PDF TEAM3 STUDYGUIDE ProfEd102

Handout in The Teacher and the School Curriculum (PROFED109)
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HANDOUT
HANDOUTOF OF
TEAM NO. (1,2,3,4)
TEAM NO. 3
BEHAVIORAL LEARNING THEORIES AND APPROACHES TO LEARNING

MODULE OVERVIEW
This module delves into the intricate world of behavioral learning theories, shedding light on
various approaches that elucidate how individuals acquire knowledge and skills. Beginning with a
fundamental definition of learning, it underscores its significance within the context of behavioral
learning theories and diverse approaches to learning. Through a comprehensive exploration,
learners will distinguish and dissect five key approaches to learning: behavioral, social cognitive,
information processing, cognitive constructivist, and social constructivist paradigms.
Furthermore, the module elucidates the concept of connectionism, highlighting its

relevance in comprehending the intricate mechanisms underpinning learning processes. Learners
will grasp the nuances of the three primary types of conditioning - classical, contiguous, and
operant - and their practical applications within learning contexts.
Moreover, the module navigates the realm of behavior analysis in education, showcasing its
utility in optimizing learning outcomes. Additionally, it unpacks the concept of gestalt-insight
learning, providing insights into how sudden realizations contribute to the learning process. Finally,
learners will understand the learning cycle proposed by experiential learning theory, offering a
holistic view of the stages shaping experiential learning.
MODULE LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Define learning and explain its significance in the context of behavioral learning theories and
approaches to learning.
2. Identify and differentiate between the five approaches to learning: behavioral, social cognitive,
information processing, cognitive constructivist, and social constructivist.
3. Explain the concept of connectionism and its relevance in understanding learning processes.
4. Describe the three types of conditioning: classical, contiguous, and operant.
5. Understand the application of behavior analysis in education.
6. Define and explain the concept of gestalt-insight learning.
7. Understand the learning cycle of experiential learning theory.
BEHAVIORAL LEARNING THEORIES AND APPROACHES TO LEARNING
WHAT IS LEARNING?
• involves acquiring and modifying knowledge, skills, strategies, beliefs, attitudes and behaviors.
• endures over time
• occurs through experiences
PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY 1

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LEARNING THEORY AND PHILOSOPHY
1. Rationalism
It refers to the idea that knowledge derives from reason without recourse to the senses.
• PLATO - distinguished knowledge aquired via senses from that gained by the reason.
• DESCARTES – human soul, or the capacity for thought, influences the body’s mechanical
actions, but the body acts on the mind by bringing in sensory experiences.
• KANT – the role of reason as a source of knowledge, but contented that the reason
operates within the realm of experience.
2. Empiricism
Refers to the idea that experience is the only source of knowledge.
Beginnings of the Psychological Study of Learning
The formal beginning of psychology as a science is difficult to pinpoint (Mueller,

1979),although systematic psychological research began to appear in the latter part of the
nineteenth century. Two persons who had a significant impact on learning theory are
Wundtand Ebbinghaus.
Wundt’s Psychological Laboratory. His laboratory acquired an international reputation with

an impressive group of visitors, and he founded a journal to report psychological research.
Ebbinghaus’s Verbal Learning. He accepted the principles of association and believed that
learning and the recall of learned information depend on the frequency of exposure to the
material.
Structuralism and Functionalism
The work by Wundt and Ebbinghaus was systematic but confined to particular locations and
of limited influence on psychological theory.
Structuralism.
• The experimental method used often by Wundt, Titchener, and other structuralisms
introspection, which is a type of self-analysis
• Represented a combination of associationism with the experimental method
• Believed that human consciousness is a legitimate area of scientific investigation, and
theystudied the structure or makeup of mental processes.

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Functionalism.
• It is the view that mental processes and behaviors of living organisms help them adapt
totheir environments (Heidbreder, 1933).
LEARNING THEORY AND RESEARCH
Theory and research are integral to the study of learning. This section discusses somegeneral
functions of theory, along with key aspects of the research process.
Functions of Theory
• Provide frameworks for interpreting environmental observations and serve as bridges

between research and education
• Reflect environmental phenomena and generate new research through hypotheses, or
assumptions, that can be empirically tested.
• Strengthened when hypotheses are supported by data.
• Require revision if data do not support hypotheses.
Conducting Research
• Must define precisely the phenomena we are studying. We provide conceptual definition.
• Provide conceptual definitions of phenomena and also define them operationally, or in
terms of the operations, instruments, and procedures we use to measure the phenomenon.
• Must be precise about the procedure we follow.
TYPE QUALITIES
Correlational Examines relations between variables

Experimental One or more variables are altered and effects on other variables are
assessed
Qualitative Concerned with description of events and interpretation of meanings
Laboratory Project conducted in a controlled setting
Field Project conducted in a natural setting (e.g., school, home, work)

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ASSESSMENT OF LEARNING
METHODS OF ASSESSING LEARNINGS:
Category Definition
Direct observations Instances of behavior that demonstrate learning

Written responses Written performances on tests, quizzes, homework, papers, and
projects
Oral responses Verbalized questions, comments, and responses during learning
Ratings by others Observers’ judgments of learners on attributes indicative of learning
Self-reports People’s judgments of themselves
■ Questionnaires Written ratings of items or answers to questions
■ Interviews Oral responses to questions
■ Stimulated recalls Recall of thoughts accompanying one’s performances at given times
■ Think-alouds Verbalizing aloud one’s thoughts, actions, and feelings while
performing a task
■ Dialogues Conversations between two or more persons
RELATION OF LEARNING AND INSTRUCTION
Historical Perspective
We have seen how theories and research findings help to advance the field of learning. Their
ultimate contribution, however, must be to improve teaching that promotes learning.
Instructional Commonalities
Processes and behaviors often used in such classifications include speed and type of cognitive
processing, ability to recognize problem formats, proficiency in dealing with problems that
arise, organization and depth of knowledge structures, and ability to monitor performance
and select strategies depending on personal and contextual factors.
Instructional principles common to diverse learning theories

