to constant emitter point throughout the lateral length.
The application efficiency (Ea) anddistribution efficiency (Ed) of drip irrigation system is estimated for 4
lph emitters under different operating pressure. The application efficiency of 98.73% and distribution
efficiency of 99.11% found to be maximum at 1.0 kg/cm² operating pressure for F1 and F2 fields and
minimum of 90.31% and 92.73% at 0.75 kg/cm² operating pressure for F5 and F15 fields (Table 5).
Thus, for a particular spacing, application efficiency and distribution efficiency increases with the
increased pressure of the operating system for all irrigation systems. The results are in conformity with
the findings of Popaleet al. (2011), SAFI et al. (2007) and Kumar and Singh (2007).

278
Conclusion: A study was conducted to evaluate the performance of drip irrigation system under
different operating pressure. Itwas observed that at a particular spacing, the emission uniformity,
uniformity coefficient, application efficiency and distribution efficiency increased with increase in
operating pressure. While coefficient of variation and emitter flow variation were decreased for all
farmers field. By considering all the above calculated hydraulic parameters, only 5 (33.33%) farmers
field showed a better hydraulic efficiency (Emmittor flowvariation) by meeting the standards set by
ASCE.
References:
Bralts V F; Kesner C D. 1982. Drip irrigation field uniformity estimation. Transactions of the American
Society of Agricultural Engineers, 26: 1369-1374.
Bralts V F; Wu I P. 1979. Emitter flow variation and uniformity for drip irrigation. St. Joseph Mich.,
ASAE.
Capra S; Scieotone H. 1998. Water quality and distribution uniformity in drip/trickle irrigation systems.
Journal of Agricultural Engineering Research,70: 355-365.
Hema Krishna. 2009. Study of hydraulic parameters of drip irrigation systems in farmers’ fields under
different crops. M.tech Thesis (Unpub), Acharya N. G. Ranga Agricultural University
Hensen V E; Israelson O W; Stringham G E. 1980. Irrigation Principals and Practices. Wiley International
ed., New York.
KarmeliD;KellerJ.1974.TrickleIrrigationDesign.RainBirdsprinklingManufacturingCorporation,Glendora,Cal
ifornia, 130-132.
Keller J; Bliesner R D. 1990. Sprinkle and Trickle Irrigation. Van Nostrand Reinhold. New York, 3(5), 86-
96.
KumarS;SinghP.2007.Evaluationofhydraulicperformanceofdripirrigationsystem.
JournalofAgriculturalEngineering,44 (2).
Mane M S; Ayare B L; S S Magar. 2008, PrincipalofDripIrrigationSystem. Jain brothers. Karnataka, 80-
130.
PopalePG; BombaleV T; Magar AP.2011. Hydraulic Performance of Drip Irrigation System.Engineering and
Technology in India, 2 (1&2): 24-28.
Safi B; NeyshabouriM R; NuzemiA H; MassinaS;MirlatifiS M. 2007. Water application uniformity of a sub-
surface drip irrigation system at various operating pressure and tape lengths. Turkish J. Agric.31: 275-285.
Wu I P; Gitlin H M. 1973. Hydraulics and uniformity for drip irrigation. J. Irrig. Drain. Div. Proc. ASCE, 99
(2): 157-168.

279
Table 1: Coefficient of Manufacturer variation (Cv) under different operating pressure
Coefficient of Manufacturer
Classification
Field No. variation (Cv) (%)
2 2
0.75 (kg/cm ) 1.00 (kg/cm ) 0.75 (kg/cm2) 1.00 (kg/cm2)
F1 0.0268 0.0183 Good Good
F2 0.0280 0.0123 Good Good
F3 0.0290 0.0132 Good Good
F4 0.0301 0.0238 Good Good
F5 0.0523 0.0360 Good Good
F6 0.0344 0.0274 Good Good
F7 0.0405 0.0311 Good Good
F8 0.0237 0.0197 Good Good
F9 0.0226 0.0195 Good Good
F10 0.0368 0.0300 Good Good
F11 0.0490 0.0469 Good Good
F12 0.0325 0.0317 Good Good
F13 0.0343 0.0168 Good Good
F14 0.0290 0.0238 Good Good
F15 0.0549 0.0379 Good Good

Table 2: Emitter flow variation (Qvar)under different operating pressure

Emitter flow variation (Qvar) (%) Classification
Field No. 2 2
0.75 (kg/cm ) 1.00 (kg/cm ) 0.75 (kg/cm2) 1.00 (kg/cm2)
F1 26.87 17.12 Not Acceptable Acceptable
F2 35.31 23.69 Not Acceptable Acceptable
F3 34.28 25.00 Not Acceptable Acceptable
F4 34.00 25.00 Not Acceptable Acceptable
F5 33.48 30.43 Not Acceptable Not Acceptable
F6 29.50 23.13 Not Acceptable Acceptable
F7 47.75 34.37 Not Acceptable Not Acceptable
F8 37.65 27.01 Not Acceptable Not Acceptable
F9 34.00 27.81 Not Acceptable Not Acceptable
F10 41.70 36.31 Not Acceptable Not Acceptable
F11 41.00 34.56 Not Acceptable Not Acceptable
F12 37.60 29.71 Not Acceptable Not Acceptable
F13 43.25 27.68 Not Acceptable Not Acceptable
F14 47.12 33.56 Not Acceptable Not Acceptable
F15 39.43 28.50 Not Acceptable Not Acceptable

280
Table 3: Emission Uniformity under different operating pressure
Emission uniformity (EU) (%) Classification
Field. No.
0.75 (kg/cm2) 1.00 (kg/cm2) 0.75 (kg/cm2) 1.00 (kg/cm2)
F1 95.93 98.73 Excellent Excellent
F2 95.54 98.24 Excellent Excellent
F3 95.69 97.20 Excellent Excellent
F4 94.63 98.68 Excellent Excellent
F5 95.18 98.03 Excellent Excellent
F6 94.79 97.55 Excellent Excellent
F7 94.19 96.69 Excellent Excellent
F8 94.01 97.55 Excellent Excellent
F9 93.20 97.38 Excellent Excellent
F10 94.22 97.33 Excellent Excellent
F11 93.09 97.69 Excellent Excellent
F12 93.70 97.01 Excellent Excellent
F13 93.39 97.33 Excellent Excellent
F14 93.38 97.79 Excellent Excellent
F15 92.79 96.19 Excellent Excellent

Table 4: Uniformity coefficient (UC) under different operating pressure

Average emitter flow rate Application Efficiency Distribution Efficiency
Field. (lph) (Ea) (%) (Ed) (%)
No. 0.75
0.75(kg/cm2) 1.00(kg/cm2) 0.75(kg/cm2) 1.00(kg/cm2) 1.00(kg/cm2)
(kg/cm2)
F1 2.97 3.38 95.71 98.73 97.93 98.45
F2 3.02 3.67 93.70 97.04 97.90 99.11
F3 2.66 3.02 94.61 97.83 97.64 98.95
F4 2.73 3.04 91.80 93.34 97.52 98.03
F5 2.66 2.96 90.31 95.84 96.85 97.60
F6 2.74 3.12 91.95 96.15 96.67 97.05
F7 2.49 2.72 92.77 93.92 96.44 97.62
F8 2.50 2.96 93.24 96.61 97.36 98.15
F9 2.64 2.98 93.02 96.83 97.38 98.05
F10 2.37 2.59 92.48 94.64 96.53 97.59
F11 2.43 2.68 92.68 94.93 94.33 95.73
F12 2.54 2.90 93.00 94.90 96.55 97.72
F13 2.33 2.92 93.96 97.06 96.12 98.64
F14 2.15 2.71 93.46 95.59 97.65 98.21
F15 2.55 3.18 93.91 95.25 92.73 96.78

281
Table 5: Average emitter flow rate, Application efficiency and Distribution efficiency under different
operating pressure
Uniformity coefficient (UC) (%) Classification
Field. No. 2 2
0.75 (kg/cm ) 1.00 (kg/cm ) 0.75 (kg/cm2) 1.00 (kg/cm2)
F1 97.19 98.07 Excellent Excellent
F2 97.02 98.77 Excellent Excellent
F3 96.93 98.68 Excellent Excellent
F4 96.99 97.63 Excellent Excellent
F5 94.76 96.45 Excellent Excellent
F6 96.65 97.25 Excellent Excellent
F7 95.95 96.68 Excellent Excellent
F8 96.93 97.62 Excellent Excellent
F9 95.97 97.73 Excellent Excellent
F10 95.45 96.82 Excellent Excellent
F11 94.48 95.10 Excellent Excellent
F12 94.45 96.82 Excellent Excellent
F13 96.34 98.31 Excellent Excellent
F14 96.94 97.61 Excellent Excellent
F15 94.15 96.20 Excellent Excellent

282
Assessment of Bio Energy Technologies in Tumkur District of Karnataka State
Babu R.M. Ray, V. Kumargouda, G.V. Mohith Kumar and K.N. Hanumantharaju
College of Agricultural Engineering
University of Agricultural Sciences, GKVK, Bengaluru
Email : baburmray@yahoo.com

Abstract : India is one of the largest countries in the world where the people occupation is
predominantly agriculture and most of the population lives in villages. Many of these villages are
remotely located and their connectivity with the urban area is difficult resulting in lack of sources
availability. For the development of the region, there is every need to utilize energy efficient
techniques and potential of available resources. Access to quality, reliable and affordable energy is
critical for promoting economic and social development in rural areas. By employing existing but
well proven resources can develop the rural areas. Based on survey conducted at Adalagere
village,Tumkur district, Karnataka, India, attempts were made to identify the details and available
resources of village like actual population details, type of family, literacy, type of house, land use
classification, village institutions, mass media facilities, type of farmer, source of water, available
agricultural implements, energy source for cooking, previous year weather data, previous year crop
details, animal husbandry & other activities.
Introduction : Access to quality, reliable and affordable energy is critical for promoting economic
and social development in rural areas. The concept of an energy plan for a rural community by
making use of locally available resources to meet electrical and other energy needs has been
revisited over the years. A lot of this may owe to the slow but continuously arising awareness among
national and international states, about the fast depleting conventional energy sources and the
urgent need to find and implement technology for alternative energy sources.
Recent work in this area has dully stressed importance, of late, in trying to apply the idea to the rural
localities given their remote location and the consequent difficulties in connecting the conventional
grid by using the available resources. As a fast developing and densely populated country, India’s
energy demand is continuously raising in all sectors like industrial, transportation, agriculture,
domestic etc. For a country like India, which has agriculture as its major occupation, the overall
development of villages, where an overwhelming section of the population resides and literature in
this domain plays an influential role in the nation’s economic growth. So, more importantly, an
insight should be given on the aspects of village development is vital towards realizing this. Keeping
the above aspects the survey was conducted in the Adalagerevillage of Tumakur district to find the
locally available resources.
Material and Methods : Field surveys was conducted based on household and direct interview
methods was carried out in the villages to collect information on available resources of village like
actual population details, type of family, literacy/education, type of house, land use classification,
village institutions, , mass media facilities, type of farmer, source of water, available
agricultural implements, energy source for cooking, previous year weather data, previous year crop
grown, dairy, poultry & other activities.
The study was being conducted at Adalagerevillage,Tumakur district, Karnataka State in the year
2017-18. It is situated 18km away from sub-district headquarter Gubbi and 38km away from district
headquarter Tumkur. As per 2009 statistics, Thyagattur is the gram panchayat of Adalagere
village.The major corps grown in the village was Ragi (Finger millet),Jowar, Coconut, Arecnut, Cow
pea etc. Total population of the village is 1512 (Adult, youth & child) consisting of 518 households.
The details information of each family was obtained by personal interaction with the people. It was
observed that total geographical area in Adalagere was 506.13 ha. All the cultivable area was
rainfed, irrigated and forest land.

283
 Adalagere - Village Overview
Gram Panchayat : Thyagattur
Block / Tehsil : Gubbi
District : Tumkur
State : Karnataka
Pincode : 572223
Area : 506.13 hectares
Population : 1512
Households : 518
Nearest Town : Gubbi (18 km)
Latitude and 13.3585° N, 76.8195°
Fig. 1 Longitude E
ADALAGERE

The cultivated area and the biomass yield of each crop influence the biomass potential from
agriculture residues. The yield of a crop according to season and variety across in and variety across
an area was obtained from the average yields of the previous years. The energy equivalent of these
residues was taken based on what would be obtained if they would be subjected to the most energy
efficient transformation processes. Portion of the residues available were used as fuel, while some
used as fodder, and the rest left behind in the field for nutrient recycling. Energy from agriculture
residues (kcal) was determined by taking difference of Total agro residue production & consumption
of agro residue. (Kalbandeet al., 2011)
Heat value of various crops was taken in range of 3000 – 3600 kcal/kg. The biomass potential of the
forests is dependent on the type of forest and its distribution cover. The biomass production varies
with the type of forest. The forest wood fuel collected annlualy by the household from the adjoining
forest area was taken with the energy equivalent. Total energy from forest was computed by taking
difference of annual wood collected and consumption of wood in house hold activities (Kalbandeet
al., 2011).
The livestock population of cattle, buffalo, sheep, goat & poultry was collected from the personal
interaction with the respondents. The total dung produced annually was calculated from the animal
dung production per year and the number of head of different animals. Therefore the total energy
from livestock was computed by taking difference of total cow dung collected and direct dung
consumption through cake (Kalbandeet al., 2011).
The size of agricultural implement, source for cooking, mass media facilities and other facilities
details was collected from the personal interaction with the respondents. The total available source
of energy from various sectors was computed by aggregating the energy computed from individual
sectors (forestry, agriculture residues, livestock etc.).
The previous year crops grown in the village Adalagere and previous year weather data of the village
was collected though agriculture and metrological department. Remaining all other data computed
in the table 2 was collected through personal interaction with the 82 farmers who are picked
randomly during survey.
Result and Discussion
The work presented in the paper is fully based on the survey conducted, which provided the authors
with enough particulars of the village like population, population details, type of family, literacy, type
of house, land use classification, village institutions, mass media facilities, type of farmer, source of
water, available agricultural implements, energy source for cooking, previous year weather data,
previous year crop details, animal husbandry etc. It also revealed all the practices followed by people
in order to meet there daily energy requirements. The conventional practices did indicate an
unhealthy way of living with no utilization of the available resource. These practices are not only
energy inefficient, hazardous but also pose the problem of environmental pollution.

284
 Adalagere village is one which comes under above mentioned practice. By changing the
practices of resource management to clean and eco-friendly techniques, the dependability on
conventional energy would be reduced. It was observed that, as per the population of village the
utilization of available resources was not meeting the technical estimation. Literacy rate of the
village is about 68.05%, even though the villagers cannot adopt the new technique. Because, many
of them are marginal and small farm background where they cannot offered for adopting the new
technology.
Adalagere village also consist of other needful resources like dairy cooperative, primary school &
high school, village panchayat, post office, ration distribution store, health centre, anganavadi&
veterinary hospital at the equal ratio.

Table 2. AVAILABLE RESOURCES IN ADALAGERE VILLAGE

Land use classification

Population Details Type of house Type of Family Source of water
(area in acre)
Femal Tot Lak
Available Male Ope Bor
e al Far e/
sources (Adult, Anim Irrigat For n e
(Adult, Living m Rain pon
Young al Small Large ed est well well
Young home hou fed d
& yard land land (No. (No.
& se (acr
Child) ) )
Child) e)

Number 762 750 511 26 5 325 193 510 620 10 183 17 90

151
2
Percenta 52.7 25.9
50.40 49.60 72 23.50 4.50 62.66 37.33 44.73 54.38 8.70 4.89
ge 0 3

Type of farmer Agricultural Equipment’s

Available
Rural Pow See Bulloc Harvest Thresh
sources Margin Sma Larg Agricultu Tracto Spraye Ploug
artisa er d k cart er er
al ll e re labour rs rs h
ns tiller drill

Number 53 39 28 15 4 16 9 28 7 3 5 3 2

Percenta 28.5 20.1 12.3 4.1

38.12 10.79 2.28 21.90 38.35 9.50 6.80 4.10 2.70
ge 0 4 0 0

Village institution details

Available
sources Dairy Primary High Village Post Ration distribution Health Veterinary
Anganavadi
Cooperative school school panchayat office / Nyaya bele center hospital

Number 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Percentage 11.11 11.11 11.11 11.11 11.11 11.11 11.11 11.11 11.11

285
 Mass media Facilities Previous year crop details (tons)

Agri.
Available New Ragi
New Tele Tele
sources s Magazine Radi Mobil Compute (Finge Coconu Arecnu
s visio pho Jower Cow pea
pap s o e r r t t
pape n ne
er millet)
r

Number 40 8 6 18 410 12 850 5 523 62 497 607 51

30.3
Percentage 2.97 0.59 0.44 1.33 0.89 63.01 0.37 30.05 3.50 28.50 34.80 2.93
9

Animal husbandry (number of Literacy/Educatio

Source for cooking Type of living house
Available houses doing) n details
sources Fire kerosen Cattl Goa RCC Tiled Illiterat
LPG Sheep Poultry Huts Literate
wood e e t structure roofs e

Number 512 3 2 208 12 13 38 62 450 5 1029 483

75.6
Percentage 99.03 0.001 0.003 4.46 4.54 14.20 11.90 87.04 0.96 68.05 31.94
0

Available Previous year weather data, Rainfall (mm)

sources January February March April May June July August September October November December

Number 0 0 46 28 66.70 78.30 139.46 184.06 164.40 81 13.80 10.80

Percentage 0 0 5.60 1.69 8.20 9.50 17.16 22.65 20.23 9.96 1.69 1.32

Through the results it was found that, source of water for utilization of villagers for used by village
for agriculture and commercial activities are lake, open well and bore well. Availability of water
resource are indicate that are not meeting the requirement as per the village population and shows
maximum time the villagers are depend on rainfall for doing there agriculture activities by using
different implements like power tiller, sprayer, pllugh, seed drill, bullock cart, harvester and
thresher. The other needful agriculture equipment for the farmers is haired through costume hiring
centre.
As table 2, shows the previous year weather (rainfall) data form January to December and it was also
found that the highest rainfall was observed in August month (184.06 mm), contributing 22.65 per
cent for the entire year. With the available of water resource the villagers grew the different crops
like Ragi (Finger millet), Jowar, Coconut, Arecnut& cowpea and extracted yield at the rate of 523, 62,
497, 607&51 tons.
The biomass potential, demand and energy use pattern in the villages was calculated from the
available data. The dung available was estimated in the village form cattle, goat, sheep and rarely
poultry waste depends on availability of number of animals. It was taken as 12-15kg/animal/day for
buffalo, 3-7.5 kg/animal/day for cattle, 0.1 kg/animal/day for sheep and goat (Kalbandeet. al, 2011).
The number of houses doing animal husbandry was mentioned in the table 2. By assuming and
taking average availability of animal in one house as 2 cattle/house, 6goat/house, 10 sheep/house
and 6 chicks or hen/house the average availability of dung was computes as 6260.2 kg/day. Along
with the animal source, agriculture residue from the different crop can be used as generating energy
by burning or doing composting. As per the survey villagers cannot adopt the above mentioned
technique which is available freely. For calculating energy generation capacity of biomass resources,

286
calorific values of the biomass were considered. The planning of the suitable system for proper
utilization of available resources at village level was the first step. Proper planning minimizes the
cost of system and the future cost of the energy generation.
The study revealed that the village was having considerable surplus of resources. Among the
resources, crop residue and animal waste contribute significantly towards generation of energy.
Electrical energy demand of the village can be met by the fruitful usage of abundantly available
resource of biomass. So there is every scope for installing advance technique for utilization of
available resource for the energy generation in adequate quantities. Through the study proposal
were made to villagers to adopt technologies like biogas plant, biomass plant & solar water heater
for meet their daily energy needs.

References
Kalbande, S.R., Kamble, A.K. and Gangde, C.N., 2011, Bioenergy assessment and its integration for
self-sufficient renewable energy village, Karnataka J. Agric. Sci., 24 (2): pp 207-210.
Khandelwal, K.C. and Mahdi, S.S., 1992, Biogas Technology: A practical Handbook, Tata McGraw-Hill
publishing Limited, New Delhi, 1:13-14.
Amit Jain, Srinivas, E., Sivaramakrishnan Raman, Ravianth Reddy Gaddam, Haritha V.V.S.S. and
Venkata Srinath N., 2010, Inter. conference of power system tech..
N. H. Ravindranath, H. I. Somashekar, S. Dasappa and C. N. Jayasheela Reddy, Sustainable biomass
power for rural India:Case study of biomass gasifier for villageelectrification, special section:
application of S & T to rural areas, pp: 932-941.

287
Optimization of design and operational parameters of automatic sowing unit
for protrays used in vegetable nursery
Carolin Rathinakumar A. and Senthil Kumaran G.
ICAR-IIHR, Bengaluru
Email : carolina.kumari@icar.gov.in

Abstract: Vegetable seedling production is a specialized enterprise and seedling production in

protrays has become a lucrative commercial venture. Growing media is filled in the protrays and
individual seeds are sown in each cell manually followed by covering by coco peat. Due to this,
nurseries remain highly labor-intensive to achieve the required seedling production. The operations
in nursery are also highly drudgery in nature. Hence, an automatic protray seeder for vegetable
nursery was designed and dibbler at ICAR-Indian Institute of Horticultural Research, Bengaluru. The
seeding unit is set of nozzles (14 Nos.) mounted on a vacuum manifold. Hypodermic needles which
are commercially available in wide range of gauge sizes are used as seed picking units and the seed
pick up/ drop is controlled by suction pressure. Experiments were conducted to optimise the design
and operational parameters of automatic sowing unit for tomato, chilli, capsicum, brinjal, tomato
and knolkhol. The parameters were i) nozzle orifice size (0.84, 0.69, 0.60 and 0.51 mm) and ii) suction
pressure (2, 4 and 6 kPa). The performance parameters were per cent singles, doubles, triples and
missings. The observations were statistically analyzed using factorial completely randomized design
(FCRD) to optimise the parameters. It was concluded that nozzle orifice sizes 0. 51 mm and 0.60 mm
at 4.0 kPa had higher seed pick efficiency of 93 % for tomato, brinjal and chilli seeds and 95% for
capsicum and knolkhol seeds, respectively.

Keywords: vegetable nursery, step seeder, automatic protray indexing, crop nursery mechanization,
nursery machinery.

Introduction: Quality and healthy seedling production is very important for successful vegetable
cultivation. Recent days vegetable seedlings are raised in protrays under protected cultivation to
ensure quality seedling production. The Table 1. presents the yearly demand of vegetable seedlings
in India.
Table 1. Yearly demand of vegetable seedling in India
Crop Seed (kgs) Seedling (millions)
Tomato 600 13028
Brinjal 635 200000
Chilli 195 14157
Onion 2779 695000
Cabbage 101 22963
Cauliflower 87 12669

(Source: Resource Book on Horticulture Nursery Management, NAIP, ICAR, 2012)

Vegetable seedling production is already a commercial venture to produce the seedlings of tomato,
chilli, capsicum, cauliflower and cabbage hybrids using protrays and protective structure. The
protrays are filled with growing medium such as coco peat and small depressions for sowing (5 mm)
are made by fingertips in the center of the cell. Individual seeds are sown in each cell manually and
covered by coco peat. Due to this nurseries remain highly labor-intensive to achieve the required
seedling production. The operations in nursery are also highly drudgery in nature. Hence,
mechanization of nursery operation will reduce drudgery involved in this enterprising and create
sizable employment opportunities for the rural masses.

288
Few researchers have developed machinery for mechanization of seed sowing in protrays.
Mandharet al. (2004) developed a rotary vacuum drum seeder with nozzle orifice diameters of 0.5
mm diameter for vegetable seeds. Carolinet al. (2005) designed and developed a tray type dibbler
and vacuum seeder suitable for small nursery growers. A suction pressure of 49.03 kPa was reported
for singulation of seeds. The capacity of seeder was 60 protrays/h. Gaikwad et al. (2007) conducted
studies to determine the optimum combination of suction pressure and nozzle size for the singulated
picking of tomato and capsicum seeds. The optimum combination of suction pressure and nozzle size
for more than 90% singles in the case of capsicum was 4.91 kPa and 0.49 mm and for tomato it was
3.92 kPa and 0.46 mm, respectively. Sriwongras and Dostal (2013) designed and developed a seeder
for plug tray for sowing papaya seeds (60 cells). This seeder consisted of i) seed hopper, ii) seed
metering device, iii) soil compressing and seed releasing units, iv) depth controlling unit and v)
machine controlling unit. The capacity of the seeder was 300 protrays/h against 40 protrays/h
manual seeding. The efficiency of seeder was found to be 79%.
The commercially available imported machines are expensive and are becoming uneconomical for
medium scale nursery growers in India. However, no repair and maintenance services and adequate
spare parts are available and these machinery are becoming ideal. Hence, an automatic seeding
machine for vegetable nursery was designed and developed. This paper discusses the design and
operational parameters required to be considered for construction of automatic seeding system for
vegetable nursery.

Material and Methods

Design considerations and construction of automatic protray seeding system
The basic structure of the seeder depended on the protray widely used by the vegetable nursery
growers. The commonly used protray for vegetable nursery is 98 cavity protray of 530 X 275 mm
(LxW) and protray cavity matrix is 14 x 7 (lengthwise x widthwise). In order to have higher capacity, it
was decided to feed the protrays orienting lengthwise The matrix of protray cavity is 7 x 14 (width x
length) and the centre to centre distance between each cavity is 37.0 mm. Hence the protray has to
be indexed at every 37.0 mm. Alsowhen the last cavity is dibbled, the protray has to be indexed to a
distance of 50.0mm for positioning the dibbling unit to the first cavity of the following protray.
The function of seeding unit is to pick single seed from the seed tray and to drop it into a single
indent in the cells of the protray. The seeding unit (Fig. 1) consisted of a) Main mounting plates for
supporting different components of the seeder, b) Mounting bar for nozzles, c) Set of nozzles (14
Nos.), d) Seed drop/guide tubes (14 Nos.), e) Lever with gear system, f) Seed tray, g) Rotary actuator
and h) Seed tray.
Experiments were conducted to optimize the i) nozzle orifice diameter and ii) suction pressure for
chilli, capsicum, tomato, brinjal and knolkhol seeds. Hypodermic needles which are commercially
available in wide range of gauge sizes are used for seed picking. Orifice sizes having inner diameter of
0.84, 0.69, 0.60, 0.51, 0.41, 0.34 and 0.31 were selected for preliminary studies (Plate 1). The tip of
the needles were truncated and further the orifice was cleared. From the preliminary studies, it was
observed that among all the orifice sizes, 0.84, 0.69, 0.60 and 0.51 mm orifice sizes only showed
better performance. Hence, these 4 needles were used for further optimization experiments

289
 7 5
1
2

6
3
4
10

10 8

1. Side plate LH 2. Side plate RH 3. Seed tray 4. Seed nozzle 5. Seed drop tube 6. Lever with gear
system 7. Nozzle mounting bar 8. Support bracket for rotary actuator 9. Rotaty actuator 10.
Vibrator motor
Fig. 1 Seed sowing unit

Fig. 2 Manifold for nozzles

Plate 1. Different sizes of nozzles

The needles were mounted on a rectangular tube made out of S.S 304. The construction details of
this manifold is shown in Fig. 2. The overall dimension of rectangular tube was 546 X 50 X and 32 mm
(LxWxH). One side of the tube had 14 threaded holes for fitting the nozzles and other side of tube
had two ports as inlet for vacuum. The vacuum can be switched on or off by using an electrical
solenoid valve. A standard commercially available vacuum pump was used to create suction pressure
in the nozzle manifold for seed pick up. The specification of vacuum pump is 0.75hp with 350 lpm of
airflow rate. The air flow rate can be varied through a pressure regulator. Trials were conducted at
four differenent suction pressures viz., 2, 4 and 6 kPa for seed pick up and at 4 kPa suction pressure

290
and theperformance of the seeder in terms of higher per cent single seed pick up and lesser per cent
missings were observed.
The seeds are placed in a vibratory tray which was continuously vibrated which would make the
seeds in floating condition continuously. The vibratory motion was achieved by the vibrator motor
which was connected to the seed tray. The vibrator is a pneumatically operated.The design of
experiment is presented in Table 2.
Table 2. Experimental plan for automatic protray seeder for vegetable nursery
Type of seed Nozzle orifice diameter Replications
(mm)
1. Chilli
2. Capsicum 0.84 3
3. Tomato 0.69
4. Brinjal 0.60
5. Knolkhol 0.51

Observations were recorded at four levels of nozzle orifice sizes and at 4 kPa suction pressure for
picking chilli, capsicum, tomato, brinjal and knolkholby the needles. Picking of seeds by each nozzle
was recorded in percentage of singles, doubles, multiples and missings. The results were analysed
using the statistical package “AGRES”. Study was also conducted on germination of seeds sown by
machine.

Results and Discussion: Optimum nozzle orifice diameter was standardized by considering highest
single seed pick up. The effect of different nozzle orifice diameters on performance of the seeder
were analysed in terms of per cent singles, doubles, multiples and missings.

Effect of nozzle orifice diameter on per cent seed pick up

From Fig. 3(a), it was observed that i) per cent singles of 49.97, 51.02, 87.61 and 81.51ii) per cent
missingsof 3.81, 3.27, 3.74 and 8.07 and iii) per cent total pick up of 96.19, 96.73, 96.26 and 91.93 by
nozzles orifice sizes of 0.84, 0.69, 0.60 and 0.51 mm respectively for chilli seed. From Fig. 3(b), it was
observed that i) per cent singles of 35.11, 64.69, 82.31 and 78.70, ii) per cent missings of 2.65, 8.37,
5.18 and 8.22 and iii) per cent total pick up of 97.35, 91.63, 94.82 and 91.79 by nozzle orifice sizes of
0.84, 0.69, 0.60 and 0.51 mm respectively for capsicum seed. From Fig. 3(c), it was observed that i)
per cent singles of 22.26, 45.11, 63.47 and 84.98, ii) per cent missings of 1.01, 14.69, 4.61 and 5.57
and iii) per cent total pick up of 98.99, 85.32, 95.39 and 94.43 by nozzle orifice sizes of 0.84, 0.69,
0.60 and 0.51 mm respectively for tomato seed.

From Fig. 3(d), it was observed that i) per cent singles of 20.82, 44.10, 70.78 and 81.30 ii) per cent
missings of 3.05, 5.11, 5.76 and 5.98 and iii) per cent total pick up of 96.95, 94.89, 94.24 and 94.02 by
nozzles orifice sizes of 0.84, 0.69, 0.60 and 0.51 mm respectively for brinjal seed. From Fig.3 (e), it
was observed that i) per cent singles of 53.26, 60.40, 85.35 and 85.92, ii) per cent missings of 22.45,
23.47, 3.00 and 3.16 and iii) per cent total pick up of 77.55, 76.53, 97.00 and 96.84 by nozzle
orifice sizes of 0.84, 0.69, 0.60 and 0.51 mm respectively for knolkhol seeds.
From Tables 3,4,5,6 and 7, it was inferred that nozzles orifice size had significant effect of per cent
singles, doubles, triples seed pick up and missings. It was observed that highest per cent singles of
seed pick up of 81.51, 84.98, 81.30 and 85.92 for chilli, tomato, brinjal, knolkhol seeds, respectively
by nozzle orifice diameter

291
 100% 100%
Per cent seed pick up, %

Per cent seed pick up, %

80% 80%

60% 60%

40% 40%

20%
20%
0%
0%
0.84 mm 0.69 mm 0.60 mm 0.51 mm
0.84 mm 0.69 mm 0.60 mm 0.51 mm
Nozzle orifice diameter, mm
Nozzle orifice diameter, mm

(b) Capsicum seeds

(a) Chilli seeds
100% 100%
Per cent seed pick up, %

Per cent seed pick up, %

80% 80%
60% 60%
40%
40%
20%
20% 0%
0% 0.84 0.69 0.60 0.51
0.84 mm 0.69 mm 0.60 mm 0.51 mm mm mm mm mm

Nozzle orifice diameter, mm Nozzle orifice diameter, mm

(c) Tomato seeds (d) Brinjal seeds

100%
Per cent seed pick up, %

80%
60%
40%
20%
0%
0.84 mm 0.69 mm 0.60 mm 0.51 mm

Nozzle orifice diameter, mm

(e) Knolkhol seeds

Fig. 3Effect of nozzle orifice diameter on seed pick up for different vegetable seeds

capsicum, tomato, brinjal, by 0.84 mm and knolkhol by 0.60 mm seeds nozzle orifice diameter were
recorded respectively (Table 6.) Lowest per cent missings of 3.27, 2.65, 1.02, 3.05and 3.00 for chilliby
0.69 mm, for capsicum, tomato, brinjal by 0.84 mm, for knolkholby 0.60 mm nozzle orifice diameter
were recorded respectively (Table 7.)
However, when the means of all factors were compared statistically by LSD method, it was inferred
that the nozzle orifice diameter of 0.51 mm had the highest percentage of singles followed by 0.60
mm. Nozzle orifice diameter of 0.60 mm had the lowest percentage of missingsand highest
percentage of total seed pick up followed by 0.51 mm for all the five seeds under experiment. Hence
it was concluded that based on the seed size for brinjal and tomato (very small size seeds) orifice
diameter of 0.51 mm and for chilli, capsicum and knolkhol orifice size of 0.60 .

292
Table 3. Effect of nozzle orifice diameter on per cent seed pick up - Singles

Type of seed Per cent seed pick up, %

0.84 mm 0.69 mm 0.60 mm 0.51 mm
Chilli 51.02 87.61 49.97 81.51
Capsicum 35.10 64.69 82.31 78.70
Tomato 22.26 45.11 63.47 84.98
Brinjal 20.82 44.09 70.78 81.30
KnolKhol 53.26 60.40 85.35 85.92
F – Value CD (p=0.01) SED
Seed ** 1.81 0.63
Orifice diameter ** 1.62 0.57
Seed X Orifice ** 3.63 1.28
diameter

Table 4. Effect of nozzle orifice diameter on per cent seed pick up - Doubles

Type of seed Per cent seed pick up, %

0.84 mm 0.69 mm 0.60 mm 0.51 mm
Chilli 31.52 34.08 6.18 8.01
Capsicum 41.84 24.29 8.84 11.53
Tomato 26.53 29.19 23.88 5.69
Brinjal 31.43 32.65 15.70 8.78
KnolKhol 17.35 12.860 10.02 9.57
F – Value CD (p=0.01) SED
Seed ** 1.68 0.59
Orifice diameter ** 1.51 0.52
Seed X Orifice ** 3.37 1.18
diameter

Table 5. Effect of nozzle orifice diameter on per cent seed pick up – Triples
Type of seed Per cent seed pick up, %
0.84 mm 0.69 mm 0.60 mm 0.51 mm
Chilli 14.70 11.63 2.48 2.41
Capsicum 20.41 2.65 3.67 1.56
Tomato 50.20 11.02 8.04 3.76
Brinjal 44.70 18.16 7.76 3.94
KnolKhol 6.94 3.27 1.63 1.35
F – Value CD (p=0.01) SED
Seed ** 1.50 0.53
Orifice diameter ** 1.34 0.47
Seed X Orifice ** 3.00 1.06
diameter

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Table 6. Effect of nozzle orifice diameter on per cent seed pick up – Total pick up
Type of seed Per cent seed pick up, %
Nozzle orifice diameter, mm
0.84 0.69 0.60 0.51
Chilli 96.19 96.73 96.26 91.93
Capsicum 97.35 91.63 94.82 91.79
Tomato 98.99 85.32 95.39 94.43
Brinjal 96.95 94.89 94.24 94.02
KnolKhol 77.55 76.53 97.00 96.84
F – Value CD SED
Seed ** 1.68 0.59
Orifice diameter ** 1.50 0.53
Seed X Orifice ** 3.36 1.18
diameter

Table 7. Effect of nozzle orifice diameter on per cent seed pick up - Missings
Type of seed Per cent seed pick up, %
0.84 mm 0.69 mm 0.60 mm 0.51 mm
Chilli 3.82 3.27 3.74 8.07
Capsicum 2.65 8.37 5.18 8.22
Tomato 1.02 14.69 4.61 5.57
Brinjal 3.05 5.11 5.76 5.98
KnolKhol 22.45 23.47 3.00 3.16
F – Value CD SED
Seed ** 1.68 0.59
Orifice diameter ** 1.50 0.53
Seed X Orifice ** 3.36 1.18
diameter

Conclusions: From the above study, it was concluded that nozzle orifice sizes 0. 51 mm and 0.60 mm
at 4.0 kPa had higher seed pick efficiency of 93 % for tomato, brinjal and chilli seeds and 95% for
capsicum, knolkhol and cabbage seeds, respectively.

Acknowledgement: The authors express their heartfelt gratitude to The Department of Science and
Technology, New Delhi for funding the project and to The Director, ICAR-Indian Institute of
Horticultural Research for providing facility and extend his support to carryout this project at ICAR-
Indian Institute of Horticultural Research, Bengaluru.

References
BhimrajBhujbal (ed.) 2012. Resource book on horticulture nursery management, YCMOU, NAIP, ICAR,
p 264.
CarolinRathinakumari, A., G. Senthil Kumaran and Mandhar, S.C. 2005. Design and development of
tray type vacuum seeder and tray type dibbler for vegetable nursery. Journal of Applied Horticulture,
7(1):49-51.
Gaikwad, B., N.P.S. Sirohi and Adharsh Kumar, 2007. Studies on vacuum singulation of seeds for
sowing nursery plug trays. Journal of Agricultural Engineering Vol.44(4): 54-59.
Mandhar,S.C, G. Senthil Kumaran and CarolinRathinakumari, A.2004. Manual operated protray
dibbler and vacuum seeder for vegetable nurseries. Indian Nurserymen’s Magazine, September
2004, 19-21.
Sriwongras, P. and P. Dostal, 2013. Development of seeder for plug tray. MendelNet:867-871.

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 Innovations in some fibre extraction technologies & their agri-business
perspectives
L.K. Nayak1* and A.N. Roy2
1 2
Principal Scientist, Principal Scientist & Head, Transfer of Technology Division
ICAR-National Institute of Natural Fibre Engineering & Technology
12, Regent Park, Kolkata – 700040.
Email : laxmikanta8495@rediffmail.com
Introduction : Fibre yielding plants are important crops like cereals, pulses and oilseeds. In fact, plant
fibres are the raw materials for textile industry which is the backbone of Indian economy. These
natural fibres are more environment friendly than the synthetic fibres both in terms of their
production and their disposal. Consumers both in developing & developed countries are looking for
bio-degradable and eco-friendly textiles for preservation of their natural environment. Natural fibres
are extracted from plants and are classified into three categories, depending on the part of the plant
they are extracted from. Fruit fibres are extracted from the fruits of the plant, they are light and
hairy, and allow the wind to carry the seeds. The fibres are discrete of single entities as in cotton:
ligno-cellulosic, mushy as in jute and Mesta. Bast fibres are found in the stems of the plant providing
the plant its strength. Usually they run across the entire length of the stem and are therefore very
long. Fibres extracted from the leaves are rough and sturdy and form part of the plant's
transportation system, they are called leaf fibres. India has a vast resource for different natural fibres
viz. cotton, jute, mesta, sisal, pineapple leaf fibre, flax, banana, coir, ramie etc. Among these fibres,
cotton and jute are abundantly available in many parts of the country. Hence, maximum emphasis
has been given on the advancement of these two crops. But fibres allied to jute are scattered and
hence yet to find their suitable application. These allied fibres are used locally for making handicrafts.
Technology based agri-business start-ups basically depends upon the extent of diversification
realised in that commodity. In other hand, diversification in fibre crops mainly depends on extraction
of quality fibres through improved mechanical extractors and value addition to this extracted fibre
through advanced processing technologies. ICAR-National Institute of Natural Fibre Engineering &
Technology over its more than 80 years of glorious existence has played a pivotal role in developing
extractors for potential allied fibres thus bringing mechanization as a reality in fibre extraction
process and expanding the scope of agri-business in natural fibre sector.

Banana fibre
Availability : In India, banana plant is appropriately referred as ‘Kalpatharu’, a plant of all virtues.
Each and every part of the plant is used for specific purposes. Apart from its use as a dessert fruit and
for culinary purposes, the banana plant has multifaceted uses: the leaf is commonly used as a
hygienic dining plate; the male flower is a favourite vegetable; the inner core of the pseudo stem is a
popular vegetable, with many therapeutic uses; the sap is used as an indelible ink in industry and the
underground rhizome is exploited as animal feed in a composite mixture with other feedstuffs. It is
estimated that after the harvesting of banana fruit, huge quantity, 60 to 80 t/ha of waste biomass is
generated as waste which can be used for extraction of valuable natural fibre.
Extraction : Fibre can be extracted from the banana pseudostem after the separation of individual
sheaths one by one from the whole length of pseudostem. The pseudostem is the aerial stem seen
above the ground and is formed by closely packed leaf sheaths embedded in the growing tip. Each
leaf has a basal leaf sheath forming a part of pseudostem, petiole and lamina. The process can be
accomplished by both manual and mechanical means. Figure 1 shows the different sections of
banana pseudostem used for extraction of fibre.

295
 Figure 1: Banana pseudostem for extraction of fibre
In manual extraction process, the sheaths are made into strips of 5-8 cm wide and 2-4 mm thick
along the entire length of the pseudo-stem as shown in Figure 2. The process is known as tuxying and
the strips being called tuxies. The process is vey tedious and time consuming. It also damages a large
quantity of fibre, with the production of around 500 g of fibre/day/person.

Figure 2: Manual extraction of banana pseudostem fibre

Over the years, mechanical extractors have been developed by the various government & private
organizations viz. ICAR-Central Tobacco Research Institute (CTRI), Rajahmundry; M/S Mercuree,
Chennai; M/S Eco Green, Coimbatore & Navsari Agricultural University (NAU), Gujrat. To extract
uniform as well as quality fibre, a double roller extractor with the elimination of backward dragging
of the pseudo-stems has been developed at ICAR-NINFET, Kolkata. The extractor also featured with
the delivery mechanism to collect the scrapped stem at one end.
Description of Banana Fibre Extractor : The extractor (Figure 3.) consists of two rollers. Once the
pseudo-stem sheaths are fed into the machine, the beating action takes place on the surface of the
first roller. This beating of sheaths removes the debris and simultaneously separates the fibre. After
that, the second roller (debris removal roller) removes the debris adhered to the scrapped sheaths. It
also removes the short entangled fibres. The scrapped sheath is collected at the delivery end of the
extractor through a conveyor belt and then washed in plain water/tap water and sun-dried to get the
fibre. The overall yield of dry fibre from pseudo-stem is around 0.80%, with green sheath and white
sheath yielding 0.96% and 0.70% dry fibre respectively.

Figure 3: Improved banana pseudo-stem extractor developed at ICAR-NINFET, Kolkata

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Applications : Banana fibre is having elegant look and highly versatile characteristics. As it does not
crumple easily, these fibres can used in the manufacture of dress materials. Paper produced from
banana exhibits superior tear resistance and tensile strength. Banana fibres have already been tested
for use as a filtration agent in the treatment of wastewater, which is often contaminated with oils
and other organic materials. Banana fibre performs very well in combination with other fibres for
making diversified products.
Pineapple leaf fibre
Availability : Pineapple fibre (Ananas cosmosus L.) is obtained from the leaves of the pineapple plant,
which belongs to the Bromeliaceous family. The name is derived from the Spanish word ‘Pina’
meaning cone shaped. The plant is widely cultivated for its fruit in the tropical and sub-tropical
regions. It is a biennial plant with a rather short life. India is one of the major producers of pineapple
and cultivation is spread in various states like Assam, Karnataka, Kerala, Manipur, Meghalaya, Tripura
and West Bengal where as states like Maharashtra, Odisha and Bihar, it is grown in very small area.
The total area under pineapple is approximately 90,000 hectare and is gradually increasing. In West
Bengal alone the area under pineapple cultivation is 12,500 hectares.
Extraction : Extraction of fibre from green pineapple leaves (manual extraction) involves lots of
drudgery of women engaged with the process (Figure 4). The process involves stripping off the fibre
from the green leaf. In this method a lot of fibre is lost and the entire process is also very laborious.
Fibres of the leaf are scrapped by means of a broken plate or coconut shell and the yield is around
1% of dry fibre (App), which is about 10kg of dry fibre from 1 tonne of pineapple leaf.

Figure 4: Manual extraction of fibre from green pineapple leaves

In the mechanical process, the green leaf is crushed in a raspador machine. The soft green parts of
the leaves are crushed and washed in water and the thread is taken out. The thread is then brushed
with a comb and fine threads are separated from the spongy ones. Though automatic and semi-
automatic machines are developed by different organizations, but these are not suitable for
operation in case of small holdings as prevalent in Eastern, North-Eastern and Southern parts of the
country growing pineapple. Under these circumstances, portable on farm extractors are expected to
serve the purpose most effectively. More recently, ICAR-NINFET, Kolkata has developed an extractor
for getting quality fibre from green pineapple leaves.
Description of Pineapple Leaf fibre Extractor : The developed extractor (Figure 5) consists of a multi-
leaf (03 leaves at a time) feeding channel, a pair of feed rollers, a scrapping roller and a combing
roller. The feed roller pair is made of rubber and primarily does the feeding of green leaves to
scrapping & combing roller. All the three categories of rollers are of same dimension i.e. 300 mm in
length. The scrapping roller is made of high speed steel & has 10 nos. of sharp blades attached on its
surface and it primarily scrapes/removes the waxy layer on the surface of green leaves. Once the
scrapping operation is over, the scrapped leaves are pushed forward towards the combing roller. The
combing roller is made of mild steel & has 10 nos. of iron bars on top of which iron pins are mounted
(iron pins are of 5 mm in height & 12 nos per inch). The function of the combing roller is to give the
cuts/marks on the already scrapped green leaves for making retting process quicker. After the
297
scrapping & combing operation is finished, the processed leaves are collected at the front end of the
extractor by the same person who has fed the green pineapple leaves to the machine. The extractor
runs through a 1 H.P. single phase electric motor & having the processing capacity of 30 Kg green
leaves/hr with the yield of 2% dry fibre from 100 Kg green leaves. It means, the output capacity of
the extractor is 4-5 Kg dry fibre/day in 8 hr/day running basis.

Figure 5: Improved pineapple leaf extractor developed at ICAR-NINFET, Kolkata

Applications : In India, the twines, threads and fabrics of pineapple leaf fibre are used for decorating
purposes and also for stitching necklaces and sewing shoes. Cover spun yarns using yarns spun from
pineapple leaf fibre/polyester/acrylic blends are used for knitting women’s outer garments, socks
etc. Pineapple leaf fibre yarns alone & blended yarns spun on cotton and jute spinning system are
found suitable for the production of curtains, bed spreads, carpets, furnishing fabrics, towels etc.
Chemically treated pineapple leaf fibre based needle-punched felts are made for use as geo-textiles
for earthworks like erosion control of the slops of the riverbanks.

Flax fibre
Availability : Flax/Linseed (Linum usitatissimum L.) is known for its fibre and oil yield. It belongs to
the family Linaceae. Among the common names of flax are “alsi”, “tisi” “oama”, “kshuma”, “linseed”,
“lin” & “linen”. When cultivated for fibre it is known as flax, possessing tall (about 1 m), and flexible
straw with comparatively poor yield of seed. When grown as oil seed it is known as linseed,
characterized with short (about 0.5 m) stature plant with flower and fruit bearing lateral branches
yielding higher quantity of seed with high oil content. The ideal geographical regions envisaged for
successful flax cultivation in India are the valleys of the Himalayan ranges where the winter simulates
a European summer. A cool humid climate with temperature ranging from 10 0 to 27 0 and a diurnal
fluctuation of relative humidity between 30 and 95 per cent, cloudy weather during the growing
period is preferred. In the hot and dry climate, flax plants tend to branch and grow as linseed. In
India, linseed is grown as oilseed mainly in Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Bihar,
Rajasthan, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and West Bengal.
Extraction of fibre : After harvesting of green flax plants (Figure 6) from the field, it is subjected to
retting operation. Retting is the process through which the microbes penetrate into & loosen the
strong bond between the fibre and the stalk. Some of the prominent retting methods followed for
flax are water retting, chemical retting, enzyme retting and dew retting. After retting, the dried
retted stalk is subjected to scutching.

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 Figure 6. Green Flax plant with green stems
Description of Flax fibre Extractor : ICAR-NINFET has designed and developed an improved flax fibre
extractor (Figure 7) with the facility of more breaking/scutching point of dried flax stalk due to the
provision of an additional pair of scutching roller. This facility helps in breaking of the fed dried flax
stalk at small intervals so that the adhered stalk can be removed easily from the fibre. In this
extractor, the dried stalk is fed to the extractor manually and the scutched stalk is collected by the
same person at the opposite end of the machine. The extractor runs by a 1 hp motor and having an
output capacity of 7-8 kg dry fibre per hour.

Figure 7. Flax fibre extractor developed at ICAR-NINFET, Kolkata

Applications : Flax fibre is mainly used for making linen. Flax fibre like cotton is a cellulosic polymer,
however compared to cotton, it is stronger, crisper and stiffer to handle. It can also absorb and
release water quickly, making linen comfortable to wear in hot weather. About 70% of the linen
manufactured is used in the textile industry, which includes fabrics and high quality household
textiles. Lower grade fibres are also used as reinforcement and filler in thermoplastic composites.
Fine and regular long flax fibres are spun into yarns for linen textiles. Linen fabric maintains a strong
traditional niche among high quality household textiles - bed linen, furnishing fabrics, and interior
decoration accessories. Shorter flax fibres produce heavier yarns suitable for kitchen towels, sails,
tents and canvas. Lower fibre grades are used as reinforcement and filler in thermoplastic
composites and thermo-set resins used in automotive interior substrates, furniture and other
consumer products.

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Sisal Fibre
Availability : Sisal fibre (Agave sisalana L.) is a species of the genus Agave. The agave plant consists
of short thick stem or bole from which arises a close rosette of leaves. The leaves are long, straight,
dark green, pointed and often covered with a waxy bloom. They can reach a length 2m and width of
10-15 cm. The fibre embedded longitudinally in the leaves, are mostly abundant near the leaf
surface. The leaves contain 90% moisture and 3-5 % of fibre. The sisal plant, though essentially
tropical, is sensitive to frost and fairly hardy. It can successfully withstand dry spell of some duration
and does not require very fertile soil. However, on richer soils where rainfall is heavier the plant
grows more rapidly. Sisal cultivation in India, although began at the same time as in East Africa, its
cultivation area and fibre production is low. Every year appreciable quantities of sisal fibre are being
imported to meet the local demand. Sisal plants (Figure 1) are found throughout the country on
hedges, bunds, waste lands etc. but; these are not utilized commercially for fibre extraction. Sisal is
grown in nearly 7 thousand hectare of area in the country having nearly 10 thousand quintals of yield
with a productivity of only 145 kg/ha. Odisha is the most important State having highest area of over
3 thousand hectares (47%) and highest production of over 5 thousand quintals (53%) with a
productivity of 165 kg/ha. Next is the Andhra Pradesh having more than 1500 hectares area (23%)
and over 2 thousand quintals of production (23.5%) with a productivity of 150 kg/ha. M.P. though
has 184 kg/ha productivity is having negligible area (2%) and production (3%).
Extraction of fibre : Traditionally sisal fibre is extracted from green leaves (Figure 8) by hand
processing method which is tedious and unhygienic. The introduction of ‘raspador’ decorticator
machine has made beginning in mechanical fibre extraction in India during early part of 20th century.
It works on the principle of rapid beating and scrapping of leaves progressively down its length
through a rotating beater drum having beater knives on its periphery. The ‘raspador’ decorticator
involves two-directional leaf feeding into the machine for complete fibre extraction from the leaf.

Figure 8. Sisal plant with green leaves

Description of sisal fibre extractor : More recently ICAR-NINFET has come out with an extractor
(Figure 9) where the drudgery involved in manual feeding & backward dragging of leaves is
completely eliminated. The extractor is having multi-leaf feeding system, where 03 green leaves can
be fed at a single pass. The fibre can be extracted from the whole length of the green sisal leaf. The
extractor run by a 2 hp motor with a capacity of 50 Kg leaves/hr.

300
 Figure 9. Sisal Leaf fibre extractor developed at ICAR-NINFET, Kolkata
Application of sisal leaf fibre : The sisal leaf fibre can be potentially used for making Cordage (rope,
twine and yarn), Composite materials (automobile components, construction roofing and paneling
materials), Woven materials i.e. carpets, bags and buffing cloth etc. It has the ability to carry loads
and can, therefore, be attractive for the reinforcement. Many utility and fancy items can be
developed from sisal fibre having good demand in the market. It has been proved to be very suitable
reinforcement in various polymeric matrices. Technical yarn produced from jute and sisal fibre
blends possess the desired quality characteristics for being used in the manufacture of high valued
technical and industrial fabrics such as geo-textiles, carpets, sewing threads for jute sacks and other
uses.
Summary : Agro-wastes i.e. banana pseudo-stem & pineapple leaf can be utilized for extraction of
high value natural fibres with the use of improved extractors designed & developed at ICAR-NINFET,
Kolkata. At present, the demand for flax fibre for domestic purposes in India is fulfilled mostly
through import of raw flax fibre from the foreign countries like Belgium & the Netherlands.
Advanced scutching machines for the extraction of fibre will play a key role in fulfilling this demand
of supply of raw flax fibre and product diversification. Sisal leaf fibre is yet to be exploited to its full
potential. Mechanization in its extraction process through the recently developed extractors coupled
with the appropriate fibre processing technologies can diversify its uses in textile and non-textile
sector. All these extracted fibres can be used alone or in blend with other natural fibres to develop
value added diversified products having high market demand. Agri-entrepreneurship with the help of
these innovations will play a pivotal role in the socio-economic development of the resource poor
farmers and other stake holders linked with the value chain.
References
1. Das, P.K., D. Nag, S. Debnath, and et al. 2010. Machinery for extraction and traditional
spinning of plant fibres. Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge. 9(2): 386-393.
2. Debnath Sanjoy, Basu G. 2017. ‘Prospects and Processing of Indian Flax Fibre’, Short Course
on Recent Advancement in Processing Technologies for Value Addition of Jute and Allied
Fibres, from December 11-20, 2017, at ICAR-NIRJAFT, Kolkata, pp. 62-68.
3. Doraiswami,I and Chellamani, P. Pineapple leaf fibres (1993).Textile Progress,24(1),1-37.
4. Nag, D., and L.K. Nayak. 2009. Sisal fibre Industry-An Alternative Approach. Presented in the
43rd Annual Convention & Symposium of Indian Society of Agricultural Engineers. February 15
– 17.
5. Naik, R.K. et al. 2010. Energy Requirement for Production and Extraction of Fibre from Sisal
(Agave sisalana). OUAT J of Res. 28(1 &2): 131-136.
6. Nayak, L.K., Das, S. and Shambhu, V.B. 2013 Utilization of some leaf and bast natural fibres
for socio economic development. COMSOMATH: A Magazine on Computer Science, Social
Science and Mathematics, Vol. 16 (1): 17-21.

301
7. Nayak, L.K., Shambhu, V.B. and Debnath, S. 2016 Design of a flax scutcher for extraction of
fibre from retted & sun-dried flax straw, Pesented in the International Conference on
“Emerging Technologies in Agricultural Engineering (etae 2016)” organized by Agricultural
and Food Engineering Department, IIT Kharagpur at Kharagpur during December 27-30,
2016.
8. Nayak, L.K. 2017 Prospects of jute and allied fibres for manufacturing of diversified products.
Popular article in “CONFLUENCE”, The magazine released on the occasion of Golden jubilee
year celebration of The College of Agricultural Engineering (CAET) of Orissa University of
Agriculture & Technology (OUAT), Bhubaneswar, Odisha,
9. Nayak, L.K. and Roy, A.N. 2017. Strengthening National Food Security: Role of ICAR-NIRJAFT
in training stake holders in jute & allied fibre sector. Published in the Book entitled
“Agricultural Extension: Techniques & Applications” Edited by Dr. Kalyan Ghadei, Published
byBIOTECH BOOKS, New Delhi, ISBN:978-81-7622-3805, pp: 45-53.
10. Pandey, R., Dayal, R. and Srivastava, R.L. 2014. Flax fibre processing technology, Book
published by University Press, Chandra Sekhar Azad University of Agriculture & Technology,
Kanpur, 22p.
11. Naik, R.K. et al. 2014. Design and development of fibre extractor for small sisal farmers of
Odisha, Proceedings of the All India Seminar on “Appropriate Technologies of Farm
Mechanization for Marginal and Small Farmers” Edited by Nag, D. et. al. pp:37-41.
12. Nayak, L.K., D. Nag, S. Das, et al. 2011. Utilization of Sisal Fibre-A Review. Agricultural
Reviews. 32(2):150-152.
13. Nayak, L.K., Shambhu, V.B. and Debnath, S. 2018 Development of a multi-leaf fibre extractor
for green sisal leaves, Souvenir of the National Seminar on “Market driven innovations in
natural fibres” Edited by Ammayappan, L., et. al. pp:40.
14. Sharrock S, Frison E. 1998. Musa production around the world – trends, varieties and
regional importance. Focus Paper II: Annual Report of the International Network for the
Improvement of Banana and Plantains. International Network for the Improvement of
Banana and Plantain (INIBAP), Montpellier, France, pp. 41–46.
15. Singh HP, Uma S. 1996. Banana Cultivation in India. National Research Centre for Banana,
Tiruchirapalli, India.

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Performance Study of Traditional Sugarcane Crushers used in Cauvery Command
area in Karnataka
Prakruthi N Raj Gangadkar1and M. Chowde Gowda2
1
Ph.D Scholar, Department of Food Technology, Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University Anantapur,
Anantapuramu 515002, AP, India; 2Professor & Head (R&D), SJCIT, Chikballapur 562101, Karnataka
Email: prakruthi84@gmail.com
Abstract: Most of the jaggery making cottages industries located in and around cauvery command
area in Karnataka are used locally designed and fabricated horizontal type 3-cylinder power driven
sugarcane crushers. The crushing efficiency of these crushers are very less and obsolete. In the
present study power operated horizontal type 2- cylinder sugarcane crusher,3- cylinder traditional
sugarcane crusher, 3- cylinder heavy duty sugarcane crusher and 3- cylinder gear box type sugarcane
crushers which are commonly used for crushing sugarcane in the jaggery making cottage industries
and road side venders in the study area wereidentified and evaluated.Six varieties of sugarcane
cultivarsViz., CO419, CO62175, CO7804, B37172, CO8371 and CO86032, which are predominantly
cultivated in the study area were selected and crushed in the individual cane crushers under study.
Theamount of juice extracted (gm/kg), bagasse collected (gm/kg) and juice quality parameters from
each crusher were recorded and analyzed statistically. The results show that percent of juice
extraction and purity of the juice obtained from each crusher and other juice quality parameters
studied vary from crusher to crusher and the variety to variety of cane crushed due to design factors
of the crushers evaluated and characteristics of cultivars used as feeding materials. From the
performance study based on the percent of juice extraction and purity of the juice obtained which
are important parameters to improve the economy of the farmer / cottage industry / vender, 3-
cylinder box type sugarcane crusher performed better. The 3-cylinder box type sugarcane crusher
could extract on an average of 57 % of juice from the cane maintaining on an average of 99.83 %
purity of the juice.

Key words: Traditional Sugarcane Crushers, Juice Extraction Efficiency

Introduction: Sugarcane is an important member of the plant kingdom and it is a species of herb
belonging to the grass family (Poaceae). It has the pride of place among the commercial crops in
India and provide raw material for the second largest industry in the country. In the production of
sugarcane, India is No.2 in the world after Brazil (Table 1) cultivating in an area of over 4.83 million
hectares, with an annual production of over 300 million tones of sugarcane. Fifty percent of the cane
produced in the country is used for production of sugar, 40 per cent for jaggery and khandsari and 10
per cent for seed and chewing purpose
Table 1. Top ten sugarcane producers in the world
Sr.No Country Production Productivity
Thousand Metric Tons (TMT) (Tons/ha)
1 Brazil 7,39,267 72.30
2 India 3,50,200 62.80
3 China 1,25,536 65.50
4 Thailand 1,00,096 66.40
5 Pakistan 63,750 47.90
6 Mexico 61,182 70.60
7 Colombia 34,876 84.10
8 Indonesia 33,700 73.10
9 Philippines 31,876 67.10
10 United States 27,906 77.50
[1]
Source: FAO:2015

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This crop is highly adequate in the provision of energy for the nutritional requirement of both
livestock and humans. Based on its land use factor, its value of calories per unit area is highest for
any plant (Heiser,1981)[2]. Furthermore, a matured stalk is typically composed of 63 – 73 % water, 11-
16 % fibre, 12-16 % soluble sugars and 2- 3 % non-sugars. Sugarcane provides 60% of the world’s
sugar production (World Bank, 1998)[3]. Over 45 million farmers constituting about 7 % of the rural
population and a large force of agricultural laborers are engaged in sugarcane cultivation in the
country. The major sugarcane growing states in India are Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka,
Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Haryana and Punjab. Out of the total sugarcane production,
27.7 % is used by unorganized / semi-organized sector for production of jaggery and khandsari
through cottage based industry which provides employment to over 25 lakh people in rural areas
(Singh & Singh, 2012)[4]. In India jaggery is consumed throughout the year and occupies an important
place in the agricultural economy and rural diet.
Sugarcane juice is one of the most important extracts of sugarcane and ithas been successfully used
in the production of edible jaggery / khandsari / refined sugar over the years. Extraction of sugarcane
juices a fantasy to local or small-scale industrial establishments. Hence, this amputates the
involvement of small-scale farmers in the business of the sugarcane juice extraction. The juice within
the sugarcane and the remnant of the extraction process are very important byproducts to
manufacture/ production of numerous useful substances and materials in the community. The major
constraints that encounters in the processing of sugarcane in the country are lack of mechanization
in sugarcane processing, use of low quality machinery for crushing sugarcane with obsolete
technology, and failure in the up-gradation and modernization of technology by the cottage industry
/ road side venders. Therefore, the sugarcane processing cottage industry warrants a complete
overhauling and needs adoption of mechanized / advanced technology in the processing of
sugarcane products, which may enable the industry / venders to provide quality and hygienic
product to the consumers by bringing down the production costs and to compete in the market.
Different machines that are locally fabricated and available in the market are used for extracting of
sugarcane juice. The incursion of rust and surrounding debris into the extraction process of the
locally fabricated sugarcane crushers has been an issue to which one needs to proffer solution to.
These numerous contaminants when introduced into the desired substance get to mix-up with it and
when consumed, they tend to reside in the body and accumulate until its adverse effect would be
prominent. The new technologies and new materials have been used in the latest machines for
better performance to make better extraction.
In India many roadside venders engaged to extract juice form the sugarcane as the main occupation
for their livelihood. Hand rotated machines were developed which were made of metal. The rollers
are strong enough to extract juice from sugarcane when the wheel is rotated manually. Later, the
machines that worked on electricity with the help of motors were developed. Then emerged the
problem of electricity and danger of hand injuries. Taking all these into considerations, the sugarcane
extraction machines with inbuilt motors have been developed to produce hygienic juice with more
efficient extraction of juice, consumption of less man power and energy. These inbuilt machines have
been developed using materials that prevents rust during the time of usage. Even though the inbuilt
machines were emerged in the market, the roadside venders use only the traditional two roller
machine which runs on electricity / fuel.
Crushing of sugarcane is one of the main operations in jaggary making cottage Industry. The
currently available mechanically driven sugarcane juice extractors in the jaggary industry require high
energy with less efficiency and unhygienic in operation. The basic process involved in extracting the
juice is to crush the sugarcane. The crushing processes involved breaking of the hard nodes of the
cane and flatten the stems. The efficiency with which juice can be extracted from the cane is limited
by the technology used. The simple animal power or diesel power three metal roller crushers used in
the cottage industry will never extract more than 50 kg of juice from each 100 kg of cane. Crusher

304
driven by a single ox can be expected to process around 50 kg of cane per hour. 5HP diesel set could
increase this to around 300 kg per hour. A small scale sugarcane juice extractor which consumes less
energy, more efficient and hygienic in operation is therefore required to meet the needs of the small
scale farmers (Olaoye, 2011)[5].

Performance evaluation sugarcane crushers : Study was conducted in the Cauvery command areaof
Mandya district in Karnataka where sugarcane is a predominantly cultivated to study the working
principles and theirs merits and demerits of the traditional crushers used for crushing sugarcane in the
cottage industries for making jaggery and by roadside venders for extracting cane juice for public
consumption. Four typesof sugarcane crushers which are designed and fabricated by local industries in
the study area wereidentified for the study. The identified sugarcane crushers are power driven
horizontaltype 3-cylinder traditional sugarcane crusher, 3-cylinder heavy duty sugarcane crusher and 3-
cylinder gear box type sugarcane crusher commonly used by the jaggery making cottage industries and
horizontal type 2-cylinder sugarcane crusher used by the roadside venders. All the identified sugarcane
crushers under study were kept in working order before feeding of selected sugarcane cultivars to crush.

Physical properties of sugarcane cultivars selected:Six varieties of high yielding sugarcane varieties
predominantly cultivated in the study area viz. CO419,CO62175, CO7804, B37172, CO8371 and
CO86032 were selected as feeding materials for evaluating sugarcane crushers. The physical
properties such as millablelength, diameter, weight, and surface conditions of the sugarcane of each
varieties selected were recorded and presented in Table 2.

Length of millablesugarcane Stalk: Length of the millablesugarcane play an important roll in the juice
yield in the cane. It is observed from the data (Table 2) that the average millablelength of sugarcane
varies from cultivar to cultivar depending upon the properties of the cultivar and the soil physical
conditions under which the sugarcane was grown. The millable length of variety CO86032 is
comparatively longer (1500-1600 mm) followed by varieties CO8371 (825-850 mm), B37172 (810-
850 mm), CO 419 (790-805 mm), CO 62175 (750-766 mm) and CO7804 (710-750 mm).
Structure of the sugarcane:The surface structure of the sugarcane stalk play an important role in
crushing of the cane. The soft surface structured sugarcane facilities faster and effective crushing
leading to maximum percent of juice extraction from the cane with less energy consumption by the
crusher than the cane with hard surface structure. If the rind of the sugarcane is harder, the crushing
of the cane is difficult and needs to pass through between the crushing rollers more than once for
better juice extraction thereby increasing the labour hour and energy required to crush. The data in
Table 2 shows that varieties CO62175, B37172 and CO86032 have soft surface structure facilitated to
crush easy and faster thereby saving labour hour and energy consumption. On the other hand,
verities CO8371, CO7804 and CO419 have medium hard surface structure and needs to pass through
between the crushing rollers more than once for better juice extraction hence, the crushing
operations becomes slow and consumes more labour hour and energy. The variations of physical
structure of the cane may be due to varietal characteristics of the sugarcane and agro-climatic
conditions under which the crop was grown.

Diameter / girth of sugarcane stalk: It is the mean of the three diameter readings obtained from the
sugarcane stalk. The head and tail diameters are the measured diameters at the two extremes of the
millable length of the sugarcane stalk, while the middle diameter is the diameter measured at mid-
length of the sugarcane stalk. The girth or the diameter of the cane plays an important role in the
juice content and juice yield. The data in Table 2 shows that diameter of the sugarcane stalk under
study varybetween 30-45 mm from variety to variety. Variety CO86032 has higher cane diameter of
35.50 mm followed by the varieties CO7804 (34 mm), B37172 (33 mm), CO419 (32.5 mm), CO62175
(32 mm) and CO8371 (32 mm). Higher diameter and hard surface structured cane require more
energy to crush and visa-versa. Apart from the varietal characteristics and the agro-climatic

305
conditions under which the sugarcane crop grown, the cultural practices also play an important role
in increasing the height and girth of sugarcane stalk.

Weight of the sugarcane stalk: Weight of the sugarcane stalk is an indication of the juice content in
the cane. From the data (Table 2) it could be seen that weight of the single sugarcane stalk vary
between 750-1300 mg from variety to variety. The sugarcane stalk of the variety CO86032 has the
higher weight of 1200-1300 mg followed by varieties CO7804 (1200-1250 mg), CO419 (1050-1104
mg), B37172 (975-1000 mg), CO8371 (850-900 mg) and CO62175 (750-766 mg). Weight of the
sugarcane stalk depends on the length and diameter of the stalk and juice percent in the cane.
Variety CO86032 of sugarcane stalk is longer, higher in diameter and juice content in the cane as
compared to the varieties under test. The percent of juice content in the cane is a valuable
parameter for farmers and millers because, it increases cane weight on one hand and sugar / jaggery
yield on the other fetching higher income to the farmer(Kamath and Singh, 2001)[6] .

Table 2 Physical properties of selected sugarcane cultivars as feeding materials for evaluation of
cane crushers
Parameters Recorded Sugarcane Varieties
CO419 CO62175 CO7804 B37172 CO8371 CO86032
Duration of the crop 12-14 12-13 12 12 12 -15 12 -13
(Months)
Average length of the 790-805 750-766 710-750 810-850 825-850 1500-1600
cane (mm)
Average diameter of 32.50 32.00 34.00 33.00 32.00 35.50
the cane (mm)
Average weight of the 1050-1104 970-985 1200- 975-1000 850-900 1200-1300
cane (gm) 1250
Physical condition of Medium Soft Medium Soft Medium Soft
the cane (Hard / Soft) Hard Hard Soft

Amount of juice extracted (g/kg): The quantity of juice extracted from each variety of sugarcane
selected and fed into different sugarcane crushers under study are recorded, averaged, analyzed
statistically and presented in Tables 3 to 7. It is observed from the data that the amount of juice
extracted vary from cultivar to cultivar and type of crusher used for crushing cane. It could be seen
from the data that among the varieties crushed, higher yield of juice per unit of cane crushed is
recorded by crushing CO86032 variety of sugarcane as compared to the rest of the varieties under
test. Since the cane stalk of variety CO86032 crushed is longer in length, higher in diameter and
weight of millable cane and soft surface structure as compared to the physical properties of millable
cane stalks of rest of the varieties under study, hence, yielded higher percentage of juice per unit of
cane crushed.
Among the sugarcane crushers commonly installed in the jaggery making cottage industries in the
study area under study, 3-cylinder gear box type sugarcane crusher extracted 588 gm of juice from
1000 gm of sugarcane variety CO86032 crushed (Table 6), followed by 3-cylinder heavy duty
sugarcane crusher extracted 525 gm / 1000 gm of sugarcane variety CO86032 crushed (Table 5) and
3-cylinder traditional sugarcane crusher extracted 515 gm / 1000 gm of sugarcane variety CO86032
crushed (Table 4). On the other hand, 2-cylinder sugarcane crusher used by roadside vendors could
extract maximum of 460gm/ 1000 gm of sugarcane variety CO86032 crushed (Table3). The percent
variation of juice extraction among the crushers evaluated may be due to their design factors,
fabrication skill, type and number of cylinders used, surface conditions of the crushing cylinders
(grooved / serrated / plane), power source, knowledge of the operator (skilled / non-skilled) and
quality of the cane crushed. All these parameter plays an important role in extracting maximum

306
amount of juice from the available juice content in the cane. The statistical analysis shows that the
extractions of juice vary significantly among the varieties crushed and method of crushing at 1%
level. The observations made in this study are on far with the observations of Singh (2004) [7].

Weight of bagasse collected: The weight of bagasse collected after extraction of juice vary from
variety to variety of cane crushed and method of crushing depending upon the fiber content in the
cane and the percent of juice extracted by crushing. The weight of bagasse collected from each
system of crushing are recorded, averaged,analyzed statistically and presented in Tables 3 to7. It
could be seen from the data that among the varieties of sugarcane crushed, the quantity of bagasse
collected per unit of cane crushed was less in crushing CO86032 variety of sugarcane (Table 6) as
compared to the bagasse collected from rest of the varieties under test. This is because the amount
of juice squeezed out per unit of cane crushed from the stalk of variety CO86032 is high due to its
soft surface structure leaving less amount of juiceleft over with fibres, hence yielded less quantity of
bagasse than that recorded in the rest of the varieties.
Among the sugarcane crushers under study, it could be seen from the data that 3-cylinder gear box
type sugarcane crusher extracted higher percentage of juice from the variety of CO86032 sugarcane
crushed with less amount of bagasse left over and collected (412 gm / 1000 gm of cane crushed)
followed by 3-cylinder heavy duty sugarcane crusher (475 gm / 1000 gm cane crushed) and 3-
cylinder traditional sugarcane crusher (485 gm / 1000 gm of cane crushed) commonly installed in the
jaggery making cottage industries in the study area. The 2-cylinder sugarcane crusher used by
roadside vendors can extract less percentage of juice (460 gm / 1000 gm of sugarcane variety
CO86032 crushed) leaving more amount of bagasse left over (540 gm / 1000 gm of cane crushed).
The percent variation of bagasse obtained after juice extraction among the crushers evaluated may
be due to their design factors and percent of juice extracted. Further, the statistical analysis shows
that the weight of bagasse obtained after crushing of cane vary significantly among the varieties
crushed and method of crushing at 1% level. The findings of the present study are holds good with
the findings of Hunsagi (2001)[8].