■ Learners progress through stages/phases
■ Material should be organized and presented in small steps
■ Learners require practice, feedback, and review
■ Social models facilitate learning and motivation
■ Motivational and contextual factors influence learning

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Integration of Theory and Practice
Educational practice also influences theory. Experience can confirm theoretical predictions or
suggest revisions. Theories are modified when research and experience present conflicting
evidence or suggest additional factors to include.
CRITICAL ISSUES FOR LEARNING THEORIES
Most professionals accept in principle the definition of learning given at the outset of this
chapter. When we move beyond the definition, we find less agreement on many learning
issues. This section presents some of these issues and sources of controversy between
theoretical perspectives (Table 1.5).
Table 1.5
Critical issues in the study of learning
■ How does learning occur?
■ What is the role of memory?
■ What is the role of motivation?
■ How does transfer occur?
■ Which processes are involved in self-regulation?
■ What are the implications for instruction?
APPROACHES TO LEARNING
1. BEHAVIORAL
Applied behavior analysis is the application of behavioral learning principles to change behavior in
these kinds of situations.
Key Principles of Applied Behavior Analysis:
1. Clear Specification of Behavior: Clearly define the behavior to be changed, setting a precise
goal for improvement.
2. Careful Measurement: Rigorously measure the behavior, establishing a baseline to
understand its current level.
3. Antecedent and Consequence Analysis: Analyze the factors influencing the behavior,
including what precedes (antecedents) and follows (consequences) it.
4. Interventions Based on Behavioral Principles: Develop interventions rooted in behavioral
principles to bring about desired changes.

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5. Systematic Measurement of Changes: Monitor and measure changes resulting from

interventions.
ABAB Design in Research:
 Commonly used in research on applied behavior analysis.

 Researchers take a baseline measurement of the behavior (A), then apply the intervention
(B), stop the intervention to see if the behavior goes back to the baseline level (A), and then
reintroduce the intervention (B).
In classrooms, teachers usually cannot follow all the ABAB steps, but they can do the following:
1. Clearly specify the Behavior and Goal:
 Define the targeted behavior (e.g., reducing "careless" errors).
 Set specific goals, such as limiting errors to a certain frequency (e.g., one error per
10 problems).
2. Carefully Observe and Note Current Behavior:
 Observe and quantify the current level of the behavior (e.g., errors per 10 problems).
 Identify potential triggers or patterns contributing to the behavior.
3. Plan a Specific Intervention:
 Devise a targeted intervention using antecedents, consequences, or both.
 Example: Offer an extra minute of computer time for each error-free problem
solved.
4. Keep Track of Results and Modify the Plan:
 Monitor the effectiveness of the intervention.
 Modify the plan if necessary, based on observed outcomes.
Methods for Encouraging Behaviors

As you know, to encourage behavior is to reinforce it. There are several specific ways to
encourage existing behaviors or teach new ones. These include teacher attention and praise, the
Premack principle, shaping, and positive practice.
REINFORCING WITH TEACHER ATTENTION

Many psychologists advise teachers to accentuate the positive"-praise students for good
behavior, while ignoring misbehavior. Some researchers believe that "the systematic application of

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praise and attention may be the most powerful motivational and classroom management tool
available to teachers"
A related strategy is a differential reinforcement, or ignoring inappropriate behaviors while being
sure to reinforce appropriate behaviors as soon as they occur.
 For example, if a student is prone to making irrelevant comments (When is the game this
Friday?), you should ignore the off-task comment, but recognize a task-related contribution
as soon as it occurs
SELECTING REINFORCERS: THE PREMACK PRINCIPLE

In most classrooms, many reinforcers are readily available, such as the chance to talk to
other students, work at computers, have free time, get homework, or test exemptions, select your
own seat, lead the line, be the teacher's assistant, or feed the class animals. However, teachers
tend to offer these opportunities in a rather haphazard way. Just as with praise, by making
privileges and rewards directly contingent on learning and positive behavior, the teacher can
greatly increase both learning and desired behavior
The Premack Principle:
 According to the Premack principle, a preferred activity can be an effective reinforcer for a
less-preferred activity.
 This is sometimes referred to as "Grandma's rule: First, do what I want you to do, and then
you may do what you want to do.
 For the Premack principle to be effective, the less-preferred behavior must happen first.
Applying Operant Conditioning: Using Praise Appropriately

 Be clear and systematic in giving praise.
 Make praise “appreciative” not “evaluative”.
 Set standards for praise for praise based on individual abilities and limitations.
 Attribute the student’s success to effort and ability so the student will gain confidence that
success is possible again.
 Make praise really reinforcing.
 Recognize genuine accomplishments.
SHAPING
- Reinforcing each small step of progress toward a desired goal or behavior.
SUCCESSIVE APPROXIMATIONS
- Reinforcing small steps to reach a goal; the small component steps that make up a complex
behavior.

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TASK ANALYSIS
- System for breaking down a task hierarchically into basic skills and subskills.
POSITIVE PRACTICE
- Practicing correct responses immediately after errors. In positive practice, students replace one
behavior with another. This approach is especially appropriate for dealing with academic errors.

 Make sure you recognize positive behavior in ways that students value.
 When students are tackling new material or trying new skills, give plenty of reinforcement.
 After new behaviors are established, give reinforcement on an unpredictable schedule to
encourage persistence.
 Use the Premack principle to identify effective reinforcers.
 Use cueing to help establish new behaviors.
 Make sure all students, even those who often cause problems, receive some praise,
privileges, or other rewards when they do something well.
 Establish a variety of reinforcers.
CONTINGENCY CONTRACT
A contract between the teacher and a student specifying what the student must do to earn a
particular reward or privilege.
In a contingency contract program, the teacher draws up an individual contract with each student,
describing exactly what the student must do to earn a particular privilege or reward.
TOKEN REINFORCEMENT SYSTEMS. System in which tokens earned for academic work and positive
classroom behavior can be exchanged for some desired reward.
Allowing students to earn tokens for both academic work and positive classroom behavior. Another
variation is to allow students to earn tokens in the classroom and then exchange them for rewards
at home.
Generally, they should be used in only three situations:
(1) to motivate students who are completely uninterested in their work and have not responded to
other approaches;
(2) to encourage students who have consistently failed to make academic progress; and
(3) to deal with a class that is out of control.

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GROUP CONSEQUENCES
Rewards or punishments are given to a class as a whole for adhering to or violating rules of
conduct.
GOOD BEHAVIOR GAME
Arrangement where a class is divided into teams and each team receives demerit points for
breaking agreed-upon rules of good behavior.
NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT. Recall the basic principle of negative reinforcement: If an action stops
or avoids something unpleasant, then that action is likely to occur again in similar situations.
 Negative reinforcement also gives students a chance to exercise control. Missing recess or
hearing music you hate are unpleasant situations, but in each case, the students
retain control. As soon as they perform the appropriate behavior, the unpleasant situation
ends. In contrast, punishment occurs after the fact, and a student cannot so easily control or
terminate it.
REPRIMANDS
-Criticisms for misbehavior; rebukes
Some students enjoy public recognition for misbehavior, or they don't want classmates to
see them "lose" to the teacher. If they are not used too often, and if the classroom is
generally a positive, warm environment, then students usually respond quickly to private
reprimands.
RESPONSE COST
-Punishment by loss of reinforcers.
 In a class, the concept of response cost can be applied in a number of ways. The first time a
student breaks a class rule, the teacher gives a warning. The second time, the teacher
makes a mark beside the student's name in the grade book. The student loses 2 minutes of
recess for each mark accumulated. For older students, a certain number of marks might
mean losing the privilege of working in a group or using the computer.
SOCIAL ISOLATION
-One of the most controversial behavioral methods for decreasing undesirable behavior is the
strategy of social isolation, often called time out from reinforcement.
 Removal of disruptive student for 5 to 10 minutes.

Time Out – technically, the removal of all reinforcement. In practice, isolation of a student from the
rest of the class for a brief time.

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SOME CAUTIONS ABOUT PUNISHMENT

Remember the "no more points". The teacher actually was using a punishment-based system-
based system-removal punishment to be exact. For every rule-breaking point, the class had 5
minutes of recess removed. The system led to rejection of the main rule breaker.

 Try to structure the situation so you can use negative reinforcement rather than
punishment.
 If you do use punishment, keep it mild and brief-then pair it with doing the right thing.
 Be consistent in your application of punishment.
 Focus on the students' actions, not on the students' personal qualities.
 Adapt the punishment to the infraction.
2. SOCIAL COGNITIVE
Through observational learning, we discover not only how to perform a behavior but also what will
happen to us in specific situations if we perform it.
Through comparison with a model, we also can identify adjustments that may produce better
outcomes. To learn new behaviors or refine current abilities, Bandura (1986) proposed that four
elements of observational learning are essential: paying attention, retaining information or
impressions, producing behaviors, and being motivated to repeat the behaviors.
ATTENTION. To learn through observation, we must pay attention. This includes both selective
attention (paying attention to the correct cues and information) as well as sustained attention
(maintaining focus).
 In demonstrating a skill (for example, threading a sewing machine, performing a dissection,

or operating a lathe), you may need to have students look over your shoulder as you work.
Seeing your hands from the same perspective as they see their own directs their attention
to the right features of the situation and makes observational learning easier.
RETENTION. To imitate the behavior of a model, you must remember each step. This involves
mentally representing the model's actions in some way, probably as verbal steps, or as visual
images, or both. Retention can be improved by mental rehearsal (imagining imitating the behavior)
or by actual practice. In the retention phase of observational learning, practice helps us remember
the elements of the desired behavior, such as the sequence of steps.

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PRODUCTION. Once we "know" how behavior should look and remember the elements or steps,
we still may not perform it smoothly without a great deal of practice, feedback, and coaching about
subtle points. In the production phase, practice makes the behavior smoother and more expert.
 If a child does not have the physical or developmental skills needed to produce the behavior,
even extensive practice and feedback may not be enough. The ideal conditions for practice
toward expert production will typically involve some form of feedback that compares the
learner's performance to that of the model (e.g., specific teacher feedback, explicit coaching,
reviewing video of the performance, deliberate practice of the weak parts).
MOTIVATION AND REINFORCEMENT

The social cognitive theory distinguishes between acquisition and performance. We may acquire a
new skill or behavior through observation, but we may not perform that behavior until we have
some motivation or incentive to do so. Reinforcement can play several roles in observational
learning. If we anticipate being reinforced for imitating the actions of a model, we may be more
motivated to pay attention, remember, and reproduce the behaviors.
Bandura’s Three forms of Reinforcement
 Direct Reinforcement
Reinforcement given after successful completion of a task.
 Vicarious reinforcement
Increasing the chances that we will repeat a behavior by observing another person being
reinforced for that behavior.
 Self-reinforcement
Controlling (selecting and administering) your own reinforcers.
DIRECTING ATTENTION. By observing others, we not only learn about actions but also notice the
objects involved in the actions.
 For example, in a preschool class, when one child plays enthusiastically with a toy that has
been ignored for days, many other children may want to have the toy, even if they play with
it in different ways or simply carry it around.
FINE-TUNING ALREADY-LEARNED BEHAVIORS. Observing the behavior of others tells us which of
our already learned behaviors to use: the proper fork for eating the salad, when to leave a
gathering, what kind of language is appropriate, and so on. Adopting the dress and grooming styles
of TV or music idols is another example of this kind of effect.