Quality of juice extracted: The juice extracted from six varieties of cane crushed using four different
type of crushers was analyzed for brix content, sucrose, reducing sugars and purity and presented in
Tables 3 to 6. It is clear from the data that brix content (Gupta 1981) [9], sucrose (Gravios et al., 1991)
[10]
, reducing sugars (Srivastava et al., 2002) [11] and purity (Rekhi and Gill, 1987) [12]available in the
juice vary from variety to variety of cane. This may be due to the characteristics of cultivars. Further,
it could be seen from the datathat the type of crushers used for extracting juice played no role as far
as the presence of brix content, sucrose content and reducing sugars in the juice are concerned.
However, there is a little variation in the purity percent of juice extracted from different types of
crushers used. This variation may be due to the contamination of lubricants with juice and the
hygienic conditions maintained around the crushers during crushing operations. Among the crushers
evaluated (Table 7), the purity of juice extracted using 3-cylinder box type sugarcane crusher (99.83
%) found better closely followed by 3-cylinder heavy duty sugarcane crusher (98.83 %) and 3-cylinder
traditional sugarcane crusher (98.25%) used in the jaggery making industries. The purity of juice
extracted using 2-cylinder sugarcane crusher is comparatively less (98 %) than that recorded the cane
crushed by 3-cylinder sugarcane crushers. This may be due to the contamination of wind dust and
other foreign materials mixed with juice when the crushing is done in an open air by venders.
Essentially purity describes how much pure sucrose is present in a sugarcane juice sample. The
statistical analysis also indicates that the purity of juice extracted vary significantly among the
method of crushing and varieties crushed at 1% level.

307
 Table 3 Extraction of juice from the selected sugarcane cultivars crushing in 2-cylinder power sugar
cane crusher
Sr. Parameters studied Sugarcane varieties crushed Sem CD
No @1%

CO62175

CO86032
CO7804

CO8371
B37172
CO419
1 Amount of juice extracted 452 452 442 458 435 460 2.70 11.6
(g/kg)
2 Weight of bagasse(g/kg) 548 548 558 542 565 540 4.95 21.4
3 Juice extracted (%) 45.20 41.00 44.00 45.60 44.00 46.00 1.01 4.38
4 Brix o 20.00 19.80 19.70 20.00 21.50 19.90 0.35 1.54
5 Sucrose (%) 20.56 20.32 20.22 20.12 20.10 20.05 0.22 0.97
6 Reducing sugar (%) 7.48 8.47 7.46 7.50 7.78 7.53 0.19 0.82
7 Purity percent (%) 98.00 97.50 97.00 98.50 99.00 98.00 2.79 12.06

Table 4Extraction of juice from the selected sugarcane cultivars crushing in 3-cylinder power
operated traditional type sugarcane crusher
Sr. Parameters Studied Sugarcane Varieties Crushed Sem CD
No @1%
CO62175

CO86032
CO7804

CO8371
B37172
CO419

1 Amount of juice extracted 477 508 505 480 512 515

(gm/kg) 3.86 16.7
2 Weight of bagasse (gm/kg) 523 492 495 520 488 485 3.78 16.3
3 Juice extracted (%) 48.00 51.00 51.00 52.00 51.00 49.00 0.47 2.03
4 Brix o 19.00 21.00 20.00 20.00 20.05 20.00 0.34 1.49
5 Sucrose (%) 21.05 21.25 20.30 21.69 21.90 20.90 0.32 1.40
6 Reducing sugar (%) 6.92 7.66 7.42 7.50 7.10 7.75 0.14 0.60
7 Purity percent (%) 98.00 99.00 97.50 97.00 98.50 99.50 0.48 2.11

Table 5Extraction of juice from the selected sugarcane cultivars crushing in 3- cylinder power
operated heavy duty sugarcane crusher

Sr. Parameters studied Sugarcane Varieties Crushed Sem CD

No @1%
CO62175

CO86032
CO7804

CO8371
B37172
CO419

1 Amount of juice extracted 522 444 480 478 502 525 15.10
(gm/kg) 3.49
2 Baggase weight (gm/kg) 478 556 520 522 498 475 2.89 12.51
3 Juice extracted (%) 52.00 44.00 48.00 48.00 50.00 52.00 1.39 6.02
4 Brix o 19.1 19.5 19.00 19.8 19.3 20.00 0.16 0.73
5 Sucrose (%) 21.70 21.76 20.60 21.45 21.24 21.60 0.24 1.04
6 Reducing sugar (%) 8.98 7.59 6.48 6.36 5.84 8.24 0.12 0.54
7 Purity percent (%) 98.50 99.00 98.50 99.00 98.50 99.50 0.22 0.98

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 Table 6Extraction of juice from the selected sugarcane cultivars crushing in 3-cylinder power
operated gear box type sugarcane crusher

Sr. Parameters studied Sugarcane Varieties Crushed Sem CD

No @1%

CO62175

CO86032
CO7804

CO8371
B37172
1 Amount of juice extracted CO419
547 583 578 568 570 588 1.92 8.33
(gm/kg)
2 Baggase weight (gm/kg) 453 417 422 432 430 412 2.06 8.93
3 Juice extracted (%) 55.00 58.00 58.00 57.00 57.00 59.00 0.40 1.76
4 Brix o 20.05 19.50 19.00 21.00 21.00 19.80 0.26 1.12
5 Sucrose (%) 22.76 22.92 22.80 21.80 22.72 22.64 0.24 1.04
6 Reducing sugar (%) 7.59 7.19 7.10 7.69 7.79 7.00 0.14 0.64
7 Purity percent (%) 99.80 100.00 99.90 99.70 99.60 100.00 0.22 0.97

Comparative Performance of Traditional Sugarcane CrushersEvaluated

The parameters recorded in crushing sugarcane from different crushing methods and varieties of
cane crushed with respect to the percentage of juice extracted, bagasse collected and quality aspects
of extracted juice such as brix content, percent of sucrose, percent of reducing sugar and purity
percent of juice presented in Tables 3 to 6 are summarized and average readings are presented in
Table 7.
Percent juice extraction: It could be seen from the data in Table 7 that among the traditional
sugarcane crushers evaluated, the gear box type sugarcane crusher proved significantly better in
extracting on an average higher percentage of juice (57%) followed by 3-cylinder traditional
sugarcane crusher (50%) and 3-cylinder heavy duty sugarcane crusher (44 %) used in the jaggery
making cottage industries in the study area. The 2-cylinder sugarcane crusher used by roadside
venders could extract on an average 44.00 % of juice from cane stalk. The variation of juice
extraction among the traditional sugarcane crushers used in the jaggery industry is mainly due to the
design factors and fabrication skill of the worker, skill of operator, quality of the cane crushed,
involvement of active labour force available to assists the operator, maintenance of sugarcane
crushers and surrounding hygienic conditions at the crushing unit. All these parameters are
important at the crushing unit to get better performance from the crusher. The crushers evaluated
are of locally designed and fabricated by different industries / workshops, hence the design and
fabrication of cane crusher vary from industry to industry. Maintenance of crushing units isimportant
for smooth operation of crushers. Skill of operator, involvement of labour force and surrounding
cleanliness at the crushing unit are important for smooth and quick movement of feeding materials
and collection of end products which hasten the crushing process.

Quality of juice extracted: The juice extracted from each system of crushing under study was
subjected to quality analysis. It could be seen from the data (Table 7) that the type of crushers used
for extracting juice played no significant role as far as the presence of brix content, sucrose content
and reducing sugars in the juice extracted are concerned. However, there is a little variation in the
purity of juice extracted among the crushers under study. This variation may be due to the
contamination of lubricants with juice and the hygienic conditions maintained around crushing units
during operation. From the performance study of locally fabricated traditional sugarcane crushers

309
identified in the study area based on the percent of juice extraction and purity of the juice obtained
which are important parameters to improve the economy of the farmer / cottage industry / vender,
3-cylinder box type sugarcane crusher performed better in extracting higher percentage of juice
(57%) and purity of juice extracted (99.83%).

Table 7 Performance of traditional sugarcane crushers evaluated by crushing different varieties of

sugarcane(Average readings ofsix varieties of cane crushed)
Sl.No. Type of power operated Mean Values of Parameters Studied
sugarcane crushers

weight

sugar
Amount of juice

Purity percent (%)

Juice extracted (%)
extracted (gm/kg)

Sucrose (%)

Reducing
Bagasse
(gm/kg)

o
Brix

(%)
1 2-Cylinder 433.0 567.0 44.00 20.04 20.22 7.53 98.00
2 3-Cylinder Traditional 529.5 470.5 50.00 20.00 21.18 7.39 98.25
3 3-Cylinder heavy duty 541.2 458.8 44.00 20.10 21.39 7.24 98.83
4 3-Cylinder gear box type 572.0 428.0 57.00 20.20 22.60 7.59 99.83
Sem 1.22 0.90 0.21 0.48 0.23 0.16 0.33
CD @1% 5.28 3.91 0.94 2.08 1.00 0.69 1.44

Conclusions: From the study the following conclusions are drawn;

Three types of power-driven horizontal type 3-cylinders sugarcane crushers and power driven
horizontal type 2-cylinder sugarcane crusher which are designed and fabricated in the local industries
and commonly used for crushing sugarcane in the jaggery cottage industries and roadside venders in
the steady area are identified and evaluated for their performance.
Six varieties of predominantly cultivated sugarcane cultivars in the study area are identified and used
as a feeding material for evaluation of sugarcane crushers.
The percent of juice extraction and purity of the juice obtained from each crusher and other juice
quality parameters studied vary from crusher to crusher and the variety to variety of cane crushed
due to design factors of the crushers evaluated and characteristics of cultivars used as feeding
materials.

From the performance study among locally fabricated traditional sugarcane crushers identified in the
study area, based on the percent of juice extraction and purity of the juice obtained which are
important parameters to improve the economy of the farmer / cottage industry / vender, 3-cylinder
box type sugarcane crusher performed better. The 3-cylinder box type sugarcane crusher could extract
on an average of 57 % of juice from the cane maintaining 99.83 % purity.
References

[1] FAO, Food and Agricultural Organization of United Nations-2015.

[2] Heiser, c. b, seed to civilization: the story of food. second ed. w. h. freeman and co., san
francisco. 1981, 254.
[3] World Bank Group, Pollution Prevention and Abatement Handbook. World Bank: National
Development and Reform Commission, P.R. China. 1998.
[4] Singh, A. K. and Jaswant Singh, Performance of animal operated sugarcane crushers, Indian
Journal of Sugarcane Technology June 2012; 27(01): 11–4.

310
 [5] Olaoye J.O., Development of a sugarcane juice extractor for small scale industries.
International Journal of Agricultural Technology, 2011; 7 (4): 931-944.
[6] Kamath D.N. and Singh J.R.P., Relative performance of sugarcane varieties under rainfed
conditions. Indian Sugar, 2001; 1(1): 29-31.
[7] Jaswanth Singh, Design consideration of sugarcane processing machine. Course manual for
winter school on design of agro processing machinery., ICAR, CIAE. Bhopal. 2004; 238 - 244
[8] GurarajHunsasgi, Jaggery manufacture and allied products. Sugarcane in Agriculture and
Industry, 2001; 321-322.
[9] Gupta, A. P., Increased sugar productivity through cane harvest management. Maharastra
Sugar.,1981; 6(3): 9-15.
[10]Gravios K. A., S.B. Milligan and F. A. Martin, In direct selection for increased sucrose yields
in early sugarcane testing stages. Field Crops Res., 1991; 26(1): 67 – 73.
[11]Srivastava, S.C., Shahi, H.N., Agnihotri, V.P., Ripening of Sugarcane and its management for
improving sugar production. IISR, Lucknow, 2002; 141-149.
[12]Rekhi, H.S. and Gill, S.S., Correlation and path analysis of sucrose percent in sugarcane.
Bharathiya Sugar,1987; 12 (5): 27-30.

Amount of juice extracted (gm/kg)

Amount of juice extracted (gm/kg)

700

600 572
529.5 541.2

500
433
400

300

200

100

0
2-Cylinder 3-Cylinder Traditional 3-Cylinder heavy duty 3-Cylinder gear box type

Type of power operated sugarcane crushers

Fig.1 :Amount of juice extracted (gm/kg) using different sugarcane crushers

311
 Bagasse weight (gm/kg)

600 567
Bagasse weight (gm/kg)

500 470.5 458.8

428
400

300

200

100

0
2-Cylinder 3-Cylinder Traditional 3-Cylinder heavy duty 3-Cylinder gear box type

Type of power operated sugarcane crushers

Fig.2 :Bagasse Weight (gm/kg) obtainedusing different sugarcane crushers

Juice extracted (%)

60 57

50
Juice extracted (%)

50
44 44

40

30

20

10

0
2-Cylinder 3-Cylinder Traditional 3-Cylinder heavy duty 3-Cylinder gear box type

Type of power operated sugarcane crushers

Fig.3 :Juice Extracted (%) percentage obtained using different sugarcane crushers

312
 100 99.83
Purity percent (%)
99.5
Purity percent (%)

99 98.83

98.5 98.25
98
98

97.5

97
2-Cylinder 3-Cylinder Traditional 3-Cylinder heavy duty 3-Cylinder gear box type

Type of power operated sugarcane crushers

Fig.4 :Purity Percent (%) obtained using different sugarcane crushers

313
 Technical and Institutional Barriers for Dissemination of
Biogas Technology in Urban Areas
Praveen P. and Priyanka U.
College of Agriculture, V.C.Farm, Mandya-571405, Karnataka
Email : praveencised@gmail.com

Abstract: Biogas faces intense competition with other fuel substitutes available in the market.
Several factors like the assurance of fuel supply, ease of procurement, fuel price, and household
income have an influence on household fuel choices.Family-type biogas systems are mostly small
scale plants managed by individual households to generate energy predominantly for cooking
purpose. Efforts are on the way to extend the technology for large capacity biogas plants for
industrial use, electricity generation and as a transport fuel. Large scale commercial biogas plants
yield financial benefits by selling end products. Based on the review, it was found that barriers differ
in different region depending on various factors. Technical and information barriers such as lack of
technical capacity for construction and maintenance, competition from freely, liquid petroleum gas
and lack of awareness mainly exist in urban areas of developing countries. High variation in the
seasonal demand for heat acts as a barrier for utilizing biogas as vehicle fuel whereas a limited
number of filling stations acts a barrier for utilizing biogas as vehicle fuel. This indicates that barriers
to biogas penetrating differs based on utilization area, substrate, resource potential, technological
maturity and scale. Adequate supply of water and substrate are two crucial factors for the effective
functioning of biogas plant. Under-feeding of inputs or feeding in wrong ratios either results in
suboptimal performance of biogas plant or formation of scums, making installed plant completely
dysfunctional. These factors may vary across regions and states of the country.

Keywords: Biogas, Barriers, Electricity, Fuel, Substrate

Introduction: Indian renewable energy market, which is fast growing, offers lucrative business
opportunities to local and international entrepreneurs besides favourable business environment to
boost the renewable energy sector. It earns annual revenue of nearly 185 billion dollar and has the
most attractive and developing renewable energy markets in South Asia (3).
Family type biogas systems are mostly small scale plants managed by individual households
to generate energy predominantly for cooling purpose. Efforts are on the way to extend the large
capacity biogas plants for industrial use, electricity generation and as a transport fuel. Large scale
commercial biogas plants yield financial benefits by selling end products. Based on the review, it was
found that barriers differ in different regions depending on various factors. The capacity of the biogas
unit is largely determined by the daily quantity, quality and type of available feed stock. It is
important that the digester is not over or under-sized relative to the daily available feed stock. A
tendency for an over-sized plant might result in under feeding and eventual failure of the plants to
produce gas (1). Availability of water is also a very important and a critical constraint that might limit
the application of biogas installations. However, there is also potential to use recycled water,
especially in urban context. In urban context, the size of a biogas plant might also be linked to the
available space.
Once the optimum plant size is determined the appropriate biogas technology must be
selected. Technological alternatives available include fixed dome, floating drum and plug-flow or
balloon digesters of which first two are mostly used. Factors such as cost, longevity and space are the
most important considerations in the choice of appropriate biogas technology for urban applications.
However, other considerations affecting technical suitability, such as the stability and gas and liquid
tightness of the digester are also important. Space is very crucial especially in urban area. For small
scale application, space consideration might determine where the biogas unit can be located

314
whether the digester should be above or below ground, and whether it is to be installed as an
upright cylinder or as a horizontal plant. Because underground construction protects the digester
from physical damage and saves space, and a fixed dome pant is usually constructed underground, a
fixed dome digester might be regarded as one option for small scale urban application, particularly
where space is a limiting factor. However, a flexible balloon plant might be best suited in context
where there are dome and floating drum digesters once installed has resulted in the development of
portable models called tubular or plug flow digesters built over the ground. Also included in the
technical factors is consideration of whether sewage separation is needed or not and temperature is
an important factor for anaerobic digester and operations of biogas unit may not be technically
feasible all year round.
Materials and methods: Urban areas are the source of various biowastes which generated daily and
go as a dump material along with dry waste. This dump material causes nuisance for the urban lads
as well as corporation and municipal pourakarmikaswhohasto segregate wet and dry waste before
dumping. Some of the biowastes which are generated daily in the urban areas and its energy value
are shown inTable 1.

Table.1 Comparison of biogas yield and electricity produced from different potential substrates
Type Biogas yield per ton fresh matter Electricity produced per ton
(M3) fresh matter (kW-h)
Cattle dung 55-68 122.50
Chicken litter/ dung 126 257.30
Food waste 110 224.60
Fruit wastes 74 151.60
Horse manure 56 114.30
Maize Silage 200 409.60
Municipal solid waste 101.5 207.20
Pig slurry 11-25 23.50
Sewage sludge 47 96.00
(2)
Results and Discussion:
Table 2. Classification of barriers to the dissemination of centralized Biogas system in urban areas
Barriers Description
Technical Resource availability, technology – design, installation and
performance, skill requirement for design and development,
manufacturing, installation, operation and maintenance
Financial and Economic Cost, market structure, energy pricing, incentives, purchasing power
and spending priorities, financial issues, awareness and risk perception
Institutional Policy and regulatory, infrastructure (institutions for research, design
and after sales services), administrative
Socio-cultural Societal structure, norms and value system, awareness and risk
perception, behavioral or lifestyle issues
Environmental Resources (land and water), pollution, aesthetics

Some of these barriers which are classified were location specific. Whereas technical barrier holds
common throughout the world. Temperature plays crucial role in production of biogas. During winter
season temperature may drop down which is not sufficient for methanogenesis process. This
indicated that the slurry temperature in the storage tank varies due to the variation in atmospheric
temperature, and also showed that slurry temperature in the storage tank increased, reaching a peak

315
at midday. This leads to decrease in production of biogas which forces the urban folk to switch on for
alternate fuel source.

Conclusion: Even though less successful than the Chinese biogas programme, the Indian government
has provided much support to the biogas industry in India. A Ministry of New and Renewable Energy
has been created to oversee biogas and other renewable energy investment programmes. The
Ministry has initiated some programmes and policies, as well as instituted subsidy programmes.

References
Shivika Mittal, Erik O.Ahlgren and P.R.Shukla (2018). Barriers to biogas dissemination in India: A
review. Energy Policy. 112(1):361-370.
Spyridon Achinas, Vasileios Achinas, Gerrit Jan Willem Euverink (2017). A Technological overview of
biogas production from biowaste. Engineering.3: 299-307.
Abu Yousuf., Maksudar Rahman Khan., Domenico Pirozzi and Zwarisam Ab Wahid (2016). Energy
Sources. Part B: Economics Planning and Policy,11(9): 841-848.

316
 Enzymatic Saccharification of Alkali Pretreated Cotton Stalks
for Fermentable Sugar Production
Premkumari M. 1, Veerangouda2, Vijayakumar Palled 3*, Anantachar M.4,
Sharanagouda Hiregoudar5, Nagaraj Naik 6 and Beladhadi R.V.7
Department of Farm Machinery and Power Engineering,
College of Agricultural Engineering, University of Agricultural Sciences, Raichur-584104
Email : vs.palled@uasraichur.edu.in

Abstract: The bioconversion of lignocellulosic biomass to second generation ethanol has the
potential to replace some fossil fuels.Ethanol can be produced from a variety of lignocellulosic
biomass. Cotton stalk is an example of a lignocellulosic agricultural waste. The enzymatic
saccharification of alkali pretreated cotton stalks at varying pretreatment conditions viz.,
temperature, time and alkalinity concentration was investigated. The results indicated that both
solids and lignin content were found to be inversely proportional to the severity of the pretreatment
conditions. Total sugar released after pretreatment ranged between 268.01-419.51 mg/g with a
maximum total sugar content release of 419.51 mg/gat 120 °C with 2% KOH concentration for 1 h,
whereas, a minimum of 268.01 mg/g was observed with 1% KOH at 50 °C, 6 h combination. The
enzymatic saccharificationof untreated and selected pretreated samples was carried out using
CTec2® Cellulase enzyme at 8% solid loading rate with 0 to 30% enzyme loading level. Total sugar
release peaked when cotton stalks were pretreated at 120 °C with 2% KOH for 1 h and loaded with
enzyme loading rate of 30%. The maximum yield of saccharification (518.9 mg/g biomass) was
achieved after 72 h incubation, with a saccharification rate of 7.2 mg/g/h. As the enzyme loading
level increased, the sugar yield also increased for all the hydrolyzed samples. As the enzyme loading
level increased, the carbohydrate conversion percentage also increased for both untreated and
pretreated samples with a maximum conversion efficiency of 88.45%.

Keywords : Alkaline Pre-treatment, Cotton Stalks, Enzymaticsaccharification, Lignocellulose,

Potassium Hydroxide

Introduction: In recent years, due to the world’s energy demand and with the uncertainty in the
supply, ever increasing prices of fossil fuels, causing increased environmental pollution, it has
become imperative to scout alternative sources of energy which can replace conventional fossil fuels.
The hunt for alternative sources of energy generation that are inexpensive, ecofriendly, renewable
and can replace fossil fuels is on, owing to the increasing demands of energy. One approach in this
direction is the conversion of plant residues into biofuels wherein lignocellulose, which forms the
structural framework of plants consisting of cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin, is first broken down
and hydrolyzed into simple fermentable sugars, which upon fermentation form biofuels such as
ethanol. Lignocellulosic biomass refers to plant biomass that is composed of cellulose, hemicellulose,
and lignin. The carbohydrate polymers (cellulose and hemicelluloses) are tightly bound to the lignin.
The goal of the pretreatment process is to break the lignin and hemicellulose, reduce the
crystallinity of cellulose, and increase the porosity of the lignocellulosic materials.After pre-
treatment, the hydrolysis is to be carried out during which the cellulose is converted into
fermentable sugars through catalyst. There are two methods of hydrolysis viz., acid catalyzed and
enzymatic catalyzed hydrolysis. Among these, enzymatic method is more effective as it could result
into sugar yields closer to 100% at 50 °C (Wyman, 1994).Hydrolysis of carbohydrates is the second
step of the lignocellulose-to-ethanol conversion, during which fermentable sugars are produced.
Since enzymatic hydrolysis is much cheaper than the hydrolysis using chemicals, it is more
extensively studied and applied (Xu, 2009).

317
 Du et al. (2013) reported that ground cotton stalks were pretreated with sodium hydroxide
(NaOH) at concentrations of 1%-4% (w/v), pressures of 30–130 kPa, durations of 15-75 min, and
liquid/solid ratios of 10:1–30:1. Modeling of the high pressure assist-alkali pretreatment (HPAP) of
cotton stalk was attempted. The optimum pretreatment conditions were as follows: liquid/solid
ratio, 20:1; pressure, 130 kPa; NaOH concentration, 3.0%; duration, 40 min. During the conditions,
cellulose content of pretreated cotton stalk residue was 64.07%. The maximum cellulose conversion
of 45.82% and reducing sugar yield of 0.293 g/g upon hydrolysis were obtained.
Jiang et al. (2015) investigated pretreatment on cotton stalks for different parts stem, branch
and boll shell, which were treated by liquid hot water pretreatment (LHWP) with severity from 2.77
to 4.42. Based on weight loss (WL, w/w) mainly caused by hemicellulose removal, it was found that
boll shell (WL, 46.93%) was more sensitive to LHWP than stem (WL, 38.85%). Although ethanol yield
of 18.3, 16.27 and 21.08 g/100 g was achieved from stem, branch and boll shell with pretreatment
severity at 4.42, ratio of ethanol yield to pretreatment energy input for particular parts was different.
For boll shell and branch, the maximum ratio of ethanol yield to energy input were 1.37 and 1.33 g
ethanol kJ-1 with severity at 4.34, while it was 1.20 for stem at 3.66. This indicates that different
pretreatment demands for different parts of plants should be considered in order to save
pretreatment energy input.
Material and Methods: Pre treatment of cotton stalk samples were performed at 50, 70 with
residence times of 6, 12 and 24 h and 120 °C with residence times of 0.25, 0.5 and
1 h each. All the temperature-time pretreatment combinations were performed with potassium
hydroxide (KOH) concentrations of 1, 2 and 3 per cent (w/v).The process flow chart of pre treatment
performed presented in Fig. 1.
Untreated sample (5 g)
(Reagent Bottle)

Pretreatment (water bath and autoclave)

(solid/liquid ratio of 0.1g/ml)

Filtration through pre-weighed filter paper in vacuum flask (vacuum pump)

Wash the solids with warm DI water

Sample kept at 105 °C (hot air oven) Sample kept at 40 °C (vacuum oven)
(For Solids recovery) (For AIL, ASL, Reducing sugar)

Fig. 1 Process flow chart of pretreatment of biomass

Enzymatic hydrolysis of pretreated samples

After pretreatment, hydrolysis was carried out at 8% solid loading (of total volume 20 ml) to
examine the effect of enzyme loading levels (0, 15 and 30%) onthe untreated sample and selected
pretreated samples for fermentable sugar production with a 3×4 factorial design.
Loading of enzyme for saccharification: The untreated and pretreated samples selected and levels of
enzyme loaded for each sample during hydrolysis are given in Table 1. Untreated samples with
equivalent enzyme loading were also hydrolyzed as control. Pretreated and untreated samples with
no enzyme were prepared to determine the effect of soaking. Hydrolysis was performed for 72 h at
50 °C in a shaking water bath 150 rpm (Plate 1).
The Laboratory Analytical Procedure (LAP) adopted by National Renewable Energy
Laboratory (NREL) for enzymatic saccharification of lignocellulosic biomass (Selig et al., 2008) was
followed for conducting enzymatic hydrolysis.
Table 1 Details of samples selected and levels of enzyme loaded during hydrolysis

318
 Enzyme loading levels (%)
Sl. No. Samples selected
(g enzyme protein/g dry biomass)
1 Untreated 0, 15 and 30
2 Pretreated at 50 °C, 24 h, 2% KOH 0, 15 and 30
3 Pretreated at 70 °C, 24 h, 2% KOH 0, 15 and 30
4 Pretreated at 120 °C, 1 h, 2% KOH 0, 15 and 30
The samples were withdrawn at regular intervals of 12 h and centrifuged at 4,000 rpm for 10
min in a high speed refrigerated centrifuge (Plate 2), and the filtrate was collected for sugar analysis.
The fermentable sugars generated during the hydrolysis were estimated by
3,5-dinitrosalycylic (DNS) acid method. The saccharification rate at regular intervals was calculated
using the formula as given below;
Sugar yield (mg/gdry biomass)
Saccharificationrate (mg/g/h) ... (1)
Saccharification time(h)
Further, carbohydrate conversion was calculated using the following formula (Gupta et al.,
2009);
Reducing sugar concentrat ion obtained
Carbohydra te conversion (%)   100 ... (2)
Potential sugar concentrat ion in the substrate

Plate 1 Enzymatic hydrolysis of samples Plate 2 Enzymatic hydrolyzed samples kept

loaded with CTec2 Cellulase enzyme in for centrifugation in high speed
water bath incubator shaker refrigerated centrifuge

Results and Discussion: The pre-treatment at 120 °C for 1 h with 2% KOH concentration was chosen
as the optimum as it had highest desirability of 64.9%. However, in order to examine the enzyme
loading levels on samples pretreated 50 and 70 °C for fermentable sugar production, other two
pretreatment conditions viz., 2% KOH, 24 h at 70 °C having desirability of 63.0% and 2% KOH, 24 h at
50 °Cwith 58.8% desirability were also selected for further enzymatic hydrolysis.
Effect of enzyme loading levels on saccharification of cotton stalk : Hydrolysis was carried out to
examine the effect of enzyme loading levels (0, 15 and 30% g enzyme protein/g dry biomass) onthe
untreated sample and selected pretreated samples for fermentable sugar production. The enzyme
Cellulase CTec2 sponsored by Novozymes, China was used for the hydrolysis.
The enzymes were loaded and hydrolysis was carried out in a shaking water bath at
50 °C at 150 rpm for 72 h .The samples were drawn at regular intervals (12 h) and analyzed for the
fermentable sugars produced. The results of saccharification of cotton stalk, total sugar yields and
carbohydrate conversion are presented below.

319
Saccharification profile during hydrolysis: The results of sugar yields of untreated sample hydrolyzed
with 0, 15 and 30% enzyme loadings at regular intervals are presented in Table 2. The sugar yield of
the untreated sample ranged from 8.1 to 337.29 mg/g dry biomass. A maximum sugar yield of 337.29
mg/g biomass was obtained with 30% enzyme loading at the end of 72 h of hydrolysis. While, it was
minimum (8.1 mg/g) at 0% i.e., without enzyme loading after 12 h (Table 2).
The fermentable sugars generated from the hydrolysis of sample pretreated with 2% KOH at
50 °C for 24 h ranged from 7.6 to 498.5 mg/g dry biomass. It was observed that the sugar yield was
maximum (498.5 mg/g biomass) with 30% enzyme loading at the end of 72 h of hydrolysis. Whereas,
a minimum sugar yield of 7.6 mg/g biomass was obtained after 12 h without enzyme loading (Table
3). As the hydrolysis time prolonged, the sugar yield increased and increased sugar yield was
recorded as the enzyme loading level increased.
The sugar yield of the sample ranged from 8 to 510.4 mg/g dry biomass with different
enzyme loadings. A maximum sugar yield of 510.4 mg/g biomass was recorded for 30% enzyme
loading at the end of hydrolysis, while it was minimum (8 mg/g) at 12 h of hydrolysis without enzyme
loading (Table 4).
The sugar yield in the hydrolyzate of the sample pretreated at 120 °C for 1 h, 2% KOH varied
from 10.3 to 518.9 mg/g dry biomass. A maximum sugar yield of 518.9 mg/g biomass was obtained
with 30% enzyme loading at the end of 72 h of hydrolysis. While, it was minimum (10.3 mg/g
biomass) at 0% i.e., without enzyme loading after 12 h (Table 5). As the enzyme loading level
increased, the sugar yield also increased at different intervals. The increased sugar yield was
observed with the prolonged hydrolysis time for all the enzyme loading levels.
Total sugar yield: The total sugar yield obtained after the hydrolysis of untreated and pretreated
samples ranged from 29.3 to 518.9 mg/g biomass. The maximum total sugar yield of 518.9 g/g
biomass was recorded in the hydrolyzate obtained from the sample pretreated at optimal conditions
(120 °C for 1 h with 2% KOH) and loaded with 30% enzyme. Whereas, it was minimum
(29.3 g/g biomass) in the hydrolyzate of the sample pretreated at 50 °C for
24 h with 2% KOH without enzyme loading (Table 6). For each sample, when the enzyme loading
level increased the total sugar yield also increased. This trend was observed for all the samples
hydrolyzed.

Table 2. Sugar yields of untreated sample hydrolyzed with different enzyme loading levels
Sugar yield (mg/g biomass)
Time, h Enzyme loading, % (g enzyme protein/g biomass)
0 15 30
12 8.1 91.3 176.92
24 14.3 149.2 269.91
36 29.7 179.3 316.11
48 37.6 202.6 328.63
60 41.2 216.2 332.37
72 45.7` 221.5 337.29

320
Table 3. Sugar yields of pretreated sample (50 °C, 24 h, 2% KOH) hydrolyzed with different enzyme
loading levels
Sugar yield (mg/g biomass)

Time, h Enzyme loading, % (g enzyme protein/g biomass)

0 15 30
12 7.6 126.9 248.3
24 12.8 248.7 338.2
36 19.7 299.6 389.8
48 22.4 329.8 429.6
60 26.1 348.4 466.4
72 29.3 356.6 498.5

Table 4. Sugar yields of pretreated sample (70 °C, 24 h, 2% KOH) hydrolyzed with different enzyme
loading levels
Sugar yield (mg/g biomass)
Enzyme loading, % (g enzyme protein/g biomass)
Time, h
0 15 30
12 8.00 168.5 266.8
24 14.7 271.6 373.6
36 24.5 335.5 402.4
48 29.8 359.3 458.8
60 31.2 369.4 491.3
72 32.9 378.2 510.4

Table 5. Sugar yields of pretreated sample (120 °C, 1 h, 2% KOH) hydrolyzed with different enzyme
loading levels
Sugar yield (mg/g biomass)
Time, h Enzyme loading, % (g enzyme protein/g biomass)
0 15 30
12 10.3 185.6 318.9
24 19. 8 296.6 389.6
36 26.1 357.7 434.7
48 31.5 401.3 499.0
60 36.2 413.2 503.4
72 40.1 429.7 518.9
The total sugar yield obtained from hydrolysis were statistically analyzed and presented in
Table 7. It was observed that there was a significant difference between the sugar yields obtained
from the samples hydrolyzed. The effect of enzyme loading was significant on sugar yield obtained
from all the samples hydrolyzed at 1% level. The combined effect of the factors was also significant.

321
Table 6. Total sugar yields of untreated and pretreated samples hydrolyzed with different enzyme
loadings for 72 h
Total sugar yield (mg/g biomass)

Pretreatment Enzyme loading, % (g enzyme protein/g biomass)

0 15 30
Untreated 45.7` 221.5 337.29
50 °C, 24 h, 2% KOH 29.3 356.6 498.5
70 °C, 24 h , 2% KOH
32.9 378.2 510.4
120 °C, 1 h, 2% KOH
40.1 429.7 518.9

Table 7. Analysis of variance for total sugar yield

Source Sum of squares df Mean square F value p-value

Model 1305321 11 118665.5 2787.2 < 0.0001

Enzyme loading (A) 1167851 2 583925.5 13715.3 < 0.0001
Samples (B) 85095.2 3 28365 666.2 < 0.0001
AB 52374.8 6 8729.1 205 < 0.0001
Pure error 1021.8 24 42.6 - -
Cor total 1306342.9 35 - - -
2
SD =0.98 Mean = 304.85 CV = 1.09% R = 0.99
Carbohydrate conversion : The percentage carbohydrate conversion of different samples hydrolyzed
with various enzyme loading levels ranged from 4.99 to 88.45. The maximum carbohydrate
conversion of 88.45% was recorded for the sample pretreated at optimal conditions (120 °C, 1 h, 2%
KOH) which was loaded with 30% enzyme. Whereas the sample pretreated at 50 °C for 24 h with 2%
KOH recorded minimum carbohydrate conversion (4.99%) without enzyme loading.
As the enzyme loading level increased, the percentage of carbohydrate conversion also
increased for both untreated and pretreated samples. However, the untreated sample without
enzyme loading recorded higher carbohydrate conversion than all the pretreated samples with 0%
enzyme loading.
It was observed that there was a significant difference between the per cent carbohydrate
conversions attained from the samples hydrolyzed. The enzyme loading made significant impact on
percentage of carbohydrate conversion achieved from all the samples hydrolyzed at 1% level of
significance. The combined effect of the factors was also significant (Table 8).

322
Table 8. Carbohydrate conversions of untreated and pretreated samples hydrolyzed with different
enzyme loadings for 72 h
Carbohydrate conversion (%)
Pretreatment Enzyme loading, % (g enzyme protein/g biomass)
0 15 30
Untreated 7.79 37.76 57.49

50 °C, 24 h, 2% KOH 4.99 60.79 84.98

70 °C, 24 h, 2% KOH 5.61 64.47 87.01
120 °C, 1 h, 2% KOH 6.83 73.25 88.45

Table 9. Analysis of variance for carbohydrate conversion

Source Sum of squares df Mean square F value p-value

Model 38149.51 11 3468.14 351.58 < 0.0001

Enzyme loading (A) 34144.93 2 17072.46 1730.69 < 0.0001
Samples (B) 2477.90 3 825.96 83.73 < 0.0001
AB 1526.68 6 254.45 25.79 < 0.0001
Pure error 236.75 24 9.86 - -
Cor total 38386.25 35 - - -
2
SD = 0.67 Mean = 48.29 CV = 1.41% R = 0.99
Conclusions
Cotton stalk is byproduct of cotton crop after harvest of cotton blows. Cotton stalk has the
potential to be converted to bioethanol.As the enzyme loading level increased, the carbohydrate
conversion percentage also increased for both untreated and pretreated samples.The separate
hydrolysis and fermentation could prove better in improving the ethanol production from cellulosic
hydrolyzates.

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Binder, J. B. and Raines, R. T., 2010, Fermentable sugars by chemical hydrolysis of biomass.
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Binod, P., Kuttiraja, M., Archana, M., Janu, K. U., Sindhu, R., Sukumaran, R. K. and Pandey, A.,2012,
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bioethanol production. Fuel, 92(1): 340-345.
Corredor, D. Y., Salazar, J. M., Hohn, K. L., Bean, S., Bean, B. and Wang, D., 2009, Evaluation and
characterization of forage sorghum as feedstock for fermentable sugar production. Appl.
Biochem. Biotechnol, 158(1): 164-179.
Deisy, Y. C., 2008, Pretreatment and enzymatic hydrolysis of lignocellulosic biomass. Unpublished
Doctoral Thesis of Department of Biological and Agricultural Engineering College of
Engineering, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas: pp: 11.
Du, S. K., Zhu, X., Wang, H., Zhou, D., Yang, W. and Xu, H., 2013, High pressure assist-alkali
pretreatment of cotton stalk and physiochemical characterization of biomass, Bioresour.
Technol., 148(3): 494-500.

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Jiang, W., Chang, S., Hongqiang, L., Oleskowicz-Popiel, P. and Xu, J., 2015, Liquid hot water
pretreatment on different parts of cotton stalk to facilitate ethanol production. Bioresour.
Technol., 176(1): 175-180.
Leenakul, W. and Tippayawong, N., 2010, Dilute acid pretreatment of bamboo for fermentable sugar
production. J. Sustain. Energy & Environ. 1(2): 117-120.
Pappis, C. P. and Petrou, E. C., 2011, Bioethanol production from cotton stalks or corn stover? A
comparative study of their sustainability performance. Bioenegry Technol., 2(8): 2036-2041.
Placido, J., Imam, T. and Capareda, S., 2013, Evaluation of ligninolytic enzymes, ultrasonication and
liquid hot water as pretreatments for bioethanol production from cotton gin trash. Bioresour.
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Selig, M., Weiss, N. and Ji, Y., 2008, Enzymatic saccharification of lignocellulosic biomass. Laboratory
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Sharma, R., Vijaykumar, P., Ratna R. Sharma-Shivappa and Jason Osborne, 2012, Potential of
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Shi, J., Mari, S. and. Sharma, R. S., 2008, Microbial pretreatment of cotton stalks by solid state
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324
 Development of Pre-Emergence Herbicide Strip Application System for
Sowing/Planting Devices
Potdar R.R.1, Tiwari P.S.2 and Dushyant Singh3
1
Scientist, Agricultural Mechanization Division, 2Head, Agricultural Mechanization Division and
3
Principal Scientist,Agricultural Mechanization Division, ICAR-CIAE, Bhopal, India
Email : rrpotdar@gmail.com

Abstract: A 6-row pre-emergence herbicide strip-application system was designed and developed at
CIAE, Bhopal as an attachment to inclined-plate planter to apply herbicide at the time of sowing in
widely spaced crops to control weeds along the crop rows, often not possible in mechanical weeding.
Itconsists of a frame on which 6 flat fan spray nozzles were mounted by means of clamps, a single
action piston pump with 9 l/min capacity, pressure regulator valve, and pressure gauge and pressure
pipes. The spacing between the spray nozzles, angle and height of spray nozzles can be varied by
adjusting the clamps. The developed system has ability of strip as well as blanket application of
herbicide. The same machine can be used as post-emergence herbicide/pesticide applicator after the
removal of furrow openers and increasing the height of nozzles from the ground. The machine was
tested and evaluated for soybean and pigeon pea crops. The field capacity of the developed system
was found to be 0.4 ha/h. The operating cost of the pre-emergence herbicide applicator with inclined
plate planter was worked out as Rs 1350/- per ha. It can save about 40-50% herbicide.

Keywords: Pre-Emergence Herbicide, Strip Application, Inclined Plate Planter, Spray Nozzles

Introduction: Weed control is one of the most important aspects in the present day agriculture.
Weed plants compete with the crops for soil nutrients, moisture, light and space. A considerable
amount of chemical fertilizer applied in the soil may be taken away by the weeds. Unless weeds are
controlled at the appropriate stages of crop growth, the crop growth is adversely affected resulting in
poor yields. Weeds grow very fast in large number in the agricultural land and their timely control is
difficult. Weed control is done through the mechanical, cultural and chemical means.
Mechanical control of weeds is the oldest method of control and involves use of tools (weeders)
operated by man, animal or tractor. Cultural control of weeds involves crop competition, crop
rotation, and cropping practices etc. Chemical control of weeds involves use of herbicides.
Mechanical control of weeds has limitation such as labour shortage and has negative effects, which
include soil erosion and increased nutrient losses in runoff from fields. Also, chemical control of
weeds has negative effect on the environment. A large amount of herbicide use, leads to
deterioration of soil and ground water. To combat these problems, Integrated Weed Management
(IWM) came into limelight. Minimizing environmental impact, increasing economic returns, and
employing non-chemical methods without sacrificing yield are the aim of IWM (Buhler et al., 1992;
Rosales-Robles et al., 1999). It does not mean that one can totally replace herbicides with other
methods (Shaw, 1982).
Broadcasting i.e. applying herbicide over whole field is the existing practice of herbicide application
in India. Several studies reported that vast use of herbicide resulted in many problems for
environment and agriculture such as entering to under ground water resources and deep well or
moving to far places by rain water or flooding (Babut et al., 1996; Adamski and Pugh, 1996; Heydel,
1998; Lowery et al., 1998; Kalkhoff et al., 2003). Applying herbicide along crop rows (Band
application) and mechanical cultivation between the rows can serve the problem. The herbicide can
be sprayed at the time of planting, pre‑emergence or post‑emergence of the crop. Herbicide
banding consistsof spraying herbicide only over the crop rows, covering a width of about 20-30 cm.
The weeds in the space between two rows are controlled mechanically.

325
Band application of herbicides and reduced rates of herbicides are Integrated Weed Management
(IWM) tactics (Eadie et al., 1992). Banded application is as effective as overall when followed by
timely interrow cultivation (Mulder and Doll, 1993; Buhler, 1998; Donald et al., 2001; Swanton et al.,
2002) and the amount of herbicide required can be reduced up to 84% without sacrifying crop yield
(Swanton and Weise, 1991; Eadie et al., 1992; Sankula et al., 2001). In addition, banded application
can reduce herbicide application costs (Manson, 1983; Parish et al., 1995) and environmental impact
(Shock et al., 1998; Heydel et al., 1999; Prueger et al., 1999; Hansen et al., 2000; Gorneau et al.,
2001).
A study on evaluation of different herbicide application methods reported that the combination of
banded herbicides with mechanical weeding was as effective in controlling weeds as a broadcast
application of herbicide. The banded herbicide controls in-row weeds whereas mechanical weeding
removes weeds between the rows. This integrated approach reduced herbicide use by 73% and
provided adequate weed control and crop yields (Niazmand et al., 2008).
Eadie et al. (1992) reported that band application of herbicide in conjunction with one or two
cultivations gave similar weed control and maize yield compared with overall application of
herbicides and a 60% reduction in total herbicide application was achieved. Donald et al. (2001) and
Swanton et al. (2002) showed that band application followed by cultivation gave similar weed
control, maize and soybean yield, and gross return compared to broadcast application of herbicides.
Mulugeta and Stoltenberg (1997) found that band application of herbicide plus inter row cultivation
was as effective as broadcast applications in reducing plant population and seedbank of dominant
weed species. The practice of banding pre-emergent herbicide followed by cultivation decreased
both herbicides leaching through the soil profile and herbicide loss in runoff water from fields
(Gaynor and Wesenbeeck 1995).
Research in soybean and corn showed about 50% reduction in pre- herbicide use by banding
herbicides over crop rows and substituting between row mowing for cultivation (Donald 2000a,
2000b; Donald et al., 2001). A study conducted on IWM in pigeonpea reported that pre-emergence
application of alachlor 2 kg ha-1 with hand weeding and hoeing at 6 weeks after sowing proved most
effective and economical in controlling weeds and enhancing the grain yield in pigeonpea + soybean
inter-cropping system (Talnikar et al., 2008).
From the above review it is evident that banded application of herbicide with mechanical cultivation
can reduce herbicide use upto 50 % without sacrificing crop yield. In order to reduce herbicide use
and the cost of herbicide application and thereby reducing the soil/water pollution; there is need for
band placement of herbicide using a sprayer attachment, which can be used in conjunction with
seeder. Keeping these points into consideration this study has been planned with the objective to
develop a pre-emergence herbicide strip application system as an attachment to sowing devices for
wide spaced field crops.
Materials and Methods
Selection of seed drill/planter for pre-emergence herbicide strip application system: For this study
number of seed drills and planters were studied for mounting of pre-emergence herbicide strip
application system. Based on space for mountings of spray pump and tanks for pre-emergence
herbicide solution;designed and developed at CIAE, Bhopal; a modular unit of tractor drawn 6-row
inclined plate planter (Fig 1) was selected for this study. This planter consists of a frame with tool bar,
fertilizer boxwith fluted roller type metering system; modular seed boxeswith independent inclined
plate type seed metering mechanism; furrow openers and ground drive wheel system. This planter
has benefit that row to row spacing can be easily adjusted. Bold seeds as well as small seeds can be
sown with this planter, just changing suitable metering plate. Also, simultaneous sowing of different
intercrops can be possible with this planter.

326
 Fig 1 Modular unit of tractor drawn 6-row inclined plate planter
Selection of spray nozzles, pump and accessories of pre-emergence herbicide strip application
system: Pre-calculations for selection of suitable spray nozzle, pump size, tank size for pre-herbicide
solution and spray accessories were done. For this study, flat fan spray nozzles of ASPEE make and
TEEJET make (Fig 2) were selected and tested in the laboratory for discharge at different nozzle
pressure on standard patternator. Based on pre-calculations, a single action

ASPEE make nozzle TEEJET make nozzle

Fig 2 Spray nozzles selected for this study

piston pump with 9 l/min capacity of ASPEE make and two number tanks having each capacity of 50
litres were selected and mounted on the frame of inclined plate planter. Laboratory experiments
with pre-emergence herbicide strip application system were carried out for band width at different
nozzle height.

Design of pre-emergence herbicide strip application system for inclined plate planter: Design of
pre-emergence herbicide strip application system for inclined plate planter involved making of CAD
drawing of mounting of spray pump; tanks for pre-emergence herbicide solution selection and spray
nozzle mounting; was done (Fig 3) using Pro-E Wildfire 5.0. The drawing made according the sizes of
pump and tanks and the space available on planter.

327
 Tank Mounting

Pump Mounting

Spray Nozzle
Mounting

Fig 3 CAD drawing of pre-emergence herbicide strip application system

Results and Discussion

Laboratory studies with selected spray nozzles: The selected nozzles were studied in the laboratory
for discharge at different six nozzle pressure levels i.e. from 1.0 kg/cm2 to 2.0 kg/cm2 on standard
patternator. From the results
Table 1 Spray nozzle discharge rate at different pressure levels
Sr. No. Pressure, kg/cm2 Discharge in ml/min

(ASPEE 60500 nozzle) (TEEJET 4001E nozzle)

1 2.0
685 320
2 1.8
645 295
3 1.6
615 275
4 1.4
580 260
5 1.2
550 235
6 1.0
480 210
shown in the Table 1, TEEJET nozzles were found to be suitable for the strip application of pre-
emergence of herbicide and able to spray at the rate of 235 ml/min at 1.2 kg/cm2, which was our
required discharge rate. Therefore, the TEEJET make nozzles were finalized for mounting on pre-
emergence herbicide strip application system.

328
Fabrication ofpre-emergence herbicide strip application system for inclined plate planter:The
fabrication of the frame (Fig 4) on inclined plate planter for mountings of spray pump, spray nozzles
and tanks was done as per CAD drawings in the research workshop of CIAE. The tanks and pump
were mounted on the fabricated system. The TEEJET spray nozzles were attached on the frame by
means of clamps. The spacing between the spray
Fig 4 Fabrication stage of pre-emergence herbicide strip application system

nozzles, angle and height of spray nozzles can be varied by adjusting the clamps. A pressure gauge
was fixed on the frame for checking the discharge pressure and varying accordingly. All the pressure
pipe connections were made in the laboratory. Details of the pre-emergence herbicide strip
application system is given in the Table 2.
Table 2.Details of the pre-emergence herbicide strip application system
Sowing Device Inclined plate planter
No. of spray nozzles 6
Row spacing, cm 60
Herbicide treated width (band width), cm 20
Sprayer pump Single action piston pump
No. of tanks 2
Tank Capacity, litres (Total) 60 (120)
Pressure gauge, kg 7

Testing of the pre-emergence herbicide strip application system :The developed system was tested
in the laboratory for strip width (Fig 5 a) at different pressures and field evaluation (Fig 5 b) on
demonstration plot. During the laboratory study, band width of 20 cm was found at nozzle height of
40 cm straight. The nozzle height can be reduced by varying the nozzle angle to get desired band
width. During the field evaluation, the field capacity of pre-emergence herbicide strip application
system with inclined plate planter 0.4 ha/h was found 0.4 ha/h.

329
 (a) (b)
Fig 5 Testing of pre-emergence herbicide strip application system in laboratory (a) and in field (b)
Field experiments with the pre-emergence herbicide strip application system: To evaluate the
effectiveness of pre-emergence herbicide strip application with different existing herbicide
application methods, field experiments were conducted in soybean (variety JS 9560) and pigeon pea
(variety UPAS 120) crops. The row-to-row spacing for soybean and pigeon pea crops were kept as 45
and 90 cm. The treatments included in the field experiments were:
a. control i.e. no herbicide no manual/mechanical weeding
b. inter cultivation between the rows
c. band placement of pre-emergence herbicide + mechanical cultivation between the
rows
d. blanket application over the entire field + manual weeding
The width of pre-emergence herbicide strip was kept as 20 cm (10 cm on either side of row). The pre-
emergence herbicide (ORAM-32, 30% Pendamethylene AI) was applied at a rate of 1 kg/ha active
ingredient. Due to continuous rains after sowing operation, mechanical cultivation and manual
weeding could not be performed as planned in the experiments. To know weed intensity in different
treatments, the inter-row (25 cm for soybean and 70 cm for pigeon pea) and intra-row (20 cm) weed
count readings were taken after 21-days after sowing (Fig. 6 and 7). The inter-row and intra-row
weed intensities in different treatments are presented in Table 3.
Table 3. Inter-row and intra-row weed intensities in different treatments
Crop Treatments Weed Intensity, weeds/m2
Inter-row Intra-row
Soybean Strip application 226 20
Blanket application 35 31
Control 271 175
Pigeon pea Strip application 243 38
Blanket application 40 28
Control 252 175

330
 Strip application Blanket application Control
Fig 6. A view of different treatments for soybean crop

Strip application Blanket application Control

Fig 7. A view of different treatments for pigeon-pea crop
The samples of soybean crop for each treatment were harvested and collected. The yield for each
treatment for soybean crop was worked out. The yield for treatments of band application of pre-
emergence herbicide, blanket application of pre-emergence herbicide and control were 8.5, 9.5 and
6.2 quintal/ha, respectively.
From the experiments it was observed that with the use of pre-emergence herbicide applicator we
can save about 40-50% herbicide. The operating cost of the pre-emergence herbicide applicator with
inclined plate planter was worked out as Rs 1350/- per ha. The same machine can be used as post-
emergence herbicide/pesticide applicator after the removal of furrow openers and increasing the
height of nozzles from the ground.
Summary and Conclusion
A 6-row pre-emergence herbicide strip-application system was designed and developed at CIAE,
Bhopal as an attachment to inclined-plate planter to apply herbicide at the time of sowing in widely
spaced crops to control weeds along the crop rows.
TEEJET make of flat fan spray nozzles were found suitable for pre-emergence herbicide strip-
application system.
The developed system has ability of strip and blanket application of herbicide. Also, the same
machine can be used as post-emergence herbicide/pesticide applicator after the removal of furrow
openers and increasing the height of nozzles from the ground.
The field capacity and operating cost of the developed system with inclined plate planter was found
to be 0.4 ha/hand Rs 1350/- per ha, respectively. It can save about 40-50% herbicide.
References
1) Eadie, A.G., Swanton, C.J., Shaw, J.E., Anderson, G.W., 1992. Banded herbicide applications
and cultivation in a modified no-till corn system. Weed Technol. 6, 535–542.
2) Mulder, T.A., Doll, J.D., 1993. Integrated reduced herbicide use with mechanical weeding in
corn (Zea mays).Weed Technol. 7, 382–389.
3) Buhler, D.D., 1998. Effect of ridge truncation on weed populations and control in ridge tillage
maize (Zea mays). Weed Sci. 46, 225–230.
4) Donald, W.W., Kitchen, N.R., Sudduth, K.A., 2001. Between-row mowing+banded herbicide
to control annual weeds and reduced herbicide use in no-till soybean and corn. Weed
Technol. 15, 576–584.

331
5) Swanton, C.J., Shrestha, A., Clements, D.R., Booth, B.D., Chandler, K., 2002. Evaluation of
alternative weed management systems in a modified no-tillage maize-soybean-winter wheat
rotation: weeddensities, crop yield, and economics. Weed Sci. 50, 504–511.
6) Swanton, C.J., Weise, S.F., 1991. Integrated weed management: Therationale and approach.
Weed Technol. 5, 657–663.
7) Sankula, S., VanGessel, M.J., Kee, W.E., Beste, C.E., Kee, Everts Jr., K.L., 2001. Narrow row
spacing does not affect lima bean yield or management of weeds and other pests.
HortScience 36, 884–888.
8) Manson, B., 1983. Cheaper weed control, is it possible? BetodlarenSweden 46 (1), 49–50
(CABPEST CD, 1973-1988).
9) Parish, R.L., Reynolds, D.B., Crawford, S.H., 1995. Precision-guided cultivation techniques to
reduce herbicide inputs in cotton. Appl.Eng. Agric. 11, 349–353.
10) Gorneau, W.S., Franti, T.G., Benham, B.L., Comfort, S.D., 2001.Reducing long-term atrazine
run-off from south central Nebraska.Transactions of the ASAE, California-USA 44, 45–52.
11) Talnikar, A.S., Kadam, G.L., Karande, D.R. Jogdand, P.B., 2008. Integrated weed management
in Pigeonpea [CajanusCajan (L.) Millsp.]. Internat. J. Agric. Sci. 4 (1), 363-370.
12) Niazmand, A.R., Shaker, M., Zakerin, A.R., 2008. Evaluation of different herbicide application
methods and cultivation effect on yield and weed control of corn (zea mays). J. Agronomy, 7
(4), 314-320.

332
 Effect of Different Organic Mulches and in-situ Green Manuring on Soil
Chemical, Biological Properties and Weed Dynamics in Maize
Rajashekarappa K.S. 1, Basavarajappa B.E. 2, Girijesh G.K. 3 and 4Somashekar K.S.
1
Professor,Department of Agricultural Engineering, University of Agricultural Sciences, GKVK,
Bangalore-560 065, Karnataka, India.2Professor, Dept. of Chemistry, Bapuji Institute of Technology,
Davanagere.3Professor, Dept. of Agronomy, University of Agricultural and Horticultural Sciences,
Shivamogga.4Assistant Professor, Dept. of Agronomy, University of Agricultural Sciences, GKVK,
Bangalore-560 065, Karnataka, India.
Email: ksrajashekarappa@gmail.com

Abstract: A study was conducted at the Zonal Agricultural Research Station, UAS, GKVK, Bangalore in
Alfisols during 2010 to know the effect of different organic mulches and In-situ green manuring on
soil properties and weed dynamics in maize. The soil was red sandy loam, slightly acidic in pH and
with low in available nitrogen and medium in available phosphorus and potassium. The experiment
consists of nine treatments comprising different mulchels like straw, coir pith, coconut fronds, tank
soil and In-situ green manuring of sunhemp and glyricidia as green leaf manuring and horse gram as
intercrop and control which are replicated thrice in RCBD. The results indicated that the soil organic
carbon content did not differ significantly due to different mulches and In-situ green manuring but
differed significantly with respect to available nutrients and on weed dynamics. Among different
treatments In-situ green manuring of sunhemp registered significantly higher available nitrogen
(281.18 kg/ha) over other treatments but which was on par with green leaf manuring, horse gram
intercropping and tank silt application. Similarly In-situ green manuring of sunhemp recorded
significantly higher available phosphorus (77.93 kg/ha) over application of additional FYM but was on
par with other treatments. Mulching with coconut fronds (2.3 t/ha) recorded higher available
potassium (136.13 kg/ha)but which was on par with other mulches except mulching with straw,
application of additional FYM and control. The population of total bacteria, fungi and P solublizers,
Azotobactor were found be increased significantly after the harvest of the crop compared to the
initial population, In-situ green manuring of sunhemp, green leaf manuring with glyricidia and
intercropping of horse gram registered lower weed density of 24.41, 30.44 and 32.14 per m2
respectively over other treatments. Similar trend was noticed with respect to weed dry weight
andweedcontrolefficiency.

Key words: Mulches, Soil properties, Weed Dynamics, Maize

Introduction: Maize (Zea mays L.) is known as “Queen of cereals” because it has the highest genetic
yield potential among the cereals; is one of the important cereal crops next to wheat and rice in the
world. Globally maize occupies an area of 174.2 m ha with the production of 852 m t and productivity
accounts for 4890 kg ha-1. In India, the maize occupies an area of 9.42 m ha with the production of
22.26 m t and average productivity of 2583 kg ha-1.
Maize is also gaining importance due to being a commercial and industrial crop, where a large
number of products are being manufactured out of its grain. Maize grain contains about 72 percent
starch, 10 percent protein, 4.8 percent oil, 5.8 percent fibre, 3.0 percent sugar and 1.7 percent ash. It
is a source of raw material for industry, where it is being extensively used for the preparation of corn
starch, corn oil, dextrose, corn syrup, corn flakes, cosmetics, wax, alcohol and tanning material for
leather industry.
Modern agriculture must supply crops with optimal rates of nutrients throughout the growth
cycle in the most efficient manner and without degrading soil and water resources. This can be
achieved through adoption of modern and precision practices in terms of nutrient management
particularly fertilizers which are fully water soluble, solid or liquid fertilizers having high content of

333
primary nutrients with low salt index. They may or may not have secondary and micronutrients. These
water soluble fertilizers can be used for foliar feeding and fertigation of crops.
Maize is an exhaustive crop with high nutrient demand and its productivity mainly depends
upon nutrient management system. Agronomic practices of maize are required to be standardized for
realizing yield potential. Application and timely of major nutrients through foliar sprays along with soil
application has several advantages in supplementing the nutritional requirements of crops such as
rapid and efficient response by crops, less product needed and independence of soil conditions. The
sustainability of yield and prospects of higher yields under rainfed conditions are threatened by
moisture stress at critical stages soil compaction, low level of organic carbon and extensive
monoculture in the study. Keeping this in view a field experiment was carried out to find out the effect
of different mulches and in-situ green manuring on soil chemical and biological property and weed
dynamics and yield of maize in Eastern Dry Zone of Karnataka.
Materials and Methods: A field experiment was carried out in Alfisols of Eastern Dry Zone of
Karnataka at University of Agricultural Sciences, GKVK, Bangalore during kharif 2010 and 2015. The
soil was red sandy loam in texture having low in Nitrogen and medium in Phosphorus and Potash.
The soil was slightly acidic in pH (6.2). The experiment laid out in RCBD replicated three times. The
intercrop for in-situ green manure crop and horse gram were sown along with the main crop and
green manure crop was incorporated at 30 DAS. The additional dose of FYM and tank silt (10 t/ha)
were applied in 15 days prior to sowing of crops as per treatments. The mulching was done at 30 DAS
after sowing. All the recommended package of practices were followed. The microbial population
was estimated before sowing and after harvesting of the crop in the experimental site by using serial
dilution and plate count method. The total number of weeds per m2 was counted in each plot at
harvest and further separated into monocots, dicots and sedges. Similarly dry weight of weed (g/m2)
was recorded at harvest and weed control efficiency (WCE) was worked out by using the formula

WCE= Weed dry weight in control plot- Weed dry weight in treated plot X 100

Weed dry weight in control plot

Results and Discussion
Effect of different organic mulches and in-situ green manuring on soil chemical, properties in maize
Soil organic carbon content did not vary significantly among treatments due to mulches.
However, sunhemp in-situ green manuring recorded numerically higher organic carbon of 0.47%
closely followed glyricidia green leaf manuring (0.46%) and horse gram intercropping (0.46%).All
treatments have registered numerically higher organic carbon content than the control plot
(0.4%),This may be attributed to the addition of dry matter to the soil as a result of addition of
organic matter through green manuring and nitrogen by sunhemp and horse gram intercropping in
maize. Significant amount of organic matter(Up to 3654 kg per ha) was added as a result of in situ
green manuring (Table 1) justify the changes in organic carbon status. The results are in line with
findings of Wikson Makumbe et al. (2007) that maize + glyricidia intercropping system could
sequester more C than sole maize. Further, Wani, et al (1994) reported 67% (in 22 years) higher
carbon content of top 15 cm soil layer in case of pigeon pea based intercropping system as compared
to non legume system. Paustian et al. (1997) recorded higher soil carbon input with the continuous
cropping, particularly when fertilizers were applied and legumes were included in the system.
Effect of different organic mulches and in-situ green manuring on soil biological properties in maize
Maximum total bacterial population (24.11 X 105 CFU) was observed in the treatment receiving
green manuring with sunhemp followed by the treatment with glyricidia green leaf manuring (23.71
X 105 CFU) and intercropping with horse gram (18.39 X 105 CFU). The similar trend was noticed with
respect to fungal population (Table 2).
P solubilizers population was found to be maximum in the treatment receiving sunhemp in-situ
green manuring following glyricidia green leaf manuring. The lower number of P solubilizers were
found to control (Table 2).

334
 Symbiotic (Rhizobium) and asymbiotic nitrogen fixing bacteria (Azotobactor) were found to be
highest in the treatment receiving sunhemp in-situ green manuring followed by glyricidia green leaf
manuring. The lower number of Rhizobia and Azotobactor population were recorded in control
(Table 3).
Effect of different organic mulches and in-situ green manuring on weed dynamics
The data on weed population was in table 4significantly lower number of monocots per unit
area was noticed in sunhemp in-situ green manuring plots (12.05/m2). Higher number of monocots
(41.07/m2) was recorded in control plot with respect to dicots sunhemp green manuring (10.68/m2),
glyricidia green leaf manuring (10.68/m2) and horse gram intercropping (12.04/m2) have recorded
significantly lower number of weeds compared to other treatments. Higher number of dicots
(34.35/m2) was recorded in straw mulched plots followed by control (32.37/m2). similar trend was
also observed with respect to sedges. Further significant differences were observed among
treatments with respect to total weed density. Sunhemp green manuring resulted in lower weed
density (24.41/m2) against highest weed density (81.48/m2) in control plot. The results are in line
with the findings of Musambasi et al. (2005).
The data on weed dry weight indicates that the mulching treatments differed significantly with
respect to weed dry weight. Significantly lower weed dry weight was noticed in plots received
sunhemp as in-situ green manuring (5.07 g/m2). Green leaf manuring with glyricidia (6.65 g/m2) and
tank silt application (8.29 g/m2) which were on par with each other. Higher weed control efficiency
(92.63%) was noticed in in-situ green manure incorporation with sunhemp (Table 5). The variation
among treatments in weed density may be due to variability in crop canopy and smothering ability of
intercrops. The dense canopy and mulching created an environment of low temperature poor light
and high humidity which is not favoruable for weeds growth.
Conclusion: Sunhemp grown as intercrop in between rows of maize and incorporated as in-situ green
manure recorded higher soil organic carbon (0.48%), available nitrogen (281.18 kg/ha), and
phosphorus (77.93 kg/ha). Sunhemp green manuring plots registered significantly lower number of
weeds, lower weed dry weight per unit area and higher weed conrol efficiency.
References
Musambasi, D., Chivinge, O.A., Bunya, D.R and Mabasa, S. 2005. The role of different components of
crops grown in association with maize and their residues in controlling Striga asiatica (L)
Kuntze in Zimbabwe. Crop Res,29(1): 47-55.
Paustian, K., Agren, G and Bosatta, E. 1997. Modeling litter quality effects on decomposition and soil
organic matter dynamics. In: Driven by nature: plant litter quality and decomposition, Eds.
Cadisen, G. and Giller, K.E. pp 313-336. Pub. CAB International Wallingford.
Wani, S.P., Mcgill, W.B., Hangen-Koyzra, K.L., Robertson, J.A and Thurstson, J.J. 1994. Increased
proportion of active soil N in Breton loam under cropping system with forages and green
manures. Canadian J. Soil Sci,74:67-74.
Wilkson Makumba, Festus, K., Akinnifesi, Bert Janssen and Oeneoenema. 2007. Long-term impact of
a glyricida-maize intercropping system on carbon sequestration in southern Malawi,
Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, 118(1-4): 237-243.

335
 Table 1: Soil fertility status as influenced by different organic mulch treatment in maize
Available N Available P2O5 Available K2O
-1 -1 -1
Treatment Organic carbon (%) (Kg ha ) (Kg ha ) (Kg ha )
s
201 201 Pooled 2010 2015 Pooled 2010 2015 Pooled 2010 2015 Pooled
0 5
T1
259.9
0.43 0.44 0.44 0 261.85 260.88 68.00 68.73 68.37 115.70 116.56 116.13
T2
252.0
0.42 0.42 0.42 0 253.11 252.56 75.20 75.54 75.37 133.30 133.92 133.61
T3
257.8
0.43 0.44 0.44 0 258.96 258.38 74.50 74.89 74.70 123.30 123.80 123.55
T4
260.6
0.44 0.45 0.45 0 261.25 260.93 69.80 70.13 69.97 132.50 133.00 132.75
T5
260.4
0.44 0.45 0.45 0 260.90 260.65 68.90 69.20 69.05 136.00 136.25 136.13
T6
280.8
0.47 0.48 0.48 0 281.55 281.18 77.80 78.05 77.93 135.60 135.84 135.72
T7
274.9
0.46 0.46 0.46 0 275.45 275.18 74.50 74.61 74.56 135.20 135.39 135.30
T8
272.1
0.46 0.46 0.46 0 272.40 272.25 77.80 77.03 77.42 133.70 133.95 133.83
T9
237.6
0.40 0.40 0.40 0 238.00 237.80 74.40 74.52 74.46 111.50 112.30 111.90

S.Em + 0.02 0.02 0.02 5.70 5.81 5.77 1.75 1.80 1.77 2.40 2.44 2.41

CD(p=0.05)
NS NS NS 17.10 17.43 17.31 5.25 5.40 5.31 7.19 7.32 7.23

C.V. (%)
3.69 3.65 3.66 3.78 3.85 3.80 4.13 4.20 14.18 3.21 3.35 3.27

336
 Table 2: Total bacteria, fungi and P solubilizers population in the maizerhizosphere after crop
harvest as influenced by different organic mulch treatment
Total bacteria Total fungi Total ‘P’ solubilizers
5 3
Treatments CFU X 10 CFU X 10 CFU X 104
2010 2015 Pooled 2010 2015 Pooled 2010 2015 Pooled
T1 15.66 15.78 15.72 11.66 11.84 11.75 12.66 13.00 12.83
T2 8.66 8.73 8.70 7.33 7.40 7.37 6.33 6.59 6.46
T3 11.00 11.12 11.06 10.00 10.13 10.07 10.00 10.13 10.07
T4 16.00 16.09 16.05 10.00 10.09 10.05 10.00 10.1 10.05
T5 10.33 10.4 10.37 6.66 6.71 6.69 6.66 6.85 6.76
T6 24.00 24.21 24.11 16.00 16.21 16.11 15.66 15.79 15.73
T7 23.66 23.75 23.71 16.00 16.18 16.09 14.00 14.22 14.11
T8 18.33 18.45 18.39 12.66 12.72 12.69 12.33 12.45 12.39
T9 8.33 8.39 8.36 6.00 6.10 6.05 6.00 6.14 6.07

Table 3: Rhizobium and Azatobacter population in the maize rhizosphere after

crop harvest as influenced by different organic mulch treatment
Rhizobium Azotobacter
Treatments CFU X 103 CFU X 103
2010 2015 Pooled 2010 2015 Pooled
T1 15.00 15.13 15.07 11.33 11.44 11.39
T2 8.66 8.78 8.72 9.00 9.06 9.03
T3 16.00 16.12 16.06 12.66 12.73 12.70
T4 16.00 16.10 16.05 12.66 12.72 12.69
T5 10.00 10.09 10.05 9.00 9.08 9.04
T6 19.66 19.81 19.74 17.00 17.12 17.06
T7 20.00 20.14 20.07 15.33 15.40 15.37
T8 15.00 15.10 15.05 12.66 12.75 12.71
T9 8.00 8.14 8.07 7.00 7.10 7.05

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 Table 4: Weed population in maize at harvest as influenced by different organic mulch treatment
-2
Weed population m
Treatments
Monocots (Grasses) Dicot (Broad leaf weeds) Sedges Total weed density
2010 2015 Pooled 2010 2015 Pooled 2010 2015 Pooled 2010 2015 Pooled
T1
21.33 21.42 21.38 20.00 20.05 20.03 4.00 4.10 4.05 45.33 45.57 45.45
T2
24.00 24.13 24.07 28.66 28.7 28.68 7.66 7.73 7.70 60.32 60.56 60.44
T3
21.66 21.74 21.70 34.33 34.36 34.35 6.33 6.39 6.36 62.32 62.49 62.41
T4
20.33 20.4 20.37 20.66 20.7 20.68 4.33 4.38 4.36 45.32 45.48 45.40
T5
33.00 33.11 33.06 24.33 24.39 24.36 6.66 6.70 6.68 63.99 64.20 64.10
T6
12.00 12.09 12.05 10.66 10.69 10.68 1.66 1.72 1.69 24.32 24.50 24.41
T7
17.66 17.75 17.71 10.66 10.7 10.68 2.00 2.10 2.05 30.32 30.55 30.44
T8
18.00 18.08 18.04 12.00 12.08 12.04 2.00 2.12 2.06 32.00 32.28 32.14
T9
41.00 41.13 41.07 32.33 32.4 32.37 8.00 8.10 8.05 81.33 81.63 81.48

S.Em + 1.62 1.68 1.65 1.37 1.40 1.39 0.38 0.41 0.40 3.13 3.19 3.16

CD(p=0.05) 4.81 5.04 4.95 4.13 4.20 4.17 1.14 1.23 1.20 9.39 9.57 9.48

C.V. (%) 12.00 12.19 12.11 11.70 11.89 11.80 12.98 13.10 13.08 10.23 10.31 10.28

Table 5: Weed dry weight and weed control efficiency of maize as influenced bydifferent organic
mulch treatment
Treatments Weed dry weight
Weed control efficiency (%)
(g m-2)
2010 2015 Pooled 2010 2015 Pooled
T1 12.76 12.79 12.78 81.43 81.41 81.42
T2 29.56 29.60 29.58 56.97 56.98 56.97
T3 21.80 21.84 21.82 68.27 68.26 68.26
T4 8.26 8.31 8.29 87.98 87.92 87.95
T5 21.00 21.07 21.04 69.43 69.38 69.40
T6 5.03 5.10 5.07 92.68 92.59 92.63
T7 6.60 6.69 6.65 90.39 90.28 90.33
T8 6.76 6.81 6.79 90.16 90.10 90.13
T9 68.70 68.80 68.75 0.00 0.00 0.00
S.Em + 1.31 1.34 1.32 NA NA NA
CD(p=0.05) 3.94 4.02 3.96 NA NA NA
C.V. (%) 1.31 1.40 1.36 NA NA NA

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 Development of Crop Water Production function for Yield and Water use
Efficiency Prediction of Drip Irrigated Okra in Konkan Region of Maharashtra
R.T. Thokal, P.B. Sanap, P.M. Ingle and T.N. Thorat
AICRP on Irrigation Water Management, Central Experiment Station, Wakawali
Dr. Balasaheb Sawant Konkan Krishi Vidyapeeth, Dapoli (MH)
Email : rtt1966@yahoo.com

Abstract : Drip irrigation is one of the recent irrigation methods used in improving crop production in
which optimal use of irrigation water can be ensuredand thus is becoming increasingly popular for
growing the vegetables. In order to achieve higher productivity, the uniformity with which the
irrigation system applies water will have to be high. The distribution uniformity of a system has an
effect on the system’s application efficiency and on the crop yield; ultimately on the water use
efficiency. Present field study was conductedat Central Experiment Station, Wakawali, DBSKKV,
Dapolito evaluate the performance of drip system installed for okra crop. Experiment was conducted
for three years with main treatments as irrigation levels with irrigation through drip system and crop
spacing and the sub-treatments as fertilizer application methods. The different uniformity indicators
like Christiansen uniformity coefficient (CUC), distribution uniformity (DU), Wilcox and Swailes
uniformity coefficient (CUW) and Hart uniformity coefficient (CUH) were determined for evaluation
of drip system performance.The investigation on water application levels, fertilization methods and
crop spacing revealed that the fresh pod yield of okra per ha was significantly highest in the
treatment combination I6F3 (16.37 t/ha) i.e. water application @ 80%ETcrop through drip irrigation
when okra was grown in summer season and sown at spacing of 120-45 x 15cmand fertilized with
drip fertigation. The results also indicated that the okra yield can be increased by 102.6% with the
water saving of 60.9 per centover furrow irrigation method. The water use efficiency of okra was also
achieved as high as 60.32 kg/ha-mm with this treatment. Performance of the drip system indicated
that the system under investigation can be categorized as an excellent as all the uniformity
coefficient values were above 90 per cent. The highest pod yield was reported in water application
based on 80% and 100% evapotranspiration replenishment, in which the uniformity coefficient
values were highest. The results clearly indicated that increase in irrigation uniformity increases crop
yield and water use efficiency. Water production functions were developed for okra crop considering
irrigation depth, plant population and spatial uniformity of water application under drip irrigation.
The developed production functions can be used for predicting crop yield and its water use efficiency
for different depth of irrigation, uniformity and plant population. The derived equations may provide
useful guide to the potential performance of the drip irrigation and fertigation.