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STRENGHTENING OR WEAKENING INHIBITIONS. The ripple effect, as described by Kounin (1970),

can be strengthened, or weakened by a teacher's effective handling of a rule breaker, especially a
high-status class leader. This model can help inhibit the idea of breaking a rule, preventing other
students from viewing the interaction. This doesn't mean teachers must reprimand every student
who breaks a rule, but following through on the call for action is crucial to capitalizing on the ripple
effect.
TEACHING NEW BEHAVIORS. William James (1899/2001) said, "The teacher who meets with the
most success is the teacher whose own ways are the most imitable" Cognitive modeling can also be
applied deliberately in the classroom to teach mental skills and to broaden horizons to teach new
ways of thinking, such as thinking through the steps in a complex math problem. Teachers serve as
models for a vast range of behaviors, from pronouncing vocabulary words to reacting to the seizure
of a student with epilepsy, to being enthusiastic about learning.
AROUSING EMOTION. Finally, through observational learning, people may develop emotional
reactions to situations they have never experienced personally. Hearing, watching, or reading about
a situation are powerful forms of observation. This may be most obvious through fear-inducing
observations.
 When frightening things happen to people who are similar in age or circumstances to your
students, they may need to be given an opportunity to talk about their emotions. However
not all observations lead to negative emotions. Watching or reading about the courageous
acts of others who spend their lives advocating for human and civil rights can lead to
emotional responses that promote social change
GUIDELINES
Using Observational Learning
 Model behaviors and attitudes, you want your students to learn.
 Use peers, especially class leaders, as models.
 Make sure students to see that positive behaviors lead to reinforcement for others.
 Enlist the help of class leaders in modeling behaviors for the entire class.
AGENCY AND SELF EFFICACY

Remember that social cognitive theory emphasizes the dynamic interaction of personal, behavioral,
and environmental events in shaping human lives. Bandura (1997) placed particular emphasis on
the personal factors. Because of people's capacity for self-influence, we have a role in determining
what we learn, with whom we interact, and how we act.

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Human Agency
 Bandura (2016) called this human agency "To be an agent is to exert intentional influence
over one's functioning and over the course of events by one's actions"
 The capacity to coordinate learning skills, motivations, and emotions to reach your goals.
Self-Efficacy
 Bandura (1997) defined self-efficacy as "beliefs in one's capabilities to organize and execute
the courses of action required to produce given attainments". Simply put, self-efficacy
answers the question, "Can I do this?" We ask ourselves this question about all sorts of
situations
 A person's sense of being able to deal effectively with a particular task. Beliefs about
personal competence in a particular situation.
SOURCES OF SELF-EFFICACY
Bandura’s Four Sources of Self-Efficacy
 Mastery experiences - Our own direct experiences— the most powerful source of efficacy
information.
 Vicarious experiences- Accomplishments that are modeled by someone else.
 Social persuasion - A "pep talk" or specific performance feedback- one source of
self-efficacy.
 Physiological or emotional arousal - Physical and psychological reactions causing a person
to feel alert, attentive, wide awake, excited, or tense.
SELF-EFFICACY IN LEARNING AND TEACHING

GUIDELINES
Encouraging Self-Efficacy
 Emphasize student’s progress in a particular area.
 Set learning goals for your students, and model a mastery orientation for them.
 Make specific suggestions for improvement, and revise grades when improvements are
made.
 Stress connections between past efforts and past accomplishments.
Self-efficacy influences motivation and performance through goal setting. If we have a high
sense of efficacy in each area, we will set higher goals, be less afraid of failure, and find new
strategies when old ones fail. If your sense of efficacy for reading this chapter is high, you are likely
to set high goals for completing it- maybe you will take some notes, too. If your sense of efficacy is

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low, however, you may avoid the reading altogether or give up easily when problems arise or you
are interrupted with a better offer (Bandura, 1993, 1997; Schunk & Usher, 2012).
Teacher’s Sense of Efficacy

Teachers' sense of efficacy, is defined as a teacher's belief that he or she can reach even difficult
students to help them learn. This confidence belief appears to be one of the few personal
characteristics of teachers that predict student achievement.
SELF-REGULATED LEARNING: SKILL AND WILL

Self-regulation - Process of activating and sustaining thoughts, behaviors, and emotions in order
to reach goals.
Self-regulated learning - A view of learning as skills and will applied to analyzing learning tasks,
setting goals, and planning how to do the task, applying skills, and especially making adjustments
about how learning is carried out.
What Influences Self-Regulation?

KNOWLEDGE. To be self-regulated learners, students need knowledge about themselves, the
subject, the task, strategies for learning, and the contexts in which they will apply their learning.
"Expert" students know about themselves and can reflect on their own learning processes.
MOTIVATION. Knowing about what is needed to accomplish your learning goals is important, but it
may not be sufficient. Motivation also influences the degree to which students regulate their own
learning.
Motivational beliefs also influence self-regulation. For example, students who have higher
self-efficacy for managing their learning tasks (ie., self-efficacy for self-regulation) not only use
more effective self-regulatory strategies but also perform better in school
VOLITION. Volition is an old-fashioned word for willpower. The more technical definition of volition
is protecting opportunities to reach goals. Typically, students need volition to overcome the
resistance they feel when they experience a conflict between two desired outcomes.
 For example, you might need an act of volition to decide between hanging out with friends
or reading a book that is needed for a report due in a few weeks. In this way, an act of
volition is voluntary, that is, a free will behavior.
2 Concepts Related to Volition
 Self-control
-Defined as "the capacity to regulate attention, emotion, and behavior in the presence of
temptation" (Duckworth & Gross, 2014, p. 319).