Key words: Drip Irrigation, Water Production Function, Uniformity Coefficient, Fertigation, Okra
Yield, Water use Efficiency

Introduction: Okra is a vegetable crop belonging to the genus Abelmoschus, family Malvaceae. It
requires a long warm and humid growing season. Okra can be grown in all types of soils, but the soil
should be friable. However, it grows best in light soils ranging from sandy loam to loam. Worldwide
total area and production under okra is reported to 1148.0 thousand ha and 7896.3 thousand tons. It
is mainly grown in India, Nigeria, Sudan, Pakistan, Ghana, Egypt, Benin, Saudi Arabia, Mexico and
Cameroon. Largest area and production is in India followed by Nigeria. Highest productivity is
reported from Egypt (15.5 t/ha) followed by Saudi Arabia (13.3 t/ha). Okra occupies area of 501.0
thousand ha in India with production of 5784.0 thousand tons and productivity of 11.60 t/ha (Indian
Horticulture Database, 2016-17). It occupies about 73 per cent share in the world production. Andhra
Pradesh is the leading okra producing state which has production of about 1184 thousand tons
followed by West Bengal (862.1 thousand tons). Area under this crop in Maharashtra is 19 thousand
ha with the productivity of 11.8 t/ha, which is just near to the national average, however,

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productivity in Andhra Pradesh is 15.0 t/ha followed by productivity in Jharkhand (14.1 t/ha) and
West Bengal (13.5 t/ha).
Water is most important input in an assured vegetable production system, especially in areas
where vegetable production lacks due to water scarcity. Surface irrigation method is widely applied
in India due to cost-effectiveness and low maintenance requirements, but the irrigation efficiency is
low due to losses by runoff in the heavy soils and deep percolation in light soils. Low efficiency leads
to increment in the cost of irrigation, labour and water shortage compared with modern irrigation
systems such as sprinkler and drip irrigation, which has high efficiency and minimum water losses.
Drip irrigation is one of the recent irrigation methods used in improving crop production and is
becoming increasingly popular for growing the like vegetables. In this method, water is applied to
crop root zone at regulated rate and in addition fertilizer application can also be done along with
irrigation which is called drip fertigation. Many researchers havereported about its considerable
advantages over furrow irrigation system in terms of water application efficiency, uniformity in water
application, increasing yield, and quality of produce (Sunilkumar and Jaikumaran, 2002; Mishra et al.,
2009; Jayapirathaet al., 2010; Birbal et al., 2013; Paul et al., 2013). The optimal use of irrigation water
can be ensured through drip irrigation and can be characterized by the supply of sufficient water
according to plant needs (Kruger et al., 1999). The obstacle for spread and adoption of drip irrigation
is capital cost, although growers may be able to recover their cost in few years under favourable
yields and market conditions (Phocaides, 2001). Because of this obstacle, many farmers want the drip
irrigation system to be used for the different seasonal crops. Thus, it is essential that the crop
geometry of one crop should match with the other subsequent crop in the next season. This way, the
drip irrigation can be effectively used for the multiple cropping systems.For this, the crop geometry
also plays an important role (Choudhary et al., 2012). Similarly, the cost of inputs like fertilizers is also
increasing and thus, the efficient use of fertilizers is needed to reduce the production cost. Possibility
of substantial fertilizer saving of 50 per cent for okra under drip fertigation was reported (Narda and
Lubana, 2002). By minimizing fertilizer and water losses it gives economic benefit to the crop grower.
Efforts are to be made to decrease overuse of inputs like water and nutrients while maintaining
and/or improving the crop productivity so as to address environmental impacts of agricultural
impacts of agricultural intensification (Mueller et al., 2012).
Water application uniformity is a measure of how evenly the volumes of water are applied
from each emitter. The performance of an irrigation system is often evaluated based on water
uniformity coefficients collected in an array of measuring devices (Topaket al., 2005). The crop yield
is also affected by the spatial uniformity of water application. In order to achieve higher productivity,
the uniformity with which the irrigation system applies water will have to be high. The distribution
uniformity of a system has an effect on the system’s application efficiency and on the crop yield
(Leteyet al., 1984; Solomon, 1984; Letey, 1985), ultimately it has the influence on the water use
efficiency. Irrigation systems with poor distribution uniformity experience reduced yields due to
water stress and/or waterlogging (Solomon, 1984 and Clemmens, and Solomon, 1997). Poor
distribution uniformity also has increased financial and environmental costs. Keeping this in view, the
present study was undertaken to evaluate the performance of drip system different standard
uniformity indicators of water application and to develop water production function equations for
okra.

Materials and Methods: Field experiment was conducted during 2014-15 to 2016-17 at experiment
farm of Vegetable Improvement Scheme, Central Experiment Station (CES), Wakawali of Dr. B.S.
Konkan Krishi Vidyapeeth, Dapoli (17o48’N and 73o78’E, with an elevation 242m above mean sea
level). The climate is tropical semi-humid which is hot humid in summer and mild humid in winter
with a great seasonal variation in temperature. Soil texture of the experimental site is dominated by
clay loam comprising of 36.2% sand, 25.0% silt and 38.8% clay with pH of 5.25 and salinity 0.029
dS/m. Average values for field capacity, bulk density and permanent wilting point are 23.4%, 1.53
gm/cc and 12% respectively.

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 Okra was sown on raised beds,after primary tillage operations and mixing of FYM, at a
spacing 120cm with the bed width of 75cm for drip irrigated treatments and beds were covered with
silver-black plastic mulch (25 m) with the holes for sowing at required spacing as per the crop
spacing treatment. Drip irrigation system was installed prior to plastic mulch installation with inline
lateral spacing of 120cm (at the centre of each bed) and dripper (4LPH) spacing of 50cm to ensure
the wetting of entire bed. Ridges and furrows were prepared for furrow irrigation system at 60cm
spacing resembling the farmers practice and the seeds were sown on ridges at a spacing of 60cm x
30cm. Net study area was 6590m2 with natural slope below 1% and uniform soil texture. Okra
cultivar namely Varsha Upahar was selected andexperiment was fitted in split plot design and three
replications with following treatments.
Treatment details
A) Main plot treatments: Irrigation levels and crop spacing
I1 – Irrigation @ 100%ETcrop through drip with crop spacing 120cm-45cm x 45cm
I2 – Irrigation @ 100%ETcrop through drip with crop spacing 120cm-45cm x 30cm
I3 – Irrigation @ 100%ETcrop through drip with crop spacing 120cm-45cm x 15cm
I4 – Irrigation @ 80%ETcrop through drip with crop spacing 120cm-45cm x 45cm
I5 – Irrigation @ 80%ETcrop through drip with crop spacing 120cm-45cm x 30cm
I6 – Irrigation @ 80%ETcrop through drip with crop spacing 120cm-45cm x 15cm
I7 – Irrigation @ 60%ETcrop through drip with crop spacing 120cm-45cm x 45cm
I8 –Irrigation @ 60%ETcropthrough drip with crop spacing 120cm-45cm x 30cm
I9 – Irrigation @ 60%ETcrop through drip with crop spacing 120cm-45cm x 15cm
B) Sub plot treatments : Fertilizer application method
F1 – Straight fertilizer application at 100%RDF
F2 - Application through briquette supplemented with straight fertilizer at 100%RDF
F3 - Fertigation at 100% RDF
C. Control :Farmers’ practice: Irrigation through furrow method @ 50mm depth at an interval of7
days
Plant population in 120cm-45cmx45cm spacing treatment was maintained as 37,850
plants/ha; 55,270 plants/ha in 120cm-45cmx30cm spacing; 1,10,550 plants/ha in 120cm-45cmx15cm
spacing and 55,000 plants/ha in furrow irrigation method with crop spacing of 60cm x 30cm.
Both furrow and drip irrigation treatment plots were irrigated to moisten the soil up to field
capacity prior to the sowing each year. The crop was sown during second to third week of December
each year. Irrigation and fertilization treatments were incorporated after 10 days of crop sowing
when the crop was set. Fertilization was done as per the treatments to ensure 100% RDF
(100:50:50::N:P:K) dose to the crop. Full dose of P and K along with half dose of N was applied to
crop under treatment F1 as basal dose and while remaining half dose of N was applied at 45 DAS as
top dressing. Urea, single super phosphate (SSP) and muriate of potash (MOP) was applied as N, P
and K sources as per their content. Fertilizers under treatment F2were applied through neem quoted
brequettes with N, P and K content as 34:14:06in three splits (basal dose, at 30DAS and 45DAS).
Required amount of briquettes were calculated and remaining P and K were applied through SSP and
MOP. Fertilizers through fertigation were applied from sowing in seven equal splits of 7 days interval
through drip with the help of venturi. Sources of N, P and K for drip fertigation were water soluble
fertilizer with 19:19:19 content and urea.
Estimation of irrigation requirement and discharge measurement
Meteorological data were collected from Meteorological observatory of AICRP-IWM, CES,
Wakawali. Crop water requirement was calculated by using the following formula (Allen et al., 1998)
= × ... (1)
Where, ETcrop is crop water requirement (mm/day); ETo is reference crop evapotranspiration
(mm/day) and Kc is crop coefficient. Crop water requirement (ETcrop) was computed by using the crop
growth stage-wise crop coefficient values suggested by Odofinet al. (2011).

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 Reference crop evapotranspiration ETo was calculated using to Penmann-Monteith, as
suggested by Allen et al.(1998).
. ∆( )  ( )
= ... (2)
∆ ( . )
Where, ETo is reference crop evapotranspiration (mm/day); Rn is net radiation at crop surface
(MJ/m2/day), G is soil heat flux (MJ/m2/day); T is daily mean air temperature at 2m height (oC); (es-ea)
is vapour pressure deficit (KPa); u2 is wind speed at 2m height (m/s);  is slope of vapour pressure
curve (KPa/ oC);  is psychometric constant (KPa/ oC).
Volume of water to be delivered to crop through drip method was determined by
considering the bed length and width as well as the system efficiency. Daily water application was
done through drip irrigation. Fixed amount of water (50mm) was applied to crop under furrow
irrigation as per the irrigation schedule i.e. at an interval of 7 days.
For the determination of the uniform distribution of water application in drip system, the
discharge (q) was measured at chosen emitters at head, mid and tail end of the lateral in each
treatment, volumetrically using catch cans and a stop watch. The operating pressure was maintained
at 1 to 1.25kg/cm2. These observations were taken before laying of plastic mulch each year. The
uniformity was determined by measuring emitter flow rates by measuring the volume of water filled
in a catch can in 20 minutes. Altogether 81 measurements were taken from nine plots. Observations
were repeated for three years.
Various coefficients of uniformity have been developed over the past decades (Al-Ghobari,
2006). The evaluations of water application uniformity in this study were calculated with the
following methods. First, the uniformity of water applied from the drip system using discharge
measurement data from emitters and following equations were used to evaluate the drip irrigation
system.
Christiansen uniformity coefficient: Christiansen’s uniformity coefficient (CUC) is the most
commonly used statistical method for evaluating sprinkler system uniformity (Warrick, 1983).
Christiansen’s uniformity is defined as
∑ | |
= 100 1 − ∑
... (3)
Where, CUC is uniformity coefficient in per cent, n is number of discharge measurements from each
emitter, Xi is measured emitter discharge rate (lph) and is mean of discharge rate (lph) (Christiansen,
1942).
Distribution efficiency: Merriam and Keller (1978) suggested a new parameter as distribution
uniformity. Distribution uniformity is expressed as a percentage, and is a relative index of the
variability between emitters in an irrigation block. Distribution uniformity is defined as the ratio of
average discharge of 25% (lowest one-quarter) of measured emitter discharge to the average
discharge of all sampled emitters.
Wilcox-Swailes uniformity coefficient: Wilcox and Swailes, 1947, used the same method used by
Christiansen (1942), except that they used squares of the deviations from the mean instead of the
deviations themselves. The uniformity of sprinkler irrigation can also be described using common
statistical parameters such as coefficient of variation (Vy) of the depth of irrigation water, Xi (Wilcox
and Swailes, 1947). Their proposed equation is as follows

= 100 1 − = 100 1 − ... (4)
µ
Where, UCW is statistical uniformity coefficient as a percentage and Vy is coefficient of variation of
the depth of irrigation water, µ, or as the previously defined the standard deviation () over the
meanµ. A similar statistical approach can be developed for drip irrigation systems where the random
variable Xi, the depth of water in sprinkler irrigation is replaced by q so that equation (4) becomes

= 100 1 − = 100 1 − ... (5)
µ
Hawlin Sugar Planter Association – UCH (Hart, 1961): Hart and Reynolds (1965) proposed
distribution efficiency, a value based on numerical integrations of normal distribution function. If the

342
distribution in the field is normal, then the absolute mean deviation from the mean is equal to
2⁄  = 0.798. Hart proposed the following uniformity coefficient.
. 
= 100 1 − ... (6)
µ
The water application, yield and water use efficiency (WUE) under each treatment
werecomputed.The uniformity coefficient was computed using the equations proposed by
Christiansen (1942), Merriam and Keller (1978), Wilcox and Swailes (1947) and Hart (1961). The data
analysis was performed using the multiple regression linear model. The results are discussed in the
following section of the paper.
Results and Discussion
Water application: Mean of crop evapotranspiration during the crop period for all three years was
326.7mm. Total amount of water delivered to crop under treatment I1 to I3 was 340.4mm, treatment
I4 to I6 was 280.3mm and treatment I7 to I9 was 221.5mm, whereas, it was 717 mm under furrow
method (Table 1). Irrigation was skipped to all treatments from 28th February to 9th March 2015 in
the year 2014-15 due to rainfall amounting 95.7mm during 28th February to 3rd March 2015. The
water saving of 52.5%, 60.9% and 69.1% was observed in drip treatments as against furrow method.
Higher water requirement in furrow may be attributed to water losses by evaporation, deep
percolation and runoff. Drip system greatly minimizes the losses by such factors and the results are
in conformity to that by James, 1988.
Table 1.Crop growth stage wise mean crop evapotranspiration and water applied to okra in different
irrigation treatments (2014-15 to 2016-17) and water saving against furrow irrigation
Crop growth Period ETcrop (mm) Total water applied (ha-mm)
stage (days) I1 to I3 I4 to I6 I7 to I9 Furrow
Initial 36 68.1 71.0 65.4 59.8 250
Development 28 75.4 78.5 62.8 47.1 200
Maturity 28 113.0 117.7 94.2 70.6 133
Late maturity 26 70.2 73.2 58.6 43.7 133
Total 116 326.7 340.4 280.3 221.5 717
Water saving against furrow (%) 52.5 60.9 69.1 --

Crop yield and water use efficiency: The pod yield and water use efficiency of okra as an output of
treatments incorporated are presented in Table 2 along with the uniformity coefficient. Results
revealed that the water application to okra through drip influences the pod yield significantly. Fresh
pod yield per ha was significantly highest in the treatment combination I6F3 (16.37 t/ha) i.e. water
application @ 80%ETcrop through drip when okra was sown at spacing of 120-45 x 15cmand fertilized
with drip fertigation followed by the treatment I3F3 (15.26 t/ha) i.e. water application @ 100%ETcrop
through drip when okra was sown at spacing of 120-45 x 15cmand fertilized with drip
fertigation(Table 2), while the yield through traditional way of irrigation and fertilizer application
method (Control) was 8.08 t/ha. Results indicated that additional more irrigation water caused an
increase in the soil moisture level and when compared to the lowest level of water it increased the
growth parameters in expense of pod yield (Anonymous, 2018). Increase in okra yield per ha through
treatment I6F3 could be achieved by 102.6% with water saving of 60.9% over control treatment.The
results also revealed that the yield of okra can be increased by changing crop spacing suitable for drip
irrigation layout, increasing plant population and applying water through drip @ 80% ETcrop and
applying water soluble fertilizers through drip fertigation method.
Water use efficiency (WUE) under each treatment was also determined and is incorporated
in Table 2. The results pointed out that WUE for okra can be achieved as high as 60.32 kg/ha-mm
when it is grown under drip irrigation systemin summer season, sown at a spacing of 120-45 x 15 cm
and nourished with 100% RDF through drip fertigation. The WUE under the control treatment was
very low (11.24 kg/ha-mm).

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Uniformity of water application: The uniformity evaluation results for the water applied by the drip
system during the three years of crop season were determined and are presented in Table 2. Here,
the treatments I1 to I3 represent 100% water replenishment of evapotranspiration, while I4 to I6
represent 80% water replenishment of evapotranspiration and I7 to I9 represent 60% water
replenishment of evapotranspiration. Thus, the comparison of parameters relating to the
performance of drip irrigation system is oriented on water application levels through drip irrigation.
The overall distribution efficiency (DU) of the system ranged from 90.44 to 92.47% among the
incorporated treatments of water application, whereas, overall Christiansen uniformity coefficient
(CUC) of the system ranged between 91.67 to 94.60 per cent, Wilcox and Swailes uniformity (CUW)
of the system ranged between 90.32 and 93.13 percent and Hart uniformity coefficient (CUH) of the
system ranged between 92.27 to 94.52 percent. All the uniformity coefficients ranged either nearing
or above 90 per cent. Thus, the overall performance of drip irrigation system can be categorized as
excellent. The results of this study are in the line with the findings by other researchers (Schulbachet
al., 1999; Camp et al., 1997; Al-Ghobari, 2012; Mistry et al., 2017; Chandra and Singh, 2018). All the
highest values of uniformity coefficients were obtained in either80% or 100% evapotranspiration
replenishment and lowest values were obtained in 60% evapotranspiration replenishment
treatments.
Table 2. Effect of irrigation levels, crop spacing and fertilization methods on yield parameters and
yield of okra crop
Treatments Fresh Water Water use Uniformity Coefficients (%)
Irrigation Fertilization pod applied efficiency (kg/ha- CUC DU UCW UCH
level and method yield (mm) mm)
spacing (t/ha)
F1 6.88 20.21
I1 F2 7.05 20.71 91.61 90.51 90.33 92.29
F3 8.60 25.27
F1 9.72 28.56
I2 F2 8.80 340.4 25.86 94.58 92.81 93.43 94.76
F3 11.53 33.88
F1 12.67 37.23
I3 F2 12.57 36.94 95.94 94.09 95.07 96.07
F3 15.26 44.84
F1 7.68 27.40
I4 F2 7.40 26.40 92.45 90.85 90.68 92.56
F3 9.57 34.14
F1 9.95 35.50
I5 F2 9.39 280.3 33.50 95.30 91.49 94.06 95.26
F3 12.47 44.49
F1 12.71 45.34
I6 F2 12.36 44.10 96.04 94.92 94.66 95.74
F3 16.97 60.32
F1 5.49 24.79
I7 F2 5.65 25.50 90.58 90.22 89.42 91.56
F3 6.83 30.84
F1 7.53 34.00
I8 F2 6.90 212.5 31.15 90.85 90.29 89.72 91.79
F3 8.82 39.82
F1 9.49 42.84
I9 F2 8.78 39.64 93.57 90.81 91.81 93.46
F3 10.60 47.86
CD at 5%
Irrigation & spacing (I) 0.475 --- --- --- --- --- ---
Fertilization method (F) 0.222 --- --- --- --- --- ---
IXF 0.665 --- --- --- --- --- ---
Control 8.06 717 11.24 --- --- --- ---

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Yield as affected by depth of water applied and uniformity: As presented in Table 2, the highest
crop yield of okra was reported in I6F3 (16.97t/ha) followed by I3F3 (15.26t/ha). These results indicate
the effect of drip fertigation and crop spacing also; however, if the yields are compared according to
the applied irrigation depths, the highest yield can be attributed to the 80% replenishment of
evapotranspiration, which is having highest values of DU, CUC, CUW and CUH. Higher values of
uniformity coefficients are also responsible for uniform application of fertilizers to crop directly in the
crop root zone. This also might have increased pod yield under drip fertigation as compared to other
fertilization methods. The lowest pod yields are reported in 60% evapotranspiration replenishment
having the lowest values of all uniformity coefficients. These results clearly indicate that increase in
irrigation uniformity values increases the crop yield, even though, the overall system performance is
categorizedas an excellent.
Crop water production functions based on irrigation depth and uniformity: Water production
functions have been developed for okra crop considering irrigation depth and spatial uniformity of
water application under drip irrigation. Crop water production functions considering irrigation depth
and different uniformity coefficients for okra is presented in Table 3. The multiple regression
equations were also developed for okra crop considering crop yield as dependent variable and depth
of irrigation, plant population/ha and coefficient of uniformity (each coefficient separately) as
independent variable.
Coefficient of variable indicates its influence in the prediction of dependent variable.
Equations in Table 3 indicated that the influence of uniformity coefficient and irrigation depth is
more on yield as compared to the plant population. The important multiple correlation statistics such
as multiple coefficient (Multiple R) and standard error for CUC was obtained as 0.968 and 0.665.On
the similar lines, the multiple coefficient (Multiple R) and standard error values for DU were obtained
as 0.926 and 1.003, for CUW these values were 0.966 and 0.665 and for CUH these were 0.960 and
0.741, respectively.Analysis shows that the considered variables are most correlated to the yield and
all these variables are positively correlated.

Table 3. Crop water production function based on irrigation and uniformity for okra yield
Uniformity coefficient Crop water production function Multiple Standard
R Error
Christiansen Y= 0.00743*DI + 0.000035*PP + 0.723*CUC - 0.968 0.665
Uniformity Coefficient 62.238
(CUC)
Distribution Uniformity Y= 0.0156*DI + 0.000055*PP + 0. 388*DU - 33.895 0.926 1.003
(DU)
Wilcox &Swailes Y= 0.0083*DI + 0.000040*PP + 0.618*CUW - 0.968 0.665
Uniformity Coefficient 52.177
(CUW)
Hart Uniformity Y= 0.0083*DI + 0.000040*PP + 0.774*CUH - 67.82 0.960 0.741
Coefficient (CUH)
Y = Crop yield, t/ha DI = Depth of irrigation, mm
PP = Plant population per ha CUC = Christiansen Uniformity Coefficient, %
DU = Distribution Uniformity, % CUC = Wilcox &Swailes Uniformity Coefficient, %
CUH = Hart Uniformity Coefficient, %

On the similar lines, the water production functions were developed for WUE of okra crop
also considering irrigation depth, crop yield, plant population and spatial uniformity of water
application under drip irrigation and are presented in Table 4. The multiple regression equations
were also developed for WUE of okra crop considering water use efficiency as dependent variable

345
and crop yield, depth of irrigation, plant population/ha and coefficient of uniformity (each coefficient
separately) as independent variable.
Equations in Table 4 indicated that the crop yield was most influencing variable on the water
use efficiency followed by the uniformity coefficient. These two variables influence positively on the
water use efficiency of okra crop and irrigation depth has the negative influence on WUE. The plant
population was the least influencing variable on WUE. The important multiple correlation statistics
such as multiple coefficient (Multiple R) and standard error for CUC was obtained as 0.992 and 1.104.
On the similar lines, the multiple coefficient (Multiple R) and standard error values for DU were
obtained as 0.992 and 1.086, for CUW these values were 0.991 and 1.146 and for CUH these were
0.991 and 1.146, respectively. This shows that the considered variables are most correlated to the
water use efficiency. The crop yield and uniformity were found positively correlated to the water use
efficiency indicating that the uniformity coefficient also plays the key role in achieving more crop
yield per drop of water.
The developed production functions can be used for predicting the crop yield for different
depths of irrigation and uniformity. The results show that the optimum irrigation amount depends
upon irrigation uniformity and on agronomic and economic factors. Mantovani et al. (1995) found
the similar results. For fixed uniformity coefficient, the optimum amount of irrigation amount can be
determined.

Table 4. Crop water production function based on irrigation and uniformity for water use efficiency
of okra
Uniformity coefficient Crop water production function Multiple Standard
R Error
Christiansen WUE = 2.442*Y - 0.0999*DI + 0.000054*PP + 0.992 1.104
Uniformity Coefficient 0.425*CUC - 3.952
(CUC)
Distribution Uniformity WUE = 3.015*Y - 0.0988*DI + 0.000047*PP + 0. 0.992 1.086
(DU) 293*DU + 57.305
Wilcox &Swailes WUE = 2.731*Y - 0.1001*DI + 0.000050*PP + 0.991 1.146
Uniformity Coefficient 0.108*CUW + 23.337
(CUW)
Hart Uniformity WUE = 2.731*Y - 0.1001*DI + 0.000050*PP + 0.991 1.146
Coefficient (CUH) 0.135*CUH – 20.608
WUE = Crop water use efficiency, kg/ha-mm Y = Crop yield, t/ha
DI = Depth of irrigation, mm PP = Plant population per ha
CUC = Christiansen Uniformity Coefficient,% CUW= Wilcox &Swailes Uniformity Coefficient,%
DU = Distribution Uniformity, % CUH = Hart Uniformity Coefficient, %

Conclusions: The field investigation on water application levels, fertilization methods and crop
spacing suitable for drip irrigation system revealed that the fresh pod yield of okra per ha was
significantly highest in the treatment combination I6F3 (16.37 t/ha) i.e. water application @ 80%ETcrop
through drip irrigation when okra was grown in summer season and sown at spacing of 120-45 x
15cmand fertilized with drip fertigation. The results also indicated that the okra yield can be
increased by 102.6% with the water saving of 60.9 per centover furrow irrigation method. The water
use efficiency of okra was also achieved as high as 60.32 kg/ha-mm with this treatment.
The uniformity of water application is the key in evaluation of drip irrigation system. The
performance of the drip irrigation system was evaluated with the different standard uniformity
indicators of drip system. The performance of the drip system under investigation can be categorized
as an excellent as all the uniformity coefficient values were above 90 per cent. The highest pod yield
was reported in 80% and 100% evapotranspiration replenishment, in which the uniformity coefficient

346
values were highest. The results clearly indicated that increase in irrigation uniformity increases crop
yield and water use efficiency. Water production functions were developed for okra crop considering
irrigation depth, plant population and spatial uniformity of water application under drip irrigation.
The developed production functions can be used for predicting crop yield and its water use efficiency
for different depth of irrigation, uniformity and plant population. The derived equations may provide
useful guide to the potential performance of the drip irrigation and drip fertigation.

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Al-Ghobari, H.M. 2006. Effect of maintenance on the performance of sprinkler irrigation systems and
irrigation water conservation. Food Sci. &Agril. Res. Centre, Research Bulletin. 141: 1-16.
Al-Ghobari, H.M. 2012. A comparison of water application uniformity for drip irrigation system above
and below soil surface at various soil depths and scheduling techniques in arid region. Trans.
Ecol. &Envir. 68: 311-321.
Anonymous, 2018. Recommendation proposal on “Effect of water application, crop spacing and
fertilizer application methods to okra in lateritic soils of Konkan region. Recommendation
submitted to Joint Agresco of Maharashtra Agril. Universities, 2018.
Birbal, V.S.; Rathore, N.S.; Nathawat, S.; Bhardwaj, N.D. and Yadav, N.D. 2013.Effect of irrigation
methods and mulching on yield of okra in ber based vegetable production system under arid
region. Bharatiya Krishi AnusandhanPatrika. 28(3): 142-147.
Camp, C.R.; Bauer, B.J. and Busscher, W.J. 1997. A comparison of uniformity measures for drip
irrigation. Trans. ASAE. 40(4): 1013-1020.
Chandra, R. and Singh, P.K. 2018. Evaluation of drip irrigation system for okra crop under Tarai
condition of Uttarakhand, India. Int. J. Curr. Microbio. & Applied Sci. 7(3): 132-139.
Choudhary, S.; Chandra, A. and Yadav, P.K. 2012. Effect of crop geometry on okra
(Abelmoschusesculentus) cultivars under different irrigation levels and mulching. Progressive
Horti. 44(2): 276-280.
Christiansen, J.E. 1942. Irrigation by sprinkling. University of California Agricultural Experiment
Station bulletin No. 670. 124.
Clemmens, A.J. and Solomon, K.H. 1997. Estimation of global irrigation distribution uniformity. J.
Irrig. Drain. Engg. 123(6): 454-461.
Hart, W.E. 1961. Overhead irrigation pattern parameters. Agric. Engg. 42(7): 355-356.
Hart, W.E. and Reynolds, W.N. 1965. Analytical design of sprinkler systems. Trans. of the ASAE. 8: 83-
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James, L.G. 1988. Principles of farm irrigation system design. John Wiley and sons, 4thedi. Published
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Jayapiratha, V.; Thushyanthy, M. and Sivakumar, S. 2010. Performance evaluation of okra under drip
irrigation system. Asian J. Agri. Res. 4(3): 139-147.
Kruger, E., Schmidt, G. and Bruckner, U. 1999. Scheduling strawberry irrigation based upon
tensiometer measurement and climatic water balance model. Scientific Horticulture. 87: 409-
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Letey, J. 1985. Irrigation uniformity as related to optimum crop production – Additional research is
needed. Irrig. Sci. 6(4): 253-263.
Letey,J; Vaux, H.J. and Feinerman, N. 1984. Optimum crop water applications as affected by
uniformity of water infiltration. Agron. J. 76: 435-441.
Mantovani, E.C.; Vilalobus, F.J.; Orgaz, F. and Fereres, E. 1995. Modelling the effects of sprinkler
irrigation uniformity on crop yield. Agric. Water Management. 27: 243-257.
Merriam, J.L. and Keller, J. 1978. Farm irrigation system evaluation: A guide for management.
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Michael, A.M. 1978. Irrigation: Theory and practice. 1st ed. Vikas Publishing house Ltd. New Delhi.
Mishra, J.N.; Paul, J.C. and Pradhan, P.C. 2009. Response of okra to drip irrigation and mulching in
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for different operating pressure. Int. J. Adv. Engg. & Res. Dev. 2: 2344-2348.
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gaps through nutrient and water management. Nature, 490(7419): 254-257.
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Odofin, A.J.; Oladipo, J.A. and Wuya, E.P. 2011. Determination of evapotranspiration and crop
coefficients for bush okra in a sub-humid area of Nigeria. African J. Agric. Res. 6(17): 3949-
3953.
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mulch and non mulch conditions in eastern coastal India. European J. of Sustainable
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greenhouse grown cut flowers. Calif. Agric. 53(2): 44-48.
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Irrig. Sci. 5(3): 161-172.
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mulching and methods of irrigation. J. Tropical Agri. 40: 56-58.
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semi-arid area. Pakistan J. Bio. Sci. 8: 97-103.
Warrick, A.W. 1983. Inter-relationships of irrigation terms. J. Irrig. & Drain. Engg. 109(3): 317-332.
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348
 Optimum utilization of natural resources using chance constrained Goal
programming model to achieve food production target of Upper Krishna
Project (Karnataka)
N.K. Rajeshkumar1 and P. Balakrishnan2,
1
Research Associate, CoAE, UAS, Bangalore,and 2Dean (Rtd.), College of Agricultural Engineering,
University of Agricultural Sciences, Raichur – 584102, Karnataka.
Corresponding Email:rajeshmtechster@gmail.com

Abstract: India is second largest populous country about 18 per cent of the world's population, but
only 4 per cent of the world’s renewable water resources. India is producing around 280 million tons
(MT) of food grain production at present with the target of 333 MT during 2050 to feed growing
population of 1.7 billion. In view of the future population growth doubling the farm production and
income the research work carried on optimization of natural resources to achieve food production
target in upper Krishna project (UKP) under Narayanpura right bank canal command area. Multi
objective goal programming and chance constrained goal programming models used to develop
decision support system (DSS) optimisation models. Results indicates there is significant decrease in
gross crop water requirement by 1.16 times, 2.5 times increase in crop production and 1.37 times
improved net returns with Conjunctive water use goal programming (CWUGP) model. DSS suggested
optimisation cropping pattern, if adopted in the study area can feed around 5947 peoples, which is
2.56 times more population from the study area. This will help scientists, decision makers, policy
planners and researchers to take proper decisions on land, water, crop planning to achieve food
production target for the sustainability of the food security.

Key words: Multi Objective Goal Programming, Decision Support System, Food Security

Introduction: Soil and water in irrigated agriculture have a major role to play in meeting the
country’s escalating needs of food production. Especially it is so, as the scope for expanding the
arable area is rather limited. Out of 329 M ha in India, the total arable land is 159.7 M ha i.e., 50.2
per cent of total geographical area against the corresponding global area of 10.2 per cent. The
demands on the finite land resources are increasing exponentially due to growing population at the
rate of 1.67 per cent for meeting the needs of food, fodder, fuel and fibre and other raw materials. It
has been estimated that India’s population may reach 1.5 billion by about 2035 A.D. The growth of
population has resulted in narrowing down the man to land ratio more unfavorably. The per capita
cultivable land was 0.5 ha in 1951-’52, which declined to 0.14 ha by 2000 A.D and may further come
down to 0.09 ha by 2020. Out of the country's total cultivable area of 141 M ha, about 90 M ha of
agricultural area has already been under different kinds and degrees of degradation. This may further
deteriorate with a risk of jeopardising the country's food security. This demands our focused
attention to develop alternative land use options and identifying the best possible area for a given
crop for sustaining and optimizing the production. It necessitates appropriate interpretation of soil
data base in terms of their suitability for different agricultural or non-agricultural uses to rationalize
land use (Naidu et al., 2006).
Application of mathematical models based on a systems engineering approach would help
achieve optimal returns through enhanced agricultural production and sustain the same in the
command area. Multi-Objective Chance-Constrained Goal Programming model (MOCGP) rainfall is
considered as stochastic parameter and soils, land area, water availability, cropping activities other
production and socioeconomic input parameters are used for Decision Support System-Planning
(Reddy and Reddy,2003; Mustafa et al.,2011; Abdelkader and Amina 2012; Jitendrasingh et al. 2012;
Qureshi et al.,2012; Mirkarimi et al. ,2013; Jaiswal et al.,2014)
349
 Further, appropriate cropping pattern to arrive at planning of optimum utilisation of land
and water resources consistent with the returns on sustainable manner with the assistance of DSS in
two selected lateral command areas of the UKP during 2012-’14. Considering the various issues
discussed above, the present research work was carried out with the following objectives:
1. To conduct inventory of land and water resources and cropping pattern in the command area of
the selected canal system.
2. To suggest suitable measures for improving resource management and efficient cropping pattern
and achieving optimal returns using systems engineering / optimisation approach and working out
the economics.
3. To develop a decision support system for achieving optimal productivity on sustainable basis.

Material and Methods: Methodology for evolving appropriate cropping pattern, land and water
management practices using goal programming models and adopting suitable decision support
system for optimal returns and sustaining the agricultural system in the study area are used. The
study area was located between 16o 16' 52'' to 16o 17' 50''N latitudes and 77o 09' 20'' to 77o 30' 50'' E
longitudes at an altitude ranging from 389 to 410 m above the mean sea level (MSL). The location
details of the study area shown in Fig. 3.1 comes under Gabbur hobli, Devadurga taluk, Raichur
district situated on Raichur-Devadurga state highway (SH-34).

Fig. 1 Location details of the study area coming under NRBC in UKP command area
Multi objective GP and CCGP crop planning models

The present study mainly consisted of surface water use (SWU) and conjunctive water use
(CWU) models and their submodels designed under GP optimisation models. Each model
compared the situations of existing cropping pattern with the improved and optimal cropping
pattern. Stage-I represents the existing cropping pattern (2012-’14), while Stage-2 represents
optimisation with improved cropping pattern. The SWUGP model-1 means optimisation with mean
rainfall situation. The SWU-CCGP70 model-2 means rainfall at 70 per cent probability under the SWU
models category. Similarly, CWU models were named as ‘CWUGP model-3 optimisation with mean
rainfall situation and CWUCCGP70 model-4 means rainfall at 70 per cent probability under the CWU
models category which reflected the forecast (optimised) situation in 70 per cent chance of
occurrence of rainfall. The chance-constraints in these models were formulated for e.g., 70 per cent
(i.e., α = 0.70) of the time, which meant that the probability of violation was at the most 30 per cent

350
(i.e., 1 - α). By considering effective rainfall values at 70 per cent probability levels NCWR and GIR of
different crops grown in the command area were estimated.
n
P [  (ETc + CL +AL) - GIR≤ ER] ≥ 0.70 ….(1)
ijk 1

∀ i =1,..n, j =1,..n; k =1, 2; kharif (m) = 1,2,6,7,10..13,15,17,..19, 21, 22, 24|; rabi (n) = 3r, 4r,
5r|8r, 9r|14r, 16r|20r, 23r|.
where,
P = the probability operator
NCWR = net crop water requirement, ha m
CL = conveyance losses, ha m
AL = application losses, ha m
GIR = gross irrigation requirement, ha m
ER = effective rainfall, mm.
For the study area considering all the reaches, a total of 24 crop activities were considered
in the region, of which 7 activities in kharif season and 9 activities in rabi season and remaining 8
activities for bi (kharif + rabi) seasonal crops..
Essential crop production target constraints : Any crop production planning should be oriented to
meet the food demands and nutritional requirements of the people in a region, especially from the
view point of the national goal of self-sufficiency in food production. That way essential crop
production requirement constraints are social constraints and assume greater importance. According
to food production requirement by IWMI report (Upali, 2005) the per capita food consumption (t) of
major crops is presented in Table 1. It can be stated that, the production of essential crops should be
greater than or equal to the food requirements of the command area and expressed in the following
standard form:
n


ij 1
Yi xijkl ≥ C ∀ i = 1,2,….9; j = 1,…7 ; k =1, 2; l = 1, 2 ….(1)

where,
C = the total production requirement (target) level of crop ‘C’
Y xijkl = production of essential ith crop in jth FIC in season ‘k’ under lateral ‘l’,t.
The constraints associated with the target levels of nine crops are considered under the study.

Estimation of population: According to the population census of Gabbur, 2011, the total population
was 8272 people and the total area of Gabbur was 5392.50 ha. By considering the geographical
boundaries of the study area and the total area of Gabbur, proportionate density of population was
worked out for the areal extent of each reaches falling within the boundary of the command area. By
using the above said data, the population of the study area and crop wise food requirement for that
much population was comparatively worked out with some assumptions

Results of the study: Optimisation model results shows, there is increase in crop area and
percentage increase in cropping intensity (CI) from 174.55 ha (0.04%) to 216.56 ha (19.43 %) and
1.24 times more area can be irrigated according to CWU-GP model when compared to the existing
area of 174.48 ha (Fig. 2). The decision analysis of all the optimisation models revealed that the head
reach was more suitable for vegetables and pigeonpea were more suitable for head reach. For
middle and tail reach rice and chickpea were found to be more suitable during kharif and rabi season
respectively (Bhabagrahi et al., 2006; Mustafa et al., 2011; Abdelkader et al.,2012). However, chilli
crop was found to be bi seasonal crop with some best management practices (BMP). As per the best
fit model, outoff total study area (201.86 ha) the mean gross crop water requirement (GCWR) of rice

351
in head reach during kharif season was 17.17 ha m (Fig. 3) in comparison with the requirement of
66.06 ha m under the existing crop water requirement (Singh et al.,2001; Ranya et al.,2013).

Fig. 2 Existing area compared to results of SW-GP/CCGP and CWU-GP/CCGP Models

Similarly, during rabi season the CWUGP model predicted GCWR of rice crop was 22 ha m
against 24.58 ha m at present due to rice area restriction constraint. The overall decrease in GCWR
varied from 246.08 ha m (-16.63%) to 274.42 ha m (-4.58%) in optimisation models. The model
consideration of vegetable crops brinjal and tomato in head reach also resulted in considerable
reduction in demand of GCWR in SWGP model by 0.86 times in comparison with the present
requirement.

Fig. 3 Gross crop water requirement in existing cropping pattern compared to SW-GP/CCGP and
CWU-GP/CCGP Models

There was decrease in overall cost of cultivation in the study area (201.86 ha) varied from Rs.
98.36 (-1.66%) i.e., 0.98 times less cost of cultivation in SWGP model and Rs. 99.97 lakh (-0.01%) in
CCGP70 model respectively.

352
Fig. 4 Existing cost of cultivation compared to SW-GP/CCGP and CWU-GP/CCGP Models

Whereas, there was a slight increase in cost of cultivation form Rs. 116.98 to 128.01 lakh
(14.53 to 21.90%) in CWUGP and CCGP models when compared with existing cost of cultivation of
Rs.99.98 lakh. This was due to addition of ground water for conjunctive use, which led to higher CI
and also increase in cost of cultivation; but for comparable area of existing extent, the overall cost
incurred for cultivation by the models was less.

Fig. 5 Existing net returns compared to SW-GP/CCGP and CWU-GP/CCGP models

The essential rice production predicted in the study area by the models was low in the range
of 244.38 to 351.29 t in comparison with the existing production of 343.85 t. Similarly, there was
under achievement in production of other cereals in all the models by -7.68 to -9.53 t.

353
Fig. 4.15 Existing food production target compared to SW-GP/CCGP and CWU-GP/CCGP Models

The models showed over achievement of pulses (pigeon pea) production ranging from 2.42
to 34.29 t against under achievement of -1.26 t in the existing conditions. The present oilseed
(groundnut) production was 0.45 t reflecting under achievement compared to models production
predictions by -6.44 to -8.05 t. There was under achievement of vegetables in the existing cropping
pattern by -7.02 t, against over achievement of 356.30 to 706.67 t by the optimisation models.
Present cotton production was 58.02 t, while production by the models was in the range of 9.86 to
13.99 t, thus there was reduction in cotton production after meeting cloth requirement. The overall
essential crop production analysis indicates, the existing cropping pattern can feed the population
volume of 2320 people when compared with the optimisation models it increase from 3893 to 5947
people by using the conjunctive use model (CWUGP) after meeting marketable surplus. Considering
the fact that, optimum use of ground water and surface water conjunctively at mean standard
weekly rainfall in the study area will be successfully make a decision to feed the population of 5947
people with profitable model. The results are in line with the finding of Yi and Liping (2014)
developed a main function of ‘CropIrri model’ was pre-sowing and real-time irrigation management
decision support system, simulation of soil water dynamics in the root zone, evaluation of the effect
of certain irrigation plan on the crop yield and database management. Similar observation of increase
in crop production after optimisation was found by (Dwitikrishna, 2009; Bhabagrahi et al., 2006;
Chaplinsky et al., 2006).
Conclusions: Inventory of soil resources helpful in analysing land capability and suitability classes to
make appropriate crop planning for optimum production to suggest the best suitable crop for
particular reach soil (vegetables for head reach sandy soils and rice and cotton for clay soils) in the
study area. DSS optimisation study there is significant decrease in gross crop water requirement by
1.16 times, 2.5 times increase in crop production and 1.37 times improved net returns with CWUGP
model. DSS suggested optimisation cropping pattern, if adopted in the study area can feed around
5947 peoples, which is 2.56 times more population from the study area
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land suitability for agriculture: Application to durum wheat cultivation in the region of Mleta
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Programme Implementation.

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Bhabagrahi, S., Anil, K. L. and Rohit, K. S., F., 2006, Fuzzy Multi objective and linear programming
based management models for optimal land-water-crop system planning, Water Res.
Mgt. 20(6): 931-948.
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Dwitikrishna, P., 2009, On-farm water management options for increasing irrigation efficiency in
command areas of Orissa. Orissa Rev., p: 51-57.
Jaiswal, R. K., Ghosh, N. C. and Poonam Guru, 2014, MIKE BASIN Based decision support tool for
water sharing and irrigation management in Rangawan Command of India. Advances in
Agric., pp: 1-10.
Jitendrasingh, D. R., Trivedi, S. A., 2012, Managing irrigation canal system with optimum irrigation
scheduling for Watrak irrigation scheme of north Gujarat, India. J. of Engg. Res. and Studies,
3(2): 25-27.
Mirkarimi, S. H., Joolaie, R. and Eshraghi, F., 2013, Application of fuzzy goal programming in cropping
pattern management of selected crops in Mazandaran Province (Case Study Amol Township).
Int. J. of Agric. and Crop Sci., 6 (15): 1062-1067
Mingsheng, F., Jianbo, S and Lixing, Y., 2012, Improving crop productivity and resource use efficiency
to ensure food security and environmental quality in china, J. of experimental
Botany.63:pp.13-24.
Mustafa, A. A., Singh, M. and Sahoo, R. N., 2011, Land suitability analysis for different crops: A multi
criteria decision making approach using remote sensing and GIS. Researcher, 3(12): 61-84.
Naidu, L.G.K.., V. Ramamurthy, O. and Challa, R. H., Krishnan, P. 2006, Manual Soil-Site Suitability
Criteria for Major Crops, National Bureau of oil Survey and Land Use Planning. NBSS & LUP.
Nagpur. Publishers. pp: 1-130.
Qureshi, A. L., Khero, Z. I. and Lashari, B. K., 2012, Optimisation of irrigation water management: A
case study of secondary canal, Sindh, Pakistan. Sixteenth Inter. Water Tech. Conf., IWTC,
Istanbul, Turkey, pp: 1-15.
Ranya, E., Abdul, R., Mohamed, B., Fazel, A. N., 2013, Agriculture land suitability evaluator (ALSE): A
decision and planning support tool for tropical and subtropical crops. Comp. and Elect. in
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Reddy, S. G. H. and Reddy, Y. T., 2003, Efficient use of irrigation water. Kalyani Publishers, Ludhiana,
India. pp: 23-25.
Singh, D. K., Jaiswal, C. S., Reddy, K. S., Singh, R. M. and Bhandarkar, D. M., 2001, Optimal cropping
pattern in a canal command area. Agril. Water Mgt., 50(1): 1-8.
Upali, A. A., 2005, Country policy support program (CPSP), Int. Commission on Irrig. and drain. (ICID),
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355
 Techniques to elevate the rate of Mass Transfer during Osmotic
Dehydration of Fruits and Vegetables
V. Ramya1 and N.K. Jain2
1 2
Ph. D. Scholar, and Professor, Dept. of PFE, CTAE, MPUAT, Udaipur, India
Email: rajramya75@gmail.com

Abstract: Osmotic dehydration is more and more often used during processing of fruits and
vegetables. It is a simultaneous mass transfer process which mainly promotes the flow out of water
molecules from the food to osmo-active solution and some migration of solutes from the solution
into the food. Thus, allows maintaining good organoleptic and functional properties in the finished
product. The rate of mass transfer during osmotic dehydration of plant foods is generally slow
process; the cellular membrane exerts high resistance to transfer and slows down the osmotic
dehydration rate Thus, there has always been a need to develop supplementary techniques to
enhance the mass transfer without adversely affecting the quality. Therefore, the partial damage of
cell membranes using different pre-treatment methods can be advantageous for acceleration of
mass transfers process. This review paper is focused on methods of streamlining the process of
osmotic dehydration which include the use of: blanching, ultrasound, high hydrostatic pressure,
pulsed electric field, vacuum impregnation and ohmic heating. These new combination methods
increase mass transfer and drying rate of fruits and vegetables by increasing the cell membrane
permeability. The operation time in the combined methods is shorter than that in traditional osmotic
dehydration, causing further energy saving.

Keywords: High Hydrostatic Pressure, Osmotic Dehydration, Pulsed Electric Field Ultrasound Vacuum
Impregnation

Introduction: Fruits and vegetables contribute a crucial source of nutrients in daily human diet. India
has been bestowed with wide range of climate and physio-geographical conditions which ensures
availability of most kind of fruits and vegetables. Total vegetable and fruit production in the world
has been estimated 486 Million and 392 Million tons, respectively. India is the second largest
producer of the Fruits (88.977 Million tonnes) and vegetables (162.897 Million tonnes) in the world
(Indian Horticulture Database, 2014). About 30-40 % of total production in developed country is
spoiled due to lack of postharvest handling up to consumption. But in the case of developing country
like India, the postharvest losses noticed close to 50 % of the total fruits and vegetables production
which badly affects the availability of fruits and vegetables to the consumers (Singh et al., 2014).
Many processing techniques can be employed to preserve fruits and vegetables. Drying and
dehydration is one of the most important operations that are widely practiced because of
considerable saving in packaging, storage and reduce shipping weights etc. (Chavan and Amarowicz,
2012).Osmotic dehydration (OD) has received considerable attention in recent years as a pre-drying
treatment in order to reduce energy consumption, improve food quality and speed up the drying
time (Amamiet al., 2008). Although, osmotic process will not give a product of sufficiently low
moisture content to be considered a shelf stable product and therefore, osmosed product needs to
be further dried, through air, vacuum or freeze drying.
Osmotic dehydration aims at extending the shelf-life of fruits and vegetables by removing
water without phase transition. The process is carried out by immersing the raw material in a
hypertonic solution which results in three types of counter mass transfer phenomenon. First, water
outflow from the food tissue to the osmotic solution, second, a solute transfer from the osmotic
solution to the food tissue, third, a leaching out of the food tissue’s own solutes (sugars, organic
acids, minerals, vitamins) into the osmotic solution. The third transfer is quantitatively negligible

356
compared with the first two types of transfer, but essential with regard to the composition of the
product (Akbarianet al., 2014).
Pre-treatment conditions before osmotic dehydration process affect the product inherent
integrity which has an effect on mass transfer process. The driving force for water removal is the
difference in osmotic pressure between the raw material and the hypertonic solution. The complex
cellular structure of the fruit and vegetables acts as a semi-permeable membrane creating an extra
resistance for diffusion of water within the raw material (Fernandes et al., 2008). Good membrane
permeability ultimately will lead to more rapid osmotic dehydration. Unfortunately, the rate of mass
transfer during osmotic dehydration of plant foods is generally slow process; the cellular membrane
exerts high resistance to transfer and slows down the osmotic dehydration rate (Erle and Shubert
2001 and Allaliet al., 2009). Thus, there has always been a need to develop supplementary
techniques to enhance the mass transfer without adversely affecting the quality. Therefore, the
partial damage of cell membranes using different pre-treatment methods can be advantageous for
acceleration of mass transfers process. These techniques include blanching, high hydrostatic pressure
processing, pulsed electric fields, ultrasound treatment, vacuum impregnation and ohmic heating.
Blanching: The blanching treatment using boiling water and steam induce a faster mass transfer,
when they are applied before osmotic dehydration.Longer blanching time increases the permeability
of cell wall leading to increase mass transfer during osmotic dehydration (Gupta et al., 2012).
Poliphenoloxidase present in strawberry tissues causes loss of red color because of deterioration of
antocianines pigments and browning. Therefore, blanching treatments are recommendable before
minimally processing the strawberry in order to preserve its color during shelf-life (Moreno et al.,
2000).
Escobar et al. (2007) investigated the effect of postharvest long-term storage and blanching
pretreatments on the mass transfer rates during osmotic dehydration of carrots. The influence of
long-term storage and blanching pre-treatments on the osmotic dehydration kinetics of carrots was
found. Moreover they inferred that a structural change in the cell wall of the carrot parenchyma
during storage substantially decreases the effect of blanching on the effective diffusion coefficients.
Influence of pretreatment (blanching, freezing) on osmotic dehydration of pumpkin was
analyzed by Kowalskaet al. (2008). Pumpkin cubes (10×10×10 mm) were dehydrated in sucrose,
glucose and starch syrup solutions for 180 min. Both pretreatments before osmotic dehydration of
pumpkin under investigated conditions proved to increase solids gain in comparison with samples
without pretreatment. Blanched and osmo-dehydrated pumpkin was characterized by the highest
water loss but for frozen fruit the highest solids gain was noticed. Results showed that pretreatment
such as blanching and freezing did not have significant influence on the diffusion coefficient for water
and solids.
High hydrostatic pressure: High hydrostatic pressure (HHP) is a non-thermal food processing
technology, where foods are subjected to high pressure, generally in the range of 100-800 MPa at
room temperature. HHP is also reported to enhance drying rate during osmotic dehydration by
making the cells more permeable thereby increasing the rate of mass transfer as well as secondary
metabolite diffusion according to changes in phase transition (Nunez-Mancillaet al., 2011).
Osmotic dehydration under high hydrostatic pressure conditions of strawberries was studied
by Nunez-Mancillaet al. (2013) with the purpose of analyzing the effect of the combined process on
the antioxidant capacity, phenolic compounds, colour and vitamin C. Based on the result, the radical
scavenging activity showed higher antioxidant activity at 400 MPa rather than at low pressure (100,
200 and 300 MPa). The total phenolic content increased with pressure presenting a maximum at 400
MPa. Pressurized samples retained vitamin C content.
Many authors stated that the application of high hydrostatic pressure damages the cell wall
structure which leads to significant changes in the tissue architecture, leaving the cells more
permeable, resulting in increased mass transfer rates during osmotic dehydration (Rastogi and
Niranjan, 2008; Vermaet al., 2014; Nunez-Mancillaet al., 2011 & 2013)

357
Pulsed electric fields: Application of pulsed electric field (PEF) is one of the several emerging non-
thermal methods. The application of sufficiently high electric fields results in pore formation and
breakage of cell membranes. The PEF has been successfully applied to enhance the osmotic
dehydration of different food plants such as carrots, apples, mangos and red bell peppers (Amamiet
al., 2008). The application of PEF to fruits and vegetables undergoes dielectric breakdown causing
disruption of the cell membrane, which improves solute transportation across the membrane during
further processing (Ngadiet al., 2009).
Pulsed electric fields studied by Ade-Omowayeet al. (2001, 2003) seems to be an excellent
option to improve water loss during osmotic dehydration and to reduce solute uptake, which results
in minimal change of product taste. In red bell peppers, membrane permeabilization was augmented
by PEF of 1, 1.5 and 2 kV strength field pulse with a steady pulse number of 20 and pulse duration
400 ± 50 μs was used. Theresult reported that the combined PEF and partial osmotic dehydration in a
solution of sucrose and sodium chloride before air drying offer a good potential in satisfactorily
enhancing mass transfer rates and preserving colour quality of red peppers.Also the authors
observed that after PEF, pore creation and pore development in cell membrane was time dependent
and moreover it is not an instantaneous process.
Castello et al. (2009) studied the effect of vacuum pulse on mechanical properties,
respiration rates and microbial stability of osmo-dehydrated apple slices at 10 °C. Treatments were
carried out until reaching 20 and 30 °B in the samples. Values of the force dependent mechanical
parameters were decreased; small increase was observed when 1 % calcium was applied. These
parameters were better preserved during storage. When sample concentration was 20 °B oxygen
consumption was reduced due to osmotic dehydration. When the sample had 30 °B, CO2 generation
increased. Results showed that dehydrated and vacuum pulsed samples had greater microbial
stability.
Wiktoret al. (2014) analyzed the influence of pulsed electric field pretreatment on the
osmotic dehydration of apple tissue. PEF application before osmotic dehydration significantly
increased water loss. In turn, no significant differences were found in the case of solid gain. The
highest osmotic dehydration efficiency ratio (water loss/solid gain) was noticed for samples treated
by PEF at the electric field strength of 5kV/cm and 10 pulses.
Ultrasound treatments: Acoustic streaming can affect the thickness of boundary layer which exists
between stirred fluid and solid. Cavitation, a phenomenon produced by the sonication, consists of
the formation of bubbles in the liquid which can collapse and generate localized pressure fluctuation.
This ultimately increases the mass transfer of osmotic treatment. The rate of transfer depends on
pressure and frequency of the wave produced by sonication (Raghavan et al., 2005). The action of
acoustic waves (ultrasound) on plant tissue causes a number of contractions, leading to the removal
of water and gives an effect similar to “squeezing” of a sponge. This procedure contributes to the
formation of microscopic canals and improves the capillary flow of osmotic solution to the
intercellular spaces of the dewatered material (Chwastek, 2014).
Numerous works are devoted to studies of the impact of ultrasound before osmo-convection
drying. Oliveira et al., (2011) conducted a drying of Malay apples, which were initially dehydrated in
25°Brix sucrose solution using ultrasound at a frequency of 25 kHz. It has been found that the use of
sonification helped to shorten the drying time by 28.1% compared to the sample dehydrated without
the use of acoustic waves.
Bellary and Rastogi (2012) determinedthe effect of hypotonic and hypertonic solutions on
impregnation of curcuminoids in coconut slices. The highest diffusion coefficient of curcuminoids
(1.78×10−10 m2/s) was found to be in a situation, when curcuminoids were dissolved in 2.5% sodium
chloride solution, which was further enhanced by the application of ultrasound. Ultrasound
treatment resulted in higher moisture and solid mass transfer due to the breaking of cell
structure.HPLC analysis revealed that all the curcuminoids were infused into the coconut matrix.
Nowackaet al. (2014) confirmed in their study that the initial exposure of the kiwi fruit to
ultrasound with frequency of 35 kHz for 30 min causes a mass gain of 45% compared to trials not

358
subject to sonication process. The authors observed a clear change in the structure of tissues, which
was associated with an increase in the average cross-sectional area.
Vacuum impregnation: Vacuum impregnation has been claimed as a very useful tool in food
engineering. When vacuum impregnation is applied at the beginning of osmotic dehydration, the
operation is referred to as pulsed vacuum osmotic dehydration and it consists of the replacement of
the gas phase of the product with osmotic solution, by the action of hydrodynamic mechanisms.
While the product remains immersed in the solution, a vacuum step is applied for a short time,
provoking the expansion and flow out of the gas. The atmospheric pressure is restored afterwards,
the residual gas is compressed and the external liquid flows into the pores as a function of the
compression ratio (Atareset al., 2008). It also allows introducing specific solutes in the tissue which
can play different functions (antioxidants, pH regulators, preservatives, etc.). In this sense, operation
can be use to introduce near the cell membranes protective solutes which can prevent the tissue
structure alteration during dehydration/rehydration processes.
Mujica-Paz et al. (2003) subjected apple, mango and melon to impregnation and osmotic
dehydration at vacuum pressure (VI-VOD). The effect of the vacuum pressure (135–674 mbar) and
concentration of the sucrose solutions (41–60 °Brix) on the mass transfer parameters were
evaluated. The lowest water activity levels in apple and mango were achieved with 50 °Brix syrup and
vacuum pressure of 674 mbar and in melon with 57 °Brix and 593 mbar. Water loss of similar
magnitude was observed in melon and mango, and there was water gain in the case of apple. The
solids gain in apple was higher than in melon and mango. Minimal values of solids gain were
detected in mango, and a maximum solids gain value was observed in apple. Melon and mango
presented weight losses of up to 8.9% while the weight of apple increased. Results indicated that the
impregnation phenomena predominated in the combined VI-VOD process of apple and osmotic
dehydration phenomena in melon and mango.
The effect of solute on osmotic dehydration and rehydration of vacuum impregnated apple
cylinders was studied by Atareset al. (2008). Apple cylinders were vacuum impregnated, osmo-
dehydrated and rehydrated using solutions of glucose, sucrose and trehalose. Water activity for
dehydration solution was 0.96 and rehydration solution was 0.99. Peleg’s equation was used to
model changes in water and solute contents. Better liquid phase retention was showed by sample
treated with trehalose that showed the protecting role of this sugar on cell membrane of apple.
Ohmic heating: In ohmic heating, the food components become the parts of the electric circuit
through which the alternating current flows, generating heat in the foods based on their intrinsic
properties of electrical resistance (Morena et al., 2011). It appears to be an effective method for
enhancement of processes controlled by mass transfers because it affects the integrity of biological
tissue by solubilizing the pectic substances that form the cellular wall and providing electroporation
of the cell membranes. It permits effective and short blanching of food stuff with reduced solute
leaching (Allaliet al., 2009).
The effect of ohmic heating and vacuum impregnation on the osmotic dehydration kinetics
and microstructure of pears was studied by Morena et al. (2011). Dehydrated samples showed that
the application of ohmic heating during the osmotic treatments had significant effects on the kinetics
of water loss and sugar gain as well as on the microstructure of samples. The findings confirmed that,
the application of ohmic heating increased the permeability of cell by accelerating mass transfer their
by decreasing process time as much as 40 %.
Allaliet al. (2010) used vacuum impregnation (VI) and ohmic heating (OH) pre-treatments
with and without addition of citric acid to enhance the mass transfer kinetics during osmotic
dehydration of apple cubes. The VI with citric acid made the OH treatment more homogeneous and
equilibrated the fruit and syrup temperatures. The water loss and sugar gain during OD were
significantly increased when the apple tissue was pretreated with addition of citric acid.The results
are supported by texture analysis and electrical conductivity measurements, which confirm the
important tissue modifications during the VI, OH and OD processes.

359
Conclusion: Osmotic dehydration is one of the most suitable energy saving methods for the partial
removal of water from foods. Application of some pretreatment methods such as blanching, high
pressure, pulsed electric field, ultra-sound, vacuum impregnation and ohmic heating with osmotic
dehydration increases mass transfer and drying rate of foods by making the cell membranes more
permeable. Literature review presented in this paper confirms that the mentioned methods of
preliminary preparation of fruit and vegetables for osmotic dehydration have a significant effect on
the kinetics of the process. The presented treatments accelerate the rate of penetration of osmo-
active substances, as well as the removal of water from the dehydrated material, which can shorten
the time of osmotic dehydration.

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 Augmenting the heat transport competency of aqua-glycol phase change
materials using nanoparticle for dairy cold chain
Ravi Prakash1, Menon Rekha Ravindra2, M Manjunatha3 and Mahesh Kumar G4
1
PhD Research Scholar, Dairy Engineering, SRS, ICAR–NDRI, Bangalore-30
2
Principal Scientist, Dairy Engineering, SRS, ICAR–NDRI, Bangalore-30
3
Associate Professor, College of Agricultural Engineering, UAS, GKVK, Bangalore-65
4
Head, Department of Dairy Engineering, Dairy Science College, Hebbal, Bangalore-24
Email: rdwivedi.prakash@gmail.com

Abstract: Controlling Temperature underneath the safe limit of microbial and chemical
deteriorations play decisive part in preserving quality, safety of milk and milk products at number of
stages such as at farmstead just after production, in Bulk Chilling and Milk-Chilling Units, during
transportation, processing, storage and finally till distribution and consumption. But, the stubborn
breach between call and fund of power in villages of a developing country like India obstructs
perpetuating the temperature within safe limit and thereby, there exist entreaties for boosted heat
transporting phase change materials to tie the assumed void. Thus, to address the problem, nano-
particles dispersed into aqua-glycol eutectics to engineer enhanced heat carrying phase change
materials (EHPCM) for dairy cold chain were examined from the point of production for rapid storage
and discharge of chilling energy. EHPCM engineered in this research were tested under laboratory as
well as field vicinities at small, marginal and individual dairy farmer level to chill and uphold fresh raw
milk temperature from the drawing temperature (37 °C) to below critical temperature. The
experimental outcomes for milk cooling under confined melting of the EHPCM in a small scale at
dairy farm level revealed a rapid temperature drop which significantly well-looked-after the chemical
and microbiological qualities of milk. The EHPCM engineered in this work could be suggested in
dairy/food cold supply chain for maintaining temperature from point of harvest to consumption.

Keywords: nano-particles, eutectic, milk, dairy farmer, quality, safety

Introduction: Augmented heat transfer along with rapid energy loading and unloading help
significantly in almost all the unit operations in milk cold chain from the point of production till
consumption, wherein vastly perishable commodity like milk (an ideal food consisting all necessary
nutrients for microbiological and physico-chemical deteriorations) is involved during yield, collection,
conveyance, processing, storage, finally distribution and consumption. It should be elucidated that
rapid heat transfer not only lessen processing period, work charge, energy obligation, money asset,
magnitude of processing equipment but also conserves the quality, safety as well as sensory
attributes of milk and milk products, whereas instantaneous energy loading play significant role in
spanning the breach between call and fund of power particularly in rural parts in a nation like India.
As far as milk cold chain skilful in evolving nations of the globe are concerned, they are extremely
allied with un-organized, scattered, low to marginal scale producer, stakeholders, processors and
suppliers, which eventually deters the upkeep of milk and milk product temperature within a safe
limit of microbial and chemical deterioration. Therefore, seeing energy crunches in the world in
forthcoming future and maintaining quality and safety of milk and milk products with abridged
investment, development of rapid heat transfer media and prompt energy storage fluids as phase
change material (PCM) were felt critical necessity of the hour. Conventionally, ice, salt-slurries in ice,
aqua-glycol ice/liquid as PCM to store the latent heat of fusion principally and sensible/subcooled
cooling energy partially, were used in milk cold chain for fulfilling the delay between demand and
supply of power, whereas water, glycol, mixture of water and glycol were being used as heat transfer
media in various dairy processing and cold chain equipment. But, emergence of nanotechnology
from last two decades gave birth to new class of heat transfer/storage fluids known as nanofluids [1],
[2] possessing enhanced thermal properties as compared to conventional PCM and heat transfer

362
media mentioned above. The numbers of extraordinary characteristics of nanofluids over
conventional PCM and heat transfer fluids are augmented thermal conductivity, low viscosity as
compared to micro fluids, lower rate of corrosion to the heat transfer surfaces, higher stability of
suspension in dispersed fluids for longer duration, rapid loading and unloading of heat/cold energy of
phase change in terms of latent heat, lower degree of super-cooling during charging of PCM, faster
degree of nucleation and crystal growth, thereby reduced amount of refrigeration and cold chain
maintenance cost [3], [4]. Number of nanoparticles and base-fluid combinations were reported in
revealed scientific literature such as metal oxides (Al2O3, CuO, TiO2, Fe2O3, ZnO etc.,), metals (Fe, Cu,
Al, Ag, Au etc.,), Carbon and its nanotubes (graphene, fullerene, CNT, single-walled CNT, multi-walled
CNT), microencapsulated nano-particles, green nano-fluids etc., into various base fluids such as
distilled water, deionized water, ethylene glycol, propylene glycol, ethanol, salt-slurries, engine oil,
air, glycol-water mixture etc. [5], [6]. Aqua-glycol solutions, especially propylene glycol and ethylene
glycol into water at various concentrations are most widely used cooling media in heat exchangers
such as chillers, bulk coolers, automatic milking machines and other secondary refrigerant based
equipment. Out of all the discussed nanoparticles, metal oxides nanoparticles are relatively more
stable in aqua-glycol solutions even without any stabilization aids such as addition of surfactant etc.,
having lower cost and easy process of manufacturing, easily availed, higher resistance to oxidative
changes [7], [8], [9]. Thus, in this study an attempt was made to address the issue by developing CuO
nanoparticle enhanced nanofluid in aqua-glycol solution for instant chilling of milk with rapid energy
storage capabilities with other anticipated applications such as rapid heat transfer in processing and
upholding temperature of dairy products in milk cold chain. CuO nanoparticles being highly
conducting than other metal oxides were selected for this study for dispersing into Aqua-glycols at
different concentrations to engineer enhanced heat carrying phase change materials (EHPCM) for
milk cold supply chain. The thermal properties of the developed EHPCM such as thermal conductivity
(k), specific heat (Cp) as function of nanoparticle volume concentration, nature of composite base
fluids and temperature (-20 to 40 °C for Cp and 0 to 40 °C for k) were studied and their raw milk
cooling performance were tested in terms of rate of temperature drop and quality conservancy
potential.

Materials and Methods : The selected nanoparticle copper oxide (CuO, 15-22 nm size range, 25-43
m2/g effective surface area) were procured from Alfa Aesar, Johnson Matthey Company, USA. The
Aqua-glycol solutions were prepared by mixing Ethylene Glycol (EG) and Propylene Glycol (PG) into
water at various concentrations and their cooling performances were evaluated to select an
appropriate concentration of water: glycol. Nanomaterials confirming the declaration of supplier
were dispersed into the optimized concentrations of water: glycol followed by two step nano-fluid
preparation technique by mixing and dispersing nanoparticles thriving into the selected base fluids
for about 6-8h by a magnetic stirrer (Model: IKAC-MAG 7) with subsequent ultrasonic liquid
treatment (Make: Grant Instruments (Cambridge) Ltd., Model: XUBA1) for 3-4h to ensure well
dispersion of CuO nanoparticles into the base materials. Thermal conductivities (k) of EHPCM at
various temperatures were measured. One of very important property of EHPCM as energy storage
material, Specific heats (Cp) of EHPCM from -20 to 40 °C was recorded by Differential Scanning
Calorimeter (DSC) (Model: MDSC-Q2000, TA Instruments) with standard protocols to measure
specific heats of liquid samples by DSC were followed as reported by Cabaleiro et al. [7]. Finally, the
milk cooling performance was examined by chilling fresh raw milk in an ordinary insulated milking
pail containing the EHPCM.

Results and Discussion : This section of the paper consists of measured thermal properties of the
engineered EHPCM and their milk cooling performances. Thermal conductivities (k) of the aqua-
glycol with respect to nanoparticle volume fraction and proportion of selected mixture of base fluid
were recorded and are presented in the Figure I. The studies were conducted to determine the effect
of dispersing nanoparticle volume fraction (0.1 and 0.3% each) into distilled water (DW), DW+PG and

363
DW+EG on k value with respect to temperature ranges from 0 to 40 °C. It was revealed that k values
of the EHPCM were significantly affected by temperature and volume fraction of the nanoparticles.
There was continuous increasing trend observed in the value of k for aqua-glycol, DW and EHPCM
rise in temperature. It was finally observed that 0.3% CuO dispersed into DW showed highest
enhancement in k followed by 0.1% CuO in DW as compared to other aqua-glycol mixtures. It was
quite clear from the (Fig. I) that addition of CuO into DW+PG or DW+EG could enhance the value of k,
but the rate of augmentation in k with varying temperature was rapid in case of EHPCM as compared
to other aqua-glycol fluids. The highest enhancement in all the combinations of EHPCM as well as
DW and aqua-glycols was observed at 40 °C. The enhancement in k of EHPCM could be explained in
terms of number of factors affecting the heat propagating rate such as dispersed pattern of
nanoparticles due to intense mixing and ultra-sonication aided with nano-layer formation at the
interface of nanoparticle and liquid adherence on the solid surface apart from minor enhancements
with Brownian motion of nanoparticles into base-fluid matrix, prominent particle-particle
interactions (micro-convection) etc. It was also observed that aqua-glycols solution showed lesser
values of k as compared to DW in isolation as well as with nanoparticles. This could be due to the
inherent nature of the base fluids on k. The heat carrying capacity of the fluids developed were
evaluated in terms of Cp measured by DSC analysis and were presented in Figure II. There were sharp
melting peaks observed in the heat flow curve (Fig. II) which evidences the behaviour of EHPCM
nearly close to a pure substance which possess melts sharp melting point in contrast to the mixture
exhibit range of melting peaks. The heat flow curve was at the higher side above the melting (phase
change transition) temperature while it was towards lower side below the melting, indicating higher
heat carrying capability of EHPCM for cold chain applications. The developed EHPCM were tested for
raw milk cooling from the point of production in an ordinary milking pail. The temperature profile of
fresh raw milk from the point of harvest cooled by the developed EHPCM as compared to DW and
aqua-glycol base fluids was better. The quality analysis of the chilled milk indicated that pH of the
chilled was unchanged as compared to fresh raw milk at the point of harvest, which indicate no
significant development in acidity or any chemical deterioration.

Fig. I Thermal conductivity of nanofluids (CuO nanoparticles 0.1 and 0.3% dispersed in DW,
10%PG+DW, 10%EG+DW mixture) at different temperatures (0-40°C).

364
 Fig. II Specific heat (Cp; heat flow v/s temperature) and melting/solidification profile of nanofluids
(CuO nanoparticles 0.3% each dispersed) in DW; 10% PG+DW, 10% EG+DW analysed through
DSC
Conclusions : In order to augment the heat carrying competence of aqua-glycol phase change
materials, CuO nano-particles were disseminated into aqua-glycol eutectics to develop the deficient
of call and fund of cold energy in dairy cold chain by rapid filling and delivery of cooling energy. The
developed EHPCM were found to have enhanced thermal properties as compared to conventional
PCM such as water and other glycols. The EHPCM indicated rapid cooling performance for small scale
milk chilling from the point of production. The experimental data revealed that milk chilling under
contained melting of the EHPCM was quite rapid to preserve quality of milk. The EHPCM engineered
could be suggested in other heat transmission and cold storing applications in dairy/food cold chain
such as during yield, pool, conveyance, processing, storing and finally distribution to maintain the
quality and safety by maintenance of the preferred temperature.

References
[1] Choi, S. (1995). Enhancing thermal conductivity of fluids with nanoparticles in development and
applications of non-newtonian flows. Edt. D.A. Siginer and H.P. Wang, New York: ASME, 99-105.
[2] Choi, S.U.S., Zhang, Z.G., Yu, W., Lockwood, F.E., & Grulke, E .A. (2001). Anomalous thermal
conductivity enhancement in nano-tube suspensions. Applied Physics Letters. 79: 2252–2254.
[3] Kim, P., Shi, L., Majumdar, A., & McEuen, P. L. (2001). Thermal transport measurements of
individual multiwalled nanotubes, Physical Review Letters. 87(21): 215502–1–4.
[4] Das, S. K., Choi, S.U.S., Yu, W. & Pradeep, T. (2007). Conduction heat transfer in nanofluids.
Nanofluids: Science and Technology (Hoboken, NJ: Wiley). doi: 10.1002/9780470180693.
[5] Das, S. K., Putra, N., & Roetzel, W., (2003). Pool boiling characteristics of nano-fluids, International
Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer. 46(5): 851–862.
[6] Das, S. K., Putra, N., Thiesen, P. & Roetzel, W. (2003c). Temperature dependence of thermal
conductivity enhancement for nanofluids. Journal of Heat Transfer. 125: 567-574.
[7] Cabaleiro, D., Gracia-Fernández, C., Legido, J. L., & Lugo, L., (2015). Specific heat of metal oxide
nanofluids at high concentrations for heat transfer. International Journal of Heat and Mass
Transfer. 88:872–79.
[8] Fedele, L., Colla, L., & Bobbo, S. (2012). Viscosity and thermal conductivity measurements of
water-based nanofluids containing titanium oxide nanoparticles. International Journal of
Refrigeration. 35(5):1359–66.
[9] Suganthi, K. S., & Rajan, K. S. (2012). Temperature induced changes in ZnO–water nanofluid: Zeta
potential, size distribution and viscosity profiles. International Journal of Heat and Mass
Transfer. 55:7969–80.

365
 Scope for Entrepreneurship Development at Banana growing catchment
through Package of equipment for rope making from outer Sheath of Banana
pseudostem
Ravindra Naik1, SJK Annamalai2 and K.N. Shiva3
1
Principal Scientist (AS&PE), 2Principal Scientist(Retd), 3Principal Scientist (Hort.),
ICAR- Central Institute of Agricultural Engineering- Regional Centre, TN
Email : naikravindra@gmail.com

Abstract : By virtue of gigantic growth, banana plant produces large amount of biomass, which
accounts for more than two-thirds of the total biomass produced during banana cultivation. It is
estimated that annually 30 million tonnes of biomass is produced through banana cultivation, from
which there is scope to produce 2.2 million tonnes of banana fibre across the country as by - product.
With increasing demand for banana in the Indian and international markets, the area and production
of banana are expected to increase in coming years, thus generating more of pseudostem waste. Out
of the 14-18 sheaths available in a pseudostem of banana, the outermost 4-6 sheaths yield course
fibre, the outer 6-8 sheath give soft lustrous fibre and the rest of the middle sheaths yield very soft
fibres. The quantity of fibre in each sheath depends upon its width and its location in the stem, as
does its quality. Traditional hand spinning or by ratt machines is slow, tedious and labour intensive,
which needs mechanization intervention. Ratting machine needs a lot of space for operation.
Disposal of banana pseudostem is a big challenge and requires huge manpower and money. Package
of equipment has a novelty, where wealth is generated from waste. The package of equipment is
having higher efficiency, higher output and better quality compared to traditional method.
Advantages in terms of higher uniformity of twist, reduced space requirement, reduced human
drudgery and higher output is obtained. Twisted rope is wound in the bobbin enables easy handling
and transportation. CIAE Regional centre, Coimbatore has developed a package of equipment to
mechanize the rope making process in collaboration with ICAR-NRC Banana, Tiruchirapalli, Tamil
Nadu. Capacity of equipment is 15,000 m/day. Twisted rope is used for production of various eco-
friendly materials like bags, window curtains, table mat etc which has huge demand both in local and
international market, thus generating additional revenue to farmers / entrepreneurs / processors. It
is estimated that average of about 5 kg wet or 1.5 kg dried outer sheath is obtained from each plant
from which 70-80 m of 3mm twisted rope is produced. Processed rope fetches about 2.4 lakh m of
banana sheath rope valued at Rs 90,000. Equipment is environmental friendly as burning of banana
pseudostem is reduced, avoiding climatic change, and rise in temperature Package of equipment can
be utilised for entrepreneurship development specially at the Banana growing catchment , thus
enabling value from waste of banana pseudostem for more revenue generation

Key word: Banana pseudostem, Rope Making, Splitting Equipment, Twisting and Winding Equipment,
Entrepreneurship

Introduction: Banana is popularly known as ‘Kalpatharu’ (a plant of all virtues) as each and every part
of the plant can be utilized in many ways for various purposes. It can cater the need of fruit,
vegetable, flower, leaf and fibre industries. India is the largest producer of banana in the world,
contributing about 25 per cent to the global production, producing 30 MT from an area of 8.80 lakh
hectares with a productivity of 34.1 MT/ha.Banana is grown almost in all the states of India. By virtue
of gigantic growth, banana plant produces large amount of biomass. More than two-thirds of the
total biomass produced during banana cultivation consisted of pseudostem, leaves, mid rib, peduncle
and corm. It is estimated that annually 30 million tonnes of biomass is produced through banana
cultivation, from which there is scope to produce 2.2 million tonnes of banana fibre across the
366
country as by-product, which otherwise recycled into soil for enrichment or goes as a waste.
Presently, only outer sheaths of the pseudostem is utilized for extraction of fiber which ultimately
used for making wide array of handicrafts, which otherwise recycled into soil for enrichment or goes
as a waste. Annually, about 1.5 million tons of dry banana fibres can be produced from the outer
sheath of pseudostem. With the increasing demand for banana in both the Indian and International
markets, the acreage and production are expected to increase in the coming years, thus generating
more of the pseudostem biomass waste. Being a rich source of natural fibres, the pseudostem can be
profitably utilized for numerous applications and preparation of various products.

Banana sheath rope making : The outer sheath of banana pseudo stem is found to be very good for
making twisted rope and the rope made by twisting directly the thinly split outer sheath strands
without extracting the fibre from them, has many immediate applications for making bags and other
packaging uses, table and floor mats, window screens etc for which there is heavy demand both in
domestic and overseas markets. The present method used by the cottage industry is completely
manual and labour consuming.

Rope making is one of the most basic skills for converting any linear material into a usable stage.
Rope is a length of fibers, twisted or braided together to improve strength, for pulling and
connecting. It has tensile strength but is too flexible to provide compressive strength. It is practiced
in most of the craft pockets. Ropes can be made by two methods viz., hand spinning and machine
spinning.

Dried banana sheaths are soaked in water for some time and then spliced. Two or more strands of the
spliced material are taken and rolled between the palms. The material is twisted in only one direction
thus obtaining a ‘S-twist’ or a ‘Z-twist’. The usual practice in hand spinning is to roll the sheath into short
length of 40 to 50 cm, giving a clock-wise twist by hands. When a sufficient quantity has been made, two
of these short lengths are taken in hand together and made into rope of two plies by giving a counter
twist, using both palms. When the counter twist reaches near the end of the striking, further pieces of
short lengths kept ready are added one after other, while the counter twist by hand is continued till the
required length of rope for a knot is reached. This is reeled in the form of a hank and a knot is made at the
end. Hand spun rope always has a soft twist.

All varieties of banana trees are abundant in fibres. In fact almost each and every part of the banana
plant gives fibres of various strength, colour and beauty and staple length which can be used for
various purposes. Out of the 14-18 sheaths available in a stem, the outermost 4-6 sheaths yield
course fibre, the outer 6-8 sheath soft lustrous fibre and the rest middle sheath excluding the
innermost 4-6 sheaths yield very soft fibers. In each sheath, there are 3 distinct layers, the outer
layer including the epidermis, contain the bundles of fibres dispersed in a soft tissue matrix. The
middle layer consists of water transporting fibre vascular tissue. And the inner layer consists of soft,
cellular tissue. The quantity of fibre in each sheath depends upon its width and its location in the
stem, as does its quality. In addition to fruit production, huge quantity of biomass (pseudostem,
leaves, suckers etc.) is generated. Presently, this biomass is discarded as waste. In past, some
researchers have successfully demonstrated use of banana pseudostem and leaves for extraction of
fibres on a small scale. In India, the fibres are being used for preparing handicrafts, ropes etc., which
otherwise can be used for making fabrics, home furnishings and good quality papers. The major
problem of non-adoption of fibre extraction technology is low recovery of fibres leading to high
transport cost.The process of banana bark rope making involves a series of unit operations from
extraction of dry bark from banana sheath to making of final product from this natural resource. The
manual process of rope making it is quite un-economical due to its labour intensive and low output

367
characteristics. Hence efficient extraction of banana dry bark rope making can only be possible
through mechanization.

Annually, about 1.5 million tons of dry banana fibres can be produced from the outer sheath of
pseudostem. With the increasing demand for Banana in both the Indian and International markets,
the acreage and production are expected to increase in the coming years, thus generating more of
the pseudostem biomass waste. Being a rich source of natural fibres, the pseudostem can be
profitably utilized for numerous applications and preparation of various products.Currently two types
of materials in banana plant is used for further production: i.e banana outer sheath rope and banana
fibre. From banana rope, the products are easier to develop compared to fibre due to its coarse
nature.

Anon., (1974) carried out an experiment work on rope making with banana plant fibre. It was
concluded that banana fibre can replace certain percentage of Mesta, a cellulosic fibre in the
composition of agricultural ropes. The Mesta or allied fibers thus saved could be more profitably be
used for packaging textiles and other materials fibre yarn makes the cloth brighter, impart better
dyeing properties and can also be bleached. This additional outlet for the products of banana
plantations would benefit the farmer, but a prerequisite for economic use of banana fibre will be a
steady bulk supply, initially at a somewhat lower price than that of the existing comparable fibres. It
was also emphasised that efficient equipment was required for rope making from outer sheath of
banana pseusostem.

Procedure for Outer sheath of banana pseudostem drying and storage : Outer sheath of banana
pseudostem need to be harvested and stored during the harvesting season for the rope production.
Banana pseudostem were collected from the field and the outer layers alone were separated and
dried in sunlight. The dried barks are bundled and stored in dry area for further processing.

Rope making is one of the most basic skills for converting any linear material into a usable stage.
Rope is the longer layer of outer sheath of banana pseudostem, twisted or braided together to
improve strength, for pulling and connecting. It has good tensile strength but is too flexible to
provide compressive strength. Rope making is a simple process and hence practiced in most of the
craft pockets. Ropes can be made by two methods viz, hand spinning and machine spinning.

Rope making by hand : he usual practice in hand spinning is to roll the outer sheath of banana
pseudostem into short length of 400 to 480 mm, giving a clock-wise twist by hands (Fig. 1). When a
sufficient quantity has been made, two of these short lengths are taken in hand together and made
into yarn of two plies by giving a counter twist, using both palms. When the counter twist reaches
near the end of the striking, further pieces of short lengths kept ready are added one after other,
while the counter twist by hand is continued till the required length of rope for a knot is reached.

Rope making by machine /spinning (Ratt machine / charkha) :Banana barks are soaked in water for
sometime (around be 2 mins) and then spliced. Two or more strands of the spliced material are taken
and rolled between the palms. The material is twisted in only one direction thus obtaining a S-twist
or a Z-twist (Fig. 2) . A combination of material is also done for variations.

368
Fig. 1. Rope making by hand Fig. 2. Rope making by ratt machines

Materials and Methods

Preparation of banana pseudostem for rope making process: Three commercial varieties of banana
form Research Field of ICAR National Research Centre for Banana , Tiruchirapalli, Tamil Nadu, India
was utilized for this study.

Dried pseudostem outer sheath

Slight wetting

Removal of pith

Splitting into different strands

Twisting of the strands

Twisted rope

Value added products viz., mats, bags etc

Fig. 3. Process of converting outer sheath of banana pseudostem to value added products
The flow chart of the traditional method practices in the industry is given as Fig 3. The
package of equipment for rope making from outer sheath of banana pseudostem consists of the
following
a) Equipment for Splitting of outer sheath of banana pseudostem for rope making.
b) Equipment for twisting and winding of spitted strands from outer sheath of banana
pseudostem

369
Equipment for Splitting of outer sheath of banana pseudostem for rope making: The details of the
equipment is given in Fig. 4The equipment contains a pair of rotating nylon rollers. On the first nylon
roller, circular straight cutting blades made of HSS are embedded. The second roller has the grooves
on the surface of the rollers such that the blades embedded on the first roller exactly fit into the
grooves of the second roller. The first roller is mounted on a shaft rotated at a preset speed by a 0.5
hp variable speed motor. The outer sheath of banana pseudostem is fed in between the two rotating
rollers, rotating at 150 rpm. As the outer sheath passes between the two rollers, the sheath is split
into various strands. The rollers are to be changed for different width of strands of sheath required
viz., 2mm, 3mm and 4mm. Based on the requirement of the size of the strands the dies can be
changed

Fig. 4. Isometric Equipment for Splitting of outer sheath of banana pseudostem

for rope making.

Equipment for twisting and winding of spitted strands from outer sheath of banana pseudostem:
The details of the equipment is given in Fig. 5. The equipment contains a mechanism for twisting and
another mechanism for winding the twisted strands on four bobbins through a bobbin building
mechanism. Provision is made to vary the number of twists with the help of speed control
mechanism, based on the requirement of the end product. The speed control mechanism varies the
feed inlet into the twisting and winding mechanism, thereby varying the twist coming on the splitted
strands. The variable speed drive comprises possibility of controlling the frequency from 1 to 100
and provision for run, stop, forward and reverse. This comprises of a spring loaded
mechanism/holder which aids to hold the splitted banana outer sheath strand to be twisted. Based
on the number of twists to be given to the rope , the speed of rotation of the shaft can be regulated
at a given spring load tension. By the combination effect of rotation shaft of the twisting
mechanism and winding mechanism , the number of twists on the rope can be controlled/ regulated
as per the requirement of the value added product to be made.

370
 Fig. 5. Isometric view of Equipment for twisting and winding of spitted strands
from outer sheath of banana pseudostem

Work out the cost economics :The total cost of the package of equipment of rope making from outer
sheath of banana pseudostem was calculated. The fixed and variable costs for operating the
machine per hour were calculated as per the procedure enumerated by Regional Network for
Agricultural Machinery (RNAM) test code (Anon., 1983). The cost of operation per hour was also
worked out. The performance was compared with conventional method of rope making in terms of
saving in cost and time was worked out . The break-even point and payback period of the harvester
were also worked out.

Results and Discussion

Equipment for Splitting of outer sheath of banana pseudostem for rope making: The details of the
splitting equipment is given in section 2.2 . The equipment Fig. 6 was evaluated for different size of
rope and detailed in Fig. 7. The soft inner portion of the banana pseudostem sheath was peeled out
before feeding the same into the splitting equipment. The sheath was soaked in the water for 10-15
minutes so that the moisture content of the sheath was around 30-35% ( w.b) ( Anon., 2016).

Fig. 6. Equipment for Splitting of outer Fig. 7. Evaluation of splitting of outer sheath of
sheath of banana pseudostem for rope banana pseudostem for rope making
making

371
 Equipment for twisting and winding of spitted strands from outer sheath of banana pseudostem:
The details of the splitting equipment is given in section 2.3 and given as Fig. 7 . The splitted strands
of outer sheath of banana pseudostem was fed into the equipment at a preset speed depending of
the size of the splitted strands fed and also based on the number of twits required ( Anon 2016). The
equipment was evaluated for different size of rope is depicted as Fig. 8.

Fig. 8. Equipment for twisting and winding Fig. 9. Evaluation of the Equipment for twisting
of spitted strands from outer sheath of and winding of spitted strands from outer
banana pseudostem sheath of banana pseudostem

Standarization of the speed of operation of the drawing mechanism Long term trials were: taken
up to standardise the speed of operation of drawing mechanism . The average twists obtained on
the rope in traditional method is 160-190/m The details of the long term trials is given in Table 1..
The details of the speed count on the speed regulator, feed inlet, time , length, twist /m and twist/h
is given in Table 2.

Table 1: Optimization of speed of drawing mechanism in the mechanism for

twisting and winding of the equipment

Speed Feed inlet , Twist per meter Length,

Count m/min m/ h
10 1 393 55.00
15 1.5 314 90.00
20 2.0 236 122.40
25 3.0 196 170.40
30 3.5 157 213.00
35 4.0 144 236.40
40 5.0 124 277.80
45 5.5 116 331.20
50 6.5 102 396.00

372
From Table 1, it is observed that as the feed inlet increases the number of twist per meter reduces.
The twist per meter decreased from 393 to 102 with the increase in feed inlet from 1 to 6.5 m/min.
The corresponding increase in output of the twisted rope was 55 to 396 m/h. The target was to get
the twist which is obtained by manual twisting which was about 160 – 190/m . The same could be
obtained at the feed inlet of about 3-3.5m/min.

The samples of twisted rope by using the Equipment for twisting and winding of spitted strands from
outer sheath of banana pseudostem of size 2mm and 5mm thickness is given in Fig. 10a ad 10b. It is
estimated that on an average about 5 kg wet or 1.5 kg dried outer sheath can be obtained from each
plant from which 70 to 80 m of 3mm twisted rope can be produced. From one ha about 2.4 lakh m of
banana rope can be twisted valued as 1 lakh per ha

a) 2mm thickness b) 5mm thickness

Fig. 10a and 10b. Production of rope from Equipment for twisting and winding of spitted strands from
outer sheath of banana pseudostem

Further it was observed that the developed equipment has got following advantages over manual
method of twisting and winding in terms of the following parameters

a) More uniform twist

b) Lower space requirement
c) Need not depend on skilled labour
d) Can work continuously
e) Higher output than manual method
The large scale evaluation of the package of equipment was taken up at M/s Rope
Production centre, Melakkal Madurai, Tamil Nadu, India ( Fig. 11)

Fig. 11. Large scale evaluation of the Equipment for twisting and winding of spitted strands
from outer sheath of banana pseudostem
373
To work out the cost economics of the developed technology: The fixed and variable costs for
operating the machine per hour were calculated as per the procedure enumerated by Regional
Network for Agricultural Machinery (RNAM) test code (Anon., 1983).

Table 2: Cost economics of package of equipment for rope making from outer sheath of Banana
pseudostem
Splitter Twisting cum winding
Cost of the machine, Rs. 20,000 90,000
Daily use, h 8 8
No of working days in a month 20 20
No of working days in a year 240 240
No of working hours in a year 1920 1920
Life of the machine, years 7 7

Table 2a: Details of Fixed Cost of package of equipment for rope making from outer sheath of
Banana pseudostem
Particulars Splitting equipment Twisting cum winding equipment
Annual Cost Cost/h Annual Cost Cost/h
Salvage value@ 10% of 2000 9000
initial cost, Rs.
Depreciation, Rs. 2570 1.35 11570 6.00
Interest @ 15%, Rs. 1650 0.85 7425 3.85
Taxes 1% of purchase 200 0.1 900 0.45
price - Rs.
Insurance 1% of 200 0.1 900 0.45
Average price - Rs.
Repair and 1600 0.85 7200 3.75
Maintenance 8% of
initial cost, Rs.
Fixed cost, Rs. 6220 3.25 27995 14.5
Total fixed cost, Rs. 34215 17.75

Table 2b : Details of Operating Cost for package of equipment for rope making from outer sheath of
banana pseudostem
Splitting equipment Twisting cum winding equipment
Operator wages Rs. Annual Cost Cost/unit Annual Cost Cost/unit
Power of the prime 0.5 hp 0.25 + 0.25 = 0.5
mover 1hp
Power used: 1920 1920
Total no of hours /year
Power required to 0.375 0.375
operate the prime
mover, units / h
Power used, units/ year 720 720
Cost of power 4320 2.25 4320 2.25
consumption @ Rs6.0 /
unit
Labours Required One Five

374
Labour wages, Rs 250 250 * 5 = 1250
Total working Days 240 240
Labour wages/year 60000 31.25 300000 156.25
Housing @ 1500/month 750 750
Housing Rs/year 9000 4.70 9000 4.70
Operating cost, Rs 73320 38.20 313320 163.20
Total operating cost, Rs. 386640 201.40

Total cost/ year = Total fixed cost/year + total operating cost/ year = Rs 4,20,855
Total cost/h = Total fixed cost/h + total operating cost = Rs 219.15

Quantity of rope twisted @ 1800m / h capacity =34,56,000 m/year

a) Cost of rope splitting by conventional method
i. Quantity of rope twisting by labour in one day = 1000m
ii. Wages per woman day= Rs.250
iii. To process 34,56,000 m, we need = (34,56,000/1000) = 3456 women days

b) Cost of rope twisting and winding by conventional method

i. Quantity of rope twisting by labour in one day = 500m
ii. Wages per woman day= Rs.250
iii. To process 34,56,000 m, we need = (34,56,000/500) = 6912 women days

Total labour cost for manual splitting, twisting and winding by conventional method @ Rs 250/day is
Rs. 17,31,450. Percentage saving in cost is about 75.69 %
Percentage saving in labour with the assumption that manual methods of splitting is 1000
m/day /person and machine is 5000m/day. Similarly for twisting and winding manual method is
about 600m/day/person and by equipment it is about 3750 m/day/person. The saving in labour
works out to be about 84 per cent.

Conclusions: Value addition from outer sheath of banana pseudostem through rope making is a
successful approach keeping in mind wealth from waste approach. Ropes from outer sheath of
banana pseudostem is in high demand for different applications but has not been very successful as
it made labour intensive with the present method. A package of equipment developed by ICAR
Central Institute of Agricultural Engineering, India in Collaboration with ICAR National Research
Centre for Banana, India, which obviated the draw back of Hand spinning and Ratting machine The
package of equipment consists of equipment for splitting the outer sheath of banana pseudostem
and equipment for twisting and winding of splitted strands from outer sheath of banana
pseudostem. The cost of rope making by traditional method is Rs 0.20/m whereas my mechanization
the cost of the production is less than Rs 0.20/m apart from other advantages like uniformity in
twist, lower space requirement, non dependence on skilled labour and higher out put. The
percentage saving of cost and labour is 76 and 84 % respectively. The package of equipment can be
adopted by the village youth at the banana production catchment , thus generating additional
revenue of up to Rs 1 lakh per hectare by production of 2.4 lakh m of banana sheath rope. thus
enabling value from waste of banana pseudostem for more revenue generation

Acknowledgement : The authors are thankful to M/s Rope production centre, 3/43, Main Road ,
Melakkal village, Madurai – 625 324 Tamil Nadu for assisting in carrying out long term trials of the
Banana pseudostem outer sheath splitting and twisting equipment for rope production.

375
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 Biodegradable Films from Modified Cassava Starch-Nano Clay Composites
Sajeev M.S., Jyothi A.N. and T. Krishnakumar
ICAR-Central Tuber Crops Research Institute
Sreekariyam, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala-695 017, INDIA
Email : ms_sajeev@rediffmail.com

Abstract: Cassava or tapioca (Manihot esculenta Crantz) is a starchy tuber crop and are widely used
for food, feed and industrial purposes. Cassava starch forms an important ingredient for the
development of biopolymer based environment friendly packaging materials mainly due to their
renewability, abundance, low cost, film forming properties, bland taste and colour, low solubility,
biodegradability etc. However, the hygroscopicity and poor mechanical properties of the native
starch based film necessitated the exploration of modified starch based composites for the
production of films with improved physico-mechanical and functional properties. Modified starches
have altered viscosity, better viscosity stability, higher gel strength, improved film forming capacity,
clarity, lower retrogradation tendency and higher tack. This paper describes the development of
biodegradable film by solution casting methods using the chemically (etherification, and cross
linking) modified cassava starch and from the composites containing various nano clays
(nanocalibre 100SD and nanocalibre 100A). The physico-mechanical, hygroscopic and functional
properties of the films were studied. The tensile force of the films made from crosslinked starch
(21.47 N) was higher than that of native starch film (13.97 N). Maximum stretchable film was
obtained from starch modified with propylene oxide. The hygroscopicity ranged from 24.1 to 32.3%
compared to 42.2% for native starch based film. There was not much changes in the whiteness
index, total colour change, thickness and moisture content of the films. The water solubility was
found to be lower for the modified starch based film. Hydroxypropylated starch-nanocalibre 100A
based film had maximum whiteness index (35.80) and tensile force (4.14N) with minimum total
colour change (62.25%), swelling power (6.8g/g) and solubility (19.6%) whereas for the films from the
cross linked starch, maximum whiteness index (56.56), tensile force (8.27N) and elongation at break
(73.60%) and minimum total colour change (59.66%) and solubility (11.82%) was obtained by adding
nanocalibre100A. Addition of nano clays increased the hydrophobicity of the films as indicated by the
lower value of hygroscopicity (0.09g/g) of cross linked starch-nanocalibre100A The results inferred
that modified starches help to improve the mechanical and hydrophobic properties of the films.

Introduction: Tuber crops, being an important sources of starch after cereals, used as staple or
supplementary food in many of the tropical and sub tropical countries. Being the crops with
adaptability to wide range of soils, climates and environment of the tropics and sub tropics and
requiring minimum agronomic input and care for growth, they can be very well fitted into the
cropping system prevailing in our country. Cassava and sweet potato are the most important among
the tuber crops and other tubers are grown as vegetable crops in home stead or semi commercial
scale. Tuber crops though branded as poor man’s crops in rural areas have considerable unrealized
potential for processing into high end products for food, feed and industrial uses. Agro-industrial
transformation of these crops by linking improved production and processing technologies,
marketing techniques and institutional innovation in processing technologies ensure food security,
rural employment and adequate remuneration to the producers. Better post harvest management
and diversification for the production of value added products for home, farm and industrial front
are the only choice to elevate the status of these crops from subsistence level to a commercial
commodity.
Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz.) is the richest source of starch (20-40%) among the
root and tuber crops and cassava starch with its unique physico-chemical and functional properties,

377
finds wide applications in food, paper, textile, adhesives etc. (Moorthy, 2001). The global cassava
production in the year 2016 amounts to be 277.10 million tonnes from an area of 23.48 million
hactres. India has a leading position in global cassava scenario with high productivity level of 22.32
tonnes per hactre whereas the world average recorded only 11.80 tonnes per hactre (FAO, 2018).
Being highly perishable in nature, cassava tubers cannot be stored for more than 2-3 days after
harvest. Hence to avoid heavy post harvest losses, it is necessary to process them immediately to
starch and flour.
Starch forms an important ingredient for the development of biopolymer based environment
friendly packaging materials to replace synthetic non-degradable materials mainly due to their
renewability, abundance, low cost, film forming properties, bland taste and colour, low solubility,
biodegradability etc (Guohua et al., 2006; Yun et al., 2008; Almasi et al., 2010; Chivrac et al., 2010,
Garcia et al., 2011). Starch films can be made from the native starch or its components, amylose and
amylopectin, by various techniques such as thermoplastic processing and solution casting. Several
studies have been carried out on the film forming properties of tropical tuber starches (Chang et al.,
2000; Mali et al., 2002; Mali et al., 2003; Mali et al., 2005a; Mali et al., 2005b; Bangyekan et al.,
2006; Flores et al.,2007; Fama et al., 2007; Ezeoha and Ezenwanne, 2013,). However, native starch
has severe limitations because of its high solubility and poor water-resistance, making starch
products very sensitive to the relative humidity at which they are stored and used. Extensive works
have been conducted to improve the mechanical and hydrophobic properties of the native starch
based biodegradable films. Films with improved physico-mechanical and functional properties can
be obtained from cassava starch added with different plasticisers, hydrocolloids, cross linking agents
etc. (Alves et al., 2007; Cereda et al., 1995; Parra et al., 2004; Mali et al., 2005b; Marques et al., 2006;
Alves et al., 2007; Santos et al., 2007; Muller et al., 2007; Muller et al., 2008; Rachtanapun et al.,
2012; Pillai et al., 2013; Maran et al., 2013).
Starches can be modified by physical, chemical and enzymatic methods to customise the starch
properties. Physically modified starches include pre-gelatinised starches, heat moisture treated and
annealed starches. Chemically modified starches include cross-linked starch, oxidized starch, starch
succinate, octenyl succinate starch, starch citrate, starch phosphate, hydroxypropylated starch etc.
(Jyothi and Sajeev, 2017). The addition of modified starches in the preparation of bio composites
definitely improve the physico-mechanical and water resistance of the biodegradable packaging
material. Extensive works had been carried out on the use of modified starches for the preparation
of biodegradable films (Donhowe and Fennem, 1993; Aravanitoyannis et al., 1998; Fanta et al., 2002;
Guohua et al., 2006; Averous and Boquillan, 2004; Fang et al., 2005; Ghanbarzadeh, 2010; Abdorreza
et al., 2011, Sajeev et al., 2013 and Pillai et al., 2013, Edwin, 2015, Sajeev et al., 2016). Very little
information is available on the film forming properties of the bio composites containing modified
cassava starch with different nano clays, waxes, proteins etc.. Hence this study describes the
development of biodegradable film from cassava starch modified chemically by etherification,
esterification and double cross linking; enzymatically by liquefaction by α-amylase and debranching
by pullulanase enzymes. Also it describes the physico-mechanical, hygroscopic and functional
properties of the films made from the composites containing modified cassava starch with nano
clays, waxes, protein and keratin.

Materials and Methods: Cassava starch was extracted by employing wet processing method using a
mobile starch extraction plant as described by Sajeev and Balagopalan (2005). The mash obtained
after crushing the tuber with water was passed through an 80 mesh sieve and water was added on to
the sieve to release all starch particle from the mash through the sieve. The starch suspension
obtained was collected in buckets and allowed for gravity settling for overnight. The wet starch,
after decanting the supernatant water was scooped out and sun dried. The dried starch was again
ground in a mixer-grinder and packed in polythene bag for further uses.

378
Chemical modification of starch was carried out by etherification by using propylene oxide
(hydroxypropylation) and cross linked esterification using using epichlorohydrin. Filmogenic
solutions having different composition of modified starch (3, 4 and 5%), clay (0.1, 0.3 and 0.5%) and
glycerol (15, 20 and 25%) were prepared and films were made by casting technique. Filmogenic
solutions were taken in beakers and kept in a shaking boiling water bath for gelatinization for 20
minutes. After gelatinization, it was placed in a water bath at 70⁰C for 30 min to remove the air
bubbles, if any formed during boiling. Cassava starch based films were prepared by casting method
for which the hot suspension at 70⁰C was immediately transferred to a leveled non-stick teflon
coated plate (25x25cm) through a sieve to remove the air bubbles, if any. Care is being taken to
uniformly distribute the solution on the plate. After drying the films at 40°C in film dryer, the films
were peeled off from the plate and used for physic-mechanical characterization.
The film moisture content was determined gravimetrically by drying small strips of film in a hot air
oven at 110⁰c for 6 h till constant weight (Belibi et al., 2013). The films were conditioned at 50% RH
for about 1 week by keeping over 45% concentrated sulphuric acid solutions taken in a desiccator.
The thickness of the film was measured using the screw gauge of 0.001 mm accuracy. The colour of
the films were analyzed by measuring the colour coordinates ‘L’, ‘a’ and ‘b’ using a
spectrophotometer (CM 2600 D, Konica Minolta, Japan), from which, the total colour difference and
whiteness index were calculated using standard equations. Mechanical properties viz., tensile force
and elongation at break of the film (10 mm wide and 100mm long) was measured using food texture
analyzer (TA HDi, Stable microsystems, Surrey, U.K) .
Solubility is defined as the % of film dry mater solubilized after 24h of immersion in distilled water
and is calculated by the method described by Gontardetal. (1992). The weight of the water absorbed
during swelling of the films (swollen film) with respect to initial weight of the film is termed as
swelling power. Final dry weight of undissolved film was determined by drying again in an oven at
110⁰C for 6h. The % of total soluble matter (% solubility) was determined as ratio of the difference
between initial and final dry weight of the films to initial dry weight. Hygroscopic or sorbtion
isotherms properties of the films were studied by placing the film pieces in different humidity
environments in desiccators containing saturated salt solutions of LiCl (11%), CH3COOK (22.5%),
K2CO3(43.16%), Mg(NO)3 (53%), NaNO2 (65%), NaCl (75%), KCl (85%) and Na2SO4 (95%). The amount
of water absorbed was calculated on each day and the hygroscopic properties as percentage water
absorbed were measured when there is no difference between consecutive readings.

Results and Discussions

Hydroxypropylated starch-nanocalibre 100SD composites
The moisture content of the film was highest (18.75%) for 3% starch with 0.1% clay and 20% glycerol
and least (11.87%) for 4% starch with 0.5% clay and 20% glycerol. Thickness of the film was strongly
influenced by the starch content and it was linearly increased with increase in starch content and the
values ranged from 0.089 to 0.132mm. The total colour change of the film was found to increase
linearly with the starch content and clay had positive and glycerol had negative quadratic effect and
whiteness index values were just reverse of the total colour changes. The whiteness index values
ranged from 20.49 to 35.50 and the total colour difference from 63.33 to 79.49%. The swelling
power decreased linearly with increase in starch content and had no significant effect with clay and
glycerol content. Solubility of the films had positive quadratic effect with the increase in starch and
glycerol whereas clay had negative quadratic effect. Maximum tensile force of 3.62 N was obtained
for the film made with 5% starch-0.3% clay-25% glycerol composite where as minimum of 0.64 N for
3% starch-0.1% clay-20% glycerol. Elongation at break was maximum (244%) for 3% starch-0.1% clay-
20% glycerol where as minimum (38.44%) for 4% starch-0.3% clay-20% glycerol composites. In
hygroscopic studies, at 95% relative humidity, films made from 3% starch - 0.5% clay -20% glycerol

379
composite absorbs minimum water (0.183g/g) were as for the 4% starch -0.1% clay-25% glycerol
composite films maximum value of 0.285 g/g was observed.

Hydroxypropylated starch-nanocalibre 100A composite films

The starch content in the composites have apparently high effect on the moisture content of the
film when compared to clay and glycerol. Thickness of the films was highest (0.155 mm) for film with
0.1% clay and 20% glycerol and lowest (0.095mm) with 0.3% clay and 20% glycerol. Whiteness index
was highest (37.19) for 3% starch with 0.5% clay and 20% glycerol and least (32.79) for 3% starch
with 0.5% clay and 25% glycerol. The highest total colour change was 66.65 for film with 3% starch
0.3% clay and 15% glycerol and least (62.24) for 3 % starch with 0.5% clay and 20% glycerol.
Maximum tensile force of 4.14 N was obtained for the film made with 5% starch-0.3% clay-15%
glycerol composite whereas minimum of 1.32 N for 3% starch-0.3% clay-15% and the elongation of
the film was found to be highest for 0.1% clay with 20% glycerol (189.08%) and least for 0.3% clay
with 25% glycerol for films with 5% starch concentration (37.12%). The swelling volume was found to
be decreased with increase in starch and clay content. Solubility of the films decreased linearly with
the increase in starch content. The amount of starch and clay had no effect.

Cross linked starch-Nanocalibre 100 SD/100A composite films

Moisture content of the crosslinked starch-nanocalibre 100SD films increased slightly at the lower
levels of starch and clay and then had a negative quadratic effect whereas glycerol had a just
opposite effect. The moisture content varied from 6.32 to 13.17%. Starch and clay had a positive
quadratic effect on thickness whereas glycerol had both positive and negative effect and the values
ranged form 0.084 to 0.164mm. Tensile force was influenced only by glycerol whereas elongation
had negative quadratic effect with starch and glycerol whereas with clay, it had both positive and
negative effect depending upon the concentration. Maximum value of 6.06N and 47.56% was
obtained for the tensile force and elongation at break rspectively whereas minimum values were
1.87N and 20.24%. Solubility decreased quadratically with starch, clay and glycerol whereas swelling
power linearly increased with glycerol and the values ranged from 20.39 to 37.14%. Total colour
change increased with starch and decreased with glycerol whereas clay had both positive and
neagative quadratic effect. Whiteness index increased linearly with clay and had both positive and
negative effect with starch and glycerol.
Moisture content of the cross linked starch-nanocalibre 100A films increased linearly with starch and
glycerol and clay had no effect and the values ranged from 8.05 to 22.63%. Thickness had negative
quadratic effect with clay, whereas starch and glycerol had negative and positive quadratic effect and
had a maximum value of 0.154mm and minimum of 0.077mm. Mechanical properties were
decreased quadratically at the initial levels and then increased as the concentration of the
ingredients increased. The tensile force ranged from 2.66 to 8.27N and elongation at break ranged
from 20 to 73.6%. Swelling power increased quadratically with glycerol whereas having negative and
positive effect with starch and the value ranged from 3.32 to 5.09g/g. Starch and clay had both
positive and negative quadratic effect on solubility and swelling power. Total colour change
increased linearly with starch whereas glycerol had negative effect on both the colour properties.

Conclusions: Hydroxypropylated starch-nanocalibre 100A film had maximum whiteness index and
tensile force with minimum total colour change, swelling power and solubility. Cross linked starch-
nanocalibre100A films have maximum whiteness index, tensile force and elongation at break and
minimum total colour change and solubility. Hygroscopicity of crosslinked starch-nanocalibre100A
film was minimum with 0.09g/g for 4% starch-0.3% clay-20% glycerol composites.

380
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A study on energy use pattern and performance of biogas plants in Karnataka
Sampath Kumar D.V., Viresh Kumargouda, Babu R.M. Ray and G.V. Mohith Kumar

Regional Biogas Development and Training Center

College of Agril. Engineering, UAS, GKVK-Bengaluru-65
Email : vkgouda@gmail.com

Abstract: The survey of 66 biogas adopters from three district of Karnataka state showed that biogas
adopters continued to use other source of fuels mainly fire wood, crop residues and kerosene which
contributed 13.76, 8.03, and 0.65 percent of total cooking energy consumed respectively. However,
only 55.03 percent of the biogas adopters met 100 percent of their cooking energy from the biogas
and the capacity utilization of biogas plants were only 48 percent.

Introduction: The standard of living any country depends on its per capita energy consumption.
Commercial energy demand for India for the year 2009-10 is projected to 600 million tons of oil
equivalent compared to the 1990 consumption level of 200 million tons of oil equivalent. The share
of petroleum products and natural gas in the total final energy consumption has increased from
about 35% in 1980s to about 54% in 1996-97. India is spending 26% of the export earning to import
65 mtoe oil and 28% of the five year development plan out lay for the period 1992-97 was spent on
commercial energy. Such a large allocation for energy is at the cost of many other aspects of
development. Biomass consumption in rural domestic sector is accounted for 51% of fuel wood, 16%
of crop residue, 21% of dung cake and 12 percent of commercial fuel. Currently biomass energy is
characterized by a low efficiency use and a low quality life due to the drudgery associated with its
gathering and use. Apart from indoor air pollution and serious health consequences, emission of CO2
from fuel wood used for cooking estimated to contribute about 2% of global warming. Hydroelectric
power projects, although a renewable energy option, are not environmentally begun as they may
lead to the submergence of forests and the displacement of communities. Biomass with its modern
from such as liquid and gaseous fuels, electricity and process heat can reduce the India’s energy
related CO2 emission to much lower level. The use of non-conventional energy source could reduce
India’s energy related CO2 emissions by 11.8 percent below the 1988-89 levels by the year 2005-
2006. Considering these significant benefits Government of India had launched National Project on
Biogas Development in the year 1982. Eighth five year plan has allocated 0.8% of total energy plan
outlay to biomass utilization process and half of the allocated fund goes to biogas and achieved 3.00
million family biogas plant. Further, Karnataka has achieved three lakh biogas plants through the
coordinate effort by rural development and Panchayat Raj. Government of Karnataka and Regional
Biogas Development and Training Centre. However, this accountsto only 25%of the countries
potential and energy needed for domestic purposes is not met entirely from biogas. Therefore, the
present study on “Energy Use Pattern and Performance of Biogas Plant in Karnataka” is undertaken.

Material and Methods: Biogas plants were largely commissioned in 3 districts namely Shimoga, Kolar
and Raichur and these districts represents the whole Karnataka having different agro climatic and
food habit zone. Hence, these districts were selected for the study. 15 villages from 4 blocks namely
Sagara, Soraba, Shimoga and Bhadravathi taluk in Shimoga district, 6 villages from chikkaballapur
block in kolar districts, 6 villages from Manvi block in Raichur district were purposively selected.
Totally 66 biogas plant owning families were selected at random and the study was conducted using
presented structured interview schedule. Energy used for cooking from different sources was
calculated using the calorific values as suggested by Chawla (1986).

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Fuel Type Calorific Mode of Thermal Effective heat Replacement value (m3
value Burning Efficiency (K.cal) of biogas equivalent)
(%)
Biogas (M3) 4713 In standard 60 2828 1.00
burner
Fire wood(Kg) 4708 In open chulla 17.3 814 0.288

Crop residue(Kg) 3778 In open chulla 17.3 619 0.219

Kerosene (Lit) 9122 Pressure stove 50 4561 1.613
L.P.G (Kg) 10882 In standard 60 6529 2.309
burner

The percentage of energy from different fuels was calculated by converting them into biogas
equivalent. The capacity utilization of plants and capacity requirement for cooking were calculated
using the following formula.

Biogas generated
Capacity Utilized (%) = ------------------------------ × 100
Size of the plant

Biogas equivalent of the different

Fuel used
Requirement capacity for cooking = ---------------------------------------------------------------- × 100
Size of the plant

Fire wood Crop residue Kerosene LPG

Biogas generated + ------------- + ------------------ + -------------- + -----------
3.474 4.568 0.62 0.433
= ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ × 100
Size of the plant

0.04 × available dung

Potential capacity of dung = ---------------------------------------- × 100
Size of the plant

0.04 is thegas generatedper Kg ofdung (m3/Kg)

Results and Discussion

Fuel consumption pattern of biogas users: The per capita fuel consumption of biogas owned families
from different sources are presented in the table 1a. The results of the table revealed that per capita
biogas consumption for families of Shimoga district was higher compared to other outstretch. This
may be due to well management of biogas plants and good attitude towards biogas. Though
firewood and crop residue together constituted half quantity of that of biogas, the percentage
energy to their cooking energy represented only 25 percent. This is due to low efficiency of the Chula
used by the farmers. Improved chulas have been developed by various organizations (22 %
efficiency). Fire wood and crop residues combined together contributed about 20% of the cooking
energy to the biogas owned families meaning that biogas could not replace other fuel sources
because of cheap and easy access to firewood and crop residues in their farms. However commercial

385
sources of energy like Kerosene and L.P.G could contribute less than 1% of the cooking energy
because of low supply through public distribution network. The total cooking energy consumption
increased from biogas plant owned farmers of Shimoga district to that of Raichur
District 8.345 MJ/person/day to 9.64 MJ/person/day because of increased quantity consumption of
other fuels mainly firewood and crop residues which are characterized by low efficiency. The average
per capita energy for 3 districts found to be 8.881 MJ/person/day which is very low when compared
to the cooking energy consumption by other rural household who used mainly fire wood and crop
residue as their cooking energy as reported by various authors as 24.1 MJ/person/day for Bopal
district (Maheswari, 1981) and 20.8 MJ/per/day for Bhogapurm (A.P) (Bowonder and Ravishankar,
1982). This is because of the high efficiency of biogas burners (60%) which are available in various
sizes as 8,16 and cft/hr depending upon the requirements of the families.

Cooking energy source:The energy contribution from different sources for biogas users who used
different combination of fuels is presented in the table 2. The data of the table revealed that more
than 80% of the farmers in Shimoga district used biogas as their main cooking fuel. Similar resul ts
of 99% of success rate of biogas plants was reported by (Bhat and Ravindranath 1994) in Sirsi taluk of
western ghat of Karnataka. Though there is more availability of firewood in the nearby forest, the
energy from biogas was more because of proper implementation of biogas department. The turn key
agents have adopted management strategies such as five year guarantee, payment after completion
of the biogas plant and good post construction service. Other strategies like with helding the contract
ship by agriculture department to biogas agents in case the existing plants are not repaired were also
noticed. On an average more than 60% of the farmers in Kolar and Raichur districts depended on
firewood and crop residues as their main energy source and met more than 60% of their energy. The
main reasons as reported by them shows that 32.26% (10) farmers who depended mainly on fire
wood and crop residue faced with shortage of dung as a result of their family division after their
plant construction.
This result is better when compared to the Thanjavur and Periyar districts of Tamilnadu where more
than 60% of the biogas owned families were faced with shortage dung as reported by Ranganathan
(1992). Sixteen percent of the farmers who depended mainly on fire wood and crop residues
reported that they used crop residues and fire wood just to save time because of cheap and ready
availability of these fuel sources in their farms. Others did not use biogas because of structural
failures of their biogas plants. Some farmers also reported that root roasting on biogas was not good.
They mainly used cotton stick as crop residue and Bengal Jali (Prosopis Juliflora) as fuel wood.

Cooking energy contribution from biogas: The results of cooking energy contribution from biogas
are presented in the Table 3. The success of the biogas programme depends on its optimal utilization
by the farmers. High success rate was noticed in Shimoga and Kolar districts as more than 50% of the
farmers depended entirely on biogas for their cooking needs. Success rate of biogas plant was less in
Raichur district as less than 40% of the farmers met their entire cooking energy from biogas. Though
60% of farmers of Kolar district could get their entire cooking energy from biogas, 20% of the biogas
plant in that region found to be not in operation. In other two districts 10 percent the plants were
not in operation. On all India level only 12% of the biogas plant owned families met their entire
cooking energy from biogas as reported by the NCAER (Anon, 1992). But in Karnataka according to
the same report 60% of the biogas plants were in operational and in Bihar 25% of the plants were in
operation. In this study 15.15% of the plants in Karnataka were not in operation matching with the
NCAER report.

Capacity utilization of biogas plants: The present capacity utilization, required capacity utilization
for cooking and potential capacity of the available dung of biogas plant owned families are shown in
the tables 4a and 4b. The tables indicated that the actual capacity utilization of the biogas plant was
less than 50% for all the three districts and as the size of the plant increased the capacity utilization

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decreased due to not optimally utilizing the biogas plants. The needed capacity utilization of biogas
plants to meet cooking energy of the farmers found to be only 62 and 65% in Kolar and Raichur
district and was more pronounced in case of Shimoga district. The would confirm that farmers of
Shimoga district had over sized plants than that of other districts due to improper survey of the
required animals by the biogas supervisors and farmers not using the gas for the purposes other than
cooking. Intensifying the problem, dung availability was restricted only to utilize the plant upto 75%
of the maximum capacity of the plants may bedue to family division after the construction of the
biogas plant leading to economical in viability of the biogas plant. The present problem can be
overcome by utilizing the feed material other than cow dung which is generated in the farmer’s fields
and there is a wide scope for utilizing the gas for purposes other than cooking.

Utility of biogas for domestic and household purposes:The results of utility of biogas for domestic
and household purposes are depicted in the Table 5. The biogas can be put to use for many
operations such as lighting, water lifting, threshing, flour milling, cloth pressing, tobacco curing,
disinfectant rearing house, space heating in poultry and silkworm rearing and grain disinfection.
However, only 12.12 percent of farmers in three districts used biogas for cooking, lighting and engine
operation, even though farmers of the every village were faced with frequent power cuts. The results
of the study are low when compared to Bihar where 38% of farmers used biogas for lighting and
cooking though 75% of the plants were not functional. (Chandrapal Singh, 1987). When enquired
34% of the farmers reported that they were not aware of the place and availability of biogas plants,
though the technology of utility of biogas was known to them. However, 17 (29.3 %) farmers
reported that they did not have enough dung to generate the gas. In case of engine operation and
grain storage majority of the farmers were not aware of the technology.

References
ANONYMOUS, 1992e, Evaluation survey of house hold biogas plants setup during five year plan.
National Council for Applied Economic Research, New Delhi.
BHAT, D.M. AND RAVINDRANATH, N.H., 1994, Assessment of biogas programme in Sirsi region of
western ghats.CES. Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore.
CHANDRAPAL SINGH, 1987, Alternative energy source: Biogas in Bihar. Khadigramodyog,
9: 515 -520
CHAWLA, O.P., 1986, Advances in biogas technology publication and information division, Indian
council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi, India.
DO WONDER AND RAVISHANKAR, 1983, Energy use in rural areas of India, ASCI, Hyderabad.
MAHESHWARI, R.C., 1981, Energy census and Resources Assessment of village Islamnagar in the Dist.
Of Bhopal “Technical Bulletin No. CIAE/81/82”. Central Institute of Agricultural Engineering,
Nabibagh, Berasea Road, Bhopal.
RANGANATHAN, V., 1992, Economic valuation of biogas plants: A case studies in Thanjavur and
Periyar districts. Pacific and Asian Journal of Energy, 2(2):93-106.

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Table 1a: Fuel Consumption Pattern of Biogas Users

Shimoga Kolar Raichur Total

Fuel Type

Quantity Percentag Quantity Percentage Quantity Percentage Quantity Percentage

e of of Energy of Energy of Energy
Energy
Biogas (Cu 90.22 83.05 83.47 79.29 68.04 68.45 82.08 75.11
m)

Firewood 48.67 12.81 49.37 13.39 40.88 11.75 49.55 13.76

(Kg)

Crop 17.97 3.62 26.93 5.61 83.22 18.33 38.81 8.03

Residue
(Kg)
Kerosene 0.34 0.53 __ __ 0.876 1.47 0.4 0.63
(Lit)

L.P.G (KG) __ __ 0.78 1.71 __ __ 0.21 0.47

Table 1b: Per Capita Energy Consumption of Biogas Plant Owners

Shimoga Kolar Raichur Average
Energy consumption
(MJ/Per capita/day) 8.346 8.432 9.614 8.881

Table 2: Cooking Energy Supplied From Different Sources

Shimoga Kolar Raichur Total
Fuel
Type
No. of % of Avg. No. % of Avg. No. % of Avg. No. % of Avg.
users users %of of users %of of users %of of users %of
Energy users Energy users Energy users Energy
Biogas 23 88.46 91.25 16 80 93.16 17 85 79.28 56 84.85 88.82
(Cu m)
Firewoo 9 34.62 36.14 5 25 68.76 9 45 24.86 23 34.85 38.12
d (Kg)
Crop 5 19.23 17.98 4 20 31.62 9 45 41.41 18 27.27 31.31
Residue
(Kg)
Kerosen 1 3.85 13.04 __ __ __ 1 5 26.31 2 3.03 19.04
e (Lit)
L.P.G __ __ __ 1 5 33.33 __ __ __ 1 1.52 33.33
(KG)

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Table 3: Cooking energy contribution from biogas
Shimoga Kolar Raichur Total
Energy from
biogas Biogas users Biogas users Biogas users Biogas users

Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent

100 15 57.69 12 60 8 40 35 53.03
75-100 4 15.38 1 5 3 15 8 12.12
50-75 4 15.38 3 15 4 20 11 16.87
25-50 -- -- -- -- 2 10 2 3.03
0 3 11.54 4 20 15 15 10 15.15

Table 4a: Present and Potential Capacity of Available Dung

District Capacity utilized Potential Required No. of users with No. of users with
(%) capacity of dung Capacity for shortage of dung sufficient dung for
(%) cooking (%) for cooking full capacity
utilization
Shimoga 49.55 64.47 56.38 3 1
Kolar 49.31 71.72 62.39 3 2
Raichur 43.67 72.96 63.22 4 3
Average 48.00 68.56 59.72 10 6

Table 4 b Plant Size Wise Capacity Utilization

Plant Size Capacity utilized Potential Required No. of users with No. of users with
(%) capacity of dung Capacity for shortage of dung sufficient dung
(%) cooking (%) for cooking for full capacity
utilization
2 48.46 86.15 76 5 3
3 46.85 71.00 62.51 4 3
4 51.89 63.18 56.66 1 0
6 47.96 55.83 45.04 0 0
10 42.80 50.00 30.00 0 0

Table 5: Utility of biogas for domestic and household purposes

N = 66
Shimoga Kolar Raichur Total
Purpose of use
Biogas users Biogas users Biogas users Biogas users
Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent
One time cooking 3 11.54 1 5 2 10 6 9.09
Two time cooking 15 57.69 13 65 14 70 42 63.64
Cooking + lighting 4 15.39 2 10 1 5 7 10.61
Cooking + lighting +
engine operation 1 3.85 0 0 0 0 1 1.52
No purpose 3 11.54 4 20 3 15 10 15.15

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 Notion Robotics Lab Brings AI and Disruptive Technology into Agriculture to
Enhance Food Production and Secure Distribution in India
Sandhya Raoa and Sreemon Chowdhuryb
a
Technical Director, Notion Robotics Lab, New Delhi, India, sandya.rao@notionrobotics.com
b
Electronic Engineer, Notion Robotics Lab, New Delhi, India
Email : sreemonchowdhury@notionrobotics.com

Abstract : Today, as a civilization, we are facing multiple and complex challenges. Among them, are
the World's constantly population increasing, the climate changes and their impact in natural
resources. Agriculture is the backbone of every economy. In a country like India, which has ever
increasing demand of food due to rising population, advances in agriculture sector are required to
meet the needs.When we look at these drastic changes to our society, immediately something in our
mind asks one specific question: How can we feed the increasing population while the resources are
getting scarcer? For Notion Robotics Labteam the only valid answer is: Giving our farmers the
capacity to produce in a more efficient way, that is, producing more with less. To add to it, the
present economic conditions and government policies of India are such that it necessitates the
adoption of precision farming or smart farming for protecting and improving crop yield. Notion
Robotics Lab vision is to provide innovative and cost effective solutions by synergizing state of the art
technologies, to provide a high quality of user experience, to contribute positively to the wellbeing of
society and environment. To increase productivity, Notion Robotics Lab aims to develop an AI
agricultural platform for real time plants or crops monitoring and detection system where it
describes a wide range of technology from speech recognition to language translation to image
recognition. It is a connected enterprise platform, with an integration of Eco-friendly Technologies
such as Cloud Computing, AI and IoT, Sensors System with agriculture, to optimise the crop yield. We
are also developing a digital platform into our system for farmers which based on predictive
algorithms are helping the traditional and digital grocers to increase efficiency and reduce food
waste, while direct to consumer shopping platform and smart delivery services for opening up the
new possibilities for assessing fresh healthy food, even in food insecure communities.Notion
Robotics Lab team has researched studies; designed drones integrated with crop health images GPS
mapping and surveying of agriculture land.

Keywords: - Precision Farming, Artificial Intelligence, Cloud Computing, IoT, Production and
Distribution.

Introduction: Global agriculture is facing an unprecedented challenge. By 2050, the world’s

population is expected to swell by two billion people. Beyond the sheer number of mouth to feed,
this growth will bring a fundamental shift in diets around the world as more prosperous populations
seek more protein, demand higher quality food and eat more prepared foods. Foods demands will
double in the next three decades with a 50 percent increase in protein demand. At the same time,
crops are being diverted for feed and fuel, land for agriculture expansion is scarce, and fresh water
resources are dwindling. Although farming techniques, fertilizer use and crop protection are
continuing to improve, the dramatic gains in crop yields have slowed. In a quarter a third of today’s
most important cropland areas, many of which are in the world’s top crop-producing nations, yields
are flat or declining.
India is agriculture oriented country. 69% of Indian population has agriculture as their main
occupation or side business. The production or cultivation of useful crops in the Ecosystem produced
by the people is known as agriculture. From another point of view, the farmers are the ecosystem
engineers who find new ways for cultivation of crops as agriculture has gone through considerable
transitions in terms of using technology in agriculture techniques.

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Executive summary: In recent years the agriculture industry had faced major challenges. Driven by a
growing population and economic growth especially in developing countries, the global demand of
agricultural products is rising. At the same time supply capabilities are shrinking due to reduced land
availability and climate changes. In addition, the industry encounter increased governmental food
regulations targeting a more sustainable, secure and transparent agriculture industry. Bearing in
mind these factors, the farming sector will be under great pressure to produce more using less
resource on smaller lands and for this reason all farmers must have to increase their productivity to
provide enough food for such a large population. Enabling the agriculture industry to meets
tomorrow’s challenges. However, is a challenging task, because to have a good productivity in this
activity, farmers need to have the capacity to reduce and control their production costs, namely
through useful tools capable to also help them to minimize the unpredictability of risk and
meteorological factors, that can in turn severely affect their farms and crops. Aside these core
problems, Farmers don’t have adequate skills about precision agriculture technology and smart
farming as a result of which the farmers are not able to harvest crops to full potential. This is the
reason to help them to solve these challenges that Notion Robotics Lab’s Agriculturalist Hybrid Cloud
exists.
Notion Robotics Lab Team believes that technology will play a fundamental role in these matters and
will have a word to say on this. How is Notion Robotics Lab solving the problems/challenges facing
the farmers?Notion Robotics Lab is developing a platform grounded on different technological
products. That will help farmers to highly increase their profitability.

Project purpose/Approach: In present time, in Indian agriculture still faces the

challenges:Dependence on monsoon, fragmented land farming and holding, traditional farming
practices, poor infrastructure in rural areas and less usage of technology applications. The
advancement in the technology will help farmers increase the crop gain. Notion Robotics Lab aims to
bring disruptive technologiesin agriculture, are Artificial Intelligence (AI), Deep Learning
(DL),Blcokchain,Internet of Things (IoT), Wireless Sensor Network (WSN), Precision Agriculture (PA),
Cloud Computing (CC), Cloud Database System (CDS) and Smart Warehouse (SW) and Secure
Distribution System (SDS) etc.

This overarching project aims to:

1. Develop and utilize novel sensor technologies to develop AI and ML algorithms and where
applicable, platforms for precision application of inputs in crops production systems and real
time monitoring systems.
2. Develop hybrid cloud platform for smart farming, analysis and e-commerce, storage and secure
distribution.
3. Develop cellular application, AI algorithms on predicting risk factors namely pests, diseases and
fungus etc.
4. Develop and evaluate new methodologies for estimating and mapping on-farm productivity
(yield, product quality attributes and crop forecasting) across target crops in production systems.

System architecturepatent: In spite of being one of the most critical aspects of our civilization,
agriculture has not been appropriately blessed by recent advancements of Electronics, Computers
and IT unlike many other domains that impact lifestyle. However, the situation is changing at a rapid
pace. India is currently going through a transition phase from the agricultural standpoint. Agriculture
is the backbone of India, and plays an important role in economic development. It is the science or
practice of farming, including cultivation of the soil for the growing of crops. Cultivation is most often
used to talk about the ways that farmers take care of crops. Smart agriculture is a multi-dimensional
combination of a number of different technological implementations. These applications are
replacing inefficient, inconsistent and unreliable traditional farming techniques with efficient, reliable

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and sustainable smart agriculture. Some examples of these paradigm shifts include context aware
farming, contract farming, pesticide control, remote monitoring, security control, environmental
monitoring, precious agriculture, machine and process control, etc. In the world of cognitive science,
any system, process and domain is said to be smart if follows 6 different levels of intelligence:
Adapting, Sensing, Inferring, Learning, Anticipating and Self-organizing. Jotting all these 6 initials, we
can define smart agriculture.

Fig.: Architecture of agricultural management and hybrid cloud system

Internet of Things (IoT), an emerging inter disciplinary domain, is also contributing in smart
agriculture and a combination of IoT, Cloud Computing, AI, Big Data Analytics and Mobile Technology
has got the potential to dramatically change the domain of agriculture and redefine the way farming
is being perceived. However, it consists of various phases that are depends on the environmental
factors such as Temperature, Soil moisture and water level. Farmers need to keep the records of
these environmental factors manually (or on paper) to cultivate crops properly. In general,
agricultural lands are so far away from farmer’s home so farmers need to go there and analyze the
soil, write the records of these environmental factors on paper which is so tedious work to maintain
and remember it. Furthermore, farmers need to know about these factors for some period of time so
that they can take appropriate actions such as to manage hardware (i.e. to switch on/off water
motor), to spray pesticides, to keep records of factors; to achieve these activities farmer have to go
to the farm field which is normally very far from farmer’s home and it causes inconvenience in hectic
work. To avoid such burden from farmer, and to achieve such functionality farmers require a System
which will be able to gather the information, from farm (or farm field) such as temperature level,
water level and soil moisture via various sensors. Furthermore, system should process this
information to provide functionality to the farmers. To enable system accessible from anywhere it
needs to be centralized and connected to Internetor WSN. Here, the concept of Cloud Computing
comes. Notion Robotics Lab designed a Hybrid Cloud System, thus to manage all these functions
Cultivation Management System comes into picture. This system allows farmers to view farm (or
farm field) information such as sensors values, devices connected, etc. Apart from this, system allows
farmers to control the farm hardware remotely such as to switch on/off bulb, to switch on/off
motors, weather forecast, pest detecting with the help of microcontroller and smart IoT sensors and
cellular applications. All this information can be accessed via Android enable mobile phone, tabs, etc
by farmers. As a combination of the following three paradigms: Smart Consumer, Smart Farmer, and
Smart Farms. Notion Robotics Lab Hybrid Cloud Platform, a mobile based end to end IoT solution for
Smart Agriculture works at different levels through data science and efficient communication
through Cloud Computing.

Notion Robotics Lab aims to bring distinct technological aspects lead to the ideology of smart
agriculture. In order to make the market more accessible to the farmers, the concept of e-farming
has been introduced. Notion Robotics Lab designed E-farming is the web application that will help
the farmers perform the agro-marketing leading to achieve success and increase in their standard of

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living. In compliance with smart technologies, UAV’sis also being introduced and Robotics will be also
used into system, so as to make more room for technological advancements in agriculture.

System Implementation
Develop IoT and Sensornetwork system forreal time monitoring to increase productivity:IoT is a
network of physical devices or any other items embedded with electronics, software, sensors,
actuators and connectivity which enable these objects to connect and exchange the data. The key
elements involved in the IoT are identification, sensing, communication, services and semantics. The
identification element matches the services with the demand. The sensing element obtains the
information from various objects within the network then sends back the sensed data to the cloud or
to the database.Nowadays there is a vast enhancement in technologies, different tools and
techniques are available in the agriculture sector. To improve efficiency, productivity, global market
and to reduce human intervention, time and cost there is a need to divert towards new a technology.
Notion Robotics Lab has designed an IoT and Sensors network that transfer the information without
human involvement. For gaining high productivity, IoT works in synergy with agriculture to obtain
smart farming. The main advantages of system that using hybrid cloud platform in enhancing farming
are as follows:

1. With the help of sensors, water management can be done efficiently using IoT, so no wastage of
water.
2. IoT helps continuous land monitoring so that precautions can be taken at an early stage.
3. Farming efficiency improved by reducing manual work, time and increases productivity.
4. By observing the growth of the crop, crop monitoring can be done easily.

Fig.: IoT and Cloud computingservices

5. Weather forecast data like Rain, Humidity and Temperature will be updated by hybrid cloud.
6. PH level, the Moisture content of soil can be identified easily so that farmer can sow seeds
according to soil level. That is soil management.
7. AI and DL algorithms to detect pests, diseases and fungus.
8. Plant diseases can be recognized with the help of Sensors and RFID chips. The reader receives EPC
(information) from RFID tags and is shared across the internet. From a remote place this information
can be accessed by farmer or scientist and take necessary actions, automatically crops can be
protected from coming diseases.
9. Sale of the crop will be increased in the global market. A farmer can easily connect to the global
market without restriction of any geographical area.

Finally, they concluded that Farming will play a vital role in the next few years in the country. Thus
there is a need for smart farming and it will be possible using IoT and sensors network system.
Description of proposed smart farming framework: This framework comprises of six modules,
sensory module to take input, processor module used to process data, actuators that helps in

393
performing action, memory module helps in storing all data and information. Then the application
management module and decision support system.
Sensory module :Sensory Module is used to take all inputs that are required for processing. Sensory
module is subcategorized in several parts. Environment data sensing is responsible to sense the
environment and gather all specification. Environment factor control is responsible to control or
sense the feasibility of environment and what type of condition is. Soil condition module is used to
check the soil condition, either it is moist or dry, how much water is required for the soil and also
what type of texture soil contains etc. Another sub-module of sensory module is weather condition.
Weather condition is the most important parameter in smart farming because all other parameters
are dependent on weather condition. If weather is dry,water evaporation takes place and more
water is required. Similarly if weather is rainy then less or no water is required for the time being.
Crop cultivation is very much dependent on weather condition. Favorable weather is very important
for the cultivation of crop and also water. Water availability is also an important module. Sensors are
required that can sense the water quantity, water availability, water storage etc.
Processing module:Processing module captures the data coming from sensory module and analyzes
it. It takes data from data storage location and processes it by taking help from Application
Management Module (AMM).
Actuators: Actuators contain two sub-module i.e. information collection and action. The information
is collected from sensors and also taken from Application Management Module (AMM) and Decision
Support System (DSS). This information is related to weather condition, soil condition, crop status,
environment factors and water requirements. After receiving required output from DSS and AMM,
action modules will perform the required action.
Memory: Memory module is very important module. All the data gathered from the sensory inputs,
the data that is processed in processing module is stored in memory module. Action also taken on
the basis of information already present in memory and on the basis of newly collected and
processed data.
Application management module: Application Management Module (AMM) is the core part of
Framework. It consists of complete server that handles all the tasks in the IoT smart farming. Internet
connection that is used to store all manipulated and processed data into cloud and database. Basis
data gathered from sensors are stored in Database and processed data is stored at cloud. To handle
any bug or error application handler is used.
Decision support system:Decision Support System (DSS) is used to take decision according to data or
information received from AMM and sends the final decision to Actuator module for final action.
Through our sensor networks, agriculture can be connected to the IoT, which allows creating
connections among agronomists, farmers and crops regardless of their geographical differences.
With the help of this approach which can provide real-time information about the lands and crops
that will help farmers make the right decisions. The major advantage is the implementation of WSN
in Precision Agriculture (PA) will optimize the usage of water fertilizers while maximizing the yield of
the crops and also will help in analyzing the weather conditions of the field.

Develop Hybrid Cloud Computing Platform: IoT is closely related to cloud computing in a way that
IoT obtains powerful computing tools through cloud computing and cloud computing finds the best
practicing channel based on IoT. Agricultural information cloud is constructed based on cloud
computing and smart agriculture is constructed with a combination of IoT, smart chips and RFID.
Hardware resources in agricultural information network are integrated into the resource pool by
using vitalization technology, achieving a dynamic distribution of resource and balance of load,
significantly improve the efficiency of resource use. A large amount of data are obtained by using
radio frequency identification, wireless communication, automatic control, information sensing
techniques of IoT are handled with agricultural information cloud, truly realizing smart agriculture.

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The control architecture of smart agriculture based on cloud computing and IoT. This data center
consists of control platform and database, and the platform further consists of such subsystems as
agro-ecological environment control, agricultural resource control, production process control, farm
produce and food safety, agricultural equipment and facility. The data center is a set of complex
facilities. It includes not only computer systems and other facilities go with it (like communication
and memory system), but also redundant data communication links, environment control facility,
monitor facility and various kinds of security devices. Data center architecture based on a cloud
network.

As cellular networks become increasingly mature and reliable, Indian consumers are having faster
and better access to the Internet using their mobile phones without the need for broadband or a
computer at home. This positive development has been identified as a key driver for a range of
applications that will support Cloud computing. However, at the lower end of the market, and
especially in rural areas, much of the use of mobile Internet is done from feature phones. This makes
it imperative to state that any program to leverage mobile access for agriculture has to take the issue
of the widespread use of feature phones into consideration. Notion Robotics Lab is trying to digitalize
the agricultural field using the mobile application because Cloud-based IoT services are getting
popular. The main task is to collect data from multiple locations on a farm. This data will be available
to the farmers via the cloud service. This data can be accessed through a mobile application. Not only
providing data graphically, but the mobile app will also provide numerous services beneficial for the
farmers. This is a remote monitoring system for agricultural industry combined with some farmer
friendly applications. The main aim is to collect the readings from multiple nodes and help the
farmers handle various operations wirelessly providing a smart agricultural field for smart farmers.

Cloud Computing based agronomy through in-app cashless transactions for agricultural products is
next set of possibilities. The user friendly, feature reach and scalable Mobile App and Software as a
Service (SaaS) of Notion Robotics Lab are the central cockpit for resource optimization, profit
maximization, information sharing and agricultural consultation as well as trainingNotion Robotics
Lab Hybrid Cloudwill also be available in different regional languages for a wider outreach.

How does notion robotics lab hybrid cloud function?:Hybrid Cloud functions in a four-step process,
Acquiring, Processing, Reporting and Storage. Hybrid Cloud System uses Internet of things (IoT) to
collect field level data. IoT is a combination of radio frequency identification (RFID) tags, sensors,
cameras which are embedded into plants, animals, machines and implements used in farms that in
turn enable them to communicate through internet for exchange of data. Here the idea is to make
input into computer without the aid of human intervention. Hence, cloud computing with IoT
becomes a powerful tool for close monitoring and surveillance for diseases, pests and nutritional
deficiencies of crops and farm animals.

Acquiring: It is the first step in the process and utilises sensors, cameras, drones, RFID tags are used
to get live data from the field. These data can also be provided manually by farmer in the form of a
query through Software as a Service (SaaS) based application.

Processing- It is done in a Platform as a Service (PaaS) layer. Data available from the field is analysed
with processing tools available in this layer to yield instructions for the actual problem. Programs will
be used for statistical, financial, agronomical and pathological analysis. It also maintains live field
status based on these analyses for fault warning mechanism.

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 Fig.: Hybrid Cloud System Architecture

Reporting- Thus, generated instructions or solutions are passed on to the clients through cloud
platform. This report is available on the device and it can be accessed from anywhere and across
devices.

Storage- All the work done by the system is stored in a database. This contributes to the agricultural
information management. These databases are also useful for research & development and
refinement of technology.

Data-driven techniques for hybrid cloud:

Data-driven techniques help boost agricultural productivity by increasing yields, reducing losses and
cutting down input costs. However, these techniques have seen sparse adoption owing to high costs
of manual data collection, limited connectivity solutions. In the paper, Notion Robotics Lab present
Hybrid Cloud System, an end-to-end IoT platform for agriculture that enables seamless data
collection from various sensors, cameras and drones. The design of Hybrid Cloud System that
explicitly accounts for weather-related power and Internet outages has enabled to deployments is a
low-cost, highly available IoT platform for agriculture. It supports high bandwidth sensors using
TVWS (TV White Space) database, which is a low-cost, long-range technology. Notion Robotics Lab
Hybrid Cloud Systemuses a weather-aware solar-powered IoT base station and an intelligent
Gateway that ensures that services are available in the cloud and offline. It also incorporates new
path-planning algorithms that extend drone battery life. The entire system can deployed in farms,
and the farmers can use it for three applications: precision agriculture, animal monitoring, and
storage monitoring.

Characteristics of hybrid cloud computing:

1. On-demand self-service- Faster availability of services without human intervention.

2. Broad network access- Services available anywhere and everywhere across devices.
3. Resource pooling- Service provider pool resources are storage, processing, memory, and network
bandwidth to serve multiple consumers using a multi-tenant model.
4. Rapid elasticity- Increase or decrease computing capabilities instantly.
5. Measured service- Pay-per- use basis like utility billing.

Services available through hybrid cloud system: Notion Robotics Hybrid Cloud System is expected to
provide services in several areas of agricultural domain area gricultural education, research and
extension.

Extension services: Bridging the last mile connectivity problems by Implementing ICT tools
efficiently. Present ICT tools are limited in scope when compared to cloud applications. Major

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problem faced by farmers in accessing ICT facilities are (a) either users doesn’t have devices to access
ICT tools or doesn’t know how to access them in their device. (b) Users have appropriate device but
ICT content is not available in local language for these devices. Hence, they have to always relay on a
third person for getting information.

Farm management: Maintaining and updating farm records, tracking of expenses and profits, live
market information etc. Farmers being illiterate, they hesitate to keep proper farm records. With the
help of user friendly applications and interface, cloud computing can be made useful to incorporate
scientific farm management practices in farmer’s field.

Crop protection: Improving the pest and disease warning mechanisms and monitoring services.
Monitoring mechanism in cloud computing gathers field images of pest /disease samples, infrared
images of the entire field etc. which are subjected to analysis with the help of algorithms or field
experts to arrive at the remedial measures and are reported back to the particular farmer. This
reporting services hasten the broadcasting of pest and disease outbreak in any location. Pest and
disease warning services helps farmers to take up timely prophylactic measures and reducing the
impact of disease or pest outbreaks.

Crop improvement: Biological research nowadays uses computers for analysis of the data,
experiment planning and hypothesis development. Application of bioinformatics tools in biological
research enables storage, retrieval, analysis, annotation and visualisation of results. Bio- informatics
tools helps in providing information about the genes and their sequencing process. These tools can
also help to search for genes within the genomes and elucidate their functions. These specific
knowledge can then be used to improve tolerance of crops towards drought, insects, diseases etc.

Crop production: Real time advice on cultural practices and implementing Package of Practice. With
the advent of cloud computing and internet of things various activities going on in farmers field can
be monitored closely. Farmer’s field practices are compared to standard practices for optimum
output. GPS and different sensors attached to implements provides data related to land preparation,
Irrigation schedule, crop spacing, weed growth and soil nutrient status. When these value fall out of
the standard values farmers can be alerted through instant message service through a cloud based
platform. Along with it suitable corrective measures can also be provided.

Meteorology
Location specific weather details can be collected and stored through weather stations. These
accumulated time series data can be used for accurate forecasting services. Day to day weather
forecast can be made available in cloud servers which in turn can be communicated even to remote
rural locations. Thus helping farmers in decision making and crop selection.