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 Grit
-A personality trait characterized by "perseverance and passion to pursue long-term goals"
(Duckworth, Peterson, Matthews, & Kelly, 2007, p. 1087).
3. INFORMATION PROCESSING
There are a number of theories of memory, but the most common are the information processing
explanations (Bruning et al., 2011; Radvansky & Ashcraft, 2014; Sternberg & Sternberg, 2012). We
will use this well-researched framework for examining learning and memory.
Information processing in the human mind involves taking in, storing, and using information.
Early models used computers to model this process, stating that stimuli enter sensory registers,
encode information, move to short-term memory, combine it with long-term memory, and finally
move some information into long-term storage. However, this model was incomplete and could not
explain how out-of-awareness memories or knowledge could influence learning or how multiple
cognitive processes could happen simultaneously. Today, cognitive science views cognition as a
complex system of multiple memory components interacting rapidly and simultaneously.
Sensory Memory Stimuli from the environment (sights, sounds, smells, etc.) constantly bombard
our body’s mechanisms for seeing, hearing, tasting, smelling, and feeling. Sensory memory is the
initial processing that transforms these incoming stimuli into perceptions that include meaning
such as “oh, that sound is my doorbell” (Schunk, 2016).
CAPACITY, DURATION, AND CONTENT OF SENSORY MEMORY.

The capacity of sensory memory is so large that it can hold more information than we can process
at once. About 99% must be discarded. However, this massive amount of sensory information is
short-lived. It lasts less than 3 seconds.
Perception
The process of detecting a stimulus and assigning meaning to it is called perception. This
meaning is constructed based on both physical representations from the world and our existing
knowledge.
A RECENT VERSION OF THE INFORMATION PROCESSING SYSTEM
Figure 1
Information is encoded in sensory memory, where perception and attention determine what
will be held in working memory for further use. In working memory, executive processes manage
the flow of information and integrate new information with knowledge from long-term memory.
Thoroughly processed and connected information becomes part of long-term memory, and when

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activated again, becomes part of working memory. Implicit memories are formed without
conscious effort. All three elements of the system interact with each other to guide perception;
represent, organize, and interpret information; apply and modify propositions, concepts, images,
schemas, and strategies; construct knowledge; and solve problems. Attention has a role in all three
memory processes and in the interactions among them.
EXAMPLES OF GESTALT PRINCIPLES

Figure 2
Gestalt principles of perception explain how we “see” patterns in the world around us.

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If all perception relied only on feature analysis and Gestalt principles, learning would be very slow.
Luckily, the features and patterns detected are combined in light of the context of the situation and
our existing knowledge—called top-down, or conceptually driven, processing. So to recognize
patterns rapidly, in addition to noting features, we use context and what we already know about
the situation— our knowledge about words or pictures or the way the world generally operates.

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ROLE OF ATTENTION
Life would be impossible without variations in color, movement, sound, smell, and temperature in
working memory. The reticular activating system filters these stimuli without conscious effort, and
attention becomes conscious and selective, guided by existing knowledge and necessary
knowledge.
Attention is also affected by what else is happening at the time, by the type and complexity of
the task, by the resources you bring to the situation, your expectations, and by your ability to
control or focus your attention. Some students with attention-deficit disorder have great difficulty
focusing attention or ignoring competing stimuli.
Actually, automaticity probably is a matter of degree; we are not completely automatic, but
rather more or less automatic in our performances depending on how much practice we have had,
the situation, and whether we are intentionally focusing our attention and directing our own
cognitive processing.
ATTENTION AND MULTITASKING

Speaking of distracted driving, drivers who text or chat on the phone say they are multitasking,
and often they think all is fine (see the Point/Counterpoint). Adolescents are multitasking more
than ever, perhaps because they have access to so much technology. For example, Moreno et al.
(2012) provided actual real-time samples of the way many college students do homework (is this
familiar?):
 A student may pursue homework and have Facebook open in another window, send an
email to a teaching assistant about a particularly challenging homework question, and
intermittently browse the internet as a break from studying. Further, these clusters suggest
that both at work and at play, college students’ online activities typically involve
multitasking.
What’s Wrong with Multitasking?

You may be multitasking right now. If so, close your Twitter, Instagram, Facebook, Vine, Reddit,
YouTube, Snapchat, and email pages, and consider the arguments against and for multitasking.
POINT COUNTERPOINT
Multitasking is bad for your brain. Multitasking can be effective—for a very

few.
Daniel Levitin's article "Why the Modern
World Is Bad for Your Brain" highlights Multitasking is common and

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that our brains are not good at effective for "supertaskers," as
multitasking, as people constantly switch demonstrated by a study on 200
tasks, causing cognitive costs. undergraduates in a driving simulator.
However, most drivers experienced
Levitin explains that multitasking leads
performance issues while multitasking. A
to decreased efficiency, increased stress,
study of high school students found that
and overeagerness. This is due to the
15% performed better on simple tasks
release of dopamine, which stimulates
while listening to music, accessing
more multitasking, and the depletion of
phones, and receiving emails, while 85%
glucose fuel in the brain, causing
had poorer multitasking skills.
exhaustion, anxiety, and aggression.
Terry Judd (2013) highlights the
Other research indicates that
benefits of multitasking, including
multitasking causes new information to
improved efficiency and reduced
go to the wrong part of the brain, not the
encoding of information into short-term
hippocampus, causing the brain to lose
and long-term memory.
connections to the original thought. This
can lead to longer learning times,
potentially causing a 400% delay in
completing tasks.
ATTENTION AND LEARNING

The first step in conscious learning is attention. Students cannot process information they are
not aware of (Lachter, Forster, & Ruthruff, 2004). However, how successfully information is
processed depends on many factors. Not only interests but also objects. Some tasks have limited
resources. Performance for these tasks This will improve as more resources are allocated. For
example, turn off the phone and Difficult lectures, focus. Other tasks have limited data. Successful
processing depends on the amount and quality of available data. If the quality of information
available is limited, so it doesn't matter how much you focus.
Be careful, we won't succeed. For example, you may simply not be able to attend lectures or you
know that there are very few terms used, so paying more focused attention is not helpful.
 Understand. We have already discussed the third type of work performed:

 Automated work. We practiced so carefully that we didn't pay much attention.
A skilled musician moves his fingers along the guitar strings (Bruning et al., 2011). Many factors in
the classroom affect student interest. Bright colors, underlining, emphasizing letters or voices,
calling students by their names, unexpected events, Interesting questions, different tasks and
teaching methods, changes in voice, You can use lighting or speed to attract attention. But
students must apply fist; The focus should be on the important features of the learning situation.
Guidelines for Attracting and Maintaining Attention provide ideas for attracting and maintaining
student attention.

Group No. (1,2,3,4)
Working Memory
Nelson Cowan defines working memory as “the small amount of information that can be held in
mind and used in the execution of cognitive tasks, in contrast with long-term memory, which is the
vast amount of information saved in one’s life." Working memory is the “workbench” of the
memory system, the interface where new information is held temporarily and combined with
knowledge from long-term memory to perform cognitive tasks such as solving problems or
comprehending a lecture.
 Differencebetween Short-term memory is not the same as working memory.
Short-term memory refers to the immediate memory storage of new information that
usually fades away very quickly. However, working memory includes both temporary
and temporary memory. Active processing where active mental effort is applied (again
the workshop idea). Both new data and knowledge in long-term memory.
THREE PARTS OF WORKING MEMORY

Figure 3
The central executive system is the pool of mental resources for such cognitive activities as
focusing attention, reasoning, and comprehension. The phonological loop holds verbal and sound
information, and the visuospatial sketchpad holds visual and spatial information. The episodic
buffer integrates information from the phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, and long-term
memory. The system is limited and can be overwhelmed if there is too much information or it is too
difficult. The interaction among the components of working memory actually takes place in the
long-term memory where the visuospatial sketchpad activates visual meaning (semantics) in
long-term memory, the phonological loop activates verbal meaning (language), and long-term
memory for events and episodes integrates all this visual and verbal information.
Central executive
 The part of working memory that is responsible for monitoring and directing attention and
other mental resource.
 The central executive supervises attention, makes plans, draws inferences, pushes out
irrelevant thoughts, and decides what information to retrieve and how to allocate resources,
as you can see in Figure 3.

Group No. (1,2,3,4)
3 TYPES OF CENTRAL EXECUTIVE

1. PHONOLOGICAL LOOP
The phonological loop briefly holds verbal/sound information and keeps it active by keeping it
“in the loop”—rehearsing and paying attention to the information.
The phonological loop is part of working memory. A speechand sound-related system for holding
and rehearsing (refreshing) words and sounds in short-term memory for about 1.5 to 2 seconds.
2. VISOUSPATIAL SKETCHPAD
The visuospatial sketchpad is the place in your mind where you manipulated the image (after
your central executive retrieved the meaning of “180 degrees,” and “clockwise,” of course). You
can use your phonological loop and your visuospatial sketchpad at the same time, but each is
quickly filled and easily overburdened. Each kind of task—verbal and visual—appears to happen in
different areas of the brain, and there are some individual differences in the capacities of these
systems, too (Gray, 2011; Radvansky & Ashcraft, 2014).
3. EPESODIC BUFFER
The episodic buffer. If working memory is the workbench of memory, the episodic buffer is the
workbench of working memory. The episodic buffer is the process that brings together and
integrates information from the phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, and long-term memory
under the supervision of the central executive, to create complex memories, such as storing the
appearance, voice, words, and actions of an actor in a film to create a complete character.
COGNITIVE LOAD AND RETAINING INFORMATION
Cognitive load is a term that refers to the amount of mental resources, mostly working memory,
required to perform a particular task. The concept is really important for teachers because the
central idea of cognitive load theory is that “human cognitive architecture—especially the
limitations of working memory—should be taken into account when designing instruction”
2 TYPES OF COGNITIVE LOAD
Intrinsic cognitive load is unavoidable—it is the amount of cognitive processing required to figure
out the material. That amount depends on how many elements you have to take into account at
one time (charts, graphs, text, lecture, PowerPoints, pictures, Web information . . .), how
complicated the interactions among the elements are, and your level of expertise in the subject
(Leppink et al., 2014).
Extraneous cognitive load is the cognitive capacity you use to deal with problems not related to
the learning task, like trying to get your roommate (spouse, children, partner) to quit interrupting
you or struggling with a disorganized lecture or a poorly written textbook (not this one of course!).
Some educational psychologists also talk about a third factor, germane cognitive load or germane
resources, meaning how you allocate your working memory resources as you are trying to learn
(Choi, van Merriënboer, & Paas, 2015; Tricot & Sweller).
LEVELS OF PROCESSING THEORY.

Craik and Lockhart's levels of processing theory, introduced in 1972, suggests that memory
duration is influenced by the depth of information analysis and its connection to other information,
suggesting that more deeply processed information is better remembered..
The limited capacity of working memory can also be somewhat circumvented by the process of
chunking.