Agricultural database services: Cloud computing also provides Agricultural database services. Agri-
Expert knowledge Database (AKDB) contains rules, inferences for decision making purposes. Image
Knowledge Database (IKDB) to make decisions based on images received from farmers or consumers
from farm lands. Statistical knowledge Database (SKDB) which allows to make decisions regarding
amount of land to be cultivated, quantity of seed, fertilizers to be used etc. Business Knowledge
Database (BKDB) contains data to make business related decisions for pricing or for comparisons of
business at different locations on different agriculture products. Agri-Secure Data Service (ASDS)
libraries for securing cloud data storage by encrypting it at storage and decrypting during its usage by
various services. Thus, it can be used to gather information from field and systematically use it for
scientific research or for gathering traditional farming practices or knowledge of farmers in the field
of agriculture.

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Develop cloud based warehouse and securedistribution system:Notion Robotics Lad have designed
a Cloud based and a prototype System where farmers can easily store products in their village or
near any places using hybrid cloud system and continuous monitor their transport system using
proposed platform and can distribute directly to retailers or consumers that will build strong
business relationship between both.

Fig.: Storage and distribution system

Application of IoT in the agricultural supply chain helps to improve the agricultural supply chain
information technology level, so that the operating efficiency of the supply chain of agricultural
products is improved by enhancing whole supply chain integration. In the fierce global competition
environment, our country agriculture highlights low level of industrialization, the low-value chain
level, low management level, low level of information. In order to solve the above problem, the
application of new technology is a feasible method, the applications of the Internet of things
technology to the agricultural products supply chain, in order to improve the operation efficiency of
the supply chain of agricultural products, promote the development of agriculture in our country.
There are many factors affecting the adoption of agricultural products supply chain of IoTs. There is
still a long run for the internet of things to enter into the practical stage of the agricultural supply
chain. There are also many problems for IoT to solve, which include how to reduce costs, carry on the
R&D of core technology, develop industry standards, protect privacy and so on. But IoT based on
RFID technology has been integrated into all aspects of supply chain management and it will have a
significant impact on the development of supply chain management.

Fig.: Warehouse and distribution management system

In the era of technology advancement, everything requires monitoring and controlling. We proposes
an IoT framework for facilitating food monitoring for protection of the food, so that it would not get
contaminated due to surrounding conditions during storage and transportation. In present scenario,
the work done is in terms of the sensed values that have been recorded and a detailed analysis has
been performed but automated control alternatives are not present. Efficient monitoring of
temperature, humidity, light and other conditions without being present physically at the location
helps us to get a better outcome. Here our main purpose is to observe, control and monitor the cold
storage atmosphere, thus making the admin to manage the data in real time. Here the central node

398
which is a web application is responsible for passing information to management mode using
computer or mobile phone.
Notion Robotics Lab developed system where farmers can monitor their loaded vehicle using our
Hybrid Cloud that will make their distribution system easier and wasting of foods will be reduced.
Application of artificial intelligence in agriculture: Artificial intelligence will increase the value of
data being collected on farm by analysing and converting it into information to underpin better
management decisions. Ultimately, artificial intelligence will direct machinery to undertake tasks
based on the interpretation of data.
Technologies such as satellite imaging can be used to fill this gap and unmanned aerial vehicles
(UAVs) or drones may be fitted with sensors to acquire information about farm and animal health.
Sensors provide real-time and multi-faceted views of farm production, but the data has limited use
without the ability to convert it to useful information. Artificial intelligence can be applied at a range
of scales in agriculture. Data collected from sensors can be converted by artificial intelligence into
information to support whole farm planning and monitoring, to manage crops, herds and land,
through to determining management decisions for individual plants and animals.

Notion Robotics Lab has designed Green Tag Apps or Software driven by adaptive AI algorithms to
aggregate all available weather forecasts to provide the best prediction for a specific location. It also
uses algorithms to evaluate the likelihood of pest incursions at particular locations based on
environmental conditions, and to analyse mapped soil and leafs characteristics to predict nutrient
lossand diseases. The accuracy of predictions improves over time as more information is gathered
and analysed by the apps or software.
UAV’s Application in agriculture: Notion Robotics Lab has designed UAV’s for smart farming. Those
UAVs able to produce precise maps for soil analysis at the beginning of the crop cycle which helps to
direct seed planting patterns. After planting, this data helps determine irrigation. This UAVs able to
real time monitoring at a far more accurate and cost effective level than previously satellite imagery
and designed to monitor nutrients, moisture level and overall cop vigor in order to keep crops
healthy and estimate yields.

At present in India, conventional methods pesticide spray applications leads to excessive uniformity,
deposition and coverage, resulting higher cost of pesticide as well as environment pollution. Apart
from these, there will be increased drudgery in field application and reduced area coverage, leading
to increased cost of inputs as well as reduced effectiveness in controlling the pests and diseases.
Keeping in the view these facts we wants to bring UAV mounted sprayer for application of pesticide
sprays on to crops which improves coverage, boosts chemical effectiveness and makes spraying job
easier and faster.

Notion Robotics Lab researchers has been working on crops health by UAV that would be scanning
crops with visible and Infrared(IR) light and can identify which plants may be infected by bacteria or
fungus, helping to prevent diseases from spreading to other crops.

Future works: Recent era has seen huge developments in the information technology, machine
vision and robotics communities. India is losing 2,000 farmers a day owing to drought, urbanization,
and debt related suicides and has seen its farming population fall from a third of the workforce in
2001 to just under a quarter of the workforce by 2013.
Notion Robotics Lab aims to bring the farm automation and advanced robotics in the future of
agriculture to produce, harvest, process, ship and quality control of fresh produces. The Combination
of robotics with intelligent systems that combine data analytics and optimization algorithms will
advance robotics to a new generation. However, innovation is the key to future growth in farming.

399
With a national focus, Notion Robotics Lab researchers have been designing the robotics and
automation solutions for farming development that would be cost effective, scalable and efficient.
The goal would be to complement the farmers as and when desired. Indigenous development of such
solutions should eventually result in immediate deploy ability, trouble shooting and up gradation.

Conclusion: In the upcoming years, Farming will play a vital role in our country. Almost 70% of Indian
population is having their main income from farming. Many farmers are not aware of modern
technologies but still use the traditional methods of farming. The Notion Robotics disruptive
technologies related to development of cloud computing applications are concisely given along with
impact Information Technology and cloud computing on Agriculture field. The Hybrid Clout Platform
that E-Agricultural Services Applicationframework and its architecture with technical aspects has
been proposed for agriculture sector. The application provides services information between Farmer,
Agriculture Expert, Application Admin and Cloud Admin respectively. The one other major usage of
this system is that all the data with respect to the crops that are collected are thoroughly analysed to
provide useful results to the farmer. Thus cloud computing and analytics together help in providing
better Strategies in the field of crop production.The results of this deployment will be monitored to
determine its impact on the productivity of farmers.

References
[1] A V L N Sujith, K Chandra Sekhar,“Automated Agriculture as a Service Using IoT”,International Journal of Adva
and Software Engineering, ISSN: 2277 128X, Volume 7, Issue 5, May 2017.http://www.ijarcsse.com
[2] OjasSavale, Anup Managave, Deepika Ambekar, Sushmita Sathe, “Internet of Things in
Precision Agriculture using Wireless Sensor Networks”, International Journal Of Advanced
Engineering & Innovative Technology (IJAEIT) ISSN: 2348 7208, Volume 2, Issue 3, December
-2015,http://www.ijaeit.com.
[3] Prof. Mukta Patil, H. Manjunath, Vasangouda, MahanteshChakrasali, PavankumarMuragod,
“Internet of Things (IoT) and Cloud Computing for Agicuture”, Dept. of Electronics &
Communication Engineering, Tontadarya College of Engineering, Mundargi Road, Gadag -
582 101
[4] Dr. Aqeel-ur-Rehman, “Smart Agriculture: An Approach Towards Better Agriculture
Management”, ISBN: 978-1-63278-023-2, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.4172/978-1-63278-023-
2-024, Published Date: February 2015
[5] Australian Farm Institute, “The Implications of Digital Agriculture and Big Data for Australian
Agriculture” ISBN: 978-1-92808-38-8. Research Report- April 2016.
[6] Sukhpal Singh1, Inderveer Chana2 and Rajkumar Buyya3 “Agri-Info: Cloud Based Autonomic
System for Delivering Agriculture as a Service”, 1,2 Computer Science and Engineering
Department, Thapar University, Patiala, Punjab, India-147004,3CLOUDS Lab, Department of
Computing and Information Systems, The University of Melbourne, Australia.
[7] Arunlal K. S, Rajkiran S. N, “Smart agriculture: IoT based precise and productive farming
approach”, International Journal of Advance Research, Ideas and Innovations in Technology,
ISSN: 2454-132X, Volume 4, Issue 6, http://www.ijariit.com.
[8] V. Keerthi, Dr. T. Anuradha, “ E-Agriculture Services Framework Design for Cloud”,
International Journal of Advanced Research in
Computer Science and Software Engineering, ISSN: 2277 128X, Volume 6, Issue 11,
November 2016, http://www.ijarcsse.com.
[9] Qura-Tul-Ain Khan, Sagheer Abbas, Atifa Athar, “Advance Modeling of Agriculture Farming
Techniques Using Internet of Things”, IJCSNS International Journal of Computer Science
and Network Security, Vol. 17, No. 12, December 2017.
[10] SeenaKalghatgi, Kuldeep P. Sambrekar, “Using Cloud Computing Technology in Agricultural
Development”, IJISET ‐ International Journal of Innovative Science, Engineering &
Technology, ISSN 2348 – 7968, Vol. 2 Issue 3, March 2015, http://www.ijiset.com

400
 Adoption and Development of Tractor Operated Cassava
Harvester cum Lifter
Dr. Senthilkumar1 and Dr S.J.K. Annamalai2
1 2
Principal Scientist and Former Princil Scientist ICAR-CIAE-Regional Centre, Coimbatore (TN), India
Email : thasekumar@gmail.com

Abstract: In India, the cultivation of cassava is mainly done in Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh,
Nagaland, Meghalaya, Assam, etc. Tamil Nadu stands first both in area and production followed by
Kerala and Andhra Pradesh. The total area under tapioca in India is 216.66 thousand hectares and
the production is about 7319.13 thousand metric tons. The different field operations in cassava
cultivation are, stake cutting, planting, weeding & earthing up, irrigation, de topping, loosening the
roots and pulling up the plants, removing soil and separating the tubers, collecting the and loading
the tubers for transport. At present planting and harvesting is done manually. The harvesting is done
by loosening the soil first with crowbar, if the soil is compact and lifting the entire plant with tubers.
Before harvesting de topping has to be done manually using hand tools. The plant is pulled up gently
without dragging the roots. Dragging can cause bruises and cuts to root tubers which may lead to
early deterioration. This process requires around 60 man days /ha and is a tedious work. The
ultimate aim of mechanization is to eliminate most of the above operations. By considering above
the TNAU tractor operated cassava harvester was modified and developed with main frame, digging
unit, conveying unit, transmission system and cluster breaking system. The conveying system consists
of two endless gripper belt (counter rotating) of 3700 mm length. The power is transmitted from
tractor PTO to transmission gear box through universal shaft. The power is then transmitted from
gear box to conveying mechanism and cluster breaking blade through suitable belt drives. The
equipment when in operation attached to a 50 hp tractor digs a single ridge and lift the tubers from
the ground and convey to surface for manual collection. The cost of the prototype is Rs.80,000. The
Actual Field capacity of the planter is 0.23 ha h-1.The cost of operation of cassava planter is
Rs.2265/ha and it saves 82.0 per cent in cost when compared to manual harvesting.

Key words: Cassava Harvester, Performance, Conveyor

Introduction: According to FAO classification, Root and tuber crops form staple diet for three per
cent of the global population. Cassava is mostly used for human consumption in the African
continent and in the South America. Industrial utilization of cassava is prominent in Thailand,
Indonesia, Vietnam, India in the form of starch, sago, dried chips, flour etc. It is a crop of food
security in Kerala. By virtue of its diversified uses, it has become an important commercial crop in the
agricultural economy of states like Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh. The diverse use of cassava is the
major reason for the sustainability of the crop in the country in the context of increased income and
standard of living of the people. Though the processing and production centres for different value
added products from cassava viz., Starch, sago, chips, flour from chips, thippi, peel, sago wafers are
concentrated in South India, their marketing centres are distributed throughout the country,
especially in the western and northern parts.
Cassava is a perennial shrub which sometimes reaches the size of a small tree. It stems vary in
color from pale to dirty-white to brown marked by numerous nodes formed by scars left by fallen
leaves. Pale to dark-green leaves are fan-shaped, with 5 to 9 lobes. Roots of cassava plants are few
and shallow and some become storage roots. These are clustered around the base of the plant and
extend about 60 cm on all sides. It is for these roots, which contain 15 to 40 percent starch, that the
crop is cultivated. Under favourable conditions, a single root may weigh as much as four kg. The

401
number of roots per plant at harvest varies from 2 to 7 each averaging 27.7 to 43.3 cm long and from
4.5 to 7.4 cm in diameter.
In India, the cultivation of cassava is mainly done in Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh,
Nagaland, Meghalaya, Assam, etc. Tamil Nadu stands first both in area and production followed by
Kerala and Andhra Pradesh. The total area under tapioca in India is 216.66 thousand hectares and
the production is about 7319.13 thousand metric tonnes.
Cassava is also an important cash crop, especially in the state of Tamil Nadu where about 61% of
total cultivation under cassava is located; it is the raw material used for the industrial production of
starch and sago and caters to the needs of 1300 starch and sago factories, providing employment to
0.4-0.5 million people (Byju et al., 2010; Annon., 2012).
For the past three decades, India’s cassava production has not seen much significant change,
however yield continues to increase significantly, chiefly due to the use of improved cassava varieties
(Howeler, 2012). If this trend continues for the next decade, it is envisaged that labour constraints
will be shifted from land preparation to harvesting as is been experienced in most cassava growing
regions of Africa.
In Kerala, where currently about 31% of total production is obtained, cassava is domestically
produced mostly and used for human consumption, mostly after boiling or roasting of fresh roots, or
in the form of processed products such as sago (tapioca pearls), starch and a variety of snack foods
(Annon, 2012; Howeler, 2012).
The different field operations in cassava cultivation are, stake cutting, planting, weeding &
earthing up, irrigation, de topping, loosening the roots and pulling up the plants, removing soil and
separating the tubers, collecting the and loading the tubers for transport. At present harvesting is
done manually. The harvesting is done by loosening the soil first with crowbar, if the soil is compact
and lifting the entire plant with tubers. Before harvesting de topping has to be done manually using
hand tools. The plant is pulled up gently without dragging the roots. Dragging can cause bruises and
cuts to root tubers which may lead to early deterioration. This process requires around 60 man days
/ha and is a tedious work. The ultimate aim of mechanization is to eliminate most of the above
operations. The price of cassava is determined by the starch content. The farmers contract the entire
planting, harvesting and transport operations and the sales to the middleman and this leads to low
price for farmers. If suitable system is developed for harvest and transport of cassava, the farmer can
directly sell to the mill and get considerably higher price and profit. Currently few harvesters are in
use for digging of cassava. To solve the above problem adoption and development of cassava
harvester cum lifter proposed.
Research on de topping and harvesting
Field study was carried out at the Central Tuber Crops Research Institute (CTCRI) research
field (under upland mound method) and at Chenkal village on farmers’ fields (under lowland flat
method); both in the Kerala state of India (Shadrack etal., 2014). Harvesting was done using the
CTCRI lever, prototype harvester, hoe and manual uprooting (control) techniques. Results from the
study showed that the use of manual harvesting tools is preferable on relatively dryer soils, whereas
manual uprooting technique is best suited for soils with relatively higher moisture contents.
However, best efficiency of manual harvesting is achieved when cassava plants are coppiced before
harvesting. Also, cassava uprooting force requirement, to a greater extent is influenced by root tuber
yield, root depth and number of root tubers per plant, especially under upland mound land
preparation method. It is however recommended that a user performance assessment and economic
feasibility analysis of the prototype harvester and CTCRI lever be conducted with farmers to facilitate
future design modifications, where necessary and to support future adoption.
The Cassava Digging and Preparing Unit, and the Cassava Conveyor Unit were constructed
(Danuwat Thangdee and Seree Wongpichet, 2012). The Cassava Digging and Preparing Unit were
functional tested on three digging angles of 20, 25 and 30 degrees on the three randomized soil

402
moisture. The Cassava Conveying Unit was functional tested on six scooping speeds of 0.5, 1.0, 1.5,
2.0, 2.5 and 3.0 m/s. The field performance test of the prototype machine was evaluated. The
Digging and Preparing Unit found to be working on the angle of 20 degrees. The Conveyor Unit found
to be scooping with less than 1.5 m/s of speed. The field performance test were showed that: filed
capacity, field efficiency, and conveying losses were, 0.05 ha/hr., 59.10%, and 3.23% respectively
without any losses caused by digging and preparing process.

The developed harvester consists of main frame, shanks, digging blade, hitching frame and
depth adjustment wheels. It is designed for both two rows and single row operation. The shank was
designed as a bent leg plough with an angle of 150 deg to accommodate the dug cassava tubers. The
blade angle of 5 deg is provided for easy penetration in to the soil. The row spacing can be altered by
moving the shanks in the main frame. The depth wheels are provided to adjust the depth of
operation. The unit works well with double row in sandy soils and with single row in heavy soils at
optimum moisture content. The coverage was 0.08 ha/h for single row and 0.12 ha/h for double
row. The undug tuber was 2.5% and damage was less than 1%. The cost of operation of cassava
harvester is Rs.4472/ha and it saves 40 per cent cost when compared to manual harvesting
(Annon,2013).
Conceptual design
The conceptual design of tractor operated cassava harvester cum elevator includes the
following components
1. Digger assembly
2. Lifting and conveying assembly
3. Power Transmission system
4. Main frame with hitching system
Geometry of digger blade
The blades were mounted on three standards. The center standard was designed to carry a
pair of digger blade assembly. The standards were attached to the main frame by means of clamping
plates and hence the position of each standard can be adjusted separately. During two row digging,
the center, right and left bottoms are to be used while using as single row operation only the right
and left bottoms are to be used. The spacing between the bottoms can be adjusted as per the
requirement of crop and soil condition. The geometry of the digger blade is given in Table 1
Table .1 Geometry of the digger blade
Sl.No Parameter unit value
Share
1 Lift angle deg : 20
2 Width mm : 30
3 Length mm : 250
4 Thickness mm : 15
5 Mounting of share : Dovel pin
Sweep blade
6 Lift angle deg : 20
7 Sweep back angle deg : 30
8 Length mm : 200
9 Mounting : Bolted to mounting plate
10 Total lift available at the end of mm : 40
blade

Design of main frame

403
 The main frame was designed as a tubular structure to provide sufficient strength under
torsional stresses. The main frame provided for mounting the digger bottoms, the hitch frame and it
was designed as a beam structure with two parallel square tubes of section 75 mm x 75 mm x 6 mm
separated by a distance of 100 mm between centers. The two members were braced at ends. The
lower hitch brackets are welded to the frame and they also secure the two members together. The
mast is clamped to the frame. The hitch confirms to standard CAT-II hitch. The frame is designed to
ensure a clearance of 760 mm between the tip of the share and the bottom of the frame. The lower
hitch plate was designed to give this clearance in order to ensure free flow of the tubers dug by the
blade.
The frame designed for the digger is shown in Fig 1.

Fig.1. Frame for cassava digger

Design of standard
The standards for mounting the digger bottom were fabricated out of 16 mm mild steel
plate. The section of the standard was 16 mm x 150 mm. The standard was cranked with an offset of
130 mm. The standard was held between two angle members of size 75 mm x 75 mm x 12 mm. The
angle members were secured to the main frame by clamping bolts. The central standard was
designed as a inverted Y and it carries the digger blade assembly at both the terminus. The tip of the
pair of central shares was spaced 250 mm apart.

Fig. 2. Arrangement of digger

Lifting and conveying assembly
The conveying assembly consists of two frame, two endless conveying belt and tensioner
pulleys. Two numbers of frame of 1500 mm made of 75x40 mm C channel fabricated to hold the
404
endless conveying belts and tensioner pulleys. Two endless flat rubber belts were fabricated for
conveying the cassava stalks. Each three numbers of tensioner pulley of size 105 mm (OD) made of
MS were fabricated for both the conveying belts. The tensioner pully was attached to the conveying
frame through the 200 mm length two flat MS pieces of size 200x 50x 12 mm. The gap between the
two conveying belt can be easily adjusted based on the cassava stake size by adjusting the tensioner
pulleys.

Fig. 3. Conveyor assembly

Power transmission system
The transmission system consists of universal shaft, gear boxes and belt and pulley drive.
The power from the tractor PTO is transmitted to the primary gear box through universal joint and
again power transmitted from primary gear box to secondary gear box through universal joint. From
the secondary gear box power is transmitted to the two conveying belts through belt and pulley
drive. The secondary gearbox consists of two sets of bevel gears to give power to the two conveying
belts.
All the designed individual parts were fabricated using standard manufacturing techniques
and assembled together to get the final prototype. The final prototype was test verified for its
functionality. The different views of the developed units are given in Fig. 4.

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 Fig.4. Tractor operated Cassava Harvester cum lifter
Field evaluation of cassava harvester cum lifter
The tractor operated cassava harvester cum lifter was evaluated for single row. The field
trials (Fig.5) were conducted at farmers’ field near Rasipuram, Namakkal district, Tamil Nadu.

Fig. 5 Field operation of cassava harvester cum lifter

The results of the various trials conducted at different locations are given in table 2. All the
trials were conducted with Mulluvadi (MVD) variety cultivated prominently in Tamil Nadu.

Table 2 Performance of tractor operated cassava harvester

Sl.No. Parameter Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Trial 4 Trial 5
I Single row operation
1. Location of trial Farmers Field at Paichal village, Namakkal district
2. Variety MVD MVD MVD MVD MVD
3. Soil type Red soil Red Red Red soil Red sandy
loam
4. Moisture content, % 18.0 16.0 18.0 15.6 14.8
5. Area harvested, ha 0.5 0.3 0.5 0.2 0.4
6. Operational speed of the 1.5 1.4 1.5 1.5 1.4
machine, km/h
406
 7. Depth of operation, m 0.40 0.38 0.39 0.39 0.40
8. Field capacity, ha/h 0.21 0.24 0.22 0.22 0.24
9. Effective digging width, 0.75 0.75 0.45 0.45 0.45
m
10. Per cent of dug tubers 97.5 97.3 97.4 97.8 97.3
11. Per cent of un dug 2.5 2.7 2.6 2.2 2.7
tubers
12. Percent of damage 0.08 0.09 0.10 0.09 0.12
13. Field efficiency, % 80 85 80 80 80
14. Conveying efficiency 98.0 97.5 96.5 98.0 98.5
15. Fuel consumption, l/h 4.5 4.3 4.5 4.4 4.5

Conclusion: The developed unit consists of main frame, digging unit, conveying unit, transmission
system and cluster breaking system. The conveying system consists of two endless gripper belt
(counter rotating). The power is transmitted from tractor PTO to transmission gear box through
universal shaft. The power is then transmitted from gear box to conveying mechanism and cluster
breaking blade through suitable belt drives. The equipment when in operation attached to a 50 hp
tractor digs a single ridge and lift the tubers from the ground and convey to surface for manual
collection. The cost of the tractor operated cassava harvester is Rs.80000/-. The Actual field capacity
of the harvester is 0.23 ha h-1 .The cost of operation of cassava harvester is Rs.1912/ha and it saves
80.80 per cent in cost when compared to manual harvesting. The cost benefit ratio and payback
period of developed harvester worked out are 2.68 and 5.63 year respectively.

References

Annon, 2012. Central Tuber Crops Research Institute – CTCRI. 2012. Description of
Recommended/Released Varieties under AICRP on Tuber Crops. Technical bulletin series No. 51.
Trivandrum, India.
Anon , 2013. Progress report of AICRP on Farm Implements and Machinery scheme, TNAU,
Coimbatore
Byju, G., R. R. Ravindran, and V. R. Nair. 2010. Tillage and planting methods on soil properties, yield,
root rot and nutrient uptake in a continuously grown cassava field in a semi-arid Vertisol of
India. Advances in Horticultural Science, 24(3): 176-182.
Danuwat Thangdee and Seree Wongpichet, 2012. Development of Cassava Digger and Conveyor
Units, American Journal of Experimental Agriculture, 2(3): 458-469, 2012
Howeler, R. H. 2012. Recent trends in production and utilization of cassava in Asia. In: The Cassava
Handbook, ed. R.H. Howeler, Centro Internationa de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT), 1-22. A
Reference Manual based on the Asian Regional Cassava Training Course, held in Thailand, 2011.
Shadrack Kwadwo Amponsah, J. Thajudhin Sheriff , Gangadharan Byju, 2014. Comparative evaluation
of manual cassava harvesting techniques in Kerala, India. Agric Eng Int: CIGR Journal, Vol. 16,
No.2 41-52.

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 Rural Women Empowerment through processing and value addition of
Minor Millets
D. Shashikala Bai, K. Amaresh Kumar, G. Chaithra, and Sagar S. Pujar
College of Horticulture, Hiriyur-577598
University of Agricultural and Horticultural Sciences, Shivamogga, India
Email : shashikala.bai@gmail.com

Abstract: Women is supreme inspiration of man’s onward march. Women share abundant
responsibility and perform a wide spectrum of duties in running the family; she involved in various
aspects of agriculture and gainfully employed in other farm related activities. Even farm women
involved in farward linkage activities importantly preparation of value added products. Millets are
the important ingredient of household food security and nutrition particularly in draught areas as the
millets are harvested well even in the substantial low rains. The farmers of Chitradurga district are
predominantly grow millet crops. The district is popularly known as “millet bowl” of Karnataka. In
view of this the study aims to know the area of millets production in Chitradurga district and avenues
for preparation of value added products in different millet crops.

The study focused on empowerment of rural women through entrepreneurial activities from women
SHG’s constituted by small farmers and landless labourers of Vanivilasapura and Gowdrahatti villages
of Chitradurga district. Empowerment of women was undertaken through training and
demonstrations carried out in a participatory mode. The training was imparted for preparation of
value added products in millet crops viz., finger millet (malt and cookies), foxtail millet (Cookies,
Rusk, malt, chakkuli, nippattu), Little millet (Cookies, malt, chakkuli, nippattu and ladu). For these
products emphasis was given to quality control, packing in different methods even facility created to
marketing of the product. The SHG groups showed interest to continue this activity. This brings new
arena in rural women SHG groups and begins to startup as entrepreneurial activity. These
employment creation activities enable them to bet opportunities in their vicinity. The continuous
earnings among the rural women will increase their living standards. The nutritive value of the family
members will increase, the entrepreneurial activities can promote from preparation of value added
activities from millet crops.

Keywords: Entrepreneurship, Millets, Value addition, SHG, Training

Introduction: Rural women always play an important role in the society. Though her role in the
society is very important, the rural women are often physically visible but conceptually invisible and
remained marginalized. The best way to make optional use of human resource is to provide them
opportunities for self-development through training, which improves the existing knowledge and
skill, enhances capability, and improves the competency to meet the challenges of the society and
technology (Meera et al., 2001).

The existence of women in a state of economical, political, social and knowledge dis-empowerment
is known to be a major hindrance to economic development. Without the power to work and earn
good income, their voices are silenced. Economic independence or access to an inherited or self
generated income is considered as the major means of empowerment of women.

Millets grains substantial benefits as a draught resistant crop, yield good productivity in the areas
with water scarcity, possesses remarkable edible, nutritive values and ease of processing and food
manufacturing. Millets being small seeds, contain large proportions of husk and bran, which require
dehusking and debraning prior to consumption (Hulse et al., 1980). Despite their nutritional

408
superiority, utilization of millets is restricted due to non-availability of processed millets in ready to
eat form. Hence, millets are confined to traditional consumers and to the people of lower strata.
Although, a majority of the millet production (80.00%) is used for human food. Millets are being used
as animal and bird feed. Millets contain major and minor nutrients in remarkable amount. (Sarita et
al., 2016)

Nutritional quality of food is the most important parameter for maintaining human health and
complete physical well being. Since nutritional well being is the driving force for development and
maximization of human genetic potential. Diversification of food production must be encouraged
both at national and households level in tandem with increasing yields and households techniques.
Some of the agricultural foods are not using as human staple food because of unawareness of
people, millets are one of them. Millets has many nutritional and medicinal values. These are
underutilized and neglected because of little knowledge to people and some critical problems like
lower cooking quality, taste and low bioavailability. These problems can be solved and make them
valuable as food for poor families to combat malnutrition and important source of income. (Sarita et
al 2016).
The micro entrepreneurships are strengthening the women empowerment and remove gender
inequalities. Self Help Group’s micro credit mechanism makes the member to involve in other
community development activities. Micro credit is promoting the small scale business enterprises
and its major aim is to alleviate poverty by income generating activities among women and poor.
Therefore, they could achieve self-sufficiency.

Materials and Methods: The methodology involved quantitative as well as qualitative assessment
conducted in two villages Vanivilasapura, Hiriyur taluk and Gowdrahatti, challakere taluk of
Chitradurga district. These villages purposively selected because of women SHG groups in these
villages were involved in preparation of value added products. Hence, based on the survey these
villages were selected and the work was carried out during 2017-18 in the framework of a research
project entitled “Processing and Value addition Technology of Millets” funded by the University of
Agricultural and Horticultura Sciences (UAHS), Shivamogga. The work encompassed 6 SHGs each
group comprising of 29-30 women. The quantitative data was collected with the help of structured
schedule through personal interview. The schedule included questions relating to the family income,
entrepreneurial skills, savings and loan schemes available to SHG members. Secondary information
was collected from books, ledger and registers maintained by SHGs. The data on socioeconomic
status included the age, education level of family, family size, occupation, land holdings and family
income.

The training programmes of the project concentrated on processing and value addition technologies
of small millets. All togetehr, 180 SHG members were trained of which 60 were selected for detailed
skill development in processing of value added products. In millets the intensive value added product
trials were both on and off campus were conducted on suitable products. These products having
potential for income generation among women groups and to facilitate enterprise building by the
SHG women. Further, training was also imparted to these women on processing of their own product
i.e., pre-cleaning, destoning, dehulling actitvites of finger millet, foxtail millet and little millet,
packaging, labeling and marketing of the ready-to-use millet rice. The importance of value addition in
these products was also given to the SHGs, awareness program on handling, labeling and marketing
of the product was emphasized to women SHG members.

Results and Discussion

Socio-demographic profile of the women SHG members: The Socio-demographic profile of members
of the SHGs is presented in table 1. The age profile indicated that the SHG members belonging to the
age group of 31-36 years formed the largest class (41.70%) followed by that of 37-42 years (31.70%).

409
With regard to literacy, 16.60% of members were illiterate, 25.00% had primary school level literacy
and 6.7% had PUC education. The occupation pattern indicated that majority of them were labours
largely involved in crop cultivation and dairy activities. Majority of the rural women are having two
children (66.60%) and the family size was 2-4 members in 88.40% of the samples. The result also
showed that 81.60% of families were nuclear.
Table: 1-The socio-demographic profile of the women SHG members
Respondents
Variables Category
Number Percentage
Age 19-24 6 10.00
25-30 10 16.60
31-36 25 41.70
37-42 19 31.70
Education Illiterate 10 16.60
Primary 15 25.00
Secondary 12 20.00
High school 19 31.70
PUC 04 6.70

Occupation House Wife 20 33.40

Laborer 40 66.60
Type of family Nuclear 49 81.60
Joint 11 18.40

Family size 2-4 members 53 88.40

5-7 members 07 11.60

Number of Children One 15 25.00

Two 40 66.60
Three and Above 5 8.40

Empowerment of SHG Members through Training and Demonstration: After analyzing the status of
rural poor women in terms of usage of millets by SHG members and their families, interventions
were undertaken by the research project of UAHS, Shivamogga aimed at empowering these groups
through enhancement of their capacities in processing and value addition technologies of millets.
The different training methods employed and efforts had made to improve and their degree of
preference by SHG’s are presented in Table 2.
Table: 2-Training methods preferred by SHG women
Training method Percentage of preference
Demonstrations 98
Lecture with project aids 89
Video film 88
Exhibitions 80
Field visit 65

Training activities organized through the project included lecture-cum-demonstration related to

processing and value added products of finger millet, foxtail millet and little millet involving
processing for home consumption

410
Small millets are dominant grain crops in the target areas. Major portion of the millet harvested is
marketed without dehusking and value addition.

Sale of the Value-added products: The value added products were sold to government primary
school of Vanivilasapura, UG Boys Hostle College of Horticulture, Hiriyur and even in the krishimela
(farmers fair) 2018 at the UAHS Campus, Shivamogga Krishi mela 2018 at Babbur Farm, Hiriyur, even
products have been sold in Retail shops in HiriyurChitradurga district, District level Organic and Millet
mela 2018 held atChitradurga, International Organic and Millet Mela during the year 2019 held at
Bangalore. Value added products were also sold in General stores and Health care centres under the
brand name of Sri AtmaGruhaUtpannagalu.

Economics of Processing and Value addition of Millets: The SHG’s were trained in processing and
value addition of finger millet, foxtail millet and little Millet which includespre cleaning, destoning,
dehusking, milling, packaging and labeling. UASH Shivamogga provided the necessary technical
support as well as provided market linkages for these products. The products being marketed with
little margin (Rs. 300/kg Siri malt), (Rs 280/kg Navane malt)(Rs 250/kg Navanechakkuli). The price on
an average, the net income generated by the SHG is shown in table 3. Economics of Siri malt, table 4.
Economics of Navane malt, table 5. Economics of NavaneChakkuli. The calculation of cost of
production and income was made for 3000 kg per annum for Siri malt and Navane malt and 2500 kg
for Navanechakkuli. The market demand is expanded with consistency in quality, timely delivery and
suitable market promotion.

Table:3- Economics of Siri Malt production

Particulars Amount (Rs.)

Variable cost (raw material+fuel+labour+10% interest) 3,00,000

Fixed cost (depreciation of equipment+interest)
Space rental (750/month)
Total cost of production 3000 kg/annum 1,800
Gross income (300×3000) 9,000
Net Income (GI-TE) 3,10,800
B:C ratio 9,00,000
5,89,200
2.89 (benefit of
two rupee 89 paisa
for every rupee
spent)

411
 Table: 4- Economics of Navane Malt production
Particulars Amount (Rs.)

Variable cost (raw material+fuel+labour+10% interest) 2,80,000

Fixed cost (depreciation of equipment+interest)
Space rental (750/month)
Total cost of production 3000 kg/annum 1,800
Gross income (300×3000) 9,000
Net Income (GI-TE) 2,90,800
B:C ratio 8,40,400
5,49,200
2.88 (benefit of two
rupee 88 paisa for every
rupee spent)

Table 5. Economics of NavaneChakkuli production

Particulars Amount (Rs.)

Variable cost (raw material+fuel+labour+10% interest) 1,80,000

Fixed cost (depreciation of equipment+interest)
Space rental (750/month)
Total cost of production 3000 kg/annum 1,200
Gross income (300×3000) 9,000
Net Income (GI-TE) 1,90,200
B:C ratio 6,25,000
4,34,800
3.28 (benefit of three
rupee 28 paisa for every
rupee spent)

The study emphasized on creation of entrepreneurial activities of rural women. It is evident

that as a result of the interventions, self confidence, the skill and leadership quality enhanced
through the training and demonstrations given to the SHG members.

Conclusion: The study shed more light on the role played by SHGs in promoting socio-economic
empowerment of women in rural areas through a more effective use of local millets and its products.
The analysis has confirmed the strategic role that such types of interventions can play in rural and
urban situations where women are too often marginalized in income generation activities and
dicision making processes. As a result of capacity building interventions to enhance skills in value
addition, SHG women were able to generate substantial income and use this towards their own
family welfare developments. The training interventions by the University played strategic role in
increasing self confidence of SHGs in undertaking small scale food processing of value added
products of millets at the village level.

The important binding of the study was that it is indeed possible to improve women
livelihood using local crops such as small millets which have the potential to contribute to enhance
both incomes as well as nutrition security of people, particularly in poor and marginal areas where
they have recognized advantages in terms of higher adaptation and resilience. This will motivate
other rural women to engage in micro entrepreneurship with the right assistance and they can
strength their capacities besides adding to the family income and stabilize livelihood.

412
References

Meera, S., Sunitha, M. and Shobha, R., 2001, Training needs of rural women. The Ind. J. Extn. Edu., 1:
92-94.

Sowmya, N., Narasimha, and Pushpa, P., 2012, Study on entrepreneurial behavior of rural women in
Karanataka. Mys J. Agric, Sci.,46(2): 352-353

Saritha and Ekta Singh, 2016, Potential of Millets: Nutrients Composition and Health Benefits. Journal
of Scientific and Innovative Research., 5(2): 46-50.

413
 Physical Properties of Foxtail Millet (Setariaitalica L): Variety- HMT100-1
D. Shashikala Bai, K. Amaresh Kumar, Sagar S. Pujar and Chaithra G.
College of Horticulture, Hiriyur, University of Agricultural and Horticultural Sciences
Shivamogga, Karnataka, India
Email: shashikala.bai@gmail.com

Abstract: Millets grains have substantial benefits as a draught resistant crop. Yield good productivity
in the areas with water scarcity, possesses remarkable edible, nutritive values and ease of processing
and food manufacturing.Millets being small seeds, contain large proportions of husk and bran.It
requires dehusking and debraning prior to consumption (Hulse et al., 1980). Engineering properties
of foxtail millets are those which are useful and necessary for the design and the operation of various
processing equipments. The mean value obtained for physical properties of foxtail millet such as
length (mm), lateral diameter(mm), bulk density (kg/m3), true density (kg/m3) and porosity were
1.90±0.015, 1.60±0.019, 1150±5.17 and 29±1.2, respectively. The angle of repose mean value
obtained was 28004’. The weight of 1000 grains (whole grains) and dehulled grains were 2.81 g and
2.09 g respectively. The shape of the grain found as spheroid.

Key words: Engineering Properties,Foxtail Millet, PhysicalProperties, Processing equipment’s.

Introduction: Millets grains have substantial benefits as a draught resistant crop, yield good
productivity in the areas with water scarcity, possesses remarkable edible, nutritive values and ease
of processing and food manufacturing. Millets are the important ingredient of household food
security and nutrition particularly in draught years as the millets are harvested well even in the
substantial low rains. Millets being small seeds, contain large proportions of husk and bran, which
require dehusking and debraning prior to consumption (Hulse et al., 1980). Despite their nutritional
superiority, utilization of millets are restricted due to non-availability of processed millets in ready to
eat form. Hence, millets are confined to traditional consumers and believed that used by people of
lower strata. Although, a majority of the millet production (80.00%) is used for human food, Millets
are being used as animal and bird feed.Itcontains major and minor nutrients in remarkable amount.
(Sarita et al., 2016)
In the world, as a whole, millet occupy an area of about 37710 thousand hectares
with a total productionof 25982 metric tonnes. The major countries growing millets include India
(area: 1.47 Mha; production: 1.033 Mt), Nigeria (area: 0.35 Mha; production: 0.36 Mt), China (area:
0.18 Mha production: 0.30 Mt), Sudan (area: 0.29 Mha; production 0.078 Mt) and Russian federation
(area: 0.10 Mha; production 0.048 Mt) (FAO, 1994).
Foxtail millet (Setariaitalica) is commonly known as Navane in kannnada, is one of the important
small millets grown in this country. In India, foxtail millet cultivation is confined mainly to the states
of Karnataka (49%), Orissa (11%), Maharastra (16%), Tamilnadu (9%) and Andrapradesh(7%). In
Karnataka, area and production of foxtail millet are 42436 ha and 14001 tonnes, respectively (Anon.,
2004).
Knowledge of the engineering properties are important, useful and necessary in the design of
processes, machines, structures and controls. These properties are used in analyzing and determining
the efficiency of the machine and operation or process as well as determining quality or studying the
behavior of the product during agricultural processing unit operations. Basic information on these
engineering properties are of great importance and help engineers towards efficient process and
equipment development. Development of a dehulling-cum-polishing machine eliminates laborious
processing operation and drudgery that exist in hand pounding normally done by rural woman. Well
designed machine improves dehulling efficiency, reduce breakage and the byproducts of milling can
be obtained in pure form for further utilization.Considering the importance of designing a dehusking

414
machine for foxtail millet this study was taken to determine the physical properties of foxtail millet
(var. HMT 100-1) at moisture content 9.9% (wb).

Materials and Methods: To study the physical properties of foxtail millets, millets was procured from
the farmer of Hiriyur, Chitradurga district, with an initial moisture content of 9.9 % (wb). The
selected foxtail millet variety was HMT 100-1. The important physical properties studied were: grain
size, shape, length, bulk density, true density, porosity, and angle of repose.
[[Size:The size of foxtail millet grain was determined by using a vernier caliper having a least count of
0.01 mm. A sample of 50 seeds was randomly selected. The length and diameter of the individual
grains were measured and the corresponding mean values were determined (Mohesenin, 1986).

Bulk density: Bulk density of foxtail millet was determined by using a bulk density box having a
volume of 1 liter. The samples of foxtail millet grain were filled into the box and the top was leveled
off. The grains were then weighed using a precision electronic balance. The bulk density was
calculated using the formula (Mohsenin, 1986)
Bulk density (kg/m3) = weight of grains (kg)
Volume of grains including pore space (m3)
True density: The apparatus used for measuring true density of foxtail millet consisted of a 100 ml
measuring jar and a weighing balance. 50 ml of toluene was taken in the measuring jar. A known
weight of grain sample was poured into the measuring jar and the rise in toluene level was recorded
as the true volume of the grain sans void space. The true density of the grain was calculated by using
the formula (Mohesenin, 1986):
True density (kg/m3) = Weight of grains ( kg )
Volume of grains excluding void space (m3)
Porosity: Porosity of the foxtail millet grain was calculated from the bulk density and true density
values (that were found earlier) by using the following formula (Mohesenin, 1986):
Porosity, (%) = 1- BD × 100
TD
Where,
BD = Bulk density kg/m3
TD = true density, kg/m3
Angle of repose: It is angle between base and slope of the cone formed on a free vertical fall of
grains on to a horizontal plane. It was determined by following the procedure described by (Sahay
and Singh, 1994). From the height and diameter of the grain heaped in natural piles, the angle of
repose was calculated as:
ᵠ = tan-1 (2H/D)
Where,
ᵠ = angle of repose,
H = height of the pile, m
D = base diameter of the pile, m
Weight of 1000 whole grains: Thousand grains were randomly selected and weighed using an
electronic balance with an accuracy of 0.1 g (Ghadge and Prasad, 2012).
Weight of 1000 dehulled grains: Thousand dehulled grains were randomly selected and weighed
using an electronic balance with an accuracy of 0.1 g (Ghadge and Prasad, 2012).

Results and Discussion: The results of physical properties are presented in Table 1. The shape of the
foxtail millet variety HMT 100-1 was found to be spheroid and the mean value of individual foxtail
millet length was 1.90 mm. The mean lateral diameter of foxtail millet was 1.52 mm. The average
thousand grain weight of foxtail millet was 2.81 grams and the average of thousand dehulled grains
was found to be 2.09 grams respectively. The mean value of bulk density of foxtail millet was 820
kg/m3 and the true density was 1150 kg/m3 and the porosity was found to be 29 %. The density

415
values of grains are used in design of storage bins and silos, separation of desirable materials from
impurities, cleaning and grading, evaluation of the grain maturity etc.
The mean value of angle of repose of foxtail millet was 280 04’. The angle of repose is
important for determining the maximum angle of a pile of grain in the horizontal plane, and is
important in the filling of flat storage facilities.The size, shape, moisture content and orientation of
the grains affect the angle of repose.
Conclusion: The engineering properties of foxtail millet (HMT 100-1) were measured at 9.9% (wb).
The mean values obtained for length and lateral diameter were 1.90 and 1.52 mm respectively. The
shape of foxtail millet was spheroid. The average value for bulk density, true density, porosity was
820 kg/m3, 1150 kg/m3, 29 % respectively. The angle of repose mean value was 280 04’.The average
value of 1000 whole grains and weight of 1000 dehulled grains were 2.81 g and 2.09 g respectively.
Which are comparable to the values obtained by Tippeswamy, 2006, he has determined some of the
engineering properties of foxtail millet (SIA 2642 variety). The properties of the millets vary with
varietal difference, moisture content and agronomical conditions it is grown (Konak et al., 2002),
which may result in significant variation in the processing of the millets.
These properties can be used for the design of equipments for handling and processing of
foxtail millet grain. Development of a dehulling machine eliminates laborious processing operation
and drudgery that exist in hand pounding, normally done by rural women. The processing activity will
give a boost to rural/tribal economy, which is a difficult proposition to achieve at present, and most
importantly, it gives food and nutritional security to the poorest of the poor. The physical properties
are important in designing particular equipment or determining the behavior of the product for its
handling.
The foxtail millet has husk and bran over the edible endosperm. The husk in these grains is
closely and strongly attached to the endosperm compared to rice. These properties are very much
essential to develop mechanical dehusking machines and to get head rice yield and to reduce
breakage and the byproducts of milling can be obtained in pure form for further utilization.
Table-1: Physical properties of foxtail millet

Property Mean Value

Shape Spheroid

Length (mm) 1.90±0.015

Lateral diameter (mm) 1.52±0.019

Bulk density (kg/m3) 820±2.70

True density (kg/m3) 1150±5.17

Porosity (%) 29±1.2

Angle of repose (deg.) 280 04’

Weight of 1000 whole grain 2.81g

Weight of 1000 dehulled grain 2.09 g

416
References

Anju, T. and Sarita, S., 2010, Suitablity of foxtail millet(Setaria italic) and barnyard millet
(Echinochloafrumentacea) for development of low glycemic index biscuits. Mal. J. Nut.,16(3):
361-368.

Anonymous, 2004, Fully Revised Estimates of Principle Crops in Karnataka for the year 2001-02.
Bulletins DES/54/2004, Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Bangalore.

Balasubramanian, S. and Viswanathan, R., 2010, Influence of moisture content on physical properties
of minor millets. J. Food Sci technol., 47(3): 279-284.

Hulse, J.H., E. M. Liang and O.E. Pearson (1980) Sorghum and the Millets: Their Composition and
Nutritive Value. New York Academic Press. 199p.

Konak, M., K. Carman and C. Aydin, 2002. Postharvest technology: physical properties of chick pea
seeds. Biosys. Eng., 82(1): 73-78.

Mohsenin, N.N. 1986. Physical properties of plant and animal materials, 2nd edition. Gordon and
Breach Science Publishers, New York

Ojediran, J.O., Adamu, M.A. and Jim, D.L., 2010, Some physical properties of pearl millet
(Pennisetumglaucum) seeds as a function of moisture content. Afr. J. Gen. Agric.,6(1).

Ramappa, K.T., Batagurki, S.B., Karegoudar, A.V. and Sharanakumar, H., 2011, Study on physical
properties of finger millet. Inter J. Agric Engg.,4(1): 13-15.

Saritha and Ekta Singh, 2016, Potential of Millets: Nutrients Composition and Health Benefits. Journal
of Scientific and Innovative Research., 5(2): 46-50.

Singh, K.P., Mishra, H.N. and Saha, S., 2010, Moisture-dependent properties of barnyard millet grain
and kernel. J. Food Engg.,96: 598-606

Swami, S.S. and Swami, S.B. 2010. Physical properties of finger millet (Eleusinecoracana)
International journal of Agricultural Engineering, 3(1): 156-160

Tippeswamy, S.N., 2006, Studies on processing technology and identification of suitable dehusking
machine for foxtail millet. M.Tech Thesis, UAS, Bangalore.

417
 Climate change risk management through Agricultural Mechanization
Shiddanagouda Yadachi
Assistant Professor (Agricultural Engineering), College of Horticulture Engineering and Food
Technology, Devihosur, UHS Bagalkot, Karnataka, India
Email : shiddu86@gmail.com

Abstract: Climate change consequences are currently being experienced in physical and ecological
systems. India is the country wherein over 65 per cent of population is dependent on farming for
their livelihood. Country is already experiencing changes in climate including water stress, heat
waves, drought, floods and severe storms etc. Climate change is largely causing problems by
accumulation of GHG emissions to the atmosphere which in turn leading to mean temperature of
earth. Climate change is severely affecting the country’s food production. To overcome the situation,
adaptation is increasingly being observed in both physical and ecological systems as well as in human
adjustments to resource availability.This paper reviews global scenario of climate change, impacts of
climate on various fields, sources of green house gas emissions from agriculture, the nature of
adaptation mechanization technologies for mitigation. There are opportunities in the agriculture
sector to mitigate and overcome the emission of GHGs to the least extent through various practices.
One such technique is to deploy precision mechanization technologies to help reduce emissions to
atmosphere.

Key words: Climate Change, Global Warming, GHG, Emission

Introduction: Globally, climate change is the most severe environmental threat that adversely affects
agricultural productivity (Anete and Amusa, 2010). According to inter-governmental panel on climate
change (IPCC), climate change refers to any change in climate over time, due to natural variability or
as a result of human activity. Climate change largely caused by accumulation of greenhouse gases
(GHGs) in the atmosphereresulting in increased greenhouse effect. Climate change and agriculture
are interrelated components, both of which take place on a global scale and their relationship is of
particular importance as the imbalance between world population and world food production
increases. Based on some projections, changes in temperature, rainfall and severe weather events
are expected to reduce crop yield in many regions world (Gornall, et al., 2010). The impact and
consequences of climate change for agriculture tend to be more severe for countries with higher
initial temperatures, areas with degraded lands (Kean et al., 2009). On the other hand, various
studies indicate that current agricultural activities are a significant source of GHGs that aggravate
climate disruption (Parvatha P R, 2014). The practice of agriculture is very different between
developing and developed counties, which results in variation of agricultural contribution to climate
change. In developing countries, GHG emission from agriculture sector is much more because of
large number of cattle and inadequate manure management, improper use of agro-chemicals and
mismanagement of the land. In turn, CC impact becomes more serious in developing countries due to
their dependence is on agriculture.
India is both a major greenhouse gas emitter and one of the most vulnerable countries in the
world to projected climate change. The country is already experiencing changes in climate and the
impacts of climate change, including water stress, heat waves and drought, severe storms and
flooding, and associated negative consequences on health and livelihoods. With a 1.2 billion but
mounting population and dependence on agriculture, India probably will be rigorously impacted by
continuing climate change. Global climate projections, given inherent uncertainties, indicate several
changes in India’s future climate: Global observations of melting glaciers suggest that climate change
is well under way in the region, with glaciers receding at an average rate of 10–15 meters per year. If
the rate increases, flooding is likely in river valleys fed by these glaciers, followed by diminished

418
flows, resulting in water scarcity for drinking and irrigation. A warming of 0.5°C is likely over all India
by the year 2030 and a warming of 2-4°C by the end of this century, with the maximum increase over
northern India. Increased warming is likely to lead to higher levels of tropospheric ozone pollution
and other air pollution in the major cities. Increased precipitation⎯including monsoonal rains⎯islikely
to come in the form of fewer rainy days but more days of extreme rainfall events, with increasing
amounts of rain in each event, leading to significant flooding. Drizzle-type precipitation that
replenishes soil moisture is likely to decrease. Most global models suggest that the Indian summer
monsoons will intensify. The timing may also shift, causing a drying during the late summer growing
season. Growing emissions of aerosols from energy production and other sources may suppress
rainfall, leading to drier conditions with more dust and smoke from the burning of drier vegetation,
affecting both regional and global hydrological cycles and agricultural production. Uncertainties
about monsoonal changes will affect farmers’ choices about which crops to plant and the timing of
planting, reducing productivities.
Impacts of climate change on different sectors: The most important impacts of climate change will
likely include the following:
Agriculture: High-input, high-output agriculture will be negatively affected even as demands for food
and other agricultural products rise because of an increasing population and expectations for an
improved standard of living. Millions of subsistence and smallholder farmers will experience
adversity and hunger through being less able to predict climate conditions.
Water: Glacier melt may yield more runoff in the short term but less in the medium and long terms.
More severe storms (especially cyclones) will cause more damage to infrastructure and livelihoods
and exacerbate salt water intrusion in storm surges. Changes in the timing and amount of monsoon
rains will make the production of food and other agricultural products more uncertain, so that, even
in good-weather years, farmers will be more likely to make decisions leading to lower-productivity.
Exacerbation of Inequality: The welfare of those who are affected by climate change and who have
limited means to adapt may act as a force that can change governments, strain public budgets, and
foster unrest. About one-third of Indians are extremely poor, and 60 percent depend upon
agriculture for their livelihoods.
Energy: As India searches for additional sources of energy to meet rising demand, climate change
mitigation efforts may constrain its use of indigenous and imported coal, oil, and gas, while
development of nuclear energy will be slow at best and likely to encounter opposition. Other non-
emitting technologies will require technology transfer and capacity-building.
Climate change affects agriculture in a number of ways; including through changes in average
temperatures; rainfall and climate extremes with an important impact on soil erosion (i.e. floods,
drought, etc): changes in pests and diseases, changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide, changes in the
nutritional quality of some foods, changes in growing season, and changes in sea level [World Bank
data, 2008]. Crop yields show a strong correlation with temperature change and with the duration of
heat or cold waves, and differ based on plant maturity stages during extreme weather events
[Hoffmann, 2013]. Indirectly, a change in temperature and moisture levels may lead to a change in
the absorption rate of fertilizers and other minerals, which determine yield output. Climate change
currently decreases the yield of maize, rice, wheat, potatoes and vegetables and continue to reduce
seriously by 2050 globally [Ignaciuk and Mason-D'Croz, 2014]. Climate change is also likely to affect
the livestock sector both by affecting the quantity and quality of feed and by affecting the frequency
and severity of extreme climate events.Generally, food production is likely to decline in most critical
regions (e.g. subtropical and tropical areas), whereas agriculture in developed countries may actually
benefit where technology is more available and if appropriate adaptive adjustments are employed.

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Table 1. Sources of GHG emissions from Agriculture
S. No SOURCES OF EMISSIONS %
1 Enteric fermentation 43%
Ruminants (e.g., Cattle, sheep, goats, water buffalo) emit CH4 directly as a byproduct
of digestion
2 Manure deposited on grazing land 16%
Manure and urine that falls on grazing lands causes N2O emissions
3 Synthetic fertilizers 15%
N2O emissions from soils resulting from large amounts of nitrogen fertilizer added to
crops
4 Rice production 11%
Most rice production systems results in CH4 emissions from anaerobic
decomposition on flooded fields. This fraction represents CH4 emissions from rice
only. N2O emissions from fertilizers are counted in ‘synthetic fertilizers’.
5 Stored manure 7%
Livestock manure and urine cause both CH4 emissions through increased
decomposition in wet storage systems, as well as N2O emissions in dry storage
systems.
6 Crop residues 3%
Crop residues that remain on agricultural lands are a source of N2O.
7 Manure deposited on crop lands 2%
Manure is another source of nitrogen fertilizer for crops, resulting in N2O emissions
8 Cultivation of organic soils 2%
N2O emitted from drained organic soils.
Source: FAOSTAT 2010

On the other side, agricultural sector has large potential to mitigate and adapt climate
change. According to IPCC, mitigation is an intervention to reduce the emissions sources or enhance
the GHG sinks, whereas adaptation is the adjustment in natural or human systems in response to
actual or expected climatic change or their effects, to reduce harm or exploit beneficial
opportunities. Sustainable and organic agricultural systems can help reduce agricultural GHG
emissions through energy conservation, lower levels of carbon-based inputs, lower use of synthetic
fertilizer and other features that minimize GHG emissions and sequester carbon in the soil. During
mitigation and adaptation of climate change through different agricultural activities, there might be
many challenges or barriers such as financial, policy and implementation barrier etc. In general,
Agricultural activity could be a source of GHGs as well as a sink, notably through the storage of
carbon in the soil organic matter and in biomass and influenced by climate change.
Climate Smart Agriculture: Farmers, particularly small farmers, have always been dependent on mild
weather to raise crops and livestock and be food-secure. Today, with violent and erratic weather
events becoming more widespread as the effects of climate change manifest themselves with
increasing frequency, smallholder production systems are in danger of becoming ever more
uncertain. The global rise of interest in climate-smart agriculture is a direct consequence of this
situation, as is the need to reduce GHG emissions. The most important techniques for mitigation of
GHG emission in the agriculture are: conservation agriculture and mechanization of conservation
agriculture.
Conservation agriculture is a tool for farming that seeks to increase food security, alleviate
poverty, conserve biodiversity and safeguard ecosystem. Conservation agriculture practices can also
contribute to making agricultural systems more resilient to climate change. In many cases,
conservation agriculture has been proven to reduce farming system’s greenhouse gas emissions and

420
enhance their role as carbon sinks. However, the general principles will still apply and will be
common to the local adaptations in both regions. These general principles are as follows:
Minimal soil disturbance and Enhancing soil carbon sequestration: Direct seeding and planting is
the goal and the mouldboard or disc plough plays no role, although it may be necessary to repair
damaged soils prior to embarking on a CA regime. This may entail breaking a plough-pan with a
subsoiler or chisel plough, or removing ridges and furrows with one last pass of the mouldboard
plough, but these operations will not be necessary once CA has been introduced. Conservation
agricultural practices (reduced slash and burn agriculture and pastureland conversion and reduced
intensive agriculture conversion), promote soil carbon sequestration by increasing the time and
amount of crop residues left on the soil surface; and reducing soil disturbance, thereby decreasing
CO2 emissions. In addition, the degraded forest reforestation and pastureland afforestation could be
more effective with the inclusion of trees in their farming system.
Maintaining a permanent organic soil cover:Keeping the soil surface under organic cover is a very
important means of conserving soil moisture, improving soil structure and water infiltration and
providing a substrate for conversion into SOM and soil fertility. Cover will comprise the residues of
the previous crop, but this can be augmented by the use of crop associations, rotations and cover
crops (especially leguminous cover crops). The maintenance of soil cover can be difficult, especially in
semi-arid regions with low dry season precipitation, and where livestock have access to crop residues
[Giller et al., 2009]. In these situations CA farmers may need to provide additional biomass for
livestock feed including fodder banks of perennial grass species and trees for dry season browsing
[Garrity, 2017].
Diversification of crop spices grown in sequences:The value of crop rotations to maintain soil
fertility, and reduce pest and disease incidence, has long been understood. CA strives to go further
than this and encourages the use of crop associations, relay cropping, cover crops and agroforestry.
The use of legumes in association with cereal crops like maize is especially useful.

Mechanization Technologies in Mitigating Climate Change

Mechanization of Conservation Agriculture (Seeders and Planters)
Implementing CA requires some specialist equipment, especially for sowing seeds through the soil
surface mulch of crop residues or cover crops. The process starts with crop residue treatment—
residues should be spread evenly across the soil surface behind the combine harvester and this may
require a spreader to be fitted at the rear. The seeder or planter has two main ways of introducing
seed and fertilizer through the surface vegetation. In conditions of light coverage, narrow chisel tined
openers can be used. The tine opens a slot behind which seed and fertilizer can be delivered to the
required depth. Single discs, inclined to the direction of travel can open a slot in the soil so that seed
and fertilizer can be delivered behind the disc in a way similar to a chisel-tined opener. In heavy
surface residue conditions, the best approach is the use of double disc openers. These are discs of
different diameters, offset to the direction of travel, which can cut through residue, open a ‘V’-
shaped slot and deliver seed and fertilizer between the discs. In all cases where it is necessary to cut
through surface vegetation, a vertical disc preceding the slot opener will usually facilitate smooth
residue flow. Keeping soil disturbance to a minimum should always be the aim and the cross-slot
opener achieves this by cutting through residue with a vertical disc and delivering seed on one side
and fertilizer to the other in horizontal slots produced by inclined lateral wings.
Rice residue is notoriously difficult to cut with vertical discs and one method to deal with
heavy residue situations is by lifting the residue with rotating flail-blades before sowing into the
cleared surface and depositing the mulch back on top of the seeded soil. This concept, incorporated
in the “Happy Seeder” has subsequently been modified to cut and lift the residues with rotating flails
either side of the chisel-tined slot opener and seed and fertilizer delivery tubes. Planters for manual
use can be as simple as a pointed stick with a small container tied to the farmer’s waist for seed
and/or fertilizer. Reduced tillage, cultivating a strip of soil for crop establishment is an increasingly

421
popular option. Adoption of zero tillage and strip tillage practices have made farmers to save their
resources in terms of fuel and energy; also contributes negligibly to the GHG emissions.
Reducing fuel consumption: Adoption of conservation tillage techniques a farmer can save fuel and
energy input in the agriculture, also reduced fuel consumption results in lower emissions of green
house gases. The other agricultural works that can be done without the use of machinery in order to
reduce fuel usage are:
1. Harvesting forage by livestock grazing rather then mechanically
2. Designing grain cropping systems to allow full drying of crops in the field prior to harvest
3. Reducing the amount of water pumped for irrigation
4. Employing cropland nutrient management strategies to continually adjust fertilizer
application rates for efficient, sustainable production.
Controlled Traffic Farming (CTF): Controlled Traffic Farming is a system which confines all machinery
loads to the least possible area of permanent traffic lanes. It is based on machine guidance, but it
keeps record of each field and application to follow the same route every year. CTF allows optimized
driving patterns, more efficient operations (i.e., reduced overlaps) and targeted input applications. It
increases sustainability by reducing soil compaction and allows farming intensification as it prevents
yield loss, nutrient and water efficiency reduction, soil degradation and alleviation costs. CTF can
reduce GHGs emissions as it affects the quantity of agricultural inputs used in field operations (fuel,
fertilizers, and pesticides). A study on the potential impact of site-specific application and controlled
traffic systems implemented on larger farms in Denmark (300 ha and above) has stressed how a
reduction of fuel costs by 25–27% in cereals can be traced back to a lesser overlap, but also how 3–
5% savings in fertilizer and pesticide in cereals can be obtained [Jensen et al., 2012]. In the same
work, fuel reduction was mainly due to ease of cultivation (loose soil due to minimum compaction)
and of course due to minimum over passing. Better soil structure means that conditions will be more
favorable for the absorption of GHG emissions that can be stored into the soil (e.g., CH4) and for
prevention of harmful gases being produced through anaerobic conditions, such as N2O and CH4.
Variable rate fertilizer application technology (VRT): Variable rate fertilizer application (VRFA) can
provide to the field inorganic fertilizers and manure by adjusting the mass flow rate and
subsequently the application rate of nutrients according to the specific needs of the crop locally
within the field. Inorganic fertilizer is either spread as liquid or solid granules, while manure is spread
as slurry or solid manure. VR liquid inorganic fertilizer is spread using VR pesticide sprayer
technology. VRFA is executed by either applying a prescription map that was designed after receiving
data from the field using mainly canopy sensors that identify the status of the crop and correlate it
with. The production of fertilizers considerably emits GHGs being responsible for approximately 1.2%
of the total global GHG emissions [Wood and Cowie, 2004]. In order to produce N fertilizers, it is
required to synthesize ammonia, where CO2 is produced from the use of fossil energy sources
(mainly natural gas) as feedstock and fuel. Methane provides 60% of the required H2 (together with
40% from water steam) to react with atmospheric N2 and produce ammonia. A portion of CH4 is used
to heat the process. On the other hand, nitric acid production process is the source of N2O emissions.
Ammonium nitrate (AN-N), which is the base of nitrogen fertilizers, can be produced at different
levels of technology and the emitted GHGs are different in each case.
Adoption of VRT helps reduce the inputs in agriculture and thus the lower GHG emissions.
Adoption of renewable energy/green technology: Renewable energy sources can also replace fossil
fuels for reducing the greenhouse gases emissions. India has an estimated renewable energy
potential of about 900 GW from commercially exploitable sources viz. Wind – 102 GW (at 80 metre
mast height); Small Hydro – 20 GW; Bio-energy – 25 GW; and 750 GW solar power, assuming 3%
wasteland is made available (MNRE, 2016-17). Major renewable energy sources of interest to us are
biogas, improved cooking stoves, biomass, solar energy, wind energy, small hydro power, energy
recovery from wastes and other new and emerging technologies. The techniques that can be
adopted by farmers or for house hold use to reduce the GHG emissions are;
1. Installation of biogas plants

422
 2. Solar PV systems for energy generation for house hold use and irrigation water pumping.
3. Wind turbines for energy generation
4. Hydro-power projects
5. Tidal power
6. Biomass gasification
7. Energy plantation
Conclusions: Adaptation to climate change is the acclimatizationto a system to minimize the impacts
of climate change, to take advantages of new opportunities or to cope with the consequences.
Application of synthetic fertilizer and repetitive cultivation of paddy on Indian farms have been some
of the reasons for increased GHGs emissions. Unscientific methods of water management and
frequent tilling of agricultural lands to a higher depth also causes the loss of carbon from soil surface
which lead to climate change problems. Famers of Indo-Gangetic plains burn crop residues resulting
from rice-wheat cropping systems and manure deposited on grazing lands by animals also lead to the
emission of GHGs. Enhancing the soil carbon by establishing the vegetative cover on the soil surface
and minimum soil disturbance during tillage could be one of the ways to reduce GHG emission.
Diversification of crop species, following the crop rotations to maintain soil fertility and reduce pest
and disease incidence can also minimize the effects of climate change. Conservation tillage
techniques like modifications in the seeders and planter which sows seeds/seedlings with minimum
soil disturbance, reducing the fuel consumption are also the solutions to the rising concerns of
climate change. Further, controlled Traffic Farming (CTF), Variable Rate Technology (VRT) are the
proven technologies in precise input application with least emissions; and non-conventional energy
sources have potential in replacing the conventional energy inputs and protecting the environment.

References
Enete, A A. and Amusa, A, T. (2010) Challenges of Agricultural Adaptation to Climate Change in Nigeria: a
Synthesis from the Literature. Field Actions Science Reports.
FAO 2010. Climate Smart Agriculture: Policies, Practices and Financing for Food Security, Adaptation and
Mitigation, Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization
[foris.fao.org/static/data/nrc/InfoNote_PostCOP15_FAO.pdf] (Assessed on: Feb 25, 2016).
Garrity, D.P. 2017. How to make conservation agriculture evergreen. In Conservation Agriculture for Africa.
Building Resilient Farming Systems in a Changing Climate; Kassam, A.H., Mkomwa, S., Friedrich, T.,
Eds.;CAB International: Oxford, UK; Boston, MA, USA, pp. 167–182.
Giller, K.E.; Witter, E.; Corbeels, M.; Tittonell, P. 2009.Conservation agriculture and smallholder farming in
Africa: The heretics’ view. Field Crops Res., 114, 23–34.
Gornall J, Betts, R. and Burke, E. 2010. Implications of climate change for agricultural productivity in the early
twenty-first century. Philos Trans R SocLond B Biol Sci. 365: 2973-2989.
Hoffmann, U. 2013. Section B: Agriculture: a key driver and a major victim of global warming, in: Lead Article,
in: Chapter 1, in Hoffmann 2013, pp: 3-5.
Ignaciuk A, and Mason-D'Croz, D. 2014. Modelling Adaptation to Climate Change in Agriculture. OECD Food,
Agriculture and Fisheries Papers 70:58.
IPCC (2007) Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel
on Climate Change-Summary for Policymakers.
[http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessmentreport/ar4/wg2/ar4-wg2-spm.pdf] Retrieved on Dec 10, 2015.
Jensen, H.G.; Jacobsen, L.-B.; Pedersen, S.M.; Tavella, E. 2012. Socioeconomic impact of widespread adoption
of precision farming and controlled traffic systems in Denmark. Precis. Agric. 13, 661–677.
Keane J, Page S, Kergna A, Kennan J. 2009. Climate Change and Developing Country Agriculture: An Overview of
Expected Impacts, Adaptation and Mitigation Challenges, and Funding Requirements.
MNRE, 2016-17. Annual report; 1-18
Parvatha, P. R, 2014. Climate Resilient Agriculture for Ensuring Food Security. Springer. pp: 1-15.
World Bank 2008. Agriculture for development policy brief: adaptation and mitigation of climate change in
agriculture: World Development Report 2008.
Wood, S. and Cowie, A. 2004. A Review of Greenhouse Gas Emission Factors for Fertiliser Production; For IEA
Bioenergy Task 38; Orange, Research and Development Division, State Forests of New South Wales:
New South Wales, Australia.

423
 Biosynthesis of Silver Nanoparticles using azaedirachtaindica and
its Antimicrobial Activity
Smitha P.M., Sharanagouda Hiregouda*, Vijay Kumar, Vidya and Shreelakshmi
Department of Processing and Food Engineering, College of Agricultural Engineering, University of
Agricultural Sciences, Raichur- 584 101, Karnataka, India.
Email: drsharan.cae@gmail.com

Abstract: The present investigation was aimed to study the biosynthesis and characterization of
Silver nanoparticles (Ag NPs) using AzardirachtaIndica (Neem) leaf extract and its antibacterial
activity. Silver nanoparticles were synthesizedby adding 5 ml of Neem leaf extract to the1mMSilver
nitrate (AgNO3) solution. Formation of silver nanoparticles was confirmed by observing the colour
change from pale yellow to reddish brown. Biosynthesized Ag NPs were characterized for their
particle size, absorbance, crystallinity and morphology. Zetasizer showed that, the particle size of
biosynthesized Ag NPs was 43.95 nm. UV-Vis spectroscopy revealed absorbance peak at wavelength
440 nm. X- Ray Diffraction (XRD) pattern showed that, the biosynthesized Ag NPs were in face
centred cubic in nature. The morphology of the Ag NPs was observed using Scanning Electron
Microscope (SEM), which showed particles were in spherical shape. The antibacterial activities of
biosynthesized Ag-NPs were studied with respect to Escherichia coli and Psedomonues aeruginosa at
different concentrations (0, 50, 100 and 150 µl/ml). Maximum zone of inhibition was observed at 150
µl/ml for both Escherichia coli (21.66 mm) and Psedomonues aeruginosa (18 mm). The results were
suggested that biosynthesized Ag NPs are fairly ideal candidates for the inhibition of gram negative
bacterial strains.

Key words:Azardirachta Indica, Silver Nitrate, Zetasizer, UV-Vis spectroscopy, X- Ray

Introduction: Nanotechnology is being used in diverse areas like chemistry, biology, catalysis,
medicine, photonics, electronics, bio-labelling and information storage (Premasudhaet al.,
2015).Nano-science is based on the manipulation of individual atoms and/or molecules to produce
materials from them for functioning well below the sub-microscopic level (Ahmad and Ikram,
2015).Metal nanoparticles were widely used in different application viz., Agriculture, electronics,
physics, chemistry, material science, medicine and food etc. Among nanostructured noble metals the
most important commercialized nanoparticles are silver nanoparticles (Ag NPs). Silver nanoparticles
(AgNPs) widely used in antimicrobial activity, cosmetics industry and daily products (Farghaly and
Nafady, 2015).
Synthesis method of nanoparticles plays an important role as it is the primary step to tune
their physical, electronic, and optical properties of the synthesized nanoparticles by varying size,
shape and surface chemistry (Sharma et al., 2009). Development of reliable experimental protocol
for the synthesis of monodispersed nanoparticles with the better size and chemical composition is
one of the challenging issue in current nanotechnology.A number of synthesis techniques have been
developed including the chemical reduction of silver ions in aqueous solutionswith or without
stabilizing agents, thermal decomposition in inorganic solvent, physical and biological
reduction(Premasudhaet al., 2015). Among these, biosynthetic method using plant extract has drawn
attention as a simple and viable alternative to chemical and physical methods.Studies have indicated
that bio molecules like protein, phenols, saponins and flavonoids not only play a role in reducing the
ions to the nano-size but also plays an important role in the shaping the nanoparticles (Kalidasan and
Yogamurthy, 2014).
Silver and silver ion-based materials arereported to possess antifungal, anti-inflammatory,
antibacterial, antiviral and antiplatelet activities.Hence, silver nanoparticles play a profound role in
the field of biology and medicine. Their antimicrobial effect is appropriate to blockage of respiratory

424
enzyme pathways, interacting with the sulphur-containing proteins and modification of microbial
DNA (Premasudhaet al., 2015).

Materials and Methods

Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using Neem(A. indica) leaf extract:
Preparation of Neem (A. indica) leaf Extract: The fresh Neem leaves were collected from the
University of Agricultural Sciences, Raichur. First, they were thoroughly washed with the tap water to
remove debris and other contamination and finally washed with the distilled water. The cleaned
Neem leaves were finely cut into small pieces and dried under shade for 3h to remove surface
moisture. About 10 g of the cut leaves were added to 100 ml of deionised water and boiled for 15
min at 60 °C in a water bath. After heating, the mixture was then filtered through the watman filter
paper No. 1 to obtain aqueous leafextract (Plate 1a).
Biosynthesis of silver nanoparticles using Neem (A. indica) leaf extract: First, 100 ml of silver nitrate
(1 mM) solution was prepared by adding 0.0167 g silver nitrate to the 100 ml of distilled water. Then,
different concentrations (2.5, 5, 7.5 and 10 ml) of filtered plant extract was added to the 100 ml of
silver nitrate solution. Added mixture was kept for incubation at different temperature 10, 30 and 50
°C. Colour change was observed from pale yellow to Dark brown during incubation at different time
period which indicated the formation of silver nanoparticles(Ahmed et al., 2015).Obtained silver
nanoparticle solution was kept for further analysis under refrigerated condition (Plate 1c).
Characterization of biosynthesised silver nanoparticles (Ag NPs): 4 ml of silver nanoparticle solution
was taken in the cuvette and kept in the Zetasizer (ZETA Sizer, nano383, Malvern, England) chamber
for particle size analysis and same solution was used for absorbance peak analysis using UV-Vis
spectroscopy (Schimadzu, UV-1800, Kyoto, Japan). For crystallinity and morphology analysis, Ag NPs
solution was dried in freeze dryer to get powder and analysed using X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) and
Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) (Schimadzu, UV-1800, Kyoto, Japan), respectively.
Antibacterial activity of biosynthesised silver nanoparticles (Ag NPs): Antibacterial activity of
biosynthesized silver nanoparticles was determined by well diffusion method. Test bacteria such as
Escherichia coliand Pseudomonas aeruginosa were procured from the Microbial Type Culture
Collection Centre (MTCC), Chandigarh. Procured cultures were maintained in appropriate media for
further use. The inoculums prepared from the stock culture were maintained on nutrient agar slant
at 4 ºC and sub cultured on nutrient broth using a sterilized wire loop and maintained for further
study.
Muller Hinton agarwas used as a media to cultivate the bacteria. The sterilised media was poured in
the petri discs and kept for 30 min for solidification. After 30 min, the incubated culture (2drops) was
spread on media with the help of spreader. Then, holes were made on solidified media containing
bacterial culture and Ag NPs (2 ml) at different concentration (50, 100 and 150 µl/ml) were poured
into the wells.
The cultured plates were incubated at 37 ºC for 24 h. After 24 h of incubation, the zone of inhibition
was determined. Media without nanoparticles was used as control
(Kaviyaet al., 2011). Diameter of the zone of inhibition was recorded in mm using the following
formula.
Zone of inhibition (mm) = Diameter of zone (mm) – Diameter of well (mm)

Results and Discussion: Production of silver nanoparticles takes place by the reduction of silver ions
during exposure to the Neem leaf extract. Within 2 hours the silver ions get reduced and it exhibits
colour change from pale yellow to dark brown.Among the different concentration of plant extract
and different incubation temperature, 5ml and 10 °C has given the best size and stable silver
nanoparticles. Best sample was taken for further characterisation and application. The
biosynthesised silver nanoparticles are shown in Fig 1c.Metabolite such phenolics, organic acids and
quinones, as well as ascorbates or catechol (as redoxsystem) play important roles in Ag NPs
formation(Suprajaet al., 2015).

425
Particle size analysis and UV-Vis spectroscopy: Preliminary characterization of the silver
nanoparticles was carried out using Zetasizer. The size distribution histogram of Zetasizerindicated
that, size of the biosynthesized silver nanoparticles was 43.95 nm (Fig. 1).
Beg et al. (2016) and Bobbuet al. (2016) reported that, an average particle size of
biosynthesized silver nanoparticles were 45.60 and 49.50 nm using Pongameapinnataseed and
Achyranthes aspera leaf extract, respectively.
The green synthesized silver nanoparticles were examined using UV visible spectroscopy
using wavelength range from 300 to 800 nm. The characteristic surface plasma resonance occurred
at wavelength 440 nm with the absorbance 1.44 (Fig. 2). This was due to the excitation of surface
plasmon resonance (SPR) by AgNPs. Silver nanoparticles have free electrons, which give rise to SPR
absorption band due to the combined vibration of electrons of metal nanoparticles in resonance with
the light wave (Srirangam and Parameswar, 2017). The dark brown color in the reaction solution
results from absorption of the colloidal silver nanoparticles in the visible region of the
electromagnetic spectrum (380-500 nm).
Erjaeeet al. (2017) reported the formation of Ag NPs confirmed with the SPR band at 422 nm
in UV-Visible spectra. Similar results were reported by Hafez et al. (2017), Halawani (2017) and
Sivakumariet al. (2018) who reported SPR band for biosynthesized silver nanoparticles using
Morusnigra leaf extract (425 nm), ZizyphusspinachristiL. leaf extract (414 nm) andAchyranthes
Aspera (450 nm), respectively.
X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) and Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM): XRD analysis showed distinct
diffraction peaks (Fig. 3) and the Braggs reflections were observed in the XRD pattern at 2θ= 38.01°,
45.17°, 62.49° and 77.34°. These Braggs reflections clearly indicated the presence of (300), (101),
(107) and (58) sets of lattice planes and further on the basis that they can be indexed as face-
centered-cubic (FCC) structure in nature. The typical XRD pattern revealed that, the biosynthesised
silver nanoparticles are in crystalline in nature. Farghaly and Nafady, (2015) obtained XRD graph for
biosynthesized Ag NPs which showed the intense peaks at 2θ values equal to 37.84°, 43.82°, 64.21°
and 77.21° due to the reflection from the planes of face-centred cubic silver.
SEM technique was employed to visualize the shape of silver nanoparticles. The SEM images
of the AgNPs are shown in Fig.4. The morphological study of the SEM image demonstrated that, the
biosynthesised silver nanoparticles were in spherical shape and it can also observed that some of the
particles are agglomerated. This may be due to the availability of different quantity and nature of
capping agents present in the leaf extract
(Vanaja et al., 2013).
Antibacterial activity of biosynthesised silver nanoparticles: The mechanism of bactericidal effect of
silver nanoparticles against bacteria is well known. Ag NPs may attach to the surface of the cell
membrane and disturbs its power function such as permeability and respiration. The results of this
study clearly demonstrated that the Ag NPs inhibits the growth and multiplication of the tested
bacteria such as Escherichia coliand Pseudomonas aeruginosa. The zone of inhibition was found for
both the bacteria at all the concentration of silver nanoparticles(Table 1). The maximum zone of
inhibition (at 150 µl/ml of Ag NPs) was foundto be 21.66 and 21.00 mm for Escherichia coliand
Pseudomonas aeruginosa, respectively. Whereas in the case of control, no zone of inhibition was
observed. The effective antimicrobial activity is due to a spherical shape and small size of AgNPs. The
small size confers large surface to volume ratio that increases the contact area between AgNPs and
microbe which in turn increases the inhibitory activity (bobbuet al., 2016). The zone of inhibition of
Escherichia coliand Pseudomonas aeruginosaat different concentrations of Ag NPs is shown in Plate
2.
Enhanced antibacterial activity may be attributable to the small size and concentration of the
biosynthesized NPs and/or the presence of bioactive compound capping. Furthermore, plant-based
Ag NPs production depends on their metabolism. Packialakshmiet al. (2014) reported that the
application of biosynthesized Ag NPs using extract of Strychnospotatorum seed and bark showed

426
maximum zone of inhibition(13 mm) forP.aeruginosa.Pak et al. (2016) reported on the efficacy of
biosynthesized Ag NPs against P.aeruginosa(13.20 mm).

Conclusion: The biological synthesis provides a simple and efficient route for the synthesis of silver
nanoparticles using Neem (A. indica) leaf extract. The biomolecules present in theplant extract
probably, flavonoids and saponins were responsible for the reduction of silver to silver
nanoparticles.By changing the quantity of plant extract and incubation time at room temperature the
size of nanoparticles was varied. At optimum condition (Plant extract 5 ml and 10 °C incubation time)
the average diameter of Ag NPs was 43.95 nm.This study also indicated that AgNPs can be used as
effective antibacterial materials against various microorganisms which can endanger human beings.

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Pak, Z. H., Abbaspour, H., Karimi, N. and Fattah, A., 2016, Eco-friendly synthesis and
antimicrobial activity of silver nanoparticles using Dracocephalummoldavica seed
extract. Applied Sciences, 6(2): 1-10.
Premasudha, P.,Venkataramana, M., Abirami, M., Vanathi, P., Krishna, K. and Rajendran, R.,
2015, Biological synthesis and characterization of silver nanoparticles using Eclipta alba leaf
extract and evaluation of its cytotoxic and antimicrobial potential. Indian Academy of
Sciences,38(4): 965-973.

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Sharma, V. K., Yngard, R. A. and Lin, Y., 2009, Silver nanoparticles:Green synthesis and their
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83–96.
Sivakumari, K., Ashok, K. and Rajesh, S., 2018, Achyranthes aspera mediated green synthesis of
silver nanoparticles. Indo American Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences,5(1): 64-73.
Srirangam, G. M. and Parameswara, R. K., 2017, Synthesis and charcterization of silver
nanoparticles from the leaf extract of MALACHRA CAPITATA (l.). Rasayan Journal of
Chemistry, 10(1):46-53.
Supraja, N., Prasad, T. N. V. K. V., Krishna, T. G. and David, E., 2015, Synthesis, characterization and
evaluation of the antimicrobial efficacy of Boswelliaovalifoliolata stem bark-extract-mediated
Zinc oxide nanoparticles.Applied Nanoscience, 6(4): 581-590.
Vanaja, M., Rajeshkumar, S., Paulkumar, K., Gnanajobitha, G., Malarkodi, C. and Annadurai, G., 2013,
Kinetic study on green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using Coleus aromaticus leaf extract.
Advances in Applied Science Research, 4(3): 50-55.

Table 1: Antibacterial activity of silver nanoparticlesonE. coli and P. aeruginosa

Zone of Inhibition (mm)
AgNPs Concentration
Sl. No Psedomonues
(µl/ml) Escherichia coli
aeruginosa
1 50 16.33 17.00
2 100 17.66 18.00
3 150 21.66 21.00

Fig. 1. Particle size analysis of silver nanoparticles using Zetasizer

428
 [1], d=2.3653(9), 2-theta=38.012(16), H=300(17)
Fig. 2. Absorbance analysis of silver nanoparticles using UV-Vis Spectroscopy

[3], d=1.4850(2), 2-theta=62.489(9), H=107(10)

[2], d=2.0055(13), 2-theta=45.17(3), H=101(10)
Meas. data:Ag
BG data:Ag

[4], d=1.2328(8), 2-theta=77.34(6), H=58(8)

Calc. data:Ag
600
Intensity (counts)

400

200

0
20 30 40 50 60 70 80
2-theta (deg)

Fig. 3. Crystallinity analysis of silver nanoparticles using X-Ray Diffraction

Fig. 4. Morphology analysis of silver nanoparticles using Scanning Electron Microscope

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 Plate 1: a) Neem leaf extract b) AgNO3 solution and c) Biosynthesized Ag NPs

Plate 2. Zone of Inhibition of a) Escherichia coliandb) Pseudomonas aeruginosa

430
 Review Paper on Sugarcane Ethanol as an Anticipating Biofuel for IC Engines
Srikar G. Kulkarni1 and M.C. Navindgi2
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Navodaya Institute of Technology, Raichur - 584101, Karnataka
2
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Poojya Doddappa College of Engineering,
1
srikargkulkarni@gmail.com; 2mcnavindgi@gmail.com

Abstract: Biofuels are a wide range of fuels which are in some way derived from biomass. Biofuels
are gaining increased public and scientific attention, driven by factors such as oil price spikes, the
need for increased energy security and concern over greenhouse gas emissions from fossil fuels.
Biofuels have become particularly appealing to developing countries because of their potential to
stimulate economic development in rural areas and eradicate poverty through the creation of
employment opportunities and increased income in agricultural sector. It was found that the ethanol
generated from sugarcane and crop residue gives additional income to the farmer and also helps the
environment & safe disposal of farm stubble. Hence ethanol is a promising biofuel can be blended
with petrol to operate the sprayers and leads to reduce the environmental pollution.

Key words: Biofuel , Sugarcane ethanol, Sprayers

Introduction: The fossil fuel is the most efficient and useful in all the sectors of modern day living.
Fuel is playing a major role in developing countries particularly in Transport, Industrial sector,
Agriculture and consumer farm. India is one of the fastest growing economies in the world and will
continue to enjoy the demographic dividend for few decades. Energy is a critical input towards
raising the standard of living of citizens. The energy strategy of country aims to chart the way
forward to meet the Government’s recent ambitious announcements in the energy domain such as
electrification of all census villages by 2019, 24X7 electricity, 175GW of renewable energy capacity by
2022 and reduction in energy emission intensity by 33% - 35% by 2030.Fossil fuels will continue to
occupy a significant share in the energy basket. However, conventional or fossil fuel resources are
limited, non-renewable sources are to be extracted.The crude oil price has been fluctuating in the
world market. Such fluctuations are straining various economies the world over, particularly those of
the developing countries. Road transport sector accounts for 6.7% of India’s Gross Domestic Product
(GDP). Currently, diesel alone meets an estimated 72% of transportation fuel demand followed by
petrol at 23% and balance by other fuels such as CNG, LPG etc. for which the demand has been
steadily raising. Provision estimates have indicated that crude oil required for indigenous
consumption of petroleum products in Financial Year 2017-2018 is about 210 MMT.It was found that
theethanol generated from sugarcane and crop residue gives additional income to the farmer and
also helps the environment & safe disposal of farm stubble. Hence ethanol is a promising biofuel can
be blended with petrol to operate the sprayers and leads to reduce the environmental pollution.

In India, Bioethanol can be produced from multiple sources like sugar containing materials, starch
containing materials, celluloses and lignocelluloses material including petrochemical route. However,
the present policy of Ethanol Blended Petrol (EBP) Programme allows bioethanol to be procured
from non-food feed stock like molasses, celluloses and lignocelluloses material including
petrochemical route. Currently, ethanol for EBP programme is coming from molasses route as a by-
product of sugar industry. At the present levels of cane and sugar production (about 350MMT and
26-28 MMT per annum respectively), the maximum quantity of molasses available is about 13MMT,
which is sufficient to produce about 300 crore litres of alcohol/ethanol. One MMT of Sugar sacrificed
can produce 60 crore litres of ethanol. Ethanol will also be allowed to be produced directly from
sugarcane juice to increase blending percentage. The Goal of the National Biofuel Policy – 2018 is to
enable availability of biofuels in the market thereby increasing its blending percentage. Currently, the

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ethanol blending percentage in petrol is 2%, an indicative target of 20% blending of ethanol in petrol
is proposed by 2030.
LITERATURE SURVEY
[RP-1] A.F Kheiralla et al. have reported on ethanol-gasoline blends that engine performance and
emissions characteristics found little difference in power performance, specific fuel consumption,
and thermal efficiency between engines fueled with gasoline or a gasoline blend of 15% ethanol
(E15). The gasoline fuel replacement is regulated by the amount of ethanol in the blend. However,
problems arise, due to the presence of water in the blend because commercially available ethanol is
seldom found in an anhydrous state. The commonly available ethanol grades contain between 10%
and 20% water. Typical local distillation converts fermented sugar molasses to 190-proof or industrial
ethanol, containing 5% water, and removing the remaining water requires special measures at added
cost. Thus, there would be an economic incentive if the spark ignition engine could be run on
industrial ethanol instead of anhydrous ethanol.
[RP-7] VladanMicic and MilovanJotanovic have addressed that most promising biofuels are
bioethanol. Ethanol has many favorable properties. For example the octane number of ethanol is
higher than the octane number of conventional petrol. The octane number influences the anti
knockingproperty of the fuel. A high octane number stands for an anti-knocking fuel. Knocking
describes uncontrolled combustion which puts heavy mechanical and thermal loads on the engine.
[RP – 3] Dr. ShrishailKakkeri et al. have reported that, All alcohols have the ability to absorb water.
Condensation of water in the fuel system is absorbed and does not have the opportunity to collect
and freeze. Since ethanol blends contain at least 10 percent ethanol, they are able to absorb water
and eliminate the need for adding a gas-line antifreeze in winter.
METHODOLOGY
Biofuel is the environment friendly and renewable source of alternative fuel which is mainly
produced from animal fats (tallow, lard, white or yellow grease, poultry fats, or fish oils); recycled
greases (used cooking and frying oils); and most commonly, plant oils (from soybeans, corn, rapeseed,
sunflowers, and cottonseeds, etc.) To use this biofuel in diesel engine there is no need for engine
modification as well. In general, the term biofuel is used to represent all the liquid and gaseous
transportation fuels derived predominantly from biomass. Biofuels conversion system is one of the
important steps in the whole biofuel production chain. Factors such as high yields and low energy
consumption are important to consider in promoting the future competitiveness of biofuels to fossil
fuels in the market.

Biofuels can be derived from any biological carbon into biofuel via different production pathways to
produce source, but photosynthetic plants are the most biodiesel, ethanol, butanol, methane, or
other fuels; all are commonly used feedstock. Biofuels are categorized the subject of ongoing
research. Technologies to produce into first-generation biofuel and advanced biofuel (second-first-
generation fuels are mature but some feed stocks are generation, third-generation, etc.). Currently,

432
biodiesel and bioethanol are the two most promising biofuel being projected to replace conventional
fossil fuels in transportation.
Ethanol is a high octane; water-free alcohol produced from the fermentation of sugar or converted
starch. It is used as a blending ingredient in gasoline or as a raw material to produce high-octane
fuel-ether additives. Ethanol is made from grains (mainly corn) or other renewable agricultural or
forestry products such as wood, brewery waste, potatoes, cheese whey, paper waste, beets, or
vegetable waste.

Fig

This gives an account of the advantages of ethanol blending in conventional petrol like other
substitute such as ethanol. Ethanol’s vapour pressure is lower than that of petrol, resulting in lower
evaporative emissions while its flammability is also much lower than that of petrol, reducing the risk
of vehicles catching fire. In addition, there is no gum formation associated with ethanol, and anti-
oxidants and detergent additives are not required.
Other advantages of ethanol are that it improves the octane number, has a higher volumetric
efficiency leading to increased power and has advantages of wider flammability limits and higher
flame velocity. Although the calorific value of ethanol is lower than that of petrol, it is still preferred
because of its higher efficiency due to its higher oxygen content. This is also the reason for its use as
a 100 per cent fuel in Brazil.
The main mechanical differences between ethanol and petrol vehicles lie in engine calibration and
the fuel management system. The success in using ethanol as a fuel in Brazil, the US and the EU
offers a large experience that can be usefully tapped by countries such as India to develop their own
infrastructure for EBP.

The Indian Government is adopting a multi – pronged approach to promote and encourage use of
biofuels by blending ethanol in petrol through Ethanol Blended Petrol EBP Programme using ethanol
derived from multiple feedstock.
The purpose of this study is to determine experimentally fuel properties of biofuel blend as a fuel for
Internal Combustion engine. Fuel properties of tested biofuel blends are determined in accordance
with American Standard for Testing Materials (ASTM) procedures for petroleum products.

The density of each tested blends are measured by hydrometer method (ASTM D287 Standard). The
kinematic viscosity was measured in Redwood viscometer in accordance with ASTM standards. Flash
and fire points were measured by Pensky-Martin apparatus (ASTM D93A). Cloud and Pour point was
measured by Petrotest (ASTM D97 Standard). Heat of combustions was measured in bomb
calorimeter according to PARR 1266 standards, The calorific value of the sample was determined by
equating the heat generated to heat transfer to calorimeter.

Density:
The density is measured using a meter that meets the requirements of ASTM D 4052, Standard Test
Method for Density and Relative Density of Liquids by Digital Density Meter, is recommended. A
meter with a computer interface is preferred but not required.

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Flash point (ASTM D93A):
The flash point temperature is the minimum temperature at which the fuel will ignite (flash) on
application of an ignition source under specified conditions. Flash point varies inversely with the
fuel’s volatility. Flash point minimum temperatures are required for proper safety and handling of
biofuel blend as a fuel. Fire point is defined as the lowest temperature to which oil should be heated
to give sufficient vapors to form an inflammable mixture with air to burn for at least five or more
seconds, when a pilot flame is introduced near of it.
Cloud Point & Pour Point:
Cloud point is the temperature at which solidification of heavier components of a fuel resulting cloud
crystals within the body of the fuel first appear. The temperature at which on further cooling of fuel,
results in increased size and number of wax crystals and eventual coalescence of the fuel to form a
rigid structure is termed pour point. Cloud & Pour point temperatures are of importance in knowing
the behavior of fuels in a cold weather.
Kinematic Viscosity:
The resistance to flow exhibited by fuel blends, as expressed in various unit of viscosity, is a major
factor of consequence in establishing their suitability for the mass transfer and metering
requirements of engine operation. Kinematic Viscosity affects injector lubrication and fuel
atomization. Biofuel blends generally have improved lubricity: however, their higher viscosity levels
tend to form larger droplets on injection which, can cause poor combustion and increased exhaust
smoke.
In the present study there is a need to investigate physico – chemical properties available biofuel
blending with fossil fuels in different ratio and compare these values with respect to pure fossil fuels
to decide whether the blend is suitable for Internal Combustion engine.
[RP-33] The important Performance parameters of an I C Engines are described as follows.
Brake power:
In an engine, indicated power is the power produced in the cylinder and the brake power is the
useful power at the output shaft. Brake power is always less than indicative, due to losses by
mechanical friction and parasitic loads (oil pump, air conditioner compressor, etc.). Engine brake
power increased slightly at all engine speeds when the ethanol content in the blended fuel was
increased. The reason behind this was the increase of indicated mean effective pressure for higher
ethanol content blends.

Torque output:
This is the turning-effort about the crankshaft’s axis of rotation and is equal to the product of the
force acting along the connecting-rod and the perpendicular distance between this force and the
centre of rotation of the crankshaft. Engine torque was found to be higher when ethanol petrol blend
fuel was used in a Internal Combustion engine.

Brake thermal efficiency:

Brake thermal efficiency (BTE) is defined as brake power of a heat engine as a function of the thermal
input from the fuel. It is used to evaluate how well an engine converts the heat from fuel to
mechanical energy.
Volumetric efficiency:
Volumetric efficiency in the internal combustion engine design refers to the efficiency with which the
engine can move the charge into and out of the cylinders. More specifically, volumetric efficiency is a
ratio (or percentage) of the quantity of air that is trapped by the cylinder during induction over the
swept volume of the cylinder under static conditions. Volumetric efficiency can be improved in a
number of ways; most effectively this can be achieved by com-pressing the induction charge (forced
induction) or by aggressive cam phasing in naturally aspirated engines.

Brake specific fuel consumption:

434
Brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC) is a measure of the fuel efficiency of any prime mover that
burns fuel and produces rotational or shaft power. It is typically used for comparing the efficiency of
internal combustion engines with a shaft output. It is the rate of fuel consumption divided by the
power produced. It may also be thought of as power-specific fuel consumption for this reason. Brake
specific fuel consumption allows the fuel efficiency of different engines to be directly compared.
Calorific value and the density of the blend are the major properties of the brake specific fuel
consumption of a fuel blend.

TABLE I
Physico – Chemical Properties of Ethanol
Sln Physico – Chemical Properties of
o. Ethanol
Characteristics Ethanol
1 Molecular 46.07
weight
2 Specific Gravity 0.794
3 Density 790
4 Boiling Temp 780C
5 Freezing Point -1140C
6 Ignition Temp 4230C
7 Flash point -350C

CONCLUSION
The first benefit of the production of the Bioethanol will directly impact the society because it is
economical & ecofriendly.

It was observed that the use of alternative fuels with better octane rating would improve the
efficiency and emissions. It was reported that better blending capability and anti-knock
characteristics of alcohols make it a viable alternative fuel for Internal Combustion Engine.

In the literature survey, it is observed that the performance tests was carried out for different engine
specifications such as
2 stroke petrol engine, 4 stroke diesel engine, VCR petrol engine, variable speed Internal Combustion
engine butthe performance parameters are dependent on Engine specification, quality of blends and
working condition.
Hence there is a need of research work is to be carried out for optimization of bioethanol as an
alternate fuel.

After Brazil, India is the only country whose sugarcane production is very high. India is agro based
approximately half of the population is directly engaged with the sector. Then this will increase the
job opportunity for them and not only those who directly associated with agriculture but also for the
chemical engineers, accountants, helpers, legal advisors in simple word one medicine for different
pains. Most importantly the farmers of the country will enjoy the more benefit and will lead to
balanced growth of the nation which is the major issue of the economy now a days.
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 Effect of Fine Grinding on the extraction efficiency and quality of Curcumin
Subba Rao K V, LaishramSatyabanta, and T.K. Goswami
Department of Agricultural and Food Engineering, IIT Kharagpur, West Bengal - 721302
Email : subbu.iitkgp92@gmail.com

Abstract: This study investigated the effect of particle size on the extraction efficiency of curcumin
from the turmeric powder. Various particle sizes of turmeric powder were obtained from cryogenic
grinding processes usingsieve analysis. All extraction experiments were done using ultrasound-
assisted extraction process by keeping ultrasound power and solid to solvent ratio, extraction time
and temperature as constant (100 W, 1:25, 30 min and 50°C). UV-spectrophotometer measured the
quantity of curcumin extracted at 425nm. By decreasing the particle size of turmeric powder, the
extraction efficiency increased significantly (p<0.05). Under reduced particle size condition, more
surface was exposed to the ultrasound waves and solvent, which resulted in more extraction yield.
Furthermore, cryogenic grinding gave more fine powder compared to conventional milling and
reduced the heat loss of the curcumin during the milling process. Quality of curcumin extracted at
different particle sizes was compared using DPPH assay. The results of this study will provide an
opportunity the curcuminoids extraction industries to select the best grinding method based on the
quality of the powder obtained.

Keywords:Turmeric, Cryogenic Grinding, Particle Size, Extraction, Curcumin

Introduction; Turmeric (Curcuma. long) is one of the most studied plant material because of its
promising health benefits (Chattopadhyay et al., 2004). It belongs to the Zingiberaceae family.
Tropical and subtropical parts of Asia and Africa are ideal places for its growth and cultivation
(Priyadarsini, 2014). India is the largest producer as well as consumer of turmeric and it has been
used as an Ayurvedic medicine since ancient times to treat diabetic wounds, cough, anorexia, and
sinusitis (Jayaprakasha et al., 2005). In addition to this, turmeric is also used as the main ingredient in
various food preparations to impart characteristic color and flavor as well as acts as a preservative.
(Jayaprakasha et al., 2005).Curcumin is one of the major components of the turmeric, which are
responsible for the orange-yellow color(Meng et al., 2018). Curcumin has shown various bioactivities
and promising results in various research investigations. It has demonstrated powerful efficacy as an
anticancer agent, which possess anti-inflammatory, antioxidative, anti-Alzheimer, and anticancer
activities in both preclinical and clinical studies(Tsuda, 2018).
Grinding is one of the most common operations used to prepare turmeric powder for consumption
and resale. However in ambient grinding of spices temperature rises to the extent of 42-93°C as
grinding is the most power-consuming operation because only 1% of the energy imparted into the
material is utilized loosening the bond between particles, whereas almost 99% of input energy is
dissipated as heat, raising the temperature of the ground product, etc. The rise in temperature
causes theloss of volatile oil and flavoring constituents; for high oil bearing material, oil comes out
from oil-bearing material during grinding, which makes ground product gummy, sticky and results in
chocking of sieves through which the product passes(Ghodki and Goswami, 2016a). Thus, getting
finer particle sizes using ambient grinding method is impractical.
The hurdles of the conventional grinding process for grinding the spices can be ruled out by the
promising cryogenic grinding (cryo-grinding) technology. The cryo-grinding of spices is a low
temperature grinding process that can be defined as grinding of the spices with the aid of cryogen
(cryogenic fluid) like liquid nitrogen (LN2), liquid carbon dioxide, etc. (Ghodki and Goswami, 2016b) to
obtain high quality of spices powder (Ghodki and Goswami, 2016a). Many studies on the cryo-
grinding of the spices have been investigated in the recent past that showed better retention of
bioactive components, finer particle size, uniform particle size distribution, high total surface
area(Biddulph and Burford, 1982; Saxena et al., 2013; Shakhtshneider et al., 2007) However,

438
information of these properties for turmeric is not extensively studied. Therefore, the main objective
of this work is to study the effect of ambient and cryogenic grinding on particle size distribution and
effect on particle size on yield and antioxidant activity of curcumin.

Materials and Methods

Sample preparation:Turmeric rhizome samples were obtained from local market. The samples were
cleaned manually to separate out the stones, broken, foreign materials and immature turmeric
rhizomes from the main sample of turmeric. The initial moisture content of turmeric sample was 11
% (w.b) which was determined by AOAC (1995). All the chemicals used in the study are of analytical
reagent (AR) grade and these were procured from standard chemical manufacturing companies such
as Merck.
Grinding methods: In case of ambient grinding, the turmeric rhizomes were ground in the hammer
mill at an ambient temperature of 25–30 °C. Cryogenic grinding of the turmeric rhizomes was carried
out using hammer mill with liquid nitrogen (LN2) as the cooling agent. Turmeric samples were first
precooled (-90°C) in LN2 for about 8to10min before they were fed into the grinder through the feed
hopper. The grinding operation was carried out at atmospheric pressure.100 g samples of the sample
was used in each grinding trail. After the grinding operations, the ground powders were allowed to
reach thermal equilibrium with the ambient before different chemical analyses and physical
properties' determination was carried out.
Particle size analysis :The particle size (µm), particle size distribution (PSD) and specific surface area
(cm2cm−3) of cryo-ground and ambient turmeric powders were analyzed based on laser diffraction
principle with the help of a Laser Particle Size Analyser (Fritsch Analysette 22; MicroTech Plus,
Germany) which was connected to a computer system having analysis software ‘MaScontrol’.
Through the application of special algorithms, MaScontrol software enables an analysis based on
Fraunhofer theory. It provides an opportunity to analyze different mean diameters of the ground
powders viz. arithmetic, geometric, harmonic, quadratic square mean diameters, mode, and median;
PSD and specific surface area. It also helps to examine the statistical parameters of size reduction of
the powders such as coefficient of variation, skewness, kurtosis, and uniformity. The comparisons
were made between the tworepresentative powder samples using the above-mentioned particle size
analysis parameters.Ground turmeric powder samples were also screened through different sized
sieves to separate granulates using sieve analyzer (Fritsch Analysette 3, Spartan, Germany). Four
different particle sizes were separated (P1 (>150 µm), P2 (150-75-µm), P3 (75-45µm) and P4
(<45µm)) to study the effect of particle size on curcumin yield and antioxidant activity.
Analysis of surface morphology of the powder: Scanning electron microscope (SEM) (Model EVO 60;
Carl ZEISS SMT, Germany) was employed to analyze the topographical characteristics of the surface
and its regularity, size, and shape of the powder particles using the analysis software (SmartSEM). As
a part of sample preparation technique, the sample has adhered with carbon tape and the gold-
palladium alloy coating was done to the sample (to make it conductive) in a coating machine for 10
min under pressurized argon gas (4 to 10 torr).
Extraction and estimation of curcumin: Turmeric powder of each particle size was mixed with
methanol in a flask. For the ultrasound-assisted extraction experiments, a 100W, 20 kHz ultrasonic
bath (Riviera Pvt. Ltd, Mumbai, India.) with temperature controller was used. During extraction, the
temperature was maintained at 50±1 ◦C. Solid to solvent ratio was kept constant at 1:1.25 for all
experiments. After each extraction experiment, the extracts were filtered through the Whatman No.
1 filter paper under vacuum. The absorbance of the sample was taken at 425 nm using UV-
spectrophotometer (Shimadzu Co., Ltd., Tokyo, Japan) and amount of curcumin was calculated from
the standard curve (equation 1). A stock solution was prepared by dissolving 10 mg of curcumin in
absolute alcohol to get a concentration of 1 mg/ml. Different concentrations (0.001–0.005 mg/ml)
were made by diluting the stock solution with methanol. The absorbance was read at 425 nm and
plotted against concentration.

439
 ( )
,% = × 100 (1)
( )
Antioxidant activity: The radical scavenging activity of the turmeric extract was measured by its
activity in scavenging the stable DPPH (1, 1-Diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazin) radical using a method
described by (Coelho et al., 2016)with slight modifications. Each extract as prepared above was
diluted in methanol, water, and petroleum ether to give at least five different concentrations. An
aliquot (1, 1.5, 2, 2.5 mL) of the extract of each concentration was mixed with 1 mL of 1 mol/L DPPH.
The mixture was then homogenized and left to stand for 30 min in the dark. The absorbance was
measured at 517 nm against a blank of methanol using a spectrophotometer. DPPH solution plus
methanol was used as a control
Results were expressed as a mean standard deviation from three replicate measurements. The
percent scavenging effect was calculated in Equation (2):
−
(%) = × 100 (2)

Statistical analysis: The data were analyzed in triplicate by a one-way analysis of variance to analyze
the effect of particle size on curcumin yield and antioxidant activity of turmeric powder using IBM
SPSS Statistic Version 22.0 (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA). Statistical significance was considered at p <
0.05.
Results and Discussion
Particle size distribution: The major observations for cryogenic and ambient grinding of turmeric are
shown in Table 1. This table summarizes the statistical analysis of size reduction parameters of
turmeric powder such as size dimensions, mean, mode, median, Skewness, Kurtosis, and uniformity.
The particle size distribution is analyzed with the help of particle size analyzer having a MaScontrol
software (Analysette 22, MicroTech Plus, Germany). Fig. 1a-b show the variations in the particle size
distribution of turmeric powder ground under ambient and cryogenic grinding conditions with
different cumulative mass fractions. In Fig. 1, the colored lines represent consecutive measurements
of particle size. In Fig. 1a–b the abscissas describe the particle size (µm), and ordinates enumerate to
the frequencies of the particular size of particles by right ordinate (dQ3 (×) [%]) and the progressive
data of flow of powder by left ordinate (Q3 (×) [%]).It can be observed from the figures that in
cryogenic grinding finer powders are obtained compared to that in the ambient grinding.A
substantial rise in the specific surface areas of the ground powder was found (3236.89 for ambient
grinding, to 41,961.91 cm2 cm−3 when adopted cryogenic grinding), as demonstrated in Table 1.
Table.1:Statistical analysis of particle size and specific surface area of turmericpowder
Statistics Ambient ground Cryo-ground
Arithmetic mean diameter (µm) 72.74 19.05
Geometric mean diameter (µm) 62.21 14.80
Quadratic sq. mean diameter (µm) 76.70 20.14
Harmonic mean diameter (µm) 63.58 3.43
Mode (µm) 73.18 19.77
Median (µm) 68.18 19.36
Mean/median ratio 1.06 0.98
Coefficient of variation (%) 33.90 38.0
Skewness 0.59 0.66
Kurtosis 0.39 1.15
Span 0.92 0.79
Uniformity 0.31 0.42
2 −3
Specific surface area (cm cm ) 3236.89 41,961.91

Values represented as mean value; sample size = 3

440
 (a)

(b)

Fig.1Distribution of particle size of turmeric powders obtained by grinding at: (a)ambient and (b)
cryogenic (− 90 °C)

Sieve analysis: The powder obtained using hammer mill under ambient and cryogenic grinding were
analyzed using sieve analysis asthe sample in ascending order of aperture sizes.The stack was
vibrated for 10 min using a machine with a gyratory and jolting action. Fig. 2 shows the particle size
distribution of the turmeric powder on different sieves. Fig. 2 also shows the mode of the curve
fitting of the particle distribution, which implies that the cryoground turmeric powder is finer in size,
and uniformly distributed than that ofambiently ground powder.A possible reason for it could be that
liquid nitrogen (LN2) made turmeric rhizome more brittle and volatile oil and the viscous matter got
frozen or solidified at low temperature incryogenic grinding of turmeric rhizome for which grinding
was appropriately done(Meghwal and Goswami, 2013).

441
 70
60
Fraction retained

50
40
30 Cryo-Ground
20 Ambt-Ground
10
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300

Sieve size (micro meter)

Fig.2 Particle size distribution of the turmeric powder on different sieves

Morphological analysis of the powder: SEM micrographs are shown in Fig. 3a–b confirm the
outcomes of particle size and particle size distribution (PSD) discussed above. From theseFig. 3a–b
micrographs, it could be revealed that cryogenically ground turmeric powder has fineness, surface
smoothness, and homogeneity. The cryo-ground powder was more uniformly distributed as
compared to the powders obtained by the ambient ground sample.

(a) (b)

Fig.3SEM micrograph of Turmeric powders: (a) ambient ground (b) cryo-ground

Extraction of curcumin:A higher yield of curcumin (3.95±0.16) was obtained in cryogenically ground
turmeric powder compared to ambient ground turmeric powder (2.59±0.89).Less specific surface
area and low uniformity of ambient ground simple (see Table. 1 and Fig.3) might be the reason for
low yield of curcumin(Huang et al., 2018). Thus, the cryogenically ground powder was considered for
further studies such as effect of particle size on curcumin yield and antioxidant activity. With
decrease in particle size, curcumin yield increased. From Table 3, it is evident that the variation of
particle size has a significant effect on curcumin yield. Cryogenic grinding not only increases the
specific area (surface area-to-volume ratio) of turmeric but also ruptures cell walls. Thus, since there
is no diffusion through undamaged cell walls, curcumin yield may be higher when extracting smaller
rather than larger particles(Liu et al., 2013).
Antioxidant activity: The DPPH radical model is a widely used tool in evaluating the free radical-
scavenging ability of natural compounds. As shown in Table 3, along with the decrease in the
turmeric powder particle size, the DPPH scavenging activity of methanol extract of turmeric powder
increased, which was consistent with the change in the curcumin content. The P3 and P4 turmeric
powders showed higher free DPPH scavenging activity than P1 and P2 counterpart. Similar results

442
were also found in ginger(Zhao et al., 2009) and Wheat bran(Brewer et al., 2014). The extractability
of bound curcumin, as well as some phenolic, might be the reason for higher antioxidant activity of
P3 and P4 samples. Even though, ambient grinding can give fine particles, increase in temperature
during grinding degrades the bioactive components of the turmeric powder. Thus, cryogenic grinding
is the best choice for turmeric grinding.
Table 3 Effect of particle size on curcumin yield and antioxidant activity
Particle size Curcumin yield (%) Antioxidant activity (%)
P1 (> 150 µm) 2.73±0.05a 66.25±0.78a
b
P2 (150-75 µm) 3.86±0.03 71.74±2.87b
P3 (75-45 µm) 4.52±0.10c 76.46±1.25c
c
P4 (< 45 µm) 4.85±0.08 77.41±3.76c
Mean ± SD. Values in the same column with different letters were significantly different (p <
0.05)

Conclusion: The effects of the particle size of turmeric on its curcumin yield and antioxidant activity
were investigated in the present study. A higher value of curcumin content (3.95±0.16) was observed
in cryogenically ground turmeric powder compared to ambient ground turmeric powder (2.59±0.89).
Further, cryo-ground turmeric powder was screened through different sized sieves to separate
granulates (P1 (>150 µm), P2 (150-75-µm), P3 (75-45µm) and P4 (<45µm)). With the decrease in
particle size from P1 to P4, curcumin yield increased significantly (p<0.05). Moreover, with decline in
the turmeric powder particle size, the DPPH scavenging activity of methanol extract of turmeric
powder increased, which was consistent with the change in the curcumin content.

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cooling. Cryogenics (Guildf). 22, 283–286. https://doi.org/10.1016/0011-2275(82)90058-3
Brewer, L.R., Kubola, J., Siriamornpun, S., Herald, T.J., Shi, Y.-C., 2014. Wheat bran particle size
influence on phytochemical extractability and antioxidant properties. Food Chem. 152, 483–
490. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.FOODCHEM.2013.11.128
Chattopadhyay, I., Biswas, K., Bandyopadhyay, U., Banerjee, R.K., 2004. Turmeric and curcumin:
Biological actions and medicinal applications. Curr. Sci. 87, 44–53.
https://doi.org/10.1248/bpb.29.1476
Coelho, E.M., de Azevêdo, L.C., Corrêa, L.C., Bordignon-Luiz, M.T., Lima, M. dos S., 2016. Phenolic
Profile, Organic Acids and Antioxidant Activity of Frozen Pulp and Juice of the Jambolan
(Syzygium Cumini). J. Food Biochem. 40, 211–219. https://doi.org/10.1111/jfbc.12209
Ghodki, B.M., Goswami, T.K., 2016a. Effect of grinding temperatures on particle and physicochemical
characteristics of black pepper powder. Powder Technol. 299, 168–177.
https://doi.org/10.1016/J.POWTEC.2016.05.042
Ghodki, B.M., Goswami, T.K., 2016b. Optimization of Cryogenic Grinding Process for Cassia (
Cinnamomum loureirii Nees L.). J. Food Process Eng. 39, 659–675.
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property of pectin. J. Food Eng. 218, 44–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JFOODENG.2017.09.001
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Meghwal, M., Goswami, T.K., 2013. Evaluation of size reduction and power requirement in ambient
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Meng, F.-C., Zhou, Y.-Q., Ren, D., Wang, R., Wang, C., Lin, L.-G., Zhang, X.-Q., Ye, W.-C., Zhang, Q.-W.,
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M.M., 2013. Effect of cryogenic grinding on volatile oil, oleoresin content and anti-oxidant
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444
 Numerical Modelling of Heat and Mass Transfer duringBread Baking
considering Porous Media
Ravula Sudharshan Reddy, Divyasree Arepally and A.K. Datta
Agricultural and Food Engineering Department, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
West Bengal -721 302, India.
Email: r.sudharshanreddy@gmail.com

Abstract: Presently, extensive research work is being conducted in food industry to save energy and
enhance the product quality. Baking is a complex process in which heat and mass transfer takes place
simultaneously.It is an energy intensive process.In baking oven, radiation is the predominant mode
of heat transfer accounting for 50% to 80% of total heat compared to convection and conduction
mode. In the present study, temperature profile and moisture profilewith deformation of bread was
investigated.In this work, the bread was considered as a porous medium for better understanding of
the transport phenomena during process of baking. In baking, within the product, mass, momentum
and heat transfers simultaneously occur. The simulation was described by the 2D geometry. The
setting of the equations in porous material based on the heat energy, momentum, and mass
conservations were solved with the finite element numerical model usingComsol Multiphysics©
software. Simulation process was carried out until centre temperature of the bread reached
95-100 °C.Simulated results were compared with the experimental data for the validation of the
model.

Keywords: Temperature Profile, Moisture Profile, Deformation, Bread, Multiphase Porous Media.

Introduction: Baking is a common operation that is employed to make a variety of food products
such as biscuits, cakes, muffins, and bread etc. Baking is a complex process which involves the
physical, chemical and biochemical changes. These changes are dehydration, deformation, crust
formation, gelatinization of starch, protein denaturation and browning reactions, etc. [1] and these
are simultaneous and coupled [2]. During baking process, heat, mass and momentum transfer occurs
simultaneously. In heat transfer, radiation is the predominant mode compared to conduction and
convection. The top surface of the product in the oven is heated mainly by radiation and only little
part of the heat is transferred by convection which is less than 10% [3]. Domestic electric ovens are
an easy and versatile means of providing high quality cooked food. But, these ovens achieve very
poor thermal efficiencies, because during baking operation, a large proportion of the energy input to
an oven is absorbed by its structure and `lost' to the surrounding environment [4, 5]
The development of a physics-based model of food processing is essential to improve the quality of
processed food and optimize energy consumption. A multiphase porous media model for
simultaneous heat and mass transfer can provide a realistic understanding of transport processes
and that can help to optimize energy consumption and improve food quality [6]. In the last decade,
researchers had considered single-phase transport model for simulating the temperature profile and
moisture migration in different food processes. But, this single phase model doesn't provide the
understanding of the transport phenomena which actually occurs during any food operations. In such
situations, multiphase models are very helpful. Recently, researchers have implemented in food
processing the physics-based models for convective food drying [7], for frying [8,9], and baking [10,
11]
Zhang and Datta [10] established the physics based model in conventional microwave baking for
simulating the heat and moisture transport along with product deformation using a finite element
method. Purlis and Salvadori [1] proposed the mathematical model based on a moving boundary
problem formulation with equivalent thermo-physical properties, including the moving evaporation
front, the evaporation–condensation mechanism and the development of the crust observed during

445
bread baking. In the similar way, Chanwal et al.[12] developed a three dimensional model for bread
in baking oven. These authors used same equivalent thermo-physical properties developed by Purlis
and Salvadori[1] and achieved good validation. Mondal and Datta[13] developed a two dimensional
model for crustless bread and validated the model with experimental data. But these authors did not
consider radiation and evaporation-condensation mechanism. In another study, two dimensional
model including conductive transfer with hearth, steam injection and convective and radiative heat
transfer was developed to simulate the hydrothermal behaviour and the deformation of bread dough
during the baking stage [14]. In the present study, keeping in view of multiphase model in bread
baking for better understanding of the transport phenomenon, the temperature and moisture profile
along with deformation was studied. Moreover, sensitivity analysis was performed on some model
parameters.
Model Development: During the process, the product consists of different phases such as solid,
liquid water, gases (water vapour and carbon dioxide considered as ideal gases). It was assumed that
the water vapour and carbon dioxide were perfectly blended. The setting of the equations in porous
material are based on the momentum, mass and heat energy conservations expressed by Darcy’s law
and Fick’s second law and Fourier’s law respectively through porous matrix. The following
assumptions considered for the development of model were: Initial temperature and moisture
content of the sample is uniformly distributed throughout the product. The following mass
conservation equation for each constituent consists of inertial term, mass flux n and source term R
[10, 14] are:
cw
 nw    Rv
t (1)
cv
 nv   Rv
t (2)
 φ1  S   M g  Pg
   nc  nv   R(c v)
 R T  t (3)
The rate of evaporation R is taken as positive during evaporation process where as negative during
condensation process. The liquid water flux (nw) is described by the diffusive flux. The fluxes nv and
n c are described by Darcy flow and binary diffusion (Zhang and Datta, 2006) as follows
n w   D cap c w
(4)
k in k r p 
n v  ρ v Pg  D eff M v C v 
μg  Pg 
  (5)
k in k r  p  pv 
n c  ρ co 2 Pg  D eff M co 2 C atm 
μg  Pg 
  (6)
For the above equation, nv and n co 2 , the velocity of the gas (ug) is described by Dacry’s law as follows
k p, in k p, r
vg  Pg
μg
(7)
Energy Transport
T
ρ eff Cpeff 
 nw .hw  nv .hv  nc .hc   keff T   λ.kevap ρv  ρeq S g φ
t (8)
h w  C p, w T  Tref  ; h v  C p, v T  Tref  ; h c  C p, CO 2 T  Tref 

446
Solid Momentum: During baking process, the bread expands due to gas pressure difference. The
conservation of linear momentum was used to solve for the stress builds up inside bread during
baking.
σ eff  Pg (9)
σ eff is the effective stress (Pa), Pg is the gas pressure (Pa).
In this case, the total strain can be expressed in the form of following equation.

E
1
2
 
 X .u   X .u 
T
(10)

Once the displacement is known from the above equation, the solid velocity (vs) can be calculated.
Mechanical Properties: Bread is considered as a viscoelastic material. The properties such as elastic
modulus and relaxation time was taken as function of temperature.
Boundary conditions
For Mass transport
For eq. 1 n w  k cφ Sw v    (11)
For eq. 2 n v  k c φ Sg   v     (12)
For Gas transport
For eq. 3 Psurf  Pamb (13)
For Energy transport
Top surface  
q  h Ta  T    Tw4  T 4  n w  λ v
(14)
Side and bottom surfaces q  hTa  T
(15)
For solid mechanics
The top surface of the bread was free to move whereas other boundary are set to zero.

Initial conditions
T  To ;
Cw  ρ w φ Swo ;
Po  101325 Pa ;
Pv φ 1  Sw o 
Cv  o
R  To
u=0
Numerical implementation:The governing equations for transport equations are solved by finite
element analysis in COMSOL Multiphysics software 4.4. In this model, two dimensional geometry was
taken. The top surface where heat and mass transfer takes place was refined compared to interior
part of the geometry. The time step was 0.01 s for simulation.
Results and discussion
The initial temperature and moisture content of bread was found to be 30 °C and 45% (w.b).
Temperature profile: It was observed from Fig. 1, the crumb temperature was less than top and side
surface temperatures of the bread. At the initial stage of baking, the crumb temperature was
constant (1-2min) and later followed increasing trend (2-15 min). After 15 min of baking, the crumb
temperature was maintained (i.e. linear trend) in the range of 96-98°C. In bread baking, complete
starch gelatinization is very important for final acceptance so that baking time further kept holding
time of 10 min for fully swollen starch granules. Temperature of bread at various locations is shown
in Fig. 1 (b). It was observed that there is sudden increase in crust temperature in the first few
minutes and later it followed with an increase in linear trend for rest of the baking period. The

447
surface temperature of the bread goes beyond 100 °C due to small rate of evaporation. When the
temperature reaches 100°C, evaporation becomes stronger.In simulation results, surface
temperature was less than 160 °C (Fig. 5), which means that crust was in brown-colour, not in too
dark colour.
Moisture content profile: Fig.2 (a) shows the moisture content of centre and crust of bread during
baking. The crust moisture content decreases as baking progress. The crumb moisture content was
maintained constant due to phase change. The reason behind this, crust is formed after the surface
becomes very dry. From the experiments, the crumb moisture content was about 0.80(d.b.)whereas
crust moisture content was less than 0.1(d.b.). It was noticed from the simulation results, the total
moisture content was decreased with increased in baking time. This is good agreement with
experimental results as shown in Fig. 2 (b).
Sensitivity analysis of model parameters: The sensitivity analysis was performed on model
parameters like rate of evaporation (K), and permeability (k) to examine the temperature and
moisture profiles behavior during baking. All these parameters were greatly affecting the
temperature and moisture profiles (Fig. 3 and 4).
Bread expansion: The bread mainly expands by release of CO2. From the simulation, it was observed
that, the bread deforms first 5-6 min of baking; later it was slightly decreased and maintained
constantas illustrated in Fig. 5. In the beginning of the baking process, the CO2 gas is being released
from the temperature of 30 to 60 °C. The bread expands stops once gas completely falls down to
initial stage. Moreover, there are many factors related to bread deformation, like temperature, gas
inside the bread, mechanical properties, basic ingredients, crust formation and ceasing of yeast
activity [10] . The simulated results were in good agreement with experimental results.
Conclusions
In this work, the governing equations for liquid, water vapor, CO2, heat transfer and solid mechanics
were solved by finite element discretization method using COMSOL Multiphysics software 4.4. The2D
bread was considered for simulating the temperature and moisture profile along with bread
expansion. The results of temperature, moisture and expansion were in good agreement with the
experimental data. It was examined that some model parameters showed greater effect on
temperature and water content.
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13. Mondal, A., &Datta, A. K. (2010). Two-dimensional CFD modeling and simulation of crustless
bread baking process. Journal of Food Engineering, 99(2), 166-174.
14. Nicolas, V., Glouannec, P., Ploteau, J. P., Salagnac, P., & Jury, V. (2017). Experiment and
multiphysic simulation of dough baking by convection, infrared radiation and direct
conduction. International Journal of Thermal Sciences, 115, 65-78.

Nomenclature

C molar density, kmol m−3 pv vapour pressure, Pa

2
Deff effective gas diffusivity, m s−1 q heat flux, J m−2 s−1
D diffusivity, m2 .s−1 t time, s
H hethalpy, kJ/kg u velocity, m s−1
K non equilibrium evaporation constant, s−1 ρ density, kg m−3
latent heat of
M molecular weight ƛ
vaporization, J kg−1
kp permeability, m2 µ dynamic viscosity, Pa. s
Pg gas pressure, Pa ɛ emissivity
3
Q Heat source ,W/m x, y coordinates

Rv volumetric evaporation rate, kg m−3 s−1

Subscripts
−1 −1
Rg universal gas constant, J kmol K atm atmosphere
S saturation g, s, v, w gas, oil, solid, vapor, water
T temperature, K eff effective
c concentration, kg m−3 eq equilibrium
cp specific heat capacity, J kg−1 K−1 surf surface
−2 −1
h heat transfer coefficient, W m K in intrinsic
−2 −1
k thermal conductivity, W m K r relative, radiation
kc mass transfer coefficient of vapour, m. s−1 φ porosity
n total mass flux, kg m−2 s−1 ∞ ambient

449
 Fig. 1. Bread temperature a) simulation and experimental data b) at various locations

Fig. 2 Moisture content of bread a) crust (avarage boundary surface) and crumb b) avarage moisture
content

a) Temperature at centre b) Average moisture content

Fig. 3 Sensitivity analysis of rate of evaporation on temperature and moisture content

a) Temperature at centre b) Average moisture content

Fig. 4 Sensitivity analysis of permeability on temperature and moisture content

450
3 min 3 min

5 min 5 min

25 min 25 min
Temperature Moisture content
Fig. 5 Temperature and moisture profile of bread at different baking times

451
 Development and Modification of a Tractor Mounted Hydraulic
Operated Ladder
R. Thiyagarajan1 and S. Tajuddin2
1
Asst. Professor (Farm Machinery) and 2Professor (Retd)
Agricultural Machinery Research Centre, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University
Coimbatore -641 003, India
Email : drrthiyagarajan@gmail.com

Abstract: A tractor-mounted hydraulic operated ladder was developed and modified to reduce the
harvesting /pruning cost, increase the harvesting/pruning efficiency and enhance the overall
productivity of mango and coconut orchards. The developed system is attached to the rear of a
minimum 45 hp agricultural tractor PTO.Power takeoff from the transmission drives a hydraulic
pump which, in turn, transmits power to the various operating units of the ladder assembly; this via
hydraulic tubing, hydraulic jacks, hydraulic motors and to a master control valve fixed on the bucket
where operator can stand and control all the functions of hydraulic ladder.The modified hydraulic
ladder consists of a stabilizing system (four cylinders) on both side of the trailer for supporting,
stability and safety for the operators at the time of operation. The modified hydraulic ladder was
evaluated in the actual field condition and it was observed that it can be rotated from 0 to 360
degree both in clockwise and anticlockwise direction so that minimum 4 coconut/ mango trees can
be covered by simply operating the directional valve.The hydraulic ladder is suitable for harvesting of
mango and coconut orchard upto 10 m, pruning of tree up to 10 m height comfortably and spraying
over the tree canopy up to a height of 10 m. The coconut harvesting capacity of the refined hydraulic
ladder is 59 to 68 trees/day for the period of 8 hours. The cost of operation of the hydraulic ladder
(Inclusive of tractor) for harvesting coconut and mango is 3512 and 4240 Rs./day

Key words: Hydraulic Ladder,Stress, Stabilizing System, Turn Table, Direction Control Vvalve

Introduction : In India, fruit harvesting is commonly done by experienced tree climbers. Fruit growers
in the developing countries are facing two significant problems that could determine the future of
their business. The availability of fruit harvesting labour dwindling every year and the supply of hand
fruit pickers continues to shrink. In addition, there are fewer workers available to harvest fruits
because of continuous outflow of workers from agriculture to better paying jobs in construction and
industry (Blanks, 1998). Since the cost of manual labour is constantly rising, the only way to maintain
or reduce the labour cost is to increase the productivity of lab markets (Holt, 1999).Hence,
mechanization is the only answer, since it offers potentially the only option for reducing harvesting
labour expenses. So that growers can stay competitive in the years ahead and even expand markets.
Thus, mechanization plays a vital role in securing the future of fruit growers in the developing
countries.
The most popular cultural operations carried out in orchards are the following: pollination,
dehorning, pruning, fruit thinning, bending and bagging of bunches and pesticide control. Brown
(1983) showed that among cultural operations, harvesting, pollination and pruning are the most
labor intensive work accounting for more than 80 percent of the total production costs. In the
coconut and other fruit orchards, the cultural operation methods involve traditional and mechanical
methods. The most difficult part of the coconut and other orchard cultural operations is reaching the
worker to the crown of the tree. It is because the trees are too tall and the worker is at the risk of
falling out off the tree. Using the tree trunk leaf bases to climb the tree in Iran, Iraq and Libya is a
traditional way of cultural operations (Nixon, 1969). Al- Kiady (2000) reported that the skilled and
specialized labors were becoming rare and expensive causing a serious depression in date production
industry. Mechanized cultivation methods can improve the date quality and mechanization of date

452
palm cultural operation is essential to optimize this industry (Albozahar, 2003). There is a major
interest in the mechanization of date cultural operations, because most of them are hazardous, time
consuming and require skilled labor in Middle East, the origin of this fruit (Ismail & Al-Gaadi, 2006;
Mazloumzadehet al., 2008). Enough and comprehensive information about date palm characteristics
such as physical andmechanical properties will enhance the mechanization in this sector. In most of
the mechanized cultural operations, especially in the following studies that a machine moves on the
tree trunk, the tree tolerates some stresses.
To guarantee the tree, the machine and the worker safety it is important to know the date
palm tree mechanical properties and the stresses these machines impose on the tree. Davis (1997)
developed a coconut tree climbing bicycle, it consisted of an angle-iron framework with wooden
platform on which the operator rides. Friction rollers are passed against the trunk of the palm by the
operator's weight and he is carried to the top as he turns the handle by hand. Abdalla et al. (1986)
developed a simple walk-up elevator to suit date cultural operations. The elevator was designed
where a worker can lift himself up by pedaling. Saringet al. (1989) in Israel developed an integrated
mechanical system that could harvest the fruits by shaking the tree trunk. Shamsi (1990) designed a
sprocket type climbing machine to harvest dates. The operator sits on a frame and holds on to a
handle. He then drives the climber by pushing the pedals with his feet.Nicklin (1993) designed a tree
climbing test rig to lift a man up to the date palm.
Tajuddin and Swaminathan (1988) designed and developed a tractor-operated lift by means
of which a height of 6·5 m from ground level can be reached by the operator standing on the
platform. The lift is attached to the category 1 or 2 three-point linkage of any tractor and is operated
by the tractor hydraulic system. Operations such as fruit harvesting can easily be performed by the
tractor attachment within the operating height. The attachment costs Rs.2500 and the operational
cost of it has been determined to be Rs.50/h. The cost of plucking fruits using the tractor-operated
lift was only 70 percent of the corresponding cost of manual plucking.
Fadel (2005) also designed and developed a tractormounteddate palm tree service machine.
The machine had the capability to lift aworker and the required tools to the crown zone as high as
4.5m. Mazloumzadehand Shamsi (2007) evaluated alternative date harvesting methods in Iran
usingsome physical properties of date palm trees. They showed that any new harvestermachine must
be able to reach the lifting height of 10 m. it must be able to carry amaximum payload of around
1100-1300 N and have a length less than 3 m.
Kumaran and Reddy (2011) harvested mangoes manually and with manually operated mango
harvesters. The damages like loss of pedicle and bruises caused during manual harvesting reduce the
shelf life of mangoes. The operators climb the tree branches to harvest the fruits fall on the ground
causing more physical damage and loss. Hence, it was required to develop a tractor operated
hydraulic platform to harvest fruits at all the heights of the fruit tree with ease and collect the fruits
with minimum damage. A tractor operated hydraulic platform for fruit harvesting has been designed
and developed. It has an operator’s platform, scissors type lift mechanism and a trailer. A push type
fruit collecting net was also developed to collect the harvested fruits.
In addition to providing means for reducing the drudgery of harvest labour the harvest
machinery improves the farmers’ ability to perform operations in time. Mechanization also reduces
the risks associated with the need for large amount of seasonal manual labour for short periods of
time and lessens the social problems caused due to excessive influx of low-wages. Finally, harvest
mechanization can also potentially reduce human contact with food and thus reduce contamination
possibilities. The current system for picking and pruning fruit trees is labor intensive and physically
demanding. Workers must be able to move, position, and climb ladders to reach fruit located up to
45 feet high. Workers can be burdened by as much as 150 kg of fruit while performing these tasks,
which demands workers, be physically fit. Bearing this weight while on the ladder also poses huge
safety risks to the workers.
Keeping in view of above facts, the aim of this research work was to refine and evaluate the
tractor-mounted hydraulic operated ladder which should provide a safe working environment, in

453
addition to presenting some important tools to help the worker performing the needed practice in a
more efficient fashion.

Materials and Methods

Construction of tractor mounted hydraulically operated ladder
Proper design of functional components would greatly influence performance of
hydraulically operated ladder. The design of functional components is made to achieve optimum
performance of the tractor mounted hydraulically operated ladder. Based on the above design and
requirement, prototype has been developed and discussed below. The functional components of
tractor mounted hydraulically operated ladder are furnished below.The isometric view of the tractor
mounted hydraulic ladder (three folds) is depicted in Figure 1.The view of the tractor mounted
hydraulically operated ladder (three folds)and shown in Plate 1.
i. Trailer assembly
a. Trailer
b. Base plate
c. Gear box
d. Turn table
ii. Ladder assembly
a. Radial arms&Bucket or cage
iii. Hydraulic system
The basic hydraulic system consists of the following major components.
a. Hydraulic tank or Reservoir
b. Hydraulic motor
c. Hydraulic Pump
d. Stabilizers (L-2 nos, R-2 nos.)
e. Cylinders (3nos)
f. Six bank valve
Trailer assembly
Trailer
Metal aerial ladder trucks come in a variety of sizes, generally 8 to 12 m that can be mounted
on a four-wheel chassis, or more likely, on a semitrailer. It is a tractor drawn two wheel trailer
developed with Load bearing capacity and weight distribution by the considering the weight of the
hydraulic ladder. The drawbar of the trailer height is 0.54m from the ground level and the length of
the drawbar is 1.8 m is set to allow the tractor to make a sharp turn without the rear tires fouling the
trailer. The overall dimension of the trailer is 2.72 x 1.71 x 1.56 m (L x W x H). The tyre size is 7.5 X 16-
8 PLY rating.
Base plate
It is square plate of size 0.75 m2 with thickness 20 mm which is bolted on the trailer platform frame.
Gear box
The gear box is made of cast iron with overall dimension of 0.35 x 0.35 x 0.32 m. A gearbox
designed using a worm and worm-wheel is considerably smaller than one made from plain spur
gears, and has its drive axes at 90° to each other. A worm gear is used for a large speed reduction
ratio required between crossed axis shafts which do not intersect. A worm drive consists of a large
diameter worm wheel (Spur gear) with a worm screw meshing with teeth on the periphery of the
worm wheel. As the worm is rotated the worm wheel is caused to rotate due to the screw like action
of the worm. The size of the worm gear set is generally based on the centre distance between the
worm and the worm wheel. The worm wheel and worm gear is designed to rotate the full assembly
in the gear ratio of 40:1. The fabricated gear box is bolted above the square plate to rotate the
complete unit for 3600.

454
Turn table
The turn table is Heavy duty MS circular plate of diameter 0.65m and thickness of 20 mm
which is fixed and bolted above the gear box shaft. In turn table 8 numbers large bearing balls are
placed with equally distributed gaps. In that gaps grease is fully packed so as to make the rotation
easy and to reduce friction. In addition, there is a turntable lock which must be released before
rotating the ladder, and locked when the ladder is positioned.
Ladder assembly
Radial arms& Bucket or Cage
The radial arm is made of heavy duty MS Square tube of size 0.25 x 0.25 x 0.005m for a
length of 1.5 m. The one end Square tube is fixed and bolted vertically above the turn table and the
other end is hinged with another square tube (Lower radial arm) of size 0.22 x 0.22 x 5 m of length of
4m. The middle radial arm is made of MS Square tube of size 0.15 x 0.15 x 5 m of length of 4 m. The
one end Square tube is hinged to the middle radial arm and the other end is hinged to the upper arm
of size 0.13 x 0.13 x 5 m of length of 6 m.The one end Square tube is hinged to the upper radial arm
and the other end is hinged with bucket which is of MS L angles with three sides closed and one side
opened. The overall dimension of the bucket is 0.75 x 0.75 x 1 m.
Hydraulic system
Hydraulic tank
Hydraulic tank or reservoir is closed type reservoir which is the integral part of a system. The
reservoir tank act as the main oil container for the entire system. The reservoir is designed in such a
way that to drain the old, used oil and contaminants from the tank. Oil filter is placed on the top of
the hydraulic tank and same is connected to return line hydraulic hoses so as to filter the
contaminants in the oil. Sight and level gauges offer an inside view of fluid levels in the hydraulic
tank. Basedon the design and requirement of oil for the operation an around 110 litre capacity tank
was fabricated and placed with good structural support in front of the trailer which is 1.2 m above
the ground level. The overall dimension of the hydraulic tank is 0.4 x 0.6 x 0.4 m.
Hydraulic pump
Though each of the items is equally important for the systems, the pump plays a specific and
unique position in the system. It can be compared to the heart of the human being. The main
purpose of the pump is to create the flow of oil through the system and thus assist transfer of power
and motion.In general it is known factor that for low pressure applications vane type of pumps are
very efficient. For this application around pressure of 110 bar is required for the operation of ladder.
Hence the vane type pump up to pressure of 175 bar is selected for this application.
Vane type pump (Fixed displacement and Balanced)
Pumping action in a vane type pump is caused when the vanes are allowed to track along a
cam ring. In balanced design vane pump a circular rotor with vanes slots is concentrically positioned
with the axis of an elliptical cam ring. This creates two inlet and outlet chambers such that two
pressure quadrants oppose each other and the two inlet chambers are directly opposite to one
another. Therefore the forces acting on the shaft are fully balanced. These types of pumps are
constant volume of fixed displacement pump and can work up to 175 bar pressure. They are
relatively quiet and of simple construction. The vanes move to and fro in the slots depending on the
cam ring contour come in contact while traversing it radially.The pump is coupled to and driven by
the prime mover of the system that is tractor PTO. The inlet side of the pump is connected to the
Reservoir: the outlet or pressure side is connected to the direction control valve and thus to rest of
the system.The selected vane type pump is fixed on the trailer draw bar.
Hydraulic gerotormotor
A hydraulic motor is a mechanical actuator that converts hydraulic pressure and flow into
torque and angular displacement (rotation). This type of motor is also called as gerotor or low
pressure spool valve motors or positive displacement pumps. These type of motors work similar to
the spur type gear pump but without the crescent between the rotor (the internal drive gear) and
the idler (the external driven gear).The driven gear has one extra tooth than the drive gear and the

455
drive shaft attached to the drive gear is offset just enough to allow the gears to mesh neatly at the
top so that they seal together continuously as they rotate.This rotation causes a vacuum to be
created on the inlet side so that fluid is sucked into the cavity between the gears. The cavity gets
bigger as the tooth approaches the bottom point then gradually gets smaller. The smaller the cavity
gets the more pressure is placed onto the fluid which forces it out the outlet to travel through the
circuit.A hydraulic motor is coupled with the gear box for rotation of complete assembly up to 3600
on both the sides. Hydraulic motors can be instantly started, stopped, or reversed under any degree
of load; they can be stalled by overload without damage. The direction of rotation of a hydraulic
motor can be changed by reversing the flow of fluid into the ports of the motor. In this operation the
fluid, instead of activating a piston rod, drives a hydraulic motor which powers a gear train that
rotates the turn table.
Hydraulic cylinders
In the hydraulic cylinders flow of hydraulic fluid into the double acting cylinders whose
pistons actually raise the ladder. The more oil under pressure fed to the cylinders, the greater will be
the distance the piston rods travel and hence the greater the angle the ladder will achieve. When the
desired angle is reached, the operator returns the control to neutral. This type of cylinder provides
power in both directions, with a pressure port at either end. Single rod end cylinders exert greater
forces when extending than when retracting, since the pistonarea on the blind end is larger than the
piston area on the rod end (due to the area covered by the piston rod). In total there are seven
numbers of cylinders are used for the operations. In that four cylinders are fixed as stabilizers in both
sides of the trailer in two ends of the left and right side. The four numbers of hydraulic cylinders are
used as stabilizers for supporting, stability and safety for the operators at the time of operation. The
diameter of the stabilizer cylinder bore and pistonare73mm and 40mm. There are other three
cylinders which are hinged from lower radial arm to middle radial arm, middle radial arm to upper
radial arm and upper radial arm to Bucket. The function of the three cylinders are to lift the lower,
middle and upper radial arms up to the height of 12m for the different operations like, coconut
harvesting, fruit plucking, training, lopping etc. The diameter of the cylinder bore and piston are 100
and 50mm for the three cylinders.
Directional control valves
Directional control valves are one of the most fundamental parts in hydraulic machinery.
They allow fluid flow into different paths from one or more sources. It consists of a spool inside a
cylinder which is mechanically controlled. The movement of the spool restricts or permits the flow,
thus it controls the fluid flow. In directional control valve there are six valves, one inlet and outlet.
Each cylinder is controlled by a single valve expect the stabilizers. Two stabilizers are controlled by
one valve and other two stabilizers by other valve and there is a separate valve for rotation of the
turning table (full assembly). The arrangements are made in such a way that all the operations like
stabilizing, lifting and rotation can be done by the operator at the time of operation in the bucket
itself.Movement of an operating control lever sends oil under pressure to whatever working unit is
selected. When all operating controls are in neutral, the oil is by-passed continually to a reserve
hydraulic tank and from there to the pump, completing an idling cycle.

456
 Fig. 1 Isometric view of the Hydraulic ladder

Plate 1. Developed tractor mounted hydraulic ladder

Results and Discussions
Evaluation of developed tractor mounted hydraulicallyoperated ladder
The developed hydraulic ladder is trailed type and it was hitched to a 40 hp tractor and
operated by the tractor PTO through cardon shaft’s one end is connected to the tractor PTO and
other end to the pump. The total lifting height of the developed hydraulic ladder is 12 m (40 feet)
and it is able to rotate 360 degree on both clock and anticlockwise directions. The evaluation of the
developed hydraulic ladder was conducted in the coconut orchard of the University Research Station
to study the stability, working of the machine and to receive the feedback from the operator for
further modification. For this study, ten field men of age 25 to 40 from agricultural background has
been selected and they were given proper instructions and training for the operation of developed
hydraulic ladder. Each individual is instructed to operate the ladder at different vertical heights and

457
different angle of rotation (0 to 1800). Theevaluation results are given in Table 1. The operational
view of the developed hydraulic ladder (three folds) is shown in Plate.2
Table 1.Feedback from the operators
S.no Height, Operators Age Weight, Kg Operators feed back
m (Comfort/Discomfort)
1. 12 I 37 66 Discomfort
II 34 69 Discomfort
III 26 56 Discomfort
IV 25 62 Discomfort
V 29 76 Discomfort
VI 32 87 Discomfort
VII 38 67 Discomfort
VIII 40 81 Discomfort
IX 35 78 Discomfort
X 28 72 Discomfort

2. 11 I 37 66 Discomfort
II 34 69 Discomfort
III 26 56 Discomfort
IV 25 62 Discomfort
V 29 76 Discomfort
VI 32 87 Discomfort
VII 38 67 Discomfort
VIII 40 81 Discomfort
IX 35 78 Discomfort
X 28 72 Discomfort

3. 10 I 37 66 Discomfort
II 34 69 Comfort
III 26 56 Comfort
IV 25 62 Comfort
V 29 76 Discomfort
VI 32 87 Comfort
VII 38 67 Comfort
VIII 40 81 Comfort
IX 35 78 Comfort
X 28 72 Comfort

4. 9 I 37 66 Comfort
II 34 69 Comfort
III 26 56 Comfort
IV 25 62 Comfort
V 29 76 Comfort
VI 32 87 Comfort
VII 38 67 Comfort
VIII 40 81 Comfort
IX 35 78 Comfort
X 28 72 Comfort

458
 From the Table 3 it is observed that all the operators are given a feedback as discomfort for
the height 11 and 12m and comfortable for height of 10m, 9m and less. There are also little
instability problems were practically observed for the height of 12 m during the evaluationand at the
time of transport from one field to other field due to undulations in fields, watery and ploughed
fields.The lifting of a tire or stabilizer on the opposite side of the vehicle from the load does not
necessarily indicate a condition of instability, but for the better safety and comfort of the operator it
is decided to reduce the height from 12 m to 10 m.

Plate 2.The operational view of the developed hydraulic ladder (three folds)
Modification of a tractor mounted hydraulically operated ladder
From the Table1, it is observed that all the operators are under distress for the height of 11
and 12 m. Based on operator’s feedback, maximum safety of operator and also for the better
stability it is decided to reduce the height from 12 m to 10m. Hence the modification of hydraulic
ladder from three fold to two fold has been carried out by eliminating the lower arm of size 0.22 x
0.22 x 5 m of length 4m and the change of bucket position from front to back of the trailer. The
hydraulic ladder is refined in such a way that it can be operated by an ordinary person with minimum
knowledge in handling the machinery. The schematic view of the modified or refined hydraulic
ladder is depicted in figure2 and the view of the modified or refined hydraulic ladder is shown in the
Plate 3.The detailed specification of the refined hydraulic ladder is presented in Table 2.
Table 2. Specifications of refined tractor mounted hydraulically operated ladder
S.No. Details Value
i Over all dimensions, (L x B x H) m 6x3.5 x 4.8
ii Trailer size, m 2.72 x 1.71 x 1.56
iii Gear box size, m 0.35 x 0.35 x 0.32
iv Gear ratio 40:1
v Type of hydraulic pump Vane type pump
vi Type of hydraulic motor Gerotor
vii Cage size 0.75 x 0.75 x 1 m
viii Directional valve Six bank valve
ix Rotation, degree 0 to 360
x Maximum Cage load, kg 300
xi Jacking width, m 4.5
xii Minimum Height, m 4.0
xiii Maximum lifting height , m 10

459
 Fig.2. Schematic view of the refined hydraulic ladder

Plate 3 View of the refined hydraulic ladder

Performance evaluation of refined hydraulic ladder
The refined hydraulic ladder (two folds) was evaluated in the coconut and mango orchard of
University Research Station and farmer’s field for harvesting operation. The results of the coconut
harvesting and mango harvesting operations are given in table 3&4 and the view of the harvesting
operations are shown in plates 4and 5. The tractor PTO speed was operated at 400 rpm for effective
lifting and lowering of bucket. Lifting of a tire or stabilizer on the opposite side of the hydraulic
ladder was not observedat the time of evaluation, transportation from one field to other field even
though the lands are undulated. The other operations like spraying tree pruning and other
maintenance works up to a height of 10 m can also be done with help of this hydraulic ladder.