Group No. (1,2,3,4)
Interference is fairly straightforward: Processing new information interferes or gets confused with
old information. As new thoughts accumulate, old information is lost from working memory.
Information is also lost by time decay. New research suggests that memory may seem forgotten but
is actually "on hold" - neural traces of recent memories that can be awakened with the right
stimulation.
LONG-TERM MEMORY
Working memory holds the information that is currently activated, such as the name of the
person you just met. Long-term memory holds the information that is well learned, such as the
names of all the people you know.
Capacity and Duration of Long-Term Memory
There are a number of differences between working and long-term memory. Information enters
working memory very quickly, but it takes time and effort to store memories for the long term.
The capacity of working memory is limited, but the capacity of long-term memory appears to be,
for all practical purposes, unlimited. And once information is securely stored in long-term memory,
its duration there can be permanent—it can be stored forever under the right conditions. Our
access to information in working memory is immediate because we are thinking about the
information at that very moment. But gaining access to information in long-term memory can
require time and effort.Most cognitive psychologists believe there are two kinds of long-term
memory—explicit and implicit—with subdivisions under each category, as shown in Figure 4.
Explicit memory is knowledge from long-term memory that can be recalled, consciously
considered, and declared (so this is basically declarative knowledge, as we defined earlier in the
chapter—you remember that, right?). We are aware of these memories; we know we have
remembered them.
Implicit memory, on the other hand, is knowledge that we are not conscious of recalling, but that
influences behavior or thought without our awareness. These different kinds of memory are
associated with different parts of the brain (Radvansky & Ashcraft, 2014; Gray, 2011). These two
kinds of memories are the contents of long-term memory.

Group No. (1,2,3,4)
TWO KINDS OF LONG-TERM MEMORY

Figure 4
Contents of Long-Term Memory: Explicit (Declarative) Memories

Explicit memories are what we usually consider to be knowledge—the things that we know we
know and can declare—so this type of memory is sometimes called declarative memory. In Figure 4,
you can see that explicit (declarative) memories can be either semantic (based on meaning) or
episodic (based on the sequence of events, such as memory for your own experiences).
Semantic memory, very important in schools, is memory for meaning, including words, facts,
theories, and concepts. These memories are not tied to particular experiences and are represented
and stored as propositions, images, concepts, and schemas(J. R. Anderson, 2015; Schraw, 2006).

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CONCEPTS
Most of what we know about cups and fruits and the world involves concepts and relations
among concepts (Eysenck, 2012; Radvansky & Ashcraft, 2014). But what exactly is a concept? A
concept is a mental representation used to group similar events, ideas, objects, or people into a
category. When we talk about a particular concept such as student, we refer to our mental
representation of a category of people who are similar to one another: they all study a subject. The
people may be old or young, in school or not; they may be studying basketball or Bach, but they all
can be categorized as students. Concepts are abstractions. They do not exist in the real world. Only
individual examples of concepts exist. Concepts help us organize vast amounts of information into
manageable units. For instance, there are about 7.5 million distinguishable differences in colors. By
mentally categorizing these colors into some dozen or so groups, we manage to deal with this
diversity quite well (Bruner, 1973).
PROTOTYPES, EXEMPLARS, AND THEORY-BASED CATEGORIES

A prototype is the best representative of its category—an example that has the most important
“core” features of the category. For instance, the best representative of the “birds” category for
many North Americans might be a robin (Rosch, 1973). Other members of the category may be very
similar to the prototype (sparrow) or similar in some ways but different in others (chicken, ostrich).
Another explanation of concept learning suggests that we identify members of a category by
referring to exemplars. Exemplars are our actual memories of specific birds, parties, furniture, and
so on that we use to compare with an item in question to see if that item belongs in the same
category as our exemplar.
There are some drawbacks to prototype and exemplar theories. For example, how do you know
which “bird experiences” to blur or average together to create a bird concept if you don’t already
have a bird concept? One answer is that our classifications are essentially theory-based ideas about
the world that we create to make sense of things. So a brick, a rock, and a shoe are in the same
category if the category is “things to pound a nail with if I don’t have a hammer.”
TEACHING CONCEPTS.
In teaching concepts, provide the name of the concept and a definition, but don’t stop there.
Students also need a description of relevant and irrelevant attributes as well as examples and
nonexamples.They need guidance in finding the “fuzzy edges” of the concept. Make sure some
examples are prototypes—the most obvious members of the concept category (robin or sparrow
for birds; apple or orange for fruit). Also include examples near the fuzzy edges (ostrich or penguin
for birds; olive or tomato for fruit). Present both concrete and abstract examples, such as using
manipulatives in math to solve word problems, then connecting the answers found using these
concrete materials to abstract numbers and formulas that also solve the problem.