460
Table 3.Field trials for coconut harvesting with hydraulic ladder (mean value)
Sl.No. Particulars Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3
Refined hydraulic ladder (Two folds)
1. Date of trial 04.10.2016 18.04.2017 19.06.2017
2. Location Institute Farm Institute Farm Paiyur
Village
3. No. of trees harvested 10 9 10
4. Average height of the 8 10 10
tree, m
5. Average diameter of the 0.86 0.92 0.84
tree, m
6. Average setting up time, s 22 29 25
7. Average time for lifting 20 23 21
the bucket, s
8. Average time for lowering 16 16 14
the bucket, s
9. Average time for rotation 16 14 18
of the unit , s
10. Total time (excluding 74 82 78
harvesting), s/tree
11. Harvesting capacity, 68 59 65
trees/day
12. Harvesting efficiency 76 81 75

Table 4. Field trials for mango fruit plucking and other operations (mean value)
Sl. No. Particulars Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3
Refined hydraulic ladder (two folds)
1. Date of trial 18.04.2017 09.05.2017 30.06.20
17
2. Location Institute Farm Institute Farm Jagatap
village
3. Average height of the tree, 6 7 9
m
4. Average setting up time, s 23 25 29
5. Average time for lifting the 12 13 16
bucket, s
6. Average time for lowering 8 8 10
the bucket, s
7. Average time for rotation of 18 20 23
the bucket , s
8. Total time (excluding 61 66 78
harvesting), s/tree
9. Harvesting capacity, kg/h 130 147 139
(Rajgira variety)
11. Harvesting efficiency, % 79 80 76

461
 Plate 4 Operational view of Coconut harvesting

Plate 5Operational viewof mango harvesting

Cost economics of tractor mounted hydraulically operated ladder
The cost of operation of tractor mounted hydraulically operated ladder was calculated on
basis of IS: 9164-1979- Guide for estimating cost of farm machinery operation. The cost of operation
of the hydraulic ladder (Inclusive of tractor) for harvesting coconut and mango is 3512 and 4240 Rs.
/day
Conclusions: The tractor mounted hydraulic operated ladder was developed, modified and evaluated
in the actual field condition. From the evaluation it is concluded that the coconut Harvesting capacity
of the refined hydraulic ladder is 59 to 68 trees/day for the period of 8 hours. The mango harvesting

462
capacity of the refined hydraulic ladder is 130 kg/h to 147 kg/h for Rajgira variety. The hydraulic
ladder is developed in such a way that it can be rotated from 0 to 360 degree both in clockwise and
anticlockwise direction so that minimum 4 coconut/ mango trees can be covered by simply operating
the directional valve. The cost of operation of the hydraulic ladder (Inclusive of tractor) for harvesting
coconut and mango is 3512 and 4240 Rs./day. The hydraulic ladder is suitable for harvesting of
mango and coconut orchard upto 10 m, pruning of tree up to 10 m height comfortably and spraying
over the tree canopy up to a height of 10 m. The refined model will be given to the farmers on hiring
basis for harvesting of mango and coconut up to the height of 10 m. The hydraulic ladder is refined in
such a way that it can be operated by an ordinary person with minimum training

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Electronics in Agriculture, 60(1), 60-66. doi:10.1016/j.compag. 2007.06.005.
12. Nicklin, C.D. (1993). A review of past and current date harvesting mechanization to investigate
the concept of designing a palm tree climber. Unpublished B.Sc. Thesis. Harper Adams
Agricultural College, UK.
13. Nixon, R.W. (1969). Growing dates in the United States. Agricultural Research service, USDA,
Washington, 56 pp.
14. Saring, Y., Ziv G., Shamruk, J. and Abramovitz, B. (1989). An integrated mechanical systemfor date
orchard operation. ASAE paper No. 89-1069. St. Joseph, MI: ASAE.
15. Shamsi, M. (1990). Design and theoretical calculation of a tree climbing machine. Scientific
andtechnologic research organization, Unpublished project report. Kerman, Iran.
16. Tajuddin and Swaminathan. 1988 Journal of Agricultural Engineering Research,(40 (4): 297-301.

463
 Development and performance evaluation of manually operated drumstick
harvester for dryland horticulture
P.A. Turbatmath1, R.V. Sanglikar2, M.M. Pacharne3, S.M. Nalawade4
Department of Farm Machinery & Power Engineering, Dr. A.S. College of Agril. Engineering and
Technology, MPKV, Rahuri Dist. Ahmednagar (M.S.)

Abstract: A manually operated drumstick harvester was developed at the department of Farm
Machinery and Power, Dr. A. S. College of Agricultural Engineering, Mahatma Phule Krishi
Vidyapeeth, Rahuri. Prototype was evaluated to harvest the drumstick pods from the tree. The
drumstick harvester consists of shearing unit, spring, lever, brake cable, supporting pole and
collecting bag. The working principle of the drumstick harvester is based on the hand operated
shearing through cable. The shearing unit was made up of high carbon steel and lever was made up
of mild steel sheet. Collecting unit was made by using polythene and held in position with the help
hook hinged to the supporting pole. The operating brake mechanism was very simple and easy to
operate.
In shearing mechanism the shearing unit was connected to the hand operated brake lever
through a cable. When the hand lever is pressed it results in cutting of pods during harvesting
operation. The shearing unit is mounted at the upper end of the supporting pole. One polythene bag
is provided for collecting harvested pods. It achieves two main objectives i.e. collection of pods and
prevention of damage to the harvested pods. The manually operated drumstick harvester is simple in
design and also its components are easily available in market. The equipment is easy to fabricate and
is time saving equipment.
The side benefit of this equipment can be harnessing the same for harvesting other
horticulture crops such as Sapota, Mango, Custard apple etc. by changing the type and position of
the collecting unit. On an average 269 pods can be harvested in one hour. The output capacity of
manually operated drumstick harvester was 26.9 kgh . The operating cost of manually operated
drumstick harvester was 1.07 Rs. kg which is very less than traditional method.

Introduction: A manually operated drumstick harvester was developed at the department of Farm
Machinery and Power, Dr. A. S. College of Agricultural Engineering, Mahatma Phule Krishi
Vidyapeeth, Rahuri. Prototype was evaluated to harvest the drumstick pods from the tree. The
drumstick harvester consists of shearing unit, spring, lever, brake cable, supporting pole and
collecting bag. The working principle of the drumstick harvester is based on the hand operated
shearing through cable. The shearing unit was made up of high carbon steel and lever was made up
of mild steel sheet. Collecting unit was made by using polythene and held in position with the help
hook hinged to the supporting pole. The operating brake mechanism was very simple and easy to
operate.

Material and Methods:

The drumstick harvester consists of following main components:
A. Shearing unit
B. Operating unit
C. Supporting structure
D. Collecting unit
A. Shearing unit:
The shearing unit is fitted at the top of the supporting pole by using two nuts and bolts. The
device which is used as snake catcher is used as a shearing unit with some modifications. It consist
of two blades, one is fixed and other moving about a fulcrum fitted to the fixed blade . The
blades are made up of high carbon steel. The blade having thickness of 4 mm and width of 20

464
mm. The operating length between two blades is 35 mm. The total length of blade is 125 mm. The
shearing device is operated by using brake cable and a compression spring.

Isometric view Side and Front view of shearing unit

Side and Front view of manually operated drumstick harvester

Results:
The developed prototype of Drumstick Harvester weighs about 1.170 kg. It was tested to evaluate its
performance by conducting short duration field tests. The detail test condition including crop, field
and equipment parameters are listed in the given table 4.1.
The average height of drumstick tree is 5m. The overall length of Drumstick Harvester is 2.71
m. Also average Vertical Grip Reach (VGR) of Maharashtrian worker is 1.99m (range1.70 to 2.28m),So
it is in the reach of average Maharashtrian farm worker to harvest drumstick using the new
developed equipment.
The pod of drumstick weighs around 100 grams. The stalk diameter at cutting location was
observed to be 4.3mm during the test. The results of the performance observed during the test are
given in table. Four field tests are conducted on horticultural farm, at M.P.K.V., Rahuri. Detail
comparison between traditional and newly developed device is given in table3. From the
performance test it is observed that the device has shown good results as compared to the
traditional tool.
1. Duration of test:
Each test was conducted for 15 min duration. During each test on an average 67 pods were
harvested. The drumstick harvester was light weight and easy for handling. It requires less no. of
hours for cutting than traditional bamboo-hook type method. In traditional method bamboo which is

465
used as supporting structure was not straight. The developed device was found to be operated well
as compare to the traditional method of harvesting.
2. Output capacity (kg ):
During the tests output capacity was observed as 26.9 kgh . In traditional method it found
around 12.5 kg. h (range 10 to 15kgh ). It clears that there was increase in harvested pods by
using new developed harvester. It added another benefit of commercial value over traditional
method of harvesting. While harvesting with traditional ways the pods are allowed to fall on ground
whereas the developed harvester collect almost all the harvested pods in the bag, thus preventing
damage to the pods. It would help in improving commercial value of the harvested crop and keeping
quality of pods.
3. Labor requirement:
Labor required during the test was only one person for holding the device to harvest and
collect the pod. In traditional method one additional person is required for collecting harvested pod
fallen on the ground. This time of collection was eliminated considerably in newly developed
harvester.
4. Cost of operation:
Cost of harvesting which includes also collecting was found to be Rs.107/-per quintal.
Whereas in case of traditional method it is Rs. 238/-per quintal. Thus the cost of operation found to
be reduced by Rs. 131/-per quintal.

Conclusions:
1. It was observed that output capacity of manually operated drumstick harvester was 269
pods.h .
2. The operating cost of manually operated drumstick harvester was 107 Rs q-1 which is very
less than traditional method.
3. The harvester was more efficient, comfortable and advantageous over traditional method.

Table1: Pre-test observations

Sr. No Particulars Test
Test conditions

(A) Condition of crop

1 Crop Drumstick
2 Variety P.K.M.-1
3 Row Spacing, m 5
4 Plant to plant spacing, m 6
5 Number of plants per ha. 340
6 Normal period of maturity, months 7-8
7 Plant height, m 4-6
8 Avg. bearing per plant 218
9 Yield per ha, tons 52.8
10 Avg. weight of one pod, gm 100
11 Avg. Dia. of pod, mm 8.1
12 Avg. Length of pod, mm 530
13 Diameter of stalk, mm 4.3

(B) Condition of the field to be harvested

1 Location M.P.K.V., Rahuri
2 Shape Rectangular
3 Topography Flat

466
 3 Type of soil Light

(C) Condition of operator

1 Source of power Manually operated
2 Skill or unskilled Unskilled

(D) Condition of harvesting equipment

1 Height, mm 2710
2 Weight, kg 1.17
3 Throat Clearance
I Shearing unit, mm 35
II Lever, mm 100

Table 2. Test data of performance evaluation of manually operated drumstick harvester

Field performance
1 Test no. T1 T2 T3 T4 Avg.
i Test duration, min. 60 60 60 60 240(T)
ii No. of pods harvested 274 270 267 263 269
iii No. of pods collected in collector 264 263 262 258 262
iv No. of pods fall on ground 10 7 5 5 7
v Pods fall on ground , % 3.65 2.59 1.87 1.9 2.60
vi Harvesting capacity (No .of pods 274 270 267 263 269
per h)
vii Output capacity, kgh 27.4 27 26.7 26.3 26.9
2 No. of labor required 1 1 1 1 1
3 Cost of operation, Rs.kg 1.05 1.06 1.07 1.09 1.07
4 Cost of harvesting Rs.quintal 105 106 107 109 107
5 Ease of operation Easy Easy Easy Easy Easy
6 Weight of 100 pods, kg 9.5 10.5 10 10 10

Table 3: Comparative results between traditional tool and developed manually operated drumstick
harvester
Particulars Traditional method Drumstick Harvester
Time, min. 60 60
No. of pods cut per h 100-150 279
Ease of operation Difficult Easy
Damage of pods Yes No
Collecting unit Not available Available
Labor required 1 1
Cost of operation, Rs.kg 2.38 1.07
Cost of operation, Rs.quintal 238 107

467
 Drumstick harvesting with new DS harvester

Drumstick harvesting by using manually operated drumstick harvester

468
References:
Adetan D. A., L. O. Adekoya and K. A. Oldejo (2007). An Improved Pole-and-Knife Method of
Harvesting Oil palm. Agricultural Engineering International : The CIGRE Journal Vol.IX : 1-
11
Ahmed Nourani and Francisco Garbati Pegna (2014). Proposed Harvester Model for Palm Date Fruit.
Journal of Agricultural Technology Vol.10 (4) : 817-822
Anthropometric and strength data of Indian Agricultural workers for equipment design. (CIAE,
Bhopal 2009)
Ghazalli Z., M. Noor and K. Azha (2006). Design, Fabrication and Testing of New Invented Spring
Sickle Pole zapIt for Palm Harvesting. Journal of National Conference on Design and
Concurrent Engg. : 273
Hamam A. S. ,M. E. EL-Iraqi, Y Sharibim and T. R. Awais (2011). Design and Evaluation of Mechanical
Picking Device for Fruit Harvesting . Agril. Engg. Res. Inst. ARC. Dokko, Giza. Egypt.89 (4)
:1545-1561
Orwa (2009). Agro Forestry Database 4.0 : 1-6
Prakash M., V. Unakal, Gopinath C.(2012). Design and Development of Pepper plucking Equipment to
Facilitate Pepper Harvesting. Journal of SAS TECH Vol. 11 (1) :74-81
Raut R.D., R.B.Shelke ,S.D.Ghorpade (2014).Design and development of manually operated drumstick
harvester.
RNAM (1983) . Specified methods for a test for manually operated drumstick harvester

469
 Design of Pokkali Paddy Harvester
Venkata Reddy H.K1and Jayan P R2
1
Ph.D Scholar and 2Professor and Head, Dept. of FMPE, KCAET, Tavanur-679573, KAU, India
Email : venkatreddy.1709@gmail.com

Abstract: The term ‘Pokkali’ used in the common parlor refers to a salt tolerant traditional
rice cultivar grown in the coastal saline soils of Kerala, India. The Pokkali field is a unique eco-system
prevailing in the coastal tract of Kerala with rich bio diversity and amazing capacity to produce
organic rice and shrimp alternatively. Pokkali major areas lie in Trissur, Ernakulum and Alappuzha
districts covering a total area of 8500 ha. In the saline, water-logged pokkali farm lands, rice and
shrimps are farmed alternatively. The conventional method of harvesting of pokkali paddy crop by
using sickles. The various farming operations in Pokkali paddy cultivation, the harvesting is done by
women labourers by walking on the swampy and marshy inundated paddy fields at waist-deep water,
which is laborious, tedious and cumbersome. Though a number of paddy combine harvesters are
commercially available, none cannot be used in such marshy water logged areas for harvesting paddy.
Hence, a power operated floating harvester with provisions for harvesting and conveying the ear
heads (panicles) of submerged paddy. Design of harvester is sequentially carried out for the floating
barge, harvesting unit and hydraulic system. The capacity of the hydraulic tank was 150 litres and
double acting hydraulic pump has 61.0 l min-1. Harvesting unit of the harvester consists of a reel,
cutter bar and conveyor. The overall size of the harvester is 6.2 x 1.7 x 1.7 m with a total weight of
about 1700 kg. The vertical centre of gravity of the harvester is 0.58 m, longitudinal centre of gravity
is 2.67 m and transverse centre of gravity is zero. As the transverse centre of gravity is zero, Pokkali
paddy harvester is stable to float and longitudinal centre of gravity lies near to the centre and
adjacent to the front and rear side of the harvester, it become a well-balanced machine.

Key words: Harvester,Hydraulic, Paddy, Panicles,Pokkali, Water Logged, Saline, Stability.

Introduction:The Pokkali field is a unique eco system prevailing in the coastal tract of Kerala with rich
bio diversity and amazing capacity to produce organic rice and shrimp alternatively. Rice is grown
during non-saline period and the farmers carry out shrimp culture during the saline phase with both
having unique symbiotic benefits. Rice plants get their nutrients from the left over of the shrimps and
the shrimps in turn, feed on the stalks and decaying remnants of the rice crop. Neither chemical
fertilizers nor insecticides and pesticides are used. The usual ploughing and transplantation are not
required for Pokkali. Pokkali areas lie in Trissur, Ernakulum and Alappuzha districts covering a total
area of 8500 ha. It spreads over 34 Krishibhavans of these three districts. In the saline, water-logged
pokkali farm lands, rice and shrimps are farmed alternatively. In more than 90% of the single cropped
lands, rice cultivation is done during the low saline phase from May/June to September/October; the
traditional prawn filtration is taken up during the high saline phase which sets in December/January.
Generally manuring and plant protection operations are not necessary for pokkali farming systems.
The crop matures at about 120 days. The ear heads alone are harvested, leaving the straw behind.
The average yield of rice with traditional rice varieties is 1500 kg ha-1. The conventional method of
harvesting of pokkali paddy crop by using sickles. The various farming operations in Pokkali paddy
cultivation, the harvesting is done by women labourers by walking on the swampy and marshy
inundated paddy fields at waist-deep water, which is laborious, tedious and cumbersome.

470
 Fig.1 Conventional practise of harvesting of pokkali paddy crop
Jayanand Sathyanathan (2010) conducted a study on overview of farming practices in the water
logged areas of Kerala. Studies reviewed that the fields are situated below the mean sea level and
having the problems of water-logging and have no addition of chemical pesticides or fertilizers in the
Pokkali rice fields which make them different from the other farming practices in Kerala.Blake, G.R.
and Hartge (1986) studied the physical properties of soil. They found out that the variation in bulk
density is attributable to the relative proportion and specific gravity of organic and inorganic particles
and its porosity. Most mineral soils had bulk densities between 1.0 and 2.0 g cm-3.Bautista et al (2005)
designed a rotary cutting reaper for rice. Their purpose was replacing the reciprocating cutter bar
assembly with a rotary cutting system borrowed from grass cutters. These rotary cutters required
fewer blades and less manufacturing tolerance. The laboratory studies inferred that the number of
blades per disc was set for tip speed of 23- 30 m s-1 and forward speed ranged from 2.8 to 3.3 km h-1.
Mohammad (2011) conducted a study on the stability of floating bodies.The potential energy of a
system in stable equilibrium has a minimum value. This property is used to derive a formula that is
useful in determination of stability of a floating body. It is found that a floating body is in stable
equilibrium if its centre of gravity has a minimum height with respect to its related centre of
buoyancy.
Materials and Method: The Pokkali paddy harvester is designed for harvesting and collecting of
panicle (ear head) of the paddy, while moving through the waist depth water. It is also designed as
an amphibian harvester where it can traverse in water and land or both along with the harvesting
operation. Hence the major functions of a Pokkali paddy harvester include floating in water, moving
in puddled soil, cutting and conveying the ear head of the paddy crop. The design is hence
sequentially carried out as design of floating barge, harvesting unit and hydraulic system.
Design of floating barge: Floating barge is an air filled structure providing buoyancy. The floats
contain a lot of reserve buoyancy and allow to carry loads. Floating body is partially immersed in a
fluid that experiences an upward force equal to the weight of the fluid displaced. The float be
constructed with MS sheet metal (Gauge-12) of thickness 2.0 mm as that of the original prototype.
But, each float should have dimensions of 3.0 x 0.45 x 0.6 m. The two floats have to be provided on
either sides of Pokkali paddy harvester.
In addition to the two floats, a separate air chamber be provided in between the two floats. The
chamber also be constructed with MS sheet metal of thickness 2 mm and of size 3.0 x 0.6 x 0.4 m.

Top view

471
 All dimensions in mm
Side view
Fig. 1(a) Orthograpic views of the floating barge

(b) Isometric view

Fig. 1 Floating barge

Top view

All dimensions in mm
Side view
Fig. 2(a) Orthograpic views of the air chamber

(b) Isometric view

Fig. 2 Air chamber

472
Traction belt: Tractive force is the ability of a vehicle tractive element to generate sufficient forces to
overcome the soil resistance. Tractive belts made of Polypropylene having a thickness of 10 mm and
size 6.60 x 0.45 m is provided to generate enough traction.

Top view Side view Front view

All dimensions in mm
Fig. 3(a) Orthograpic views of the traction grouser

Isometric view
Fig. 3 Grouser (cleat)
Paddle: Paddle is a mechanical device for propelling a floating machine attached to the rear side. A
revolving shaft attached with eight broad and angle blades is provided. It should be connected to
hydraulic motor (MAT 500SH) through chain drive. The size of the paddle is 0.4x0.75m.

Side viewTop view

473
 All dimensions in mm
Fig. 4(a) Orthograpic views of the paddle

Isometric view
Fig.4 Paddle
Design of hydraulic system: The hydraulic system design for Pokkali paddy harvester. Hydraulic tank
or reservoir is closed type reservoir which is the integral part of a system. The reservoir tank act as
the main oil container for the entire system. The reservoir is designed in such a way that to drain the
old, used oil and contaminants from the tank. Oil filter is placed on the top of the hydraulic tank and
same is connected to return line hydraulic hoses so as to filter the contaminants in the oil. Sight and
level gauges offer an inside view of fluid levels in the hydraulic tank. Based on the design and
requirement of oil for the operation an around 150 litre capacity tank was fabricated and placed with
good structural support in back of the operator seat. The overall dimension of the hydraulic tank is
0.5 x 0.6 x 0.5 m. Hydraulic pump is constant volume of fixed displacement pump and can work 61 l
min-1. They are relatively quiet and of simple construction. The pump is coupled to and driven by the
prime mover of the system. The inlet side of the pump is connected to the reservoir: the outlet or
pressure side is connected to the direction control valve and thus to rest of the system. Hydraulic
motor used here is gerotor which is coupled with the gear box for rotation of complete assembly up
to 3600 on both the sides. Hydraulic motors can be instantly started, stopped, or reversed under any
degree of load; they can be stalled by overload without damage. The most familiar double acting
cylinder is the single rod end is used to lift the front conveyor along with cutter bar and reel to the
operational height. This type of cylinder provides power in both directions, with a pressure port at
either end. In total there are five numbers of motors are used for the operations. In that two motors
are fixed as floats in the left and right side. The two numbers of hydraulic motors are used as front
and centre conveyor and one motor for the cutter bar operators at the time of operation. The
diameter of the cylinder bore and piston are 40mm and 30mm. Seamless tubes with high wall
thickness, higher tensile strength, better bending quality, etc. are some of the specific properties
which make such tubes most suitable for use in many high pressure hydraulic systems. Hence, for the
operation of floating harvester the seamless pipes with two size (22 OD/18 ID and 16 OD/12 ID). The
22 OD/18 ID pipes are used for inlet and outlet of hydraulic oil and 16 OD/12 ID pipes were used for
the MAT 500SH hydraulic motors. The arrangements are made in such a way that all the operations
like lifting and rotation can be done by the operator at the time of operation itself.
Design of harvesting unit: Harvesting unit of the Pokkali paddy harvester shall consist of a reel, cutter
bar and conveyor. Reel delivers the stalks to the cutting mechanism, the cutter bar cuts the crop and
conveys through front conveyor and is transferred to the central conveyor. The design of the
complete unit was separately carried out for reel, cutter bar and conveyor units.
Reel: Reel delivers the stalks to the cutting mechanism. It holds the crop upright during cutting and
delivers the cut stalks to the front conveyor. It has a pentagonal frame fitted with five bats of length
120 cm fixed at a uniform spacing of 30 cm. The diameter of each bat shall be 5 cm. A total of eight
fingers, each would and firmly at uniform intervals of 15 cm. The reel assembly can be operated by a
hydraulic motor (MR50) through chain drive. The design of the reel can be made according to the reel
position with respect to cutter bar, reel speed with respect to forward speed, delivering the stalk to
the cutting mechanism with minimum losses, holding the stalk upright while cutting and delivering

474
the stalk to the conveyor. Also, the absolute velocity of the reel should be greater than the forward
speed of the harvester.

(a) Side view (b) Front view

All the dimensions in mm

(c) Isometric view

Fig. 5 Reel assembly
The reel index was calculated based on the standard design procedures:
Reel index or velocity ratio (λi) for reels is given by (Kanafojski and Karwowski, 1976):
λi =
Where,
ut = tangential velocity of tip of the bats, m s-1
vm = forward velocity, m s-1
Tangential velocity of tip of the bats, ut= ωr Rr
Where,
ωr = angular velocity of reel, rad s-1
Rr = radius of reel, mm
ωr= 2πN (assume N = 16)
= 2 x 3.142 x 16
= 100.54 rad min-1
100.54
=
60
= 1.675 rad min-1
ut = ωr Rr
= 1.675 x 0.30

475
 = 0.5025 m s-1
Reel index (λi) =
0.5025
=
0.416
= 1.2
Cutter bar: Cutter bar of the Pokkali paddy harvester is designed. Cutter bar shall be operated by a
hydraulic motor (MR50) through a crank pitman. A reciprocating type cutter bar of 1.2 m length
having 16 knife sections, each having a stroke of 76.2 mm shall be provided. In order to avoid slipping
off the stalks serrated knife sections were attached with the cutter bar. The pitch of serrated knife
sections selected has to be two times smaller than the diameter of paddy stalk. Accordingly the pitch
provided was 1.2 mm. The velocity of knife section shall be 0.54 m s-1 at a forward speed of 1.5 km hr-
1
. Design of the cutter bar was carried out for finding the optimum speed of knife sections and
number of knife sections based
The velocity of knife section is expressed as: Vk= R x Vm
Where,
Vk= Average knife velocity, m s-1
Vm= Forward speed of harvester, m s-1
R = Velocity ratio
The value of R shall be in the range of between 1.3 to 1.4 with available cutter knife (Basal, 1989).
Taking R = 1.3 and Vm = 0.416 m s-1 (1.5 km h-1) and putting values in above equation.
Vk = 1.3 x 0.416
= 0.54 m s-1
Number of knife sections =
Where,
Lc = Length of the cutter bar, cm
No. of knife sections =
.
= 15.74 (say, the cutter bar has 16 knife sections)

Front conveyor: The crop cut by the cutter bar is conveyed to the conveyor for easy collection. It is
made of 3.0 mm polypropylene sheet with equidistantly spaced rubber bars. The conveyor has to
convey the bunch of cut crop continuously without blockage. It can be operated by a hydraulic motor
MAH-400CB through the driving roller. This roller actuates the motion of the conveyor. The driven
roller provided at the tail end, trails the conveyor forward and ensures continuous movement. The
length of the conveyor belt shall be 1.7 x 0.6 m. The conveyor belt has to be wrapped over two rollers
of 100 mm diameter and fixed on plummer blocks to stretch it firmly.

All dimensions in mm
(a) Top view

476
 (b) Front view
Fig. 6. Front conveyor
Speed of conveyor belt:For lugged belt conveyor the belt speed is given by
Vb = π
Where,
Dp = Diameter of conveyor belt roller, m
Np = Speed of conveyor belt roller, rpm
Vb = Peripheral speed of flat belt, m s-1
.
Vb = 3.142
= 0.47 m s-1
Length of conveyor belt:It is calculated based on length of platform required for supporting the
crop.
Length of platform = 1.7 m
Hence, centre to centre distance (C) between driving and driven roller is provided as 1.7 m.
The length of belt is given by
( ) ( )
L = 2C + π +
( . . ) ( . . )
= 2 x 1.7+ 3.142 +
.
= 3.71 m
The length of flat belt required for belt conveyor would be 3.71 m.

Pitch of lugs:According to Devnani (1985), number of lugs on conveyor belt is

N=
Where,
N = Number of lugs on conveyor belt
L = Length of belt, m
P = Pitch of lugs, m
.
N=
.
= 14.84 (say, the 15 number of lugs on conveyor)
Centre conveyor: The crop is conveyed from the front conveyor to the centre conveyor for easy
collection and storage of the ear heads. It shall be made of 3.0 mm polypropylene sheet. The
conveyor has to convey the bunch of cut crops. It shall be operated by a hydraulic motor MAH-400CB
through the driving roller. The length of the conveyor belt shall be 3.7 x 0.6 m. The conveyor belt has
to be wrapped over two rollers of 100 mm diameter, which should be fixed on plummer blocks to
stretch firmly.

477
 Top view

Front view All dimensions in mm

Fig. 7. Centre conveyor
Length of conveyor belt:It is calculated based on length of horizontal platform required for
supporting the crop.
Length of horizontal platform = 3.7 m
Hence, centre to centre distance (C) between driving and driven roller is provided as 3.7 m.
The length of belt is given by
( ) ( )
L = 2C + π +
( . . ) ( . . )
= 2 x 3.7 + 3.142 +
.
= 6.582 m
The length of flat belt required for back conveyor would be 6.582 m.

Prime mover
The capacity to meet the power requirement for harvesting is taken into consideration for
the selection of the prime mower. The total weight of the Pokkali paddy harvester comes around
1700 kg. In order to operate cutter bar, reel assembly, front conveyor, centre conveyor and float with
hydraulic motors and then to lift the front conveyor with hydraulic cylinders sufficient energy should
be supplied. Hence, 24 hp diesel engines have to be selected as the prime mover.

Stability analysis: Buoyancy is an upward force exerted by a fluid that opposes the weight of an
immersed object. When the floating barge is at certain weight of harvester, it sinks to a certain depth.
A floating object is stable if it tends to restore itself to an equilibrium position after a small
displacement. The upward buoyancy force on an object acts through the centre of buoyancy, being
the centroid of the displaced volume of fluid. The weight force on the object acts through its centre of
gravity.
The transverse centre gravity for Pokkali paddy harvester is zero. Hence the harvester is
stable to floating on the water.If longitudinal centre of gravity and longitudinal centre of buoyancy
are in the same vertical line and if there is no trimming moments on the machine, and Let the W be
the weight of the Floating body and Vo be the submerged volume. Thus, downward weight of the
body is balanced by the upward buoyancy force (B).

478
 Fig. 8. Top view

Fig. 9. Side view

Fig.10. Isometric view

479
Results and Discussion
Reel: The reel was designed for the Pokkali paddy harvester. The reel index is 1.2 and pitch of reel is
30 cm.
Front conveyor: The front conveyor designed for the Pokkali paddy. The overall dimension of
conveyor was 1700 x 600 x 100 mm and 3 mm thickness polypropylene conveyor belt was selected to
convey the cutting paddy stalk at operating speed of 0.47 m s-1.
Centre conveyor: The centre conveyor was designed for the Pokkali paddy harvester. The overall size
provided for conveyor was 3700 x 600 x 100 mm. A thickness of 3 mm polypropylene conveyor belt
was selected to convey and store of the cutting paddy stalk at operating speed of 0.416 m s-1.
Design of hydraulic system

1) Hydraulic cylinders
Diameter of cylinder = 40 mm
Radius = 20 mm
Area of bore = π x R2
= 3.142 x 22
= 12.5 cm2
Weight to be lifted = 500 kgf
Since force (F) = P x A
Pressure required (P) =
=
.
= 40 kg cm-2

2) Hydraulic motors
i. Cutter bar hydraulic motor
Model: MR 50
Discharge: 50 cc rev-1
Assume RPM as 200
Total discharge = 200 x 50
= 10000 cc rev-1
= 10 lit min-1

ii. Front conveyor hydraulic motor

Model: MAH- 400CB
Discharge: 400 cc rev-1
Assume: 5 m min-1
RPM of roller =
.
= 13.26 rpm
Total discharge = 400 x 13.26
= 5307 cc rev-1
= 5.3 lit min-1

iii. Back conveyor hydraulic motor

Model: MAH- 400CB
Discharge: 400 cc rev-1
Assume: 5 m min-1
RPM of roller =
.
= 13.26 rpm

480
 Total discharge = 400 x 13.26
= 5307 cc rev-1
= 5.3 lit min-1

iv. Float- Left and Right hydraulic motor

Model: MAT 500SH
Discharge: 500 cc rev-1
Assume: 1.5 km/hr or 25 m min-1
With diameter of drive roller = 200 mm
= 2πr
= 2 x 3.142 x 0.1
= 0.628 m
RPM of roller =
.
= 40 rpm
Total discharge = 500 x 40
= 20000 cc rev-1
= 20 lit min-1

Total oil flow = 10+5.3+5.3+20+20

= 60.6 lit min-1

Selection of prime mover for harvester

Cutter bar:
π
Power = (Jagdishwar Sahay, 1971)
Assume 200 rpm
For cutter bar 20-30 N draft is required per meter
For 1.2 m energy required is = 1.2 x 30 = 36 N
For reel the torque equation is T = ½ Iω2
I = mk2
= 30 x 0.302
= 2.7
Where, I = moment of inertia
ω = angular velocity
m = mass, kg
k = radius of gyration, m
T = 0.5 x 2.7 x 1.672
= 3.765 Nm
π
Power =
. .
=
= 3732.38 w
.
=
= 5 hp
Where, N = speed of the knife section, rpm
T = torque, Nm

Front conveyor:
, / ( )( . )
Power = x (Sahay, K.M. and Singh, K.K. 1994)
.

481
 Assume 31 rpm at a speed of 2.0 km hr-1
( . . )( . . )
Power = x
.

Power = 2.05 hp
Where,
L = length of belt, m
A & B = constants (frictional resistance of the belt and pulley)

Center conveyor:
, / ( )( . )
Power = x
.
Assume 25 rpm at a speed of 2.0 km hr-1
( . . )( . . )
Power = x
.

Power = 3.6 hp

Float – 1&2 :
π
Power =
Assume 72 rpm at a speed of 2.0 km hr-1
.
=
= 3363.2 w
.
=
= 4.5 hp
Where,
N = speed of the rollers, rpm
T = torque, Nm
Total power required for motors in hp for scale down prototype is
5+2.05+3.6+4.5+4.5 = 19.65 + 1.965 = 21.6 hp
Assuming 10% of losses.

Specifications of Pokkali paddy harvester

PARTS SPECIFICATIONS
Overall Dimensions Length - 6.2 m
Width - 1.7 m
Height - 1.7 m
Float Length – 3.0m
Width - 0.45m
Height – 0.60 m
Engine 24 HP Diesel engine
Pump Double acting hydraulic pump
Motors for Conveyors and Hydraulic motors (M+S make)
Cutters
Lift Hydraulic Cylinders
Conveyors polypropylene
Fuel & Oil Storage Tanks Fuel Tank – 40 litres ; Oil Tank – 150
litres
Operator Cabin Comfortable seat with canopy storage
boxes for tools, life jackets etc.

482
 Controls Hydraulic DC valves with levers for hand
operation
Control Panel Ammeter, Voltmeter, RPM meter, Oil
Pressure Gauge, Temperature gauge,
Hour Meter, Light Switches
Transportation & Handling Hooks provided for lifting and hauling
Finish Epoxy - Corrosion resistant ;Colour – As
per customer choice
Material for Construction Marine aluminum steel
Stability of harvester: The stability of Pokkali paddy harvesting. The overall size of the newly designed
scale down prototype is 6.2 x 1.7 x 1.7 m with a total weight of about 1700 kg. A harvester is designed
in such a way that to suit for fragmented Pokkali areas. The vertical centre of gravity of the scale
down prototype is 0.58 m, longitudinal centre of gravity is 2.67 m and transverse centre of gravity is
zero. As the transverse centre of gravity is zero, Pokkali paddy harvester is stable to float and
longitudinal centre of gravity lies near to the centre and adjacent to the front and rear side of the
harvester, it become a well-balanced machine. A draft of 47 cm for floats, 39 cm for air chamber was
observed for the scale down prototype of harvester of 1.70 tonnes.

Conclusion: In conventional method of pokkali paddy harvesting, manual harvesting using sharp
sickles are practiced. For the harvesting, highly labour intensive, drudgery and more time consuming
operations are required. The paddy cultivation goes on decreasing every year. Hence, there was a
great demand for a suitable harvesting machine, especially for harvesting the paddy.The Pokkali
paddy harvester was designed for harvest panicles (ear heads) of paddy crop. The harvester was
operated by a hydraulic system. The total weight of the Pokkali paddy harvester comes around 1700
kg. The overall dimension of the harvester is 6.2x1.7x1.7 m (LxWxH) and the stability of harvester was
founded the vertical centre of gravity for harvester is 0.54 m and longitudinal centre of gravity is 2.67
m and transverse centre of gravity is zero. If transverse centre of gravity is zero, scale down pokkali
paddy harvester is stable to float. When the longitudinal centre of gravity is centre to the front and
rear side of the harvester it is balanced.
References
Bautista, E., Regalado, J.S., Juliano, A., Ishihara, S., Monobe, H., Ramos, J., and Molinawe, L. 2005. The
PhilRice-JICA rotary rice reaper: redesigning a technology for Filipino farmers and
manufacturers. Rice is life: scientific perspectives for the 21st century 7, pp: 229-232.
Blake, G.R. and Hartge, K.H. 1986. Methods of soil analysis. Part 1, physical and mineralogical
methods. 2nd ed., Agronomy Monograph No. 9. Madison, WI: Soil Sci. Soc. of Am. pp: 363–
375.
Jagdishwar Sahay, 1971. Elements of Agricultural Engineering. Standard publishers and distributors.
Jayan, P.R. and Sathyanathan, N. 2010. Overview of farming practices in the water-logged areas of
Kerala, India. Int. J. Agri. & Bio. Eng. 3(4):1-16.
Jayan, P.R., 2012. Development of Innovative Farm Mechanisation Package for Kerala.
Kanafojsi, C.Z., and Karwowski, W.C., 1976. In: Agricultural Machines, Theory and construction. Crop
Harvesting Machines. United States Departments of Agriculture, and National Foundation,
Washinton, D.C, II.
Kepner, R.A., Roy Bainer, and Barger, E. L., 1978.Principles of Farm Machinery. CBS publishers and
Distrubutors.
Mohammad Abolhassani, 2011.Rotational satiability of floating bodies. Dept. of naval architecture.
Sahay, K.M. and Singh, K.K., 1994. Unit Operations of Agricultural Processing. Vikas Publishing House
Private Limited, New Delhi, India.
Varshney, A.C., Tiwari, P.S., Suresh Narang and Mehta, C.R., 2004. Data Book for Agricultural
Machinery Design.

483
Application of Sensors in Combine Harvester for Yield Monitoring and Mapping
1
Venkata Reddy H.K, 2Basavaraj and3Anand B.A
1. Ph.D scholar (Agril. Engg.) KCAET, KAU, Tavanur-679573
2. Ph.D scholar (Agril. Engg.) KCAET, KAU, Tavanur-679573
3. Asst Professor, College of Agril Engineering, UAS, bengaluru.
Corresponding Email:venkatreddy.1709@gmail.com

Abstract: Precision farming is important in India as the productivity of major crops is 30-50% below
the international averages. In India major food grain crops are harvested by the combine harvester.
The real time crop yield monitoring is essential for determining the yield variability in between the
fields. Yield monitors for grain crops have been introduced in some developed countries. A batch
type yield monitor will be useful to measure the field yield in developing countries like India, where
the size of the farms are smaller. The yield monitor measures yield more accurately if properly
calibrated and operated at a constant combine ground speed. The combine harvester needs to be
equipped with data acquisition system for locating and measuring grain flow, area productivity of
crops, grain moisture, grain losses, velocity and cutting width at real time to generate yield maps.
The sensors measure the mass or the volume of grain flow (grain flow sensors), separator speed,
ground speed, grain moisture, cutting width, grin loss and header height. Yield is determined as a
product of the various parameters being sensed. A data acquisition system based on a laptop PC
connected to all measuring devices to record the data for yield mapping. The location for the real
time measured yield values is obtained from GPS and DGPS. Information from all sensors are
registered digitally once per second in one data record. Hence, the yield monitors typically provide a
periodic yield report. Application of yield monitor is intended to give the user an accurate
assessment of how yields vary within a field. This can also assist grain producers in many aspects of
crop management, such as recording field production and spatial variability, getting useful
information in short time and decision making, comparison of differentgrain cultivar, calculation of
custom hiring charges on weight basis.

Keywords: Yield Monitor, Combine Harvester, GPS, Sensors,Mapping.

Introduction: In India, rice and wheat are the most important food grain crops. It occupies about 44
M ha of land, producing 104 Mt of rice grain annually. India accounts for about 12% of total wheat
production of the world. Precision farming is important in India as the productivity of major crops is
30-50% below the international averages. In India major food grain crops are harvested by the
combine harvester. Crop yield depends on various parameters such as soil type, climatic conditions,
agronomic practices and proper management like crop sequence, precision and timeliness of farm
operations (Singh et al., 2011).Real time crop yield monitoring is essential for determining the yield
variability in between the fields or within the field. Yield monitors for grain crops have been
introduced in some developed countries. The combine harvester needs to be equipped with data
acquisition system for locating and measuring grain flow, area productivity of crops, grain moisture,
grain losses, velocity and cutting width at real time to generate yield maps (Reitz and Kutzbach,
1995).
Classification of sensors: The classification of the sensors used in combine harvester to know the
status of the different processes in combine and factors affecting the harvesting process such as
moisture content of the grains, crop height etc., the different sensors used, working principle and the
location of installation in the combine are as follows. Mass or volumetric flow sensors can be divided
in four groups (Kutzbach and Schneider, 1997).Depending on the principle of measurement as shown
in Fig. 1.

484
 Fig.1 Different methods for the measurement of grain yield (Reyns et al., 2002).

Mass flow sensor: The measurement of the mass flow in combine done by the weighing machine or
load cell. Weighing of the grains in bin, auger, cross bottom auger and top of the elevator pivoted by
load cell (Colvin, 1990). In general, problems are noted with dependence on the moisture content
and combine operation on slopes. Moreover, these measuring devices are difficult to construct. Mass
flow equals the change of weight of the bin in time. As the grain bin has to be mechanically isolated
from the harvester, the construction of the sensor is not easy. The author noticed problems when
measuring on slopes. Moreover, accuracy is limited because the weighing cells have to be adapted
for the weight of a full grain bin. Weighing of pivoted auger (Wagner and Schrock, 1987)is also used
to measure the mass flow.
Volume flow sensors: Volume of grain is measured when flowing through the sensor during a fixed
time interval, or time is measured needed by a fixed volume of grain to flow through the sensor. To
convert this volume flow into mass flow, mass density has to be known. The mass density depends
on grain variety and growing conditions. To acquire accurate measurements, mass density has to be
measured for each different field, or even different measurements on one field. The volume flow
done mainly by optically and peddle wheel.
The optical sensors comprises of light emitter plate and detector plate placed at both side
end of clean grain elevator end, placed usually across the direction of the combine to reduce affect
from slope(Reitz and Kutzbach, 1995). Radiation sensors are measure the flow of grain passing
between a radiation source and sensor. Time of interruption periods provides an estimate of
volumetric grain flow. A drawback to this system is the potential for errors if the combine is operated
on hillsides, whereby grain is forced to one side of the elevator paddles (Reyns et al., 2002).
Volumetric flow is measured by using a paddle wheel at the base of the loading auger tank.
The paddle wheel is rotated at a controlled speed to ensure that the region between adjacent
paddles is filled with grain. The wheel rotates to a new position, allowing grain to accumulate in the
space between the next two paddles. Grain volume is then determined by recording the number of
paddle wheel revolutions(Shearer et al., 1999).

Impact sensors: Mass flow sensor (A) is located in the top of the cleangrain elevator housing in the
grain tank. Harvested graindischarged from clean grain elevator then deflects ontoimpact plate. Mass
flow sensor plate converts strikingforce of grain intoan electronic impulse corresponding to yield
unit/area. This is the most common method is to measure the force of the grain striking a plate
located at the top of the clean grain elevator (Fig. 2).

485
 Fig.2 Impact sensor at top of the clean grain elevator in combine

Indirect methods: The indirect method also another way to yield monitor in combine by using the
coriolis force plate, radio waves and capacitance method. The coriolis plate method work on the
principle of Coriolis Effect. When mass moving in a rotating system experiences a force perpendicular
to the direction of motion and to the axis of rotation this creates the formation of cyclonic system in
the inverted rectangular cups placed by providing a gap above the rotating plate. The creation of the
vibration effect when grains fall on this rotating body measures the gain flow as shown in the Fig. 1.
In radiometric method, at the end of the clean grain elevator, the grain flow is exposed to the
γ- rays (1017 to 1018 Hz frequency) of a radiation source. At the opposite side of the grain flow, a
detector measures the magnitude of the transmitted radiation. Absorption of the radiation is
proportional to the mass flow. The signal is mostly independent of grain type or moisture content. In
spite of its small size, the radiation source poses a potential risk to users. If the sensor is separately
calibrated for each grain type, errors are limited to 2%.
In capacitance method, the change of the dielectric properties of the material between two
capacitor plates is measured (Stafford et al., 1991). The dielectric constant of the mixture of air and
grain increases as the mass flow increases. However, the dielectric constant is not only dependent of
the mass flow, but also of the moisture content and grain type. Separate calibrations must be
executed for each grain type. The calibration curve is non-linear and partly dependent of the
moisture content (Reitz and Kutzbach, 1995). This method is also used to measure the grain moisture
content during flow.
Also we have various applications form this working principle of the different sensors to
measure or to know the condition or status of physical body in the combine. This includes the
following aspects:

1. Cutting width measurement

2. Crop height measurement
3. Moisture content measurement
4. Mass density measurement
5. Grain loss measurement
6. Biomass measurement

Cutting width measurement: Measurement of the actual cutting width is essential for yield
determination because it is not possible to use the whole width of the cutterbar. This method,
however, adds to the operator’s task and is subject to error (Reitz and Kutzbach, 1996). A better
method is to measure the actual cutting width automatically (Reitz and Kutzbach, 1996; Reyns et al.,
2002). Therefore ultrasonic distance transducers have been installed into the cutter bar to determine
the distance between the crop divider and the edge of the standing crop (Fig. 3). Ultrasonic waves
are emitted by the sensor. If they emits object within their range they are reflected and received

486
back at the sensor. The measuring of distance is carried out by precise determination of the signal
time delay that is converted into an analog voltage output signal.

Fig.3 Ultrasonic distance transducers are measure cutting width

Actual cutting width, W actual =W -WLt -WRt

Where,
W = the total time taken by transducer to cover cutterbar width
WLt= the time taken by the transducer to cover the distance WL
WRt = the time taken by the transducer to cover the distance WR

Crop height measurement: Crop height is also one of the important factors to be considered during
harvesting for biomass production as well as grain yield. Header position determines the height at
which the crop will be cut. Lower the cutting height results in lot of straw and higher the cutting
height leads to reduced crop yield. So, the header position for optimum cutting height is much
better to manage the straw and grain yield for particular crop.

Fig. 4 The crop height measurement by lidar sensor

The determination of the in-field crop height is done by Lidar sensors. Lidar is a detection
system which works on the principle of radar (a system for detecting the presence, direction, and
speed), but uses light from a laser as shown in Fig. 4.
Moisture content measurement
Yield and moisture content data are collected simultaneously to obtain accurate yields. Moisture
sensors are often located in the clean grain elevator or the clean grain auger (Figs 5 and 6).

487
 Fig. 5 The moisture sensors installed in the clean grain elevator

Fig. 6the moisture sensors installed in the clean grain conveyor

q εε
C= =
V d
Where,
C = Capacitance;
q = Charge;
V = Voltage developed;
A = Area of overlap of the two plates;
εr = Relative static permittivity (sometimes called the dielectric constant) of the
material between the plates (for a vacuum, εr = 1);
ε0 = Electric constant (ε0 ≈ 8.854 × 10-12 F m-1); and
d = Separation between the plates.
The device uses the capacitance principle to determine moisture content. This principle is based
on the change of the dielectric properties of grain with moisture content. It indicate moisture
concentration the control unit computes a voltage signal and sends it to the display and the data
acquisition system (Rritz and Kutzbach, 1996).

Mass density measurement: Moisture is also one of the important factor this affects the quality of
threshing operation and also storage of the grains. A grain density measuring device has
compensates the vibrations and slopes acting on the weighing system (Reyns et al., 2002).Two
girders with strain gauges fixed on them are arranged as a bifurcated element (Fig. 7)

488
 Fig. 7 Continuous mass density measuring device
.
Grain loss measurement: The grain loss includes the walker losses, sieve losses, and un-threshed
ears fall behind the lower sieves in to the cross auger. To evaluate the losses, piezo-electric impact
type sensors are used. The overviews of the monitors in the combine are shown in the Fig. 10.

Fig. 8 The position of the monitoring devices: 1. walker losses; 2. sieve losses; 3. return flow and
4.Separation sensors
Walker losses are typically measured using two piezo-electric impact sensors. By quantifying
grain impacts that occur each second, a measure is found for grain loss by sending voltage signals.
One similar, but longer, impact sensor is typically installed at the end of the sieve sections. Un-
threshed ears fall behind the lower sieve into the cross auger of the return flow system. A small
threshing unit handles this return flow before it is actually transported to the front of the machine by
two fast rotating augers. Impellers are installed at the end of these augers to spread the return flow
across the full grain pan width. The return flow measurement devices as depicted in Fig. 10 operate
by registering the phase shift between a fixed impeller and a flexible one (Maertens et al., 2004).
Communication of sensors for yield monitoring and mapping
Yield monitors are combination of several components. The communication takes place
between sensors through the wires or through aerially by signals. They typically include a data
storage device, user interface and a console located in the combine cab, which controls the
integration and interaction of these components with sensors along with the Global Positioning
System (GPS) and Differential Global Positioning System (DGPS) instruments. The location of these
various components shown in the following Fig. 9.

489
 Fig. 9 Different measurement sensors used in the combines for yield monitoring and mapping
The sensors measures mass and volume of grain flow, separator speed, ground speed, grain
moisture, cutting width, header height and grain loss. Yield is determined has a product of the
various parameters being sensed. A data acquisition system based on a laptop PC has been
connected to all measuring devices to record the data for yield mapping (Fig. 12 b). The system time
and the measured values for position (From GPS and DGPS), information from all sensors are
registered digitally once per second in one data record (Fig. 12 a). For this, the yield monitors
typically provide a periodic yield report. The operator can usually select the amount of data that is
collected.

Fig.10 a) Communication between Satellites with combine and monitoring laboratory

b) Informationtaking from all components for Yield monitoring and mapping

Applications of the yield monitoring and mapping

Yield monitor are intended to give the user an accurate assessment of how yields vary within a
field.
1. Recording field production and spatial variability
2. Getting useful information in short time and decision making
3. Comparison of differentgrain cultivar
4. Calculation of Custom hiring charges on weight basis

Sources of errors in sensors and yield mapping

 For sensors:
1. Grain Moisture
2. Grain Temperature

490
 3. Grain Cultivar
4. Temperature
5. Slope of the field
6. Contamination(Dirt, Plant oils, sap, etc.)
 For yield map:
1. Unknown swath width
2. Time lag of grain through combine
3. GPS error
4. Multiple paths through combine
5. Surging of grain through combine
6. Sensor Calibration
 Limitations of Yield Monitors
Yield monitoring is the phenomena of time delays and smoothing are most obvious
when a combine enters or leaves the crop at the ends of a field. Most yield mapping
software’s compensate for equipment delays caused by the combine and correct the yield
data. The resulting yield map will not be perfect, but it will be adequate enough for observing
the magnitude and location of yield variability (Grisso and Alley, 2009).

P: Time lag of grains over the time the length of the‘t’

t0: time of reach of the ear or grain to cutter-bar.
Fig. 11 Effect of time log on combine yield measurements
Conclusions
 Sensors are capable of monitoring the crops viz., rice, wheat and maize effectively
 The complete integrated system on board rice combine was capable of measuring,
monitoring, and recording in real time yield attributes
 A batch type yield monitor will be useful to measure the field yield in developing countries
like India, where the size of the farms are smaller
 The yield monitor measures yield more accurately if properly calibrated and operated at a
constant combine ground speed
 Peasant have to use a combination of yield knowledge and other sources of data to interpret
the maps to make optimal crop management decisions

References
Anonymous, 1999. A comparison of three popular yield monitors & GPS receivers. Research
Update745, Prairie Agricultural Machinery Institute, Printed: October, ISSN, pp. 1188-4770.
Arslan, S. and Colvin, T. S. 2002. An evaluation of the response of yield monitors and combines to
varying yields, Precision Agriculture, pp. 107–122.

491
Burks, T. F., Shearer S. A., Fulton, J. P., and Sobolik, C. J. 2003. Combine yield monitor test facility
development and initial monitoring test. Appl. Eng. in Agric. Vol. 19(1): 5–12.
Colvin, T. S. 1990. Automated weighing and moisture sampling for a field-plot combine. Appl. Eng. in
Agric. 6(6): 713–714.
Franzen, D., NDSU F and Derby, N. 2008. Yield mapping and use of yield map data. Site-Specific
Farming-3, North Dakota State University and U.S. Department of Agriculture cooperating, pp.
231-7881.
Grisso, R. and Alley M. 2009. Precision farming tools: yield monitor, Virginia Co-operative Extension,
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Publication, pp. 442-502.
Maertens, K., Ramon, H., and Baerdemaeker De, J. 2004. An on-the-go monitoring algorithm for
separation processes in combine harvesters, Comput. and Electr. in Agric. 197–207.
Ni J., Hanping Mao, Yongchao Tian, Xia Yao, and Yan Zhu 2011. Design and experimentation of
sensitive element of piezoelectric crystal sensor array for grain cleaning loss. African J. of
Biotechnol. 6913-6919. (http://www.academicjournals.org/AJB)
Price, R. R., R. M. Johnson, R. P. Viator, J. Larsen, and A. Peters, 2011. Fiber optic yield monitor for a
sugarcane harvester, Transactions of the ASABE, Vol. 54(1): 31-39.
Reitz, P. and Kutzbach, H.D. 1996. Investigations on a particular yield mapping system for combine
harvesters.Comput. and Electr. in Agric. 14: 137-150.
Reyns, P., Missotten, B., Ramon, H. and Baerdemaeker, J. De, 2002. A review of combine sensors for
precision farming. Precision Agriculture, 3, pp. 169–182.
Selcuk, A. and Thomas S. C. 2002. An evaluation of the response of yield monitors and combines to
varying yields, Precision Agriculture, 3, pp. 107–122.
Shearer, S. A., Fulton, J. P., McNeill, S. G., Higgins, S. F. and Mueller, T. G. 1999. Elements of precision
agriculture: basics of yield monitor installation and operation. Coop. Ext. Serv. University of
Kentucky, College of Agriculture, PA1.
Singh, M., Singh, J. and Sharma, A. 2011. Development of a batch type yield monitoring system for
grain combine harvester. J. of Agric. Eng. Vol. 48(4): 10-16.
Wagner, E. and Schrock, M. D. 1987. Grain flow measurement with a pivoted auger. Trans of the Am.
Soc. of Agric. Eng. 30(6), 1583–1586.
Zhan Zhaoa, Yaoming Li, Jin Chen, and Jiaojiao Xu. 2011. Grain separation loss monitoring system in
combine harvester, Comput. and Electr. in Agric. 76, 183-188.

492
 Study of the Design Parameters of a Floating Paddy Harvester
Venkata Reddy H.K1, Jayan P.R.2 and Anand B.A.3
1
M.Tech Student and 2Professor and Head, Dept. of FMPE, KCAET, Tavanur-679573,KAU, India
3
Assistant Professor, College of Agricultural Engineering, UAS, Bengaluru.
Email : venkatreddy.1709@gmail.com

Abstract: The paddy cultivation in the coastal tract of Kerala is combined with growing of shrimp
alternatively. Pokkali cultivation is one among such cultivation practices. The lands of Pokkali rice
cultivation in marshy and swampy fields with poor drainage systems are subjected to the tidal action
throughout the year. Also, these lands are connected to Arabian sea through backwaters and canals.
Due to these naturally adverse conditions prevailing in these lands and the non-availability of
labourers, the paddy cultivation goes on decreasing every year. The harvesting is a common practice
by women labourers by walking on the swampy and marshy inundated paddy fields at waist-deep
water, which is laborious, tedious and cumbersome. Though a number of paddy combine harvesters
are commercially available, none cannot be used in such marshy water logged areas for harvesting
paddy. Hence a floating harvester, with provisions for harvesting and conveying the ear heads of
water submerged paddy stalks was developed and tested. It consists of a floating barge, traction
wheel, propeller, etc. in addition to the cutter bar and reel assembly. It is envisaged that the said
harvester has to traverse in water, slurry and a land with respect to the prevailing condition of the
water in undated areas. Study of the design parameters considering buoyancy, floating and traction
parameters were conducted. Its design features were further reviewed for the development of a
scale down prototype.

Key words: Design, harvester, pokkali.

Introduction: The traditional system of growing tall rice (Oryza sativa L.) varieties during the
monsoon season and prawn culture during summer season, locally known as pokkali. This system of
rice cultivation harmoniouslyblended with natural processes like sea water inundation in the low-
lying coastal zones of Kerala. The Pokkali field is a unique eco system prevailing in the coastal tract of
Kerala With rich bio diversity and amazing capacity to produce organic rice and shrimp alternatively.
The lands of Pokkali rice cultivation in marshy and swampy fields with poor drainage systems and are
subjected to the tidal action throughout the year. Also, these lands are connected to Arabian sea
through backwaters and canals. Due to these naturally adverse conditions prevailing in these lands
and the non-availability of labourers, the paddy cultivation goes on decreasing every year. Of the
various farming operations in Pokkali rice cultivation, the harvesting is done by women labourers by
walking on the swampy and marshy inundated paddy fields at waist-deep water, which is laborious,
tedious and cumbersome. Hence, there was a great demand for a suitable harvesting machine,
especially for harvesting the paddy, which is under water at the time of harvest due to tidal effects.
Such type of harvesting machine must be developed based on the design parameters considering
buoyancy, floating and traction parameters, etc.
KAU pokkali paddy harvester has developed and tested, it operates through hydraulic system by the
use of hydraulic motors. Movement of machine by track belt which is mounted to float. Propellers
are used to move the harvester and it helps in turnings.
Hydraulic valve was hydraulic system control components, hydraulic system was used to controlling
the flow direction, hydraulic pressure and flow, which the implementation of components and driven
work machine to obtain the desired direction of movement, thrust (torque) and velocity (speed),
etc., to meet the requirements of different actions. A working process and the quality of the
hydraulic system, largely depends on various hydraulic valves, (XieFuxiang, 2014).
Hydrostatics concerns the conditions to which the vessel is subjected while at rest in water and to its
ability to remain a float. This involves computing buoyancy, displacement, and other hydrostatic

493
properties such as trim (the measure of the longitudinal inclination of the vessel) and stability (the
ability of a vessel to restore itself to an upright position after being inclined by wind, sea, or loading
conditions). (www.usna.edu).
The buoyancy of the amphibious vehicles in the water is produced by the duckweed around the
body, which is specially made with rubber material. They need to rely on outside force to keep sailing
in the water, so in the true sense they are not amphibious vehicles (Wu et al., 2004).
Rotational stability of floating bodies, the potential energy of a system in stable equilibrium has a
minimum value. This property issued to derive a formula that is useful in determination of stability of
a floating body. Analysis shows that a floating body is in stable equilibrium if its centre of mass has a
minimum height with respect to its related centre of buoyancy (Mohammad Abolhassani, 2011).

Material and Methods

Buoyancy and stability analysis
Buoyancy is an upward force exerted by a fluid that opposes the weight of an immersed
object. When the floating pontoon is at certain weight of harvester it sinks to a draft at certain
meters, allowing adequate freeboard to prevent any water from getting on board.A floating object is
stable if it tends to restore itself to an equilibrium position after a small displacement. The
upward buoyancy force on an object acts through the center of buoyancy, being the centroid of the
displaced volume of fluid. The weight force on the object acts through its center of gravity.
One of the key design criteria is the stability requirement of the floating structure. The pontoons
has to be stable in water and unaffected by waves, wind, tidal current and at the same time safe for
holding mass performances on it.
Transverse Stability
Transverse center of buoyance is the point through which the force of buoyancy supporting
the vessel acts vertically upwards and transverse centre of gravity is the point through which all of
the weight of the vessel including deadweight items can be considered to act vertically
downwards.When the machine is upright, both the centre of buoyancy and the centre of gravity are
on the centre line of the vessel.
i.e. TCG= 0
∑
TCG= =0
∑
TCG= transverse centre of gravity
Wt = weight of the machine
If TCGis zero, the floating harvester should be stable on the water.
Longitudinal Stability
If longitudinal center of gravity and longitudinal center of buoyancy are in the same vertical
line and if there is no any trimming moment on the machine,
∑
LCG = meters.
∑
LCG = longitudinal center of gravity
Wt = weight of the machine
Traction and propulsion
The action of pulling or pushing machine over a submerged condition. The forces acting on
the track and surface orwater. The track belt is attached to float and operated through hydraulic
motor. Marine aluminium lugs are used for traction.
Propulsion is the system used to generate thrust to move a machine across water. Most
modern ships are propelled by mechanical systems consisting a motor or engine turning
a propeller.Propulsion is the drive on machine forward by using mechanical power throughpropeller.
Propelleris a mechanical device for propelling a machine or harvester, consisting of a revolving shaft
with two or more broad, angled blades attached to it. It operates through hydraulic motor with
connection of chain drive.

494
Conclusion: KAU has attempted a research and development programme for the development of a
paddy harvesting machinery suitable for marshy and submerged paddy fields. There is vast scope and
urgent need of improvement of such machineries.

References
Mohammad Abolhassani., A text book of the satiability of floating bodies(2011).

Wu, K., W. Wang and F. Zhao, 2004. Present situation and development trend of military amphibious
vehicle. Spec. Purpose Vehicle. pp: 15-16.
XieFuxiang, 2014. Design on Full-Hydraulic Drive System of Corn Combine Harvester.

495
 Utilization of Food processing Waste for Energy Generation
Viresh Kumargouda, Babu R.M. Ray, G.V. Mohith Kumar and Hanumantharaju K.N.
Biogas Development and Training Center
College of Agricultural Engineering, UAS, GKVK-Bengaluru
Email : vkgouda@gmail.com

Abstract : Desiccated coconut industries produce lot of waste water which contain high organic
compounds, but it demands high BOD and COD hence it causes adverse effect on environment.
Utilization of waste water for energy generation is an efficient and effective technology. In this
technology pretreated desiccated waste water can be used for biogas production. Installed Bio-
methanation plant generates about 350 electrical units per day and 30 kW biogas generator runs for
8-10 hr/day. The generated power is supplied to the coconut processing unit of Indus Bio Products,
Puttur for running of water lifting from borewell, drying of desiccated coconut, feeding unit, running
of chaff cutter machine, processing machine and captive use. During last 36 months 3240 tons of
agro processing waste is treated and total 345600 units of electricity is generated. Apart from the
fact that biogas produced is effective in reducing harmful greenhouse gas emissions.
Introduction
Increased demand for renewable energy sources due to scarcity of conventional energy sources
paved the way for innovative energy conversion technologies. Especially in some countries coconut
is the major crop and coconut industries plays important role in economy of the country(Kumar,
Senanayake, Visvanathan, & Basu, 2003; Rasyid, 1992). In such countries waste water from the
coconut industries also creating environmental pollution problem. Coconut industries waste water
contain high concentration of organic substances. which causes environmental pollution due to high
BOD (Biological oxygen Demand) and COD (chemical Oxygen Demand). Coconut industries where
wastewater with high concentrations of lipids containing medium chain saturated fatty acids (~55%)
long chain saturated fatty acids (~35%) and long chain unsaturated fatty acids (~10%) is
generated.The characteristics of DC wastewater fed into treatment unit generally comprise of pH 4.0
- 5.5, COD 4,000-8,000 mg/l, BOD 1,000-5,000 mg/l, oil and grease 4,000 mg/l(Kumar et al.,
2003).Figure1. Shows the flow chart related to the processes involved in the desiccated coconut
production.

Figure 1. Waste water generated in the desiccated coconut production process

Objectives:
1. Utilization ofdesiccated coconut waste water for biogas production
2. Installation of biogas power plant for generation of electricity
3. To workout cost analysis of biogas power plant
Materials and Methods:

496
Desiccated coconut waste water contains lot of undesired compounds majorly complex fatty
acidsand it present both in suspension and free floating, the presence of short- and long-chain fatty
acids as well as the potential action of a few antimicrobial antioxidants arising out ofthe coconut
water andparticulate kernel debris emergingfrom the paring and washing processes.Organic load
present in the desiccated coconut waste water is given in the table 1. After all this process the
effluents can be easily treated by anaerobic digestion but anaerobic digestion also faces so many
hurdles due low pH and high fatty content in the produced waste water(Salomon & Lora, 2009;
Walla & Schneeberger, 2008; Yentekakis, Papadam, & Goula, 2008).Solutions to this above problem
lie in removing a few of the most problematic inhibitory materials from
the effluent stream and biologically treat the more easily treatable components. This can be
achieved by coupling various upstream processes such as
(i) filtration, sedimentation, coagulation and flocculation for removal of suspended particles
(ii)removal of lipids by adsorption, coagulation and flocculation and
(iii)neutralization of the acidic waste water by the addition of alkali and bicarbonate ions

To achieve objectives and improve productivity of overall anaerobic digestion process, the present
research has been taken with central financial assistance form MNRE- Govt. of India under the public
private partnership for installation of biogas plant and generation of electricity by utilizing agro
industrial waste. The 300 m3 biogas plant has been installed at Indus Bio products, Puttur, Dakshina
Kannada District for performance evaluation.

Table 1 Fractionation of the volumetric discharge, organic load and energy potential of the
desiccated coconut industry (DCI) waste water

Small-scale NMDC Large-scale NMDC

Coconut usage/day/industry (in
thousands) 10–20 40–50
Coconut kernel water (m3/day) 1–5 4–12.5
3
Wash water (m /day) 5–20 20–50
Virgin waste water (m3/day) 0 0
3
Total waste water (m /day) 6–25 24–62.5
Total waste water OLR (kg COD/day) 72.3–340.2 289.2–850.5
3
Biogas potential (m /day) 36.1–170.1 144.4–425.2
Energy generation potential (MJ/day) 794.2–3742.2 3176.8–9354.4
Fuel wood replacement (kg/day) 218.4–1029.1 873.6–2572.4

Assumptions are as follows: wood stove efficiency—10 %, biogas stove efficiency—55 %, CV of

wood—20 MJ/kg, CV of biogas—22 MJ/m3 (Bhattacharya & Salam, 2002; Bond & Templeton, 2011).

Results and Discussion

Installed Bio-methanation plant generates about 350 electrical units per day and 30 kW
biogas generator runs for 8-10 hr/day. The generated power is supplied to the coconut processing
unit of Indus Bio Products, Puttur for running of water lifting from borewel, drying of desiccated
coconut, feeding unit, running of chaff cutter machine, processing machine and captive use. Basic
information regarding Biogas plant is presented in the Table 2.

Table2. Basic information related to electricity generation by the utilization of desiccated waste
water

497
Basic Information :

Process technology : UASB Technology

Design Capacity : 300 m3 Biogas /day

Segregated organic industrial : 4-5 ton/day

waste
Electricity Generation : 350 Electrical Units/day
30KW Generator runs for 8-10 hrs

Energy Yield : Equivalent to 160 to 175 KG LPG /DAY

Biogas Utilization : Electricity Generation

Organic Manure : 1.5 tons/day

: (1.5 Tons/day organic manure x Rs. 2000/- = Rs. 3000/-)

Electricity Consumption : 10-15 Electrical Units/day

Total Project Cost : Rs. 38 lakhs

Payback period : 2.25 years

 Installed Bio-methanation plant generates about 350 electrical units per day and 30 kW
biogas generator runs for 8-10 hr/day.
 The generated power is supplied to the coconut processing unit of Indus Bio Products,
Puttur for running of water lifting from borewell, drying of desiccated coconut, feeding unit,
running of chaff cutter machine, processing machine and captive use.
 During last 36 months 3240 tons of agro processing waste is treated and total 345600 units
of electricity is generated.
 Apart from the fact that biogas produced is effective in reducing harmful greenhouse gas
emissions.
 The compact design of the plant makes it convenient for use and utilizes less footprint area.
 The treatment of agro industrial waste is done in closed digester hence there is no odour
and organic matter is recycled to generate nutrient rich bio-manure.

Table 3. Cost economics of Biogas plant and its revenue

: 1 year For 3 year
A) Revenue generation :

Cost of electricity @ Rs. 7.00 KWh : 8,82,000.00 26,46,000.00

(7x350x30days)

498
 Cost of organic manure@ Rs. 2000/ton : 10,80,000.00 32,40,000.00
(1.5tx2000x30days)

Total income : 19,62,000.00 58,86,000.00

B) Operation and maintenance cost

Cost of the organic manure @ Rs. 0.50/kg : 6,30,000.00 18,90,000.00

(0.50 x 3500kg x 30daysx12month)

Cost of labour @ Rs. 6000 /month : 72,000.00 2,16,000.00

C) Auxiliary Consumption : 18,000.00 54,000.00

Total : 7,20,000.00 21,60,000.00
Payback period 2.25 Years

Conclusion
Desiccated coconut waste water from the industries contains high BOD and Cod due to presence
ofhigh organic compounds in it. The Desiccated waste water contain highest concentration of
particulate solids due to the washing of coconut kernel. The combined treatment of DCI waste water
along with particulates lead to severe inhibition of anaerobic bacteria due to the accumulation of
VFA that was predominant in waste water. Preliminary treatment helpful for removing higher fatty
content and to neutralize waste water.

References
Bhattacharya, S., & Salam, P. A. (2002). Low greenhouse gas biomass options for cooking in the
developing countries. Biomass and bioenergy, 22(4), 305-317.
Bond, T., & Templeton, M. R. (2011). History and future of domestic biogas plants in the developing
world. Energy for Sustainable development, 15(4), 347-354.
Kumar, S., Senanayake, G., Visvanathan, C., & Basu, B. (2003). Desiccated coconut industry of Sri
Lanka: opportunities for energy efficiency and environmental protection. Energy Conversion
and Management, 44(13), 2205-2215.
Rasyid, F. (1992). Properties of protein extracted from desiccated coconut. The Ohio State University.
Salomon, K. R., & Lora, E. E. S. (2009). Estimate of the electric energy generating potential for
different sources of biogas in Brazil. Biomass and bioenergy, 33(9), 1101-1107.
Walla, C., & Schneeberger, W. (2008). The optimal size for biogas plants. Biomass and bioenergy,
32(6), 551-557.
Yentekakis, I., Papadam, T., & Goula, G. (2008). Electricity production from wastewater treatment via
a novel biogas-SOFC aided process. Solid State Ionics, 179(27-32), 1521-1525.

499
Determination of some Physical Properties of Plum (cv. Kala Amritsari) Fruits
Vivek Kamat1, Manoj Kumar Mahawar2, Kirti Jalgaonkar2 and
Jay Harendrasinh Sisodhiya3
1
M. Tech Scholar, CCSHAU Hisar, Haryana, India
2
Scientist, HCP Division, ICAR-CIPHET Abohar, Punjab, India
3
College of Agricultural Engineering and Technology, Junagadh, Gujarat
Corresponding Email:vivkraj95@hau.ernet.in

Abstract: The present study was carried out to determine the physical properties of plum (cv.Kala
Amritsari) which will be helpful for the design of fruit processing machineries. The parameters viz.
moisture content, length, width, thickness, diameter, colour, sphericity, geometric mean diameter,
surface area, aspect ratio, porosity, volume, bulk density and true density were determined. Initially
the fruits were graded in two categories viz. smaller (S) and bigger (B) on the basis of linear
dimensions. Moisture content of the fruit pulp was 85.19±0.54 % (w.b). Linear dimensions of smaller
fruits were: major intercept (19.41±1.96 mm), minor intercept (16.79±1.46 mm), geometric mean
diameter (18.48±1.72 mm), arithmetic mean diameter (3.31±0.12 mm), sphericity (0.79±0.03),
surface area (1082.59± 120.81 mm2) and aspect ratio (1.15±0.17), while the corresponding values for
bigger fruit were, 25.15±0.77 mm, 23.61±0.30 mm, 24.49±0.41 mm, 3.17±0.08 mm, 0.98±0.02,
1901.98±66.93 mm2, 1.08±0.15, respectively. The density values in terms of bulk density were,
660±27.54 kgm-3 (S), 473±18.69 kgm-3(B), true density 1213±58.3 kgm-3 (S), 1120± 47.28 kgm-3(B) and
porosity 45.6±5.30 (S), 56.8±7.28 (B) were also recorded.Colour in the form of L, a, b values for
smaller fruits (33.62±2.04, 66.87±6.75, 10.24±2.62) and for larger fruits (37.38±1.88, 61.25±5.91,
12.28±2.66), respectively were observed. The average fruit weight, pulp weight and seed weight for
smaller grade fruits was 32.35±4.25 g, 28.74±3.50 g, 1.09±0.32 g, while for bigger grade fruits it was
38.14±5.33 g, 33.57±6.53 g, 1.73±0.26, respectively.

Keywords: Grade, Plum, Physical Properties, Moisture Content, Kala Amritsari

Introduction : Physical characteristics of agricultural products are the most important parameters in
design of grading, conveying, processing and packaging systems. Among these physical
characteristics, mass, volume, projected areas and center of gravity are the most important ones in
sizing systems (Khoshnam et al., 2007). Axial dimensions viz. length, width and thickness are also
basic and important parameters considered for machine design (Mohsenin, 1986).
Plums (Prunus domestica) are the stony fruits wide produced within the Asians countries. In
India, plum has been cultivated on 0.23 million hectare area with production of 0.89 milliton tons
(Anonymous, 2019).The major plum growing states includes Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal
Pradesh,Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Meghalaya, Manipur and Sikkim.
Plums are a stone fruit of the subgenus Prunus of the genus prunus. They are available in an
exceedingly wide variety of size and colours like yellow, white, green or red flesh.The fruits
are typically of medium size (1-3 inches in diameter). The fruits are usually spherical; oval
in shape the flesh is firm and juicy. The fruits peel is smooth and surface which is waxed naturally
that to safeguard flesh. The plum is stone fruit i.e. a hard seed is enclosed by flesh. Plum fruit is rich
in Vitamin A, B, (Thiamine), riboflavin and some minerals like calcium, phosphorus and iron. The well
blended acidity with sugars is helpful in the preparation of jams and squashes. Plums
are considered a source of phytochemical compounds with helpful effects on health. Kala Amritsari
cultivar of plum is most commonly grown in the Punjab region. Fruits are medium in size, dark brown
at maturity while pulp is slightly yellowish and juicy most suitable for preparation of jam.
Several researches were made concerning the quality and the physical and chemical
properties of plum fruits in various ecological conditions (Walkowiak-Tomczak, 2008; Usenik et al.
2009;Rop et al. 2009;Ionica et al. 2013). The aim of this paper is to evaluate the physical properties of

500
plum cv. Kala Amritsari grown in Punjab in order to record the data helpful for the design of relevant
post-harvest machineries.

Materials and Methods

Raw material: Plum fruits cv. Kala Amritsariwas collected from local market of Abohar (Punjab),
Indiato determine the selected physical properties. The fruits were washed and graded as big (B) and
small (S) fruits based upon the fruit size. For the estimation of physical properties, 30 fruits from each
smaller and larger gradewere randomly selected.The fruits were stored in polythene bags in cold
storage at 8±2°C until use.

Fig 1a.Smaller (S) grade plum Fig 1b. Bigger (B) grade plum

Determination of physical properties

The properties including, dimensions (major, minor and intermediate intercepts), moisture content,
true density, bulk density, geometric mean diameter, arithmetic mean diameter, sphericity, surface
area, aspect ratio, porosity, colour, fruit weight, pulp weight and stone weight were estimated
following the standard procedures. To determine physical properties of plum fruits are separated by
visual appearance and 30 fruits were randomly selected for both small and big fruit group.
Axial dimensions like length, width and thickness were measured using digital
Verniercalipers(M/S Mitutoyo, ±0.01mm). Since, the fruits were spherical in nature, hence only
major and minor intercepts were determined. Minor intercept represents both width and
thickness.

Fig2. Pictorial representation of the axial dimensions of the fruit

The mass of the fruit was determined using digital balance (M/S Metler Toledo, least count
±0.001 g). For the purpose, weight of 100 randomly selected fruits were observed and then
extrapolated to weight of 1000 fruits.The arithmetic mean diameter (AMD) and the geometric mean

501
diameter (GMD), as the mean of the three dimensions, sphericity index (SP) and surface area (S) of
fruit was calculated using following formulae (Mohsenin., 1986,Vivek et al. 2018 and Jan et al. 2019)
= (1)
= ( ) / (2)
= × 100(3)
= ( ) (4)
The aspect ratio (AR) of the fruit was calculated using following formula (Hauhouout-O’haraet al,
2000 and Pradhan et al., 2012)
= (5)
The volume of the fruit and true density of the fruits were determined using the liquid displacement
method. Toluene (C7H8) was used instead of plane water because it is absorbed by fruits to lesser
extend and its surface tension is also less, so as it fills even shallow dips in fruits its dissolution power
is low (Aydin, 2002; Demir et al., 2002, Garnayak, et al, 2008; Sonawane, et al., 2014).).The bulk
density was determined with a weight per cubic meter. Bulk density was determined by filling fruits
in 1000ml measuring cylinder. The fruits are weighed later and the bulk density was calculated from
the mass of the fruits and the volume of measuring cylinder. Following formula was used to calculate
bulk density:
= (6)
Porosity is determined by following equation (Mohsenin, 1970; Nimkar&Chattopadhyay, Razavi et al.,
2010 and Pathak et al., 2018).
= [1 − ] × 100(7)
Fruit samples were transported to laboratory in closed polyethylene bags in order to climatic surface
contamination, the samples were carefully washed. The moisture content of the fruit was measured
by using the hot air oven at 105°C±1°C for 24 hr (AOAC, 2002; Suthar & Das, 1996 and Pathak et al.,
2018). Moisture content values were estimated by using following formula:
Moisture content (WB) = (8)
Color values (L, a, b) Color measurement was carried out using a Hunter colorimeter D25 optical
sensor (Hunter Associates Laboratory, Trestoa, VA, USA) on the basis of three variables (L, a, b value).
The “L” value signifies the lightness (100 for white and 0 for black), the “a “value represents
greenness and redness (-80 for green and 80 for red) while the “b” value signifies changes from
blueness to yellowness (-80 for blue and 80 for yellow). The instrument was calibrated against a
standard white reference tile. Each experiment was replicated thrice and the average valueswere
used in the analysis.(Reddy, 2006, Zare, et al., 2012 and Pathak et al 2018).
Table 1. Some physical properties of plum cv. Kala Amritsari
Standard
Min Max Mean
Properties Deviation
Small Big Small Big Small Big Small Big
Major intercept
16.83 22.17 22.76 29.61 19.41 25.15 1.96 3.71
(mm)
Minor intercept
14.69 19.41 19.13 29.76 16.78 23.60 1.45 2.26
(mm)
Arithmetic mean
3.12 2.72 3.52 3.64 3.17 0.12 0.29
diameter 3.31
Geometric mean
16.36 21.41 21.47 28.80 18.48 24.49 1.72 2.23
diameter (mm)
Surface area (mm2) 842.25 1441.46 1449.65 2607.52 1082.58 1901.97 120.81 66..98
Bulk density 615.33 373.78 680.36 496.35 660.00 473.00 27.54 18.69

502
(kgm-3)
True density
1150.36 978.34 1315.37 1237.36 1213.00 1120.00 58.90 47.28
(kgm-3)
Sphericity (%) 0.73 0.90 0.83 0.98 0.78 0.96 0.03 0.09
Aspect ratio 1.05 0.86 1.26 1.31 1.15 1.08 0.06 0.14
Porosity (%) 46.50 61.79 48.27 59.88 45.58 57.76 5.3 7.28
Fruit weight (g) 14.32 34.71 26.52 45.38 19.83 40.10 4.25 5.33
Flesh weight (g) 13.50 28.56 22.89 36.60 18.74 33.57 3.50 6.53
Stone weight (g) 0.79 5.86 3.63 9.33 1.09 6.53 0.32 0.26
Fruit colour
L* 32.28 30.88 36.75 53.11 34.61 39.04 2.04 1.88
a* 59.78 52.88 74.69 67.74 66.61 60.48 6.75 5.91
b* 8.49 8.63 14.14 13.94 11.08 11.22 2.62 2.66
Values are represented as average of 10 replications
Results and Discussions
Moisture content: Moisture content of Kala Amritsari plum fruit pulp was found 85.19 (w.b). Ertekin
et al reported that moisture content for Stanley and Frenze 90 plums were 89% and 87%.
Major intercept, minor intercept, geometric mean diameter and surface area of plum
The major intercept, minor intercept, arithmetic mean diameter, geometric mean diameter and
surface area of plum for smaller fruits were in the range of 16.83 to 22.76 mm, 22.17 to 29.61 mm,
3.12 to 3.52 mm, 16.36 to 21.47 mm and 842.25 to 1449.65 mm2 and similar values for bigger fruits
were 14.69 to 19.13 mm, 19.41 to 29.76 mm, 2.72 to 3.64 mm, 21.41 to 28.80 mm and 1141.46 to
2607.52 mm2.The average major intercept, minor intercept, arithmetic mean diameter and
geometric mean diameter of plum for smaller fruits were 19.41 mm, 16.78 mm, 3.31 and 18.48 mm
and similar values for bigger fruits were 25.15 mm, 23.60 mm, 3.17 and 24.49 mm respectively. The
average surface area of small fruits was 1082.58 mm2 whereas for big fruits the value is 1901.97
mm2. Ertekin et al reported that the average fruit length, fruit width, fruit thickness and geometric
diameter were 48.25 mm, 33.24 mm, 31.32 mm and 36.48 mm for Stanley plums and 58.33 mm,
47.70 mm, 45.49 mm and 50.00 mm for Frenze 90 plums, respectively.
Bulk and True Density : Bulk density and true density values of the smaller plum fruits were in the
range of 615.33 to 680.36 kgm-3and similar values for bigger plums were 373.78 to 496.35 kgm-3. The
average bulk and true densities for small plum fruits were 660 kgm-3 and 1213 kgm-3 and similar
values for bigger plums were 473 kgm-3 and 1120 kgm-3. Ertekin et al reported that true density, bulk
density was 1050 kgm-3 and 642 kgm-3for Stanley plums and 1029 kgm-3and 572 kgm-3 for Frenze 90
plums, respectively.
Sphericity, Aspect Ratio and Porosity : The sphericity index value for smaller and bigger fruits was in
range of 0.73 % to .83 and 0.90% to 0.98 %. The average sphericity value for smaller and bigger plus
were 0.78 % and 0.96 %. The porosity of smaller and bigger plum fruits was in the range of 46.50 to
48.27 and 61.79 to 59.88. The average of porosity values of smaller and bigger plums observed were
45.58 and 57.76. The aspect ratio value for smaller and bigger plums was in the range of 1.05 to 1.26
and 0861 to 1.31. The average aspect ratio for small and bigger plums was 1.15 and 1.08. Ertekin et
al reported that the sphericity index, porosity and aspect ratio were 0.76%, 38.99% and 0.69 for
Stanley plums and 0.858%, 44.25% and 0.821% for Frenze 90 plums, respectively.
Fruit mass, Flesh and stone Feight: Fruit mass for small and bigger plums were in range of 14.32 to
26.52 g and 34.71 to 45.38 g. The average value of fruit mass for small and bigger plums were 19.83
to 40.10 g, flesh weight of small and bigger fruits was in the range of 13.5 to 22.89 g and 28.56 to
36.60 g and stone weight for smaller and bigger plums were in the range of 0.79 to 3.63 g and 5.86 to
9.33 g. Ertekin et al reported that the average stone mass was 1.93 g for Stanley plums and 2.64 g for
Frenze 90 plums, respectively.

503
Colour values : The average colour values (L value) for smaller and bigger plums were 34.61 and
39.04 i.e., bigger fruits are brighter than smaller fruits. The redness value (a) was higher for smaller
fruits (66.61) than the bigger fruits (60.48) and light blue (b) value were found higher for bigger fruits
(11.22) than the smaller fruits (11.08).

Conclusion
 Moisture content of the plum fruit was 85.19 85.19±0.54 % (w.b).
 Linear dimensions of smaller fruits were: major intercept (19.41±1.96 mm), minor intercept
(16.79±1.46 mm), geometric mean diameter (18.48±1.72 mm), arithmetic mean diameter
(3.31±0.12 mm), sphericity (0.79±0.03), surface area (1082.59± 120.81 mm2) and aspect ratio
(1.15±0.17). Whereas, corresponding values for bigger fruit were, 25.15±0.77 mm,
23.61±0.30 mm, 24.49±0.41 mm, 3.17±0.08 mm, 0.96±0.02, 1901.98±66.93 mm2, 1.08±0.15,
respectively.
 The density values in terms of bulk density (S: 660±27.54kgm-3, B: 473±18.69 kgm-3), true
density (S: 1213±58.3 kgm-3, B: 1120± 47.28 kgm-3) and porosity (S: 45.6±5.30, B: 56.8±7.28)
were also observed.
 The average fruit weight, pulp weight and seed weight for smaller grade fruits was
32.35±4.25 g, 28.74±3.50 g, 1.09±0.32 g, while for bigger grade fruits it was 38.14±5.33 g,
33.57±6.53 g, 1.73±0.26, respectively.
 Colour values in the form of L, a, b values for smaller fruits (33.62±2.04, 66.87±6.75,
10.24±2.62) and for larger fruits (37.38±1.88, 61.25±5.91, 12.28±2.66), respectively were
observed.

References
Anonymous (2019). Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare, Government of India. Accessed on
06.03.2019.
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Association of Official Analytical Chemists.
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hackberry (Celtisaustralis L.). Journal of Food Engineering, 54, 241–247.
Garnayak DK, Pradhan RC, Naik SN, Bhatnagar N (2008). Moisture-dependent physical properties of
Jatropha seed (Jatropha curcas L.). Industrial Crops and Products, 27, 123–129.
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 Modeling of Soil Erosion and Runoff events in Rainfed Areas of Tamil Nadu
using Artificial Neural Network
Vivek S. Devaranavadagi and S.S. Shirahatti
University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad
Email : vivdev2@gmail.com and ssshirahatti@gmail.com

Abstract: Soil erosion is the greatest destroyer of land resources and also a contributor to non-point
source pollution. Water erosion is accelerated by farming and construction activities. In India, it is
estimated that out of the total geographical area of 328.6 M ha, about 146.82 M ha area is suffering
from various kinds of land degradation. It includes water erosion 93.68 M ha, wind erosion 9.48 M ha,
water logging/flooding 14.30 M ha, salinity/alkalinity 5.94 M ha, soil acidity 16.04 M ha and other
complex problems7.38 M ha causing the annual damage to a great extent. The present soil erosion rate
can be considerably reduced if the available land is brought under suitable land management practices.
The major variables affecting soil erosion are climate, soil type, vegetation and topography. Of these,
vegetation and to some extent soil and topography may be controlled. The major effects of vegetation
in reducing erosion are interception of rainfall, decreasing surface velocity, improving the porosity by
roots and plant residue and transpiration, which decrease soil and water erosion. Topographic features
that influence erosion are degree of slope, length of slope and size and shape of the watershed.

In India about 5333 million tonnes of soil (amounting to about 16 tonnes/ha) is eroded
annually, causing serious threat to agricultural production (Dhruvanarayana and Rambabu, 1983).
Nearly 29% of this is carried into the sea and nearly 10% is deposited in surface reservoirs resulting in
loss of storage capacity of reservoirs and occurrence of floods. Conservation of water virtually reduces
the soil erosion. Thus the scope of conservation is very wide, encompassing all the measures of soil
conservation, moisture retention and nutrient preservation in the soil. Artificial Neural Network (ANN)
is a mathematical model or computational model that tries to simulate the structure and functional
aspects of biological neural network. It consists of an interconnected group of artificial neurons and
processes information using a connectionist approach to computation. Artificial Neural Networks
(ANNs), a biologically inspired computing methodology, that have the ability to learn by imitating the
learning method used in human brain. Hence, the artificial neural network modeling is used to assess
the rainfall-runoff-sediment yield relationship. SanthanaBosuet al. (1985) designed a multislot divisor
unit to assess the runoff and soil loss for soil conservation and dry farming for Coimbatore regions.
Pathak (1991) stated that sediment samplers have been used extensively for monitoring sediments
lost from experimental plots. Among the best-known and most widely used are the Coshocton wheel
runoff sampler and the multislot divisor units. However, the use of these samplers has usually been
restricted to watersheds that are less than 1 ha, primarily because of their limited capacity.

Methodology
Measurement of runoff and soil loss: The measurement of runofffrom the runoff plots can be
accomplished either by collection of entire runoff or an aliquot of the total runoff volume. In case of
very small runoff plot under medium to low rainfall areas, it may be possible to collect the entire
runoff in a tank and measure it volumetrically. This method is very accurate but cannot be adopted in
large plots where the runoff amount is generally quite large. This large quantity of runoff may require
huge collection tanks which may be uneconomical and unmanageable. The size of the collecting tank
and the cost can be substantially reduced by collecting aliquot and measuring it.

The accurate sampling and measurement of aliquot is absolutely necessary for reliable
results. This is accomplished by the use of devices like multislot divisors. The divisor consists of a
number of slots of equal dimensions, out of which only one slot is measured. The equipment is based

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on the use of the multislot divisor and is one of the best sampling units for quantitative
measurements of runoff and soil loss.

Procedure for collection of samples and estimation of soil loss: In the experimental plots, runoff and
eroded soil first fall into the tank for small flows. During heavy rains after filling up of tank for small flows, the
excess runoff overflows into the sludge tank. For very heavy rains, after filling up of the above two tanks the
excess runoff passes through the multislot divisor unit. From the multislot divisor unit, one out of seven units
for Kumulur and one out of nine units for Veppanthattai is collected in the aliquot tank.

To arrive at the runoff volume, the depths of collection in the individual tanks were collected and
were measured. For taking representative samples, the runoff collected in each tank viz., small flow tank,
sludge tank and aliquot tank were thoroughly agitated and samples were taken in standard bottles. These
samples were then evaporated in the laboratory and the amount of soil loss was measured
gravimetrically to give soil loss in gms/litre. This quantity was further multiplied by the total runoff volume
and divided by 106 (Kumulur) and 108 (Veppanthattai)to give the total soil loss in tones per plot.
Multiplying this by the size of the plot, soil loss in tonnes per hectare for that storm was worked out. The
soil loss from all the storms during the year can be added to get the annual soil loss in
tonnes/hectare/year.

Artificial Neural Network: In this present work, Neural Network Toolbox (nftool) of MATLAB (R)
mathematical software was used to predict the rainfall, runoff and soil loss. A three layered feed
forward neural network with back propagation training algorithm was used to develop the ANN
model.

Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs), a biologically inspired computing methodology, that have
the ability to learn by imitating the learning method used in human brain. ANNs, especially back
propagation networks, are closely related to statistical models and are most suited to forecasting
applications. When using ANNs for forecasting, the modeling philosophy employed is similar to that
used in traditional statistical approaches. They have the ability to determine the underlying
relationship between model inputs and outputs, resulting in good generalization ability.

Results

Runoff as influenced by cotton: Daily runoff was monitored and measured using multislot divisor units
installed in cotton field and fallow land (control) for the slope range of 0-2 percent. The daily runoff
produced from the rainfall events is defined as the daily rainfall for 24 hours duration. In silty loam soils
it is observed that, maximum of 16 events produced runoff during the observation period. The total
quantity of rainfall received during the year 2012 was 632.7 mm and the highest one day maximum
rainfall occurred was 60 mm. The maximum and minimum runoff observed was 73.89 m3/ha and 16.80
m3/ha from the control and 70.76 m3/ha and 13.50 m3/ha from the cotton field treatment (Table 1).
The total runoff recorded for the year 2012 was 804.74 m3/ha from the control and 742.69 m3/ha from
the cotton field. The cotton crop decreased the runoff by 8.35 per cent as compared with the control
treatment. The result reveals that cotton crop on 0-2 per cent slope are effective in reducing the runoff.
Similar findings were observed in a study conducted by Tiwari and Kurothe (2006) on runoff and soil
loss under pigeonpea cultivation at 2 per cent slope with six vegetative barriers viz.,
Dichanthiumannulatum, Cenchrusciliaris, Vetiveriazizanioides, Eulaliopsisbinata, Sacharummunja and
Aleobarbadensis. Further the study revealed that Dichanthiumannulatum produced least runoff and
soil losses, followed by Sacharummunja, Eulaliopsisbinata, Cenchrusciliaris and zizanioides.

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Table.1. Event based runoff and soil loss for silty loam soils for the year 2012 by using multislot
divisor unit

Runoff (m3/ha) Soil loss (tons/ha/year)

Rainfall
Particulars Date
(mm)
Fallow Cotton field Fallow Cotton field

Event 1 06/05/2012 60.0 73.89 70.76 1.95 1.60

Event 2 11/06/2012 29.60 58.94 53.63 1.40 1.31
Event 3 16/07/2012 17.70 41.64 40.53 1.15 1.05
Event 4 17/07/2012 13.60 24.83 21.17 0.34 0.21
Event 5 16/08/2012 36.00 60.17 56.05 1.44 1.34
Event 6 22/08/2012 48.80 72.90 70.39 1.56 1.20
Event 7 19/09/2012 37.20 60.18 51.65 1.27 1.08
Event 8 28/09/2012 41.60 71.92 65.99 1.66 1.25
Event 9 29/09/2012 12.60 16.80 13.50 0.17 0.12
Event 10 1/10/2012 39.80 58.07 53.27 1.20 1.04
Event 11 12/10/2012 13.60 40.27 34.50 0.45 0.27
Event 12 19/10/2012 16.20 31.38 28.17 0.78 0.52
Event 13 23/10/2012 13.60 18.68 16.55 0.34 0.23
Event 14 25/10/2012 27.20 55.73 50.91 1.14 0.92
Event 15 31/10/2012 22.20 47.82 44.94 0.94 0.81
Event 16 01/11/2012 53.00 73.52 70.68 1.83 1.70
Total 804.74 742.69 17.62 14.65
In deep clay soils it is observed that, maximum of 17 events produced runoff during the
observation period. The total quantities of rainfall received during the year 2012 was 643.90 mm and
the highest one day maximum rainfall occurred was 76.5 mm. The maximum and minimum runoff
observed was 102.07 m3/ha and 38.06 m3/ha from the control and 88.91 m3/ha and 31.34 m3/ha
from the cotton field treatment (Table 2).

Table.2.Event based runoff and soil loss for deep clay soils for the year 2012 by using multislot divisor
unit
Rainfall Runoff (m3/ha) Soil loss (tons/ha/year)
Particulars Date
(mm) Fallow Cotton field Fallow Cotton field
Event 1 25/04/2012 76.5 102.07 88.91 1.53 1.11
Event 2 1/05/2012 41.0 77.36 69.42 1.08 0.97
Event 3 13/05/2012 45.5 77.85 71.67 1.16 0.99
Event 4 14/05/2012 38.0 70.43 61.54 0.91 0.80
Event 5 22/05/2012 39.0 68.21 63.26 0.75 0.64
Event 6 27/06/2012 24.5 60.05 54.37 0.60 0.51
Event 7 13/07/2012 46.5 78.59 72.13 1.02 0.90
Event 8 14/07/2012 45.0 69.20 61.76 0.96 0.75
Event 9 25/08/2012 41.5 71.18 62.50 0.92 0.69
Event 10 8/09/2012 28.5 60.80 55.85 0.60 0.52
Event 11 28/09/2012 27.0 56.35 50.91 0.56 0.45
Event 12 07/10/2012 17.0 46.71 41.03 0.51 0.40
Event 13 15/10/2012 44.5 65.49 57.07 0.72 0.61

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 Event 14 17/10/2012 29.0 52.89 45.17 0.47 0.39
Event 15 20/10/2012 15.0 38.06 31.34 0.34 0.28
Event 16 24/10/2012 24.0 50.42 43.97 0.55 0.43
Event 17 1/11/2012 31.5 56.84 44.88 0.51 0.42
Total 1102.5 975.78 13.19 10.86

The total runoff recorded for the year 2012 was 1102.5 m3/ha from the control and 975.78
3
m /ha from the cotton field. The cotton crop decreased the runoff by 12.98 per cent as compared
with the control treatment. The result reveals that cotton crop on 0-2 per cent slope is effective in
reducing the runoff. Tiwari and Kurothe (2006) conducted a study on runoff and soil loss under
pigeonpea cultivation at 2 per cent slope with six vegetative barriers viz., Dichanthiumannulatum,
Cenchrusciliaris, Vetiveriazizanioides, Eulaliopsisbinata, Sacharummunja and Aleobarbadensis. The
study indicated that Dichanthiumannulatumproduced the least runoff, soil losses, followed by
Sacharummunja, Eulaliopsisbinata, Cenchrusciliaris and zizanioides.

Soil loss as influenced by cotton: In silty loam soils daily soil erosion was monitored and the soil loss
was estimated using multislot divisor units installed in cotton field and fallow land (control) for the
slope range of 0-2 percent. It is observed that, maximum of 16 events produced soil loss during the
observation period. The maximum and minimum soil loss recorded was 1.95 tons/ha/year and 0.17
tons/ha/year from the control and 1.60 tons/ha/year and 0.12 tons/ha/year from the cotton field
treatment (Table 4.1). The total soil loss recorded for the year 2012 was 17.62 tons/ha/year from the
control and 14.65 tons/ha/year from the cotton field. The cotton crop decreased the soil loss by
20.27 per cent as compared with the control treatment (fallow).

In deep clay soils it is observed that, maximum of 17 events produced soil loss during the
observation period. The maximum and minimum soil loss recorded was 1.53 tons/ha/year and 0.34
tons/ha/year from the control and 1.11 tons/ha/year and 0.28 tons/ha/year from the cotton field
treatment (Table 2). The total soil loss recorded for the year 2012 was 13.19 tons/ha/year from the
control and 10.86 tons/ha/year from the cotton field. The cotton crop decreased the soil loss by
21.45 per cent as compared with the control treatment (fallow).

Runoff and soil loss prediction for silty loam and deep clay soils: Mean standard error (MSE),
Coefficient of efficiency (CE) and linear regression (R) were used to compare the observed and model
simulated runoff from control and cotton grown treatments. The mean standard error (MSE), Coefficient of
efficiency (CE) and linear regression (R) values of model simulated runoff and soil loss are given in Table 3.

Table 3. MSE, CE and R for runoff and soil loss for silty loam soils
Parameter Runoff Soil loss
Control Cotton field Control Cotton field
MSE 39.13 18.49 0.077 0.033
CE 93.08 96.49 99.80 98.62
R 0.950 0.967 0.967 0.934

The results revealed that the model predicts the runoff with an efficiency of
93.08 per cent for control and 96.49 per cent for cotton grown plots. The results of the linear
regression analysis showed that the regression (R) was 0.950 for control and
0.967 for cotton grown treatments. Similarly, soil loss was also predicted using the model and the
result shows that efficiency was maximum under control treatment (99.80 %) as compared with
cotton grown plots (98.62 %). The linear regression (R) was found out as 0.967 for control treatment
and 0.934 for cotton grown plots.

509
 The best back-propagation (BP) algorithm and neuron numbers were determined for
optimization of the model architecture. The Levenberg–Marquardt algorithm was selected as the best of
12 BP algorithms and optimal neuron number was determined as 25. The model tracked the
experimental data very closely (R = 0.93) (Yesilnacaret al. 2008).

The ANN model predicted runoff had the deviation of 20.01 per cent as compared to
observed runoff values for control plot and 11.56 per cent deviation for cotton grown runoff plots.
Similarly, ANN model predicted soil loss had the deviation of -2.03 per cent as compared to observed
values for control plot and 0.27 per cent deviation for cotton grown plots. The above result shows
that high intensity rainfall of short duration could be contributing more runoff in model to the over
estimation of runoff. The mean standard error (MSE), Coefficient of efficiency (CE) and linear
regression (R) value of model simulated runoff and soil loss are given in Table 4.

Table 4. MSE, CE and R for runoff and soil loss for deep clay soils
Parameter Runoff Soil loss
Control Cotton field Control Cotton field
MSE 18.81 61.03 0.034 0.012
CE 91.15 68.00 61.30 79.68
R 0.950 0.907 0.880 0.898

Licznar and Nearing (2003) have also reported that artificial neural networks performed
generally better than the WEPP model in predicting both event runoff volumes and soil loss amounts,
with exception of some small events where the negative erosion predictions were not physically
possible. Linear correlation coefficients (R) for the resulting predictions from the networks versus
measured values were generally in the range of 0.7 to 0.9.

The result of study indicates that the model predicts the runoff with an efficiency of 91.15
per cent for control and 68.0 per cent for cotton grown plots. The results of the linear regression
analysis showed that the linear regression (R) was 0.950 for control and 0.907 for cotton grown
treatments. Similarly, soil loss was also predicted using the model and the result shows that
efficiency was highest under cotton grown treatment (79.68 %) as compared with control treatment
(61.30 %). The linear regression (R) was found out as 0.880 for control treatment and 0.898 for
cotton grown plots.

The results given are based on limited data set. The more number of data may provide better
linear regression (R) and coefficient of efficiency (CE) by using feed forward back propagation neural
network.Hence ANN can be well used for real time forecasting of runoff and soil loss events.

The ANN model predicted runoff had the deviation of -18.30 per cent as compared to
observed runoff values for control plot and -16.34 per cent deviation for cotton grown runoff plots.
Also, ANN model predicted soil loss had the deviation of 2.06 per cent as compared to observed
values for control plot and -0.82 per cent deviation for cotton grown plots for silty loam soils.

Similarly, ANN model predicted runoff had the deviation of 20.01 per cent as compared to
observed runoff values for control plot and 11.56 per cent deviation for cotton grown runoff plots.
The soil loss had the deviation of -2.03 per cent as compared to observed values for control plot and
0.27 per cent deviation for cotton grown plots for deep clay soils. The above result shows that high
intensity rainfall of short duration could be contributing more runoff in model to the over estimation
of runoff. Hence ANN can be well used for real time forecasting of runoff and soil loss events.

510
References

Dhruvanarayana, V.V. and Ram Babu. 1983. Estimation of soil erosion in India. Journal of Irrigation
and Drainage Engineering, 109(4): 419-434.
Licznar, P. and Nearing, M.A. 2003. Artificial neural networks of soil erosion and runoff prediction at
the plot scale. Catena, 51(2):89-114.
Pathak, P. and Laryea, K.B. 1991. Soil surface roughness for the in situ soil and water conservation on
Alfisols. Pages 41-42 in Resource Management Program, Annual report. ICRISAT, Patancheru,
Andhra Pradesh, India: International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics.
SanthanaBosu, S., Padmakumari, O. and Koteeswaran, M. 1985. Design and development of
runoffand soil loss measuring device. In: Hydrological Instrumentation.
Tiwari, S.P. and Kurothe, R.S. 2006. Effect of vegetative barriers on soil and nutrient losses at two per
cent slope on agricultural lands of reclaimed Mahi ravines. Indian journal of Soil
Conservation,34(1): 37-41.
Yesilnacar, M.I. and Sahinkaya, E. 2008. Neural network prediction of nitrate in ground waterof
Harran plain, Turkey. Environmental geology, 56: 19:25.

511
 Storage study of Squash prepared from Pumpkin and Red bell pepper
(Orangie Veggies)
S.D. Wable1, S.M. Pawar2, S.N. Chaudhari3 and S. B. Palve4
1&2
Research Scholars&3&4Assistant Prof. Department of Food Science and Technology and
Department of Food Engineering, K. K. Wagh College of Food Technology, Nashik, India
Email : sujitwable79@gmail.com

Abstract: The study was conducted on the formulation, preparation and storage study of the squash.
The squash was prepared by mixing vegetables like 60% of Pumpkin, 24% Red bell pepper, 8% lemon
and 8% Ginger juices. After preparation, the squash was stored at room (27-32ºC) and refrigerate
temperature (7ºC). The liquid was analyzed for its shelf life upto 90 days by taking sensory analysis
and TSS, PH, Acidity, Vitamin C content and Reducing sugar changes at intervals of 15-15 days. The
TSS, PH, Reducing sugar was increased,Vit. C, acidity decreased in both storage conditions.

Key Words: Blending, Shelf Life, Squash, Storage, Formulation.

Introduction: Vegetable are considered essential for well-balanced diets since they supply vitamins
minerals, dietary fibers and phyto-chemicals. Some phyto-chemicals of vegetables are strong
antioxidants and are throught to reduce the risk of chronic diseases (Joao Silva Dias). Pumpkin
belongs to the Cucurbitaceae family and genus Cucurbita. Crops belongs to this family are known as
cucurbits. Pumpkin is seasonal crop and hence fresh pumpkins are very sensitiveto microbial
spoilage, even at refrigerated condition, they must be frozen or dried (Joseph Adubofuor et. al.).
There are three common types of pumpkin world-wide namely Cucurbita maxima, Cucurbita pepo
and Cucurbita moschata(SaeleawMayyawadee et. al.). The major contributory factors of nutritional
and medicinal value of pumpkin are high total content of carotenoids (Zdunic G. M. et. al.). Pumpkin
rich diet reduces blood glucose; increase level of insulin also shows antibacterial, anti-inflammatory
and antitumor activities (Gordana M. et. al.). Red bell pepper (Capsicum annuum) is mostly used
commercially (Mohammad Nadeem et. al.). Capsicum is member of family Solanaceae.(Muhammad
Nadeem et. al.). The concentration of Capsaicin which is responsible for the peppery burning
sensation in chile peppers is variable but low and they are not valued solely by their capsaicin
content (Zuniga O. C. et. al.). The red colour of the mature red bell pepper fruit is due to several
related carotenoids pigment including capsanthin, capsorubin, cryptozanthin and zeazanthin which
are present as fatty acid ester (Sulaiman O. A. et. al.). All fresh peppers are excellent sources of
vitamins C,K, carotenoids, antioxidants. Vitamin K promotes pepper blood clotting, strengthen bones
and help protect cells from oxidative damage (Muhammad Nadeem et.al.). To minimize the losses
and to provide remunerative returns to growers processing and preservation of bell pepper is only
alternative (Sharma et. al.). Lemon (Citrus limon)is an important medicinal plant of the family
Rutaceae (Mohanapriya M. et. al.). The flavour provided by citrus are among the most preferred in
the world and it is increasingly evident that citrus not only taste good but is also good for people (C.
Economos et. al.). Citrus is most commonly thought of as a good source of Vitamin C. Scurvy a serious
deficiency of Vitamin C that has caused tremendous human suffering throughout history (C.
Economos et. al.). Ginger (Zingiberofficinale) belongs to zingiberaceae family. Ginger has been used
as medicine from Vedic period and is called Mahausadhi means great medicine, it is used as a
carminative or antiflatulent (ICMR Bulletin). In the fresh ginger rhizome, the gingerols were identified
as the major active component (Dr. Mrs. Singh A.). In the present study squash from pumpkin, Red
bell pepper, Lemon and Ginger was prepared. Squashes are becoming popular in comparison with
synthetic beverages evidently because of their taste, flavour, nutritive value and their storage
stability. The beverage product squash has a good demand in this subcontinent as well as many other
foreign countries. Squash is diluted fruit juice. Among all beverages squash is quite popular all over

512
the world as nutritious soft drink. It consists essentially of strained juice containing moderate
quantities of fruit pulp to which sugar is added for sweetening. Acid is added to lower the PH which
arrests the growth of micro-organisms responsible for spoilage of products (Kayshar M. S. et. al.).

Table 1. Nutrients in Pumpkin, Red bell pepper, Ginger and Lemon

Sr.No Constituents Values
Pump. R.B Ginger Lemon
1 Water 89 g 92 % 15.0 g 92 %
2 Protein 4.0 g 0.99 g 5.08 g 1.10 g
3 Fat 0.2 g 0.30 g 3.72 g 0.6 g
4 Carbohydrate 2.0 g 10.6 g 38.3 g 9.32 g
5 Fibre 2.4 g 2.73 g 23.5 g 2.8 g
6 Calcium 475 mg 7 mg 16 mg 55.1 mg
7 Carotenoids 86.3 mg - - -

(Source: Zdunic, Yadav M. et. al. 2010, Muhammad Nadeem et. al. 2011, Dr. Mrs. Singh A. 2015,
Mohanapriya M. 2014)Where Pump: Pumpkin, R.B: Red Bell Pepper.

Material and Methods

Material: Pumpkin (Cucurbita maxima), Red bell pepper (Capsicum annuum), Lemon (Citrus Limon)
and Ginger (Zingiberofficinale) used in the studies were collected from local market. Other materials
such as Sugar chemicals like Citric acid, Sodium benzoate etc. for experiments were collected from
the laboratory stock.
Formulation: The following formulation was used to prepare squash it is selected by using Sensory
analysis. Sample 2 was selected by panelist for further assessment.

Table 2. Formulation use for preparation of squash

Sr. No Ingredient T0 % T1 T2 T3
% % %

1. Pumpkin 60 60 60 60
2. Red bell pepper 28 28 24 32

3. Ginger 12 8 8 4
4. Lemon - 4 8 4
(Source: Md. Habib R. 2014)

Method
Selection of raw material: Good quality of raw material was selected.
Washing: Pumpkin, Red bell pepper, Lemon and Ginger are washed to remove dirt, dust and another
contaminant.
Cutting: Cut in small size.
Blanching: Blanch at 80°C for 5 min for pumpkin and 3 min to Red bell pepper in pressure cooker to
inactive the enzymes.
Peeling: The peel of pumpkin was removed.
Juice extraction: Juice extraction of the Pumpkin, Red bell pepper and Ginger was done by using
grinder and Lemon with the help of hand squeezer.
Straining: After juice extraction, the raw juices are filtered through clean muslin cloth.
Blending:All juices were mixed in ratio 25% fruit juice according to above formulation with addition
of sugar syrup 75 ml. The mixture heated for some time up to getting a final 40˚B of the mixture.
513
Filtration: Again, filter the prepared blend by using clean muslin cloth.
Filling: The squash was filled in PET bottles (capacity 200 ml) with the help of the measuring cylinder.
Labeling: Labeling was done.
Storage: After labeling of the Squash, keep for storage.

Physico-chemical analysis
Sensory analysis: The processed vegetable juice squash was evaluated for itsColour, Clarity, Aroma,
Consistency, Taste and Acceptability through a taste testing panel consists of 10 untrained panelists
(Md. Habib R. et. al.). Sensory analysis also used to determine the shelf life of the squash by taking
sensory at 15-15 days’ intervals (Provesi J. G. et. al.).
Chemical analysis
Determination Ascorbic acid (mg/100 ml of Squash) :Ascorbic acid content of squash was calculated
by using Metaphosphoric acid (3%) and 2,6- dichlorophenolindophenol solution through titration
method. The ascorbic acid (vitamin C) content of squash was determined by diluting the known
volume of squash with 3% Metaphosphoric acid and titrating it against 2,6-
dichlorophenolindophenol dye solution until a faint pink colour was obtained. The result was
expressed as mg of vitamin C in 100 ml squash.The standard was prepared by dissolving 100mg of
pure L-ascorbic acid in 100ml of 3% Metaphosphoricacid; an aliquot (1ml) was used for titration of
ascorbic acid wads calculated by following formula (Dhaka et. al.).
Formula:
Ascorbic acid mg/100 gm =
100
ℎ
Determination of Titrable acidity: Total acid was determined by diluting the known volume of
squash and titrating the same against standard N/10 sodium hydroxide solution, using
phenolphthalein indicator (Singh S. et. al.).
Formula:
Total acidity (%) =
. . ℎ
100
1000

Determination of Total Soluble Solids (ºBrix): A drop of fruit squash was taken and TSS was
measured by using hand refractometer and was expressed in ºBrix (Dhaka A. et. al.).
Determination of Reducing Sugar:Reducing sugar of squash was estimated by DNS method with help
of spectrophotometer. Standard Glucose solution was prepared by taking 0.1- 1ml of glucose and
adds water to make 1 ml final volume. In that add 3 ml of DNS reagent and 1 gm of Rochelle salt
prepared the standard graph by taking reading at 510 nm. Repeated the process for the squash
sample 0.4 and 0.6 and compare it on standard graph and determine the reducing sugar content
(Dhaka A. et. al.).
Storage Study: The squash beverage was stored at room temperature and refrigerated condition.
Chemical composition,organoleptic characteristic and Microbial load were observed at an interval of
15-15 days.
Result and Discussion:The initial composition of Pumpkin, Red bell pepper, Lemon and Ginger
squash were analyzed for their TSS, Acidity, PH, Reducing Sugar and Ascorbic acid content. The result
is shown in below

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Table 3. Nutrients of fresh Squash
Sr. No Sample Storage TSS % Acidity % PH Reducing Ascorbic acid
condition Sugar % (mg/100 gm)
1. Room 40 1.15 5.21 20.80 3.34
Temperature
2. Refrigerated 40 1.15 5.21 20.80 3.34
Temperature

As per the formulation squash was prepared and stored at room temperature and refrigerated
condition for 90 days in laboratory. TSS, PH, Acidity, Reducing Sugar and Vitamin C content present in
squash have been estimated during the storage period and shown in following table. (Sindhumati G.
et. al.).

Table 4. Effect of storage time on the properties of quash prepared from Pumpkin, Red bell pepper,
Lemon and Ginger
Sr. Sample Storage Days TSS % Acidity % PH Reducing Ascorbic acid
No condition Sugar % (mg)
1. Room 40 1.15 5.21 20.80 3.34
Temperature 0
2. Refrigerated 40 1.15 5.21 20.80 3.34
Temperature
3. Room 40 1.14 5.25 20.84 3.30
Temperature 15
4. Refrigerated 40 1.13 5.26 20.82 3.32
Temperature
5. Room 40.20 1.10 5.25 20.86 3.28
Temperature 30
6. Refrigerated 40 1.13 5.26 20.82 3.32
Temperature
7. Room 40.40 1.08 5.30 20.90 3.25
Temperature 45
8. Refrigerated 40.20 1.11 5.28 20.86 3.28
Temperature
9. Room 40.60 1.05 5.35 20.93 3.18
Temperature 60
10. Refrigerated 40.30 1.07 5.30 20.91 3.21
Temperature
11. Room 40.90 1.00 5.39 20.98 3.10
Temperature 75
12. Refrigerated 40.60 1.05 5.35 20.95 3.15
Temperature
Room 41.10 0.98 5.42 21.00 3.05
13. Temperature
90
14. Refrigerated 41.00 1.00 5.40 20.97 3.09
Temperature

515
Total Soluble Solids: The initial TSS of the Pumpkin, Red bell pepper had 40ºB in room and
refrigerated temperature. The Brix value increased during storage from 40-41.10ºB in room
temperature and 40-41ºB in refrigerated temperature. Increase in TSS might be due to solubilization
of insoluble portion of the squash due to presence of acid.

TSS %
Rm
60 R 0 Day
40
20 Rm
0 R 15 Days
0 Day 15 30 45 60 75 90 Rm
Days Days Days Days Days days R 30 Days
Rm
R 45 Days
Rm R Rm R Rm R Rm R Rm R Rm R Rm R Rm
Fig: 1 Changes in TSS during 90 Days Storage condition. Where, Rm: Room temperature and R:
Refrigeration condition.

PH :The initial value of PH was5.21 after 90 days’ storage PH was 5.42 for room temperature sample
and 5.40 for refrigerated temperature. The increase in PH was observed the significant elevation in PH
during storage of squash could be associated to deceasing acidity.
Acidity: The observation on changed in Titrable acidity of squash by using preservative under both
refrigerated and room temperature. The initial acidity of the squash was 1.15% for room and
refrigerated condition but it was decline up to 0.98% for room temperature and 1.0% for refrigerated
condition. The decrease in acidity during storage might be due to light breakdown of organic acid of
juice and their interaction with enzymes.

Acidity %
1.4 Rm
1.2
1
0.8 R 0 Day
0.6
0.4 Rm
0.2
0 R 15 Days
0 Day 15 30 45 60 75 90 Rm
Days Days Days Days Days days
R 30 Days
Rm R Rm R Rm R Rm R Rm R Rm R Rm R Rm

Fig: 2 Changes in Acidity during Storage period of 90 Days. Where, Rm: Room temperature and R:
Refrigeration condition.
Reducing Sugar: Reducing sugar of squash was gradually increased during storage. The increase in
reducing sugar content of the sample stored at refrigerated condition was slightly lesser than sample
stored at room temperature. In the room temperature sample sugar content changed from 20.80-
21.00% and 20.80-20.97% in refrigerated temperature respectively. It might be due to conversion of
non-reducing sugar into reducing sugar under acidic medium.

516
 Reducing Sugar %
30 Rm
20
10
0 R0
0 15 30 45 60 75 90 Rm
Days Days Days Days Days days
R 15 Days
Rm R Rm R Rm R Rm R Rm R Rm R Rm R Rm

Fig: 3 Changes in Reducing sugar during storage period of 90 Days.Where, Rm: Room temperature
and R: Refrigeration condition.
Ascorbic acid (Vitamin C):The data obtained the impact of preservative and heating on ascorbic acid
content of squash were found to be significant at all days of observation. In refrigerated condition,
minimum losses of ascorbic acid from 3.34-.09 mg/100 gm than the room temperature 3.34-3.05
mg/100gm was reported. It is might be due breakdown of ascorbic acid during storage by light or
metallic ion induced as observed.

Vitamin C
4
3 Rm
2
1
0 R 0 Day
0 Day 15 30 45 60 75 90
Rm
Days Days Days Days Days days
R 15 Days
Rm R Rm R Rm R Rm R Rm R Rm R Rm R Rm

Fig: 4 Changes in Vitamin C during storage period of 90 Days. Where, Rm: Room temperature and R:
Refrigeration condition.

Conclusion: Pumpkin, Red bell pepper, Lemon and Ginger were collected from local market. All raw
materials were cleaned and the undesirable materials were removed before use. The squash was
prepared by using various formulations and sample T2(Pumpkin 60%, Red bell pepper 24%, Lemon
8% and Ginger 8%) selected by taking sensory analysis by a 9-point hedonic scale. The prepared
squash wasanalyzed for their TSS, PH, acidity, reducing sugar and Vitamin C content. The effect of
storage time on the squash was observed in interval of 0, 15, 30 45, 60, 75 and 90 days by stored
sample in room temperature and refrigeration temperature. The changes in the refrigeration
temperature is slower than the sample stored in the room temperature remarkable decrease
inVitamin C and acidity found in samples during storage period and TSS, PH and reducing sugar
increased slightly. The study showed that sample was more acceptable up to 90 days in both
refrigerated and room temperature storage condition.

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Maulana Malik Ibrahim Malang, (2013).
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refrigerated condition, International journal of Pharma and Bio science, Vol. 7, Issue 4,
(2013), PP 629-636.

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A. Joseph, B. A. Isaac Amoah, Pearl, Physico-chemical properties of pumpkin fruit pulp and
sensory evaluation of pumpkin pineapple juice blend, American Journal of Food Science
and Technology, vol.4, (2016), pp 89-96.
A. M Atef, A. N. Zaid, A. S. Nadir and Mustafa, T. Ramadan Studies on Sheets Properties made
from Juice and puree of pumpkin and some other Fruit blend, Journal of Applied Science
Research ,8 (5), (2012), pp 2632-2639.
A.N.Olszanska, A. biesiada, A. S. Letowska, A. Z. Kucharska, Content of Boiactive compounds and
antioxidant capacity of pumpkin pureeinriched with japaniees quince, Cornelian cherry,
Strawberry and apples, ACTA Sci. Pol. Technol. Aliment 10(1), (2011), pp 51-60.
A. Ravani and D. C Joshi, Processing for Value addition of underutilized fruit crop, Trend in
Postharvest Technology, vol 3, issue 2, (2011), pp 15-21.
B. Janet, Organic pumpkin and winter squash marketing and production, National Sustainable
Agriculture Information Service (NCAT), (2010).
C. Economosand W. D. Clay, Nutritional and health benefit of citrus fruit, (1999), FNA/ ANA 24.
D. Felicia, I. Daniela, G. Maria, C. V. Valentinaserea, Study on obtaining vegetables juice with high
antioxidant potential, preserve by ohmic pasteurization, Journal of Agroalimentary Process
and Technologies, 21(1), (2015), pp 67-74.
Dr. D. Jyoti, S. N. Vora, Fatima and Pritee Mane Comparative study of bell pepper on the aspects
of their approximate analysis (Capsicum annum), International Journal of Technical
Research and Application vol.2, issue 3,(2014), pp 53-55.
Dr.Mrs. A. Singh Nutritional Benefit and Pharmacological Effect of Ginger Indian journal Of Basic
and applied Medical Research vol.-4, Issue-4, (2015), PP 377-383.
G. P Joao,O. D Carolille, R. A. Edna, Change in Carotenoids during processing and Storage of
Pumpkin puree Elseviser Food Chemistry 128, (2011), PP 195-202.
G. Sindhumati, S. Amutha, Development of spiced tender coconut water Ready to Serve
Beverage, International Journal of Science and Research, Vol 4, Issue 10, (2013), PP 233-
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J. Cerniauskiene, J. Kulaitiene, D. Honorata, Elvyra, J. E.Jukneviciene, Pumpkin fruit flour as a
source for food enrichment in dietary fibre, Not Bot HortiAgrobo, 42(1), (2014), pp 19-23.
K. Manjula and C. Suneetha, Formulation and Development of confectionary incorporating
pumpkin juice, international journal of food, Agriculture and Veterinary Science, vol 4,
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M. Mohanapriya, Dr. R. Lalitha and Dr.Mrs. Rajendran, Health and medicinal properties of Lemon
(Citrus Limonum) International Journal of Ayurvedic and Herbal Medicine 3:1, (2013), PP
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M. Yadav, S. Jain, R. Tomar, G. B. K. S. Prasad and H. Yadav, Medicianal and biological potential of
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evaluation of ketchup from sweet gourd, IJCBS Research paper vol,1(Issue 4), (2014).
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519
 Wireless Underground Sensor Networks (WUSN) based Smart Agriculture
Monitoring System using Internet of Things
B. Swapna1, S.Manivannan2 and M. Kamalahasan3
Research Scholar1,Professor2 & Research Engineer3
Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering
Dr.MGR Educational & Research Institute, Chennai, India
Email : swapukam@gmail.com

Abstract: Wireless Underground Sensor Networks (WUSN) is a specific sort of WSN that basically
centers on the utilization of sensors at the subsurface locale of the soil.The applications require the
sending of sensors beneath the ground surface. Henceforth, the sensors turn out to be a piece of the
detected condition and may convey more exact detecting. Sensors like NPK (Nitrogen, Phosphorus
and Potassium), soil moisture and humiditythat covered underground and impart through soil. Most
of the applications for WUSN are shrewd farming, natural observing of the soil, etc.In this proposed
framework moisture substance, NPK level of the soil in land is estimated utilizing the sensors and
send it to the centralized server through Internet of Things for checking. We introduce propelled
channel models that were created to portray the underground remote channel considering the
qualities of the spread of EM waves in soil. From this detection of soil, we can increase crop
production as per the wealth and nutrient level of soil.

Keywords: Wireless Underground Sensor Networks, Electromagnetic Waves, Microcontroller, Soil

Nutrients, Crop Production, Internet of Things.

Introduction: Correspondence through the underground medium has been a testing research region
for over a century. This sort of correspondence demonstrates valuable for a wide assortment of
utilizations, e.g. soil condition checking and seismic tremor expectation. These applications require
the organization of sensors underneath the ground surface. Henceforth, the sensors turn out to be a
piece of the detected condition and may convey more exact detecting data than if they are sent
over-the-ground. Clearly, with expanding number of sensors, the accuracy of estimations increments
too, this spurs the utilization of an extensive number of hubs. In any case, an autonomous task of
every sensor hub prompts immense misuse costs, which ordinarily can't be upheld monetarily. Then
again, a shared exertion of numerous sensors sorted out in sensor systems can be misused so as to
decrease the vitality utilization or increment the unwavering quality of estimations [1].

This can be accomplished by helpful data handling and transmission, individually. Correspondingly,
the multifaceted nature of every hub and configuration expenses can be diminished. The hubs inside
one system may not be only interconnected by the wires, yet rather utilize a remote correspondence
procedure, e.g. electromagnetic (EM) waves. Such systems are called remote sensor systems (WSNs).
As of late, WSNs have been seriously examined for different situations and applications [2]. Among
them are military, ecological, wellbeing, home, and modern applications. The plan rules for all
correspondence layers of WSNs are now very much expounded [2].

Indeed, even the utilization of WSNs in testing situations has been researched. Specifically, for the
underground applications, remote underground sensor systems (WUSNs) have been proposed in [3].

This system has some beneficial properties, as talked about in [1] and [3] are
 Evasion of conceivable impacts of the sensors with arranging gear, for example tractors
 Continuous data recovery
 Self-recuperating property if there should arise an occurrence of gadget disappointments
 Simplicity of sending and versatility

520
In the realm of cutting edge innovation now different sorts of innovation have been made to
encourage the day by day exercises of man. Additionally in rural innovation, an assortment of devices
that have been made to enable ranchers to make their horticultural exercises and get a decent
product. To get a decent yield, one of the imperative things that ought to be there is arrive that has
sufficient manure. Sufficient manure can enable plants to deliver great yields and amounts, to
address the issues of a world that is progressively ascending needing sustenance and nourishment
generation. To enhance the quality and amount of yields, each nation must contain adequate
supplements, which comprises of Nitrogen (N), Phosphorus (P) and Potassium (K). These three
components supplements advance the development of the plant in various ways [4]

Nitrogen advances the development of leaves and vegetation, Phosphorus advances root and
development and Potassium advances blooming, fruiting and keeps direction of supplement and
water in plant cell. Past specialist have created NPK location gadgets from different techniques,
including optical, electrochemical, acoustic, electrical and electromagnetic, and mechanical [5]

The Internet of things (IOT) is the most productive and critical methods for improvement of answers
for the issues. IOT develop from various building a square which incorporates bunches of sensors,
programming, organize segments and other electronic gadgets. Likewise it makes information more
effective. IOT permits to trade the information over the system without human involvement. In
Internet of things speaking to things with regular way simply like ordinary individual, as sensor, LCD,
and so forth. The IOT innovation is increasingly proficient because of following reasons:

1. Worldwide Connectivity through any gadgets.

2. Least human endeavors

3. Quicker Access
4. Time Efficiency
5. Effective Communication

NPK Sensors
Nitrogen Level : Nitrate (NO3) is a normally happening type of nitrogen in soil. This type of nitrogen
is made when nitrification, the change of ammonium into nitrate, happens. Nitrate is utilized as
nourishment by plants for development and generation. The dimension of nitrate in soil fluctuates
generally, contingent on the sort of soil, atmosphere conditions, precipitation and preparing
rehearses.

The ordinary foundation dimension of nitrates in soil not prepared or utilized for business crops
ranges from 5 to 10 sections for every 1 million (ppm). Ideal nitrate level for soil utilized for corn (Zea
mays) generation is more than 25 ppm. Nitrate levels between or higher than 25 ppm to 30 ppm are
adequate to develop plants in a vegetable garden.

Nitrate levels are most elevated in soils that have better surfaces, for example, dirt and residue,
instead of those with unpleasant surfaces, for example, sand. Since nitrates are traveled through soil
by water, sandy soil regularly loses nitrates because of draining, and overwhelming, coarsely finished
soil loses nitrates because of denitrification, a procedure in which anaerobic microbes in the dirt
proselytes nitrates to vaporous types of nitrogen. Draining and denitrification can cause nitrate
contamination of water supplies and ought to be viewed as when choosing whether or not to apply
extra nitrogen to soil.

Phosphorus Level: Soil pH Precipitation of phosphorus as marginally solvent calcium phosphates

happens in calcareous soils with pH esteems around 8.0. Under corrosive conditions, phosphorus is

521
accelerated as Fe or Al phosphates of low dissolvability. Most extreme accessibility of phosphorus by
and large happens in a pH scope of 6.0 to 7.0.

Phosphorus is a fundamental supplement both as a piece of a few key plant structure mixes and as
catalysis in the change of various key biochemical responses in plants. Phosphorus is noted
particularly for its job in catching and changing over the sun's vitality into helpful plant mixes.

Phosphorus is fundamental for the general well-being and powers everything being equal. Some
explicit development factors that have been related with phosphorus are:
Invigorated root advancement
Expanded stalk and stem quality
Enhanced blossom development and seed generation
Progressively uniform and prior harvest development
Expanded nitrogen N-settling limit of vegetables
Enhancements in harvest quality
Expanded protection from plant infections
Backings advancement for the duration of whole life cycle

Potassium Level: Potassium (K) is a basic supplement for plant development. It's delegated a
macronutrient on the grounds that plants take up huge amounts of K amid their life cycle. Minnesota
soils can supply some K for yield creation, yet when the supply from the dirt isn't sufficient, a
compost program must supply the K. Potassium is related with the development of water,
supplements and starches in plant tissue. It's required with chemical enactment inside the plant,
which influences protein, starch and adenosine triphosphate (ATP) generation. The creation of ATP
can control the rate of photosynthesis. Potassium additionally manages the opening and shutting of
the stomata, which directs the trading of water vapor, oxygen and carbon dioxide. In the event that K
is insufficient or not provided in sufficient sums, it stunts plant development and decreases yield. For
enduring harvests, for example, horse feed, potassium assumes a job in stand steadiness through the
winter. Different jobs of K include
Expands root development and enhances dry spell opposition.
Looks after turgor; diminishes water misfortune and withering.
Helps in photosynthesis and sustenance arrangement.
Diminishes breath, forestalling vitality misfortunes.
Upgrades translocation of sugars and starch.
Produces grain wealthy in starch.
Builds plants' protein content.
Assembles cellulose and diminishes lodging.
Enables retard to edit illnesses.

Experimental Setup: Smart Agriculture system provides several advantages for farmers. Sensors like
soil moisture, humidity and NPK are connected with Arduino Microcontroller in transmission block;
they collect data in the soil about moisture level, humidity level, and nitrogen-phosphorous-
potassium level and transmit information to WUSN (TX). Due to wireless underground sensor
network usage, electromagnetic waves in the soil detected and used to measure all parameters.
Sensors not get damaged. It is connected with the receiver part wirelessly, WUSN (RX) receive the
information and send to Arduino controller in the receiver side. It transmits the information related
to soil to agrarians of specific land through internet of things.

As per the collected information about soil, we can get ideas which crop is suitable for high nutrient,
quality and quantity crop production. Hence it is easy to increase the nutrient levels for soil by
managing the phosphorus level.

522
 POWER SUPPLY

SOIL
MOISURE
SENSOR

HUMIDITY ARDUINO
SENSOR
WUSN

MICRO (SOIL DATA TX)

NPK
CONTROLLER
SENSOR

DATA IN THE SOIL

ARDUINO

WUSN MICRO
IOT AGRARIAN
(SOIL DATA RX) CONTROLLER

Fig 1 Block Diagram for Soil Monitoring

Soil monitoring system contains two sections as transmitter and receiver which are separated by soil
content block. From this data collected and transmitted through internet of things from Arduino and
sensors.

Results and Discussion: From Fig 2 soil moisture sensor produce low output voltage for wet soil
content, high output voltage for dry soil content. It is verified through Arduino uno IDE software on
windows and information sent to agrarian through internet of things.

523
Fig 2 Soil moisture analysis

From Fig 3 Humidity range calculation done by Arduino software for soil detection.

Fig 3 Humidity result analysis in Arduino uno IDE software

From Fig 4 we can measure the values of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and organic carbon with
the help of npk sensor. Output shows medium value. It has three categories as low, medium and high

Fig 4 Organic carbon level from npk sensor is 0.53 which is medium value.

Conclusion: As an end, the sensors and WUSN with Arduino microcontroller as an elective technique
for assurance of the inadequacy N, P or K in the dirt is effectively created and tried. This undertaking
can decrease the issues in deciding the measure of supplements in soil with a less expensive expense
with other innovation. It can likewise diminish the undesired utilization of manures to be added to
the dirt which can cause dead plants and lessen plant quality and amount. This can be resolved

524
through to the light retention of supplements by WUSN and created limit esteems for every
supplement which choose the dimension of supplements into three levels: Low, Medium and High. In
light of the exploratory outcomes, the medium supplement of NPK soils found in Sample.

References
[1] I. Akyildiz, W. Su, Y. Sankarasubramaniam, and E. Cayirci, “Wireless sensor networks: A survey,”
Comput. Netw. J. (Elsevier), vol. 38, no. 4, pp. 393–422, Mar. 2002.

[2] I. Akyildiz and M. Vuran, Wireless Sensor Networks. Wiley, 2010.

[3] I. Akyildiz and E. Stuntebeck, “Wireless underground sensor networks: Research challenges,” Ad
Hoc Networks, vol. 4, no. 6, pp. 669–686, Nov. 2006.

[4] N. Singh and A. Shaligram, "D. NPK Measurement in Soil and Automatic Soil Fertilizer Dispensing
Robot," International Journal of Engineering Research & Technology, vol. 3, no. 7, pp. 635-637,
2014.

[5] Y. Kulkarni, K. K. Warhade, and S. Bahekar, "Primary nutrients determination in the soil using UV
spectroscopy," International Journal of Emerging Engineering Research and Tecnology, vol. 2,
pp. 198-204, 2014.

[6] M. Vuran and A. Silva, “Communication Through Soil in Wireless Underground Sensor Network:
Theory and Practice,” in Sensor Networks, G. Ferrari, Ed. Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2009.

[7] D. V. Ramane, S. S. Patil, and A. Shaligram, "Detection OfNpk Nutrients Of Soil Using Fiber Optic
Sensor," in International Journal of Research in Advent Technology (E-ISSN: 2321-9637) Special
Issue National Conference “ACGT, 2015, pp. 13-14.

[8] A. Rashid, "LED Based Soil Spectroscopy," BuletinOptik 2016, no. 3, pp. 1-7, 2016.

[7] https://www.cropnutrition.com/efu-phosphorus

[8] https://homeguides.sfgate.com/normal-soil-nitrate-levels-80102.html

[9] https://extension.umn.edu/phosphorus-and-potassium/potassium-crop-production

525
 Skill Development in Agriculture and Food Industry
Dr. C.K.B. Nair
Director, Bravee Multiskilling Academy, Cholanagar, RT Nagar, Bengaluru-560032
Email: braveeglobal@gmail.com

Abstract
Various training opportunities available in the agricultural and food industry service sectors are
discussed in this paper. . More number of academically unqualified workers are serving in these
fields. Preparing them with standard level of skill competency with objective assessment and
certification shall enable them to enhance their employability and entrepreneurship opportunities.
This will alsoenable them to become eligible for advanced training and to reduce inequalities based
on certain forms of knowledge over others. Expert professionals in these trades are eligible to
become ‘Trainers and Assessors’. Certified trainers and assessors can mobilize all potential
learners in this sector.This information can be useful for conducting orientation programs to
unemployed youthto attract them towards these sectors as a career option.

Introduction :India is an agrarian economy. Agriculture and food product sectors are the biggest job
creators for the foreseeable future. The agriculture sector employs more than 50% of total
workforce in India and contributes around 18% to the country’s GDP. Ease of practising of this
profession without sophisticated academic orientation enabled more people to involve in this
sector. When social status improved for those who had more academic qualifications,agricultural
sector was looked down by society. The limited business interests is tempting the workforce in this
sector to abandon this sector in search of better quality and quantity of life available in other
sectors.

Employment means paid employment as respectable hire workers in productive jobs. With their
capacity and will to work the workers participate in the employment. This is different fromself
employment or entrepreneurship. Education systems are designed to prepare citizens to take up
gainful employment. It is paradoxical that when the main problem of the nation is unemployability
of academically qualified youth, most of the agricultural workers are fully employable without any
academic qualifications. Lack of academic qualifications is the main constraint for continuous
growth of agriculture workers. To change this condition more training programs are to be
effectively implemented to enable these highly employable resource persons to achieve their full
potential. Trainers and assessors play predominant role in developing skills. Work based learning
experience is important for trainers as well as the learners who are enrolled in agricultural
education. This paper explores the prerequisites for better trainers and assessors in agricultural and
food industry sector.

Setting the context : Development is not possible without the participation of bottom of the
pyramid.To reap the benefits of demographic dividend, youth entering the employable age shall
acquire skills sets that are required by the growing economy. Therefore enhancing employability of
the students in the higher educational institution is a high priority.Only half of the students passing
of the higher education system would only find suitable employment on completion of their degree
programs by 2022. Scheme for higher education youth for Apprenticeship and Skills (SHREYAS) is a
scheme to align the education curriculum with the needs of service sectors to promote‘On-the-
Job’ exposure to interested students can be motivated to take up agricultural and food industry skill
sets based on their choice and aptitude. A combination of classroom and hands on learningin
agricultural or food industry sector skills would equip students with professional attitude. Persons
involved in the other professions can also be employed in agricultural and food industry sector to
supplement their income. (1)

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 The most important problem in India is high unemployment rate . In the past all the details
of all unemployed were not reported. Most of the work force were engaged in agriculture or some
such small time job and therefore they did not report unemployed Presently digital platforms
enable precise data about the status of unemployment . With the spread of education it is quite
likely that the workforce is looking for more formal employment and decent remunerations. With
increase in population, demand for employment will also increase. Therefore more preparations
are required to end unemployment problems.
In an article about technologies of future, Bill Gates introduced the subject with the
importance of plow. “ My mind went to – of all things – the plow. Plows are an excellent
embodiment of the history of innovation. Humans have been using them since 4000 BCE, when
Mesopotamian farmers aerated sole with sharpened sticks. We’ve been slowly tinkering with and
improving them ever since, and today’s plows are technological marvels. But what exactly is the
purpose of a plow?. It’s a tool that creates more: more seeds planted, more crops harvested, more
food to go around. In places where nutrition is hard to come by, it’s no exaggeration to say that a
plow gives people more years of life. The plow – like many technologies, both ancient and modern is
about creating more of something and doing it more efficiently, so that more people can benefit.”
(2)

Agriculture being the main livelihood profession for majority of population in India, children were
involved in the traditional household agricultural training practices. It was not considered as a child
labour. It was an opportunity for a child to empower with a professional skill with self-confidence
and all other soft skills. Reduced revenues from agricultural efforts resulted in more neglect as a
favorable professions amongst youth. Over importance of academic excellence given for
administrative employments diverted the interest in agricultural training practices amongst young
students and their parents. Concerted efforts of various government departments like DGET,
KrishiVignan Kendra, Khadi and Village Industries Commission, RashtriyaKrishiVikasYojana, National
Food Security Mission, National Horticulture Mission, Apprentice and Craftsman Training Schemes
have sustained minimal thrust in professional training in this field.

Informal training methods and very subjective assessment methods had deteriorated the
agricultural skill eco systems. Therefore there is a need to supplement the available infrastructure
available for learning agricultural skills with moderns knowledge and tools for the trainers and
assessor in this field. This will bringsynergy to the demand and supply of manpower. In addition
to the formal learning systems, innovative approaches are required to supplement the skill
development in agricultural sector. Open and distance Learning, which has established its credibility
can be implemented with institutional arrangements to supplement skilling in agricultural sector.
All these shall be possible with effective and efficient trained “trainers and assessors.” for
agricultural and food industry skill eco system.

Skill development in Agriculture Industry : National Skill Development Council (NSDC) has
promoted Agriculture Skill Council of India (ASCI) to work towards capacity building by bridging gaps
and upgrading skills of farmers, wage workers, self employed and extension workers engaged in
organized and unorganised segments of Agriculture and allied service sectors. (3) ASCI has broadly
covered in the following segments : Farm Mechanization and Precision Farming, Agricultural
Information management, Dairy Farm Management, Poultry Farm Management, Fisheries, Animal
Husbandry, Post Harvest Supply Chain Management, Forestry and Agro Forestry, Watershed
Management, Amenity Horticulture and Landscaping, Production Horticulture, Seeds Industry, Soil
Health Management, Commodity Management, Agricultural Entrepreneurship and Rural
Enterprises.Specific qualification packs developed by ASCI for all the groups are given in Appendix
A. Various firms are providing facilities for such training programs ( 4).

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Skill development in Food Industry : The Indian food industry has very high growth potential and
profitability. The Indian food processing industry accounts for 32 per cent of country’s total food
market and is ranked fifth in terms of production, consumption, export and expected growth. It
contributes 8.8% of Gross Value Addition in manufacturing, 13 % of India’s export and around 6 % of
industrial investment.There is great potential of attracting foreign investment and creating
employment opportunities in food industry. Government level schemes are being implemented to
focus on creating modern infrastructure with efficient supply chain management to reduce wastage
and increase export of processed foods. These initiatives by the government to enhance value
addition and increase India’s share in global food market are set to make food processing a
promising sector for investment. India is larger producer of food. But a significant amount of food
produce gets wasted in India due to inadequate infrastructure such as packing facilities, storage,
transportation, cold chain and low levels of processing. Adequate skill development at appropriate
levels can improve the position considerably.

National Skill Development Corporation (NSDC) along with Federation of Indian Chamber of
Commerce and Industry (FICCI) has promoted Food Processing Sector Skill Council as a not-for-profit
Organisation with the name of Food Industry Capacity and Skill Initiative (FICSI) as an autonomous
industry led body.(5) FICSI has created occupational standards and qualification packs which are
given in
Appendix B

Training of “Trainer” : Globalization and increased competition have intensified the need for highly
skilled workforce in the economy to meet global standards of quality. 54% of India’s population is
below 25 years of age and above 62% of population is in the working age group. Only 5% of the
Indian population has undergone formal skills training. “Training” is teaching or developing in
oneself or others, skill and knowledge that relate to specific useful competencies. Training has
specific goals of improving one's capability, capacity, productivity and performance. The need to
continue training beyond initial qualifications to maintain, upgrade and update skills
throughout working life has become mandatory due to fast technological advancements (6). The on-
the-job training with experts or off-the-job training with simulated conditions supplemented with
seminars, case studies can speed up assimilation.
Occupational standards for Training of Trainer: Occupational Standards describe what individuals
need to do, know and understand in order to carry out a particular job role or function. NSDC has set
up Management, Entrepreneurship and Professional sector Skill Council(MEPSC) for this ( 7).
Training of the trainer, certification of assessors, development of competency framework and
conducting skill gap studies are main activities of this initiative.

Qualification packs of Trainer consists of occupational standards to identify the characteristics of

exceptional trainer. They are :
--to understand and identify different behavioral styles and adapt to the training as necessary.
--to develop an effective training programusing appropriate aid and techniques .
--to prepare a need analysis and understand why it is necessary step in any training program. ---
master various methods for making lecture based program active.
--to develop strategies for handling classroom disruptions
--to evaluate trainers and training programs and provide recommendations for improving training
effectiveness.
- to conduct trainings that require advanced facilitation skills.

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- to customize training program as per special requirement of learners and local environment.
-to identify new programs for training.
-to apply principles of professional practice at the workplace.
-to apply health and safety practices applicable in a training and assessment environment.

The performance criteria for competency of a trainer are:

--Obtain the competencies from authorised sources, and performance criteria for trainers and share
it with trainers and resolve any queries .
-- Obtain and extract relevant information from the schedule in advance.
-- Prepare trainer performance observation schedule with administration.
-- Obtain evidence of achievement of occupational standard.
-- Compare trainer performance indicators such as feedback from students, pass percentage of
students, supervisor feedback to identify performance level of trainers.
Areas of development for trainers : Self assessment, format for evaluation of effectiveness of
training program with parameters like student experience, student assessment pass percentage ,
time taken for completion of training, training design and process adherence, health and safety
standards , adherence to budgets, compliance to regulatory schemes.

Improvement measures: Quality standards shall align to employability requirements. Students

feedback , assessor feedback, lesson plans , curriculum, facilitator guide, participant handbook,
presentations, training session audit, interview with training center staff, post training placements,
interviews with actual employers of the students, record keeping and private policies of the
organisation, cross check findings with the results from different evaluation sources are some of the
improvement measures for trainers.

Training of “Assessor”
Main functions of ‘assessment’ are :
--Planning and organizing for competency based assessment
--Assess vocation skills, knowledge and understanding
--Apply health and safety practices applicable in a training and assessment environment
--Apply principles of professional practice at the workplace
Outcomes of the training as assessors:
--Identify the standards and criteria to be used for assessment
--Read and interpret the assessment strategy
--Review details of the assessment job such as List of candidate s who have to be assessed,
location/venue, date/time of assessment, contact person and contact details, standards on which
assessment has to be conducted, assessment tools and methods to be employed, etc.
--Identify the details of assessment job such as types and sufficiency of evidence required (of
performance in the work environment, of knowledge and/or understanding);
--Tools and equipment required for practical and theoretical assessments;
-- Location and resources required for the assessment; time and duration of the assessment;
equipment and material to be taken along for the assessment by theassessor; specific learner needs
and any support required
--Plan how to manage the assessment process and how to record assessment processes
--Check contact venue, materials, physical resources and other details of the assessment are in place
and report any discrepancy to relevant personnel
--Amend assessment plan if required in discussion with instructional co-ordination team
--Review assessment tools and instruments to check what is the evidence requirements
--Ensure tools and equipment required for observing and recording evidence is in order
--Reach venue for the assessment at appropriate date, time with relevant materials, questionnaires
tools, recorders etc.

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--Assessors play crucial role in the skill development process. Assessors need to understand the
assessment process with respect to the qualification pack and its National occupation standards.
ASCI organizes Assessor Orientation programs with the aim of guiding the Assessment
agencies to follow the proper procedure while conducting the Assessment Process. There are
separate Training of Assessors for existing Assessors and new assessors. New assessors have to
undergo orientation and assessment on domain skill and assessment skill.

Conclusion : In the past, Geographical Indication (GI) based on regional practices in processing of
Agricultural products had helped professionals of a specific region. Preserving regional heritage is
the inbuilt characteristic of GI . Empowerment of artisans or farmers was a result of it. But the
futuristic demand will be for products withglobal standards produced by certified professionals to a
traceable occupational standard. National qualification packs for diverse trades will raise the
professional level to global standards. Trainers and Assessors can motivate the ordinary workers to
become competitive professionals. Qualified and experienced resource persons available in
professional bodies like Institution of Engineers (India) can be very effective trainers and assessors.
Agricultural and food industry sectors are expected to be modernized with advanced technologies.
Futuristic agricultural subjects shall be introduced in schools to motivate youth to pursue vocations
in agricultural and food industry. Skill sets in agricultural informatics will emerge with E-agriculture
with mobile computing, satellite systems and smart cards to empower the partnership between
agriculture and food industry learning chain in the skill eco system.

References
1. “Savera Farms – IT professional operates integrated farm inTamil Nadu”,
https://www.agricultureinformation.com/savera-farms-professional-operates-integrated-
farm-tamil-nadu/
2. Bill Gates : How we will invent future 27 February 2019, MIT Technology review
https://www.technologyreview.com/s/612932/bill-gates-how-well-invent-the-future/
3. http://www.asci-india.com/National%20Occupation%20Standards.php
4. 4http://www.ficsi.in/toa.php
5. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=z62F1KSX81c Escorts Training and Development
Centre Bengaluru.
6. C.K.B Nair, “MULTISKILLING THROUGH OPEN LEARNING” Proceedings of International
Conference on Distance Education, organized by International Conference on Distance
Education, at IGNOU, New Delhi, 19-23 Nov 2005.
7. 7.http://mepsc.in/occupational%20standards

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