Group No. (1,2,3,4)
SCHEMAS.
Propositions, concepts, and single images are fine for representing single ideas and simple
relationships, but often our knowledge about a topic combines many concepts, images, and
propositions. To explain this kind of complex knowledge, psychologists developed the idea of a
schema. Schemas (sometimes called schemata) are abstract knowledge structures that organize
vast amounts of information. A schema(the singular form) is a mental framework that guides our
perception and helps us make sense of our experience based on what we already know and what
we expect to happen (Sternberg & Sternberg, 2012).
Schematic knowledge helps us to form and understand concepts. How do we know that
counterfeit money is not “real” money, even though it perfectly fits our “money” prototype and
exemplars and looks like real money? We know because of its history. The “wrong” people printed
the money. So our understanding of the concept of money is connected with concepts of crime,
forgery, the federal treasury, and many others in a larger schema for “money.”
Another type of schema, a story grammar (sometimes called a schema for text or story structure),
helps students to understand and remember stories.
EPISODIC MEMORY.
Memory for information tied to a particular place and time, especially information about the
events or episodes of your own life, is called episodic memory. Episodic memory is about events
we have experienced, so we often can explain when the event happened. In contrast, we usually
can’t describe when we acquired a semantic memory. For example, you may have a difficult time
remembering when you developed semantic memories for the meaning of the word injustice, but
you can easily remember a time that you felt unjustly treated. Episodic memory also keeps track of
the order of things, so it is a good place to store jokes, gossip, or plots from films.
Memories for dramatic or emotional moments in your life are called flashbulb memories. These
memories are vivid and complete, as if your brain demanded that you “record this moment.”
Contents of Long-Term Memory: Implicit Memories
Look back at Figure 4. You will see that there are three kinds of implicit, or unconscious,
memories: classical conditioning, procedural memory, and priming effects.
In classical conditioning, some unconscious memories may cause you to feel anxious as you take
a test or make your heart rate increase when you hear a dentist’s drill or a siren.
The second type of implicit memory is procedural memory for skills, habits, and how to perform
tasks—in other words, memory for procedural knowledge. It may take a while to learn a procedure
such as how to ski, factor an equation, or design a teaching portfolio, but once learned, this
knowledge tends to be remembered for a long time. Procedural knowledge is represented as
scripts and productions.
 Scripts are action sequences or plans for actions stored in memory (Schraw, 2006).
 Productions specify what to do under certain conditions.

Group No. (1,2,3,4)
The final type of implicit memory involves priming, or activating information that already is in
long-term memory through some out-of-awareness process.
4. COGNITIVE CONSTRUCTIVIST
Constructivism is a broad and highly debated term. In fact, constructivism is more of a learning
philosophy than a scientific learning theory. Various constructivist perspectives are based on the
work of Piaget, Vygotsky, and Gestalt psychologists, as well as the work of Bartlett, Bruner, and
Rogoff.
Central Idea 1: Learners are active in constructing their own understanding-they create knowledge
by going beyond the information they are given (Chi & Wylie, 2014).
Central Idea 2. Social interactions are important in this knowledge construction process (Bruning,
Schraw, & Norby, 2011; Schunk, 2016).
One way to organize a constructivist perspective is to describe two forms of constructivism that
correspond to these core ideas: cognitive construction and social construction (Palincsar, 1998;
Phillips, 1997). Cognitive constructivists focus on how people use information, resources, and even
help from others to gain understanding. See central idea 1. In contrast, social constructivists view
learning as expanding one's ability to engage with others in culturally meaningful activities. See the
central idea. Idea 2 (Don, 2016; Windschiti, 2002).
Example situation:
A young child who has never been to the hospital is in Her bed in the pediatric wing. The nurse at
the station Down the hall calls over the intercom above the bed, "Hi Chelsea, how are you doing?
Do you need anything?"The girl looks puzzled and does not answer. The nurseRepeats the question
with the same result. Finally, the Nurse says emphatically, "Chelsea, are you there? Say Something"
The little girl responds tentatively, "Hello,Wall-I'm here"
Chelsea encountered a new situation-a talking wall. The wall Is persistent. It sounds like a grown-up
wall. She shouldn't Talk to strangers, but she is not sure about walls. She uses what she knows and
what the situation provides to construct meaning and to act.
COGNITIVE CONSTRUCTIVISM.
Many psychological theories include some kind of Constructivism because these theories
embrace the idea that individuals construct their own n cognitive structures as they make sense of
their experiences (Palincsar, 1998). Because they study individual knowledge, beliefs, self-concept,
or identity, they are Sometimes called individual constructivists or psychological constructivists;
they all focus on the inner psychological life of people. When Chelsea talked to the wall in the
previous section, she was making meaning using her own individual knowledge and beliefs about
how to respond when someone (or something) talks to you (Piaget, 1971; Windschitl, 2002).

Group No. (1,2,3,4)
Piaget's psychological (cognitive) constructivist perspective is less concerned with "correct"

representations and more interested in meaning as constructed by the individual. Piaget's special
focus was on logic and the construction of universal knowledge such as conservation or reversibility
(P. H. Miller, 2016). Such knowledge comes from reflecting on and coordinating our own cognitions
or thoughts, not from copying external reality. Piaget saw the social environment as an important
factor in development, but did not believe that social interaction was the main mechanism for
changing thinking.
5. SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVIST
In cognitive constructivism, learning means individually possessing knowledge (Central Idea
1), but in social constructivism, learning means belonging to a group and participating with that
group in the social construction of knowledge (Central Idea 2) (Dohn, 2016; Mason, 2007). Vygotsky
emphasized the second idea, that social interaction, cultural tools, and activity shape individual
development and learning.
Vygotsky's theory relies heavily on social interactions and the cultural context to explain
learning, most psychologists classify him as a social constructivist (Palincsar, 1998; Prawat, 1996).
However, some theorists categorize him as a cognitive constructivist because he was primarily
interested in development within the individual (Moshman, 1997; Phillips, 1997). In a sense,
Vygotsky was both. One advantage of his theory of learning is that it gives us a way to consider
both the cognitive and the social: He bridges both camps. For example, Vygotsky's concept of the
zone of proximal development-the area in which a child can solve a problem with the help
(scaffolding) of an adult or more able peer-has been called a place where culture and cognition
create each other (M. Cole, 1985).
How knowledge is constructed?
The question of knowledge's internal, general, and transferable nature is central to
constructivist perspectives. Psychologists who emphasize the social construction of knowledge and
situated learning argue that learning is inherently social and embedded in a particular cultural
setting. This perspective suggests that new knowledge is determined by how well it fits with current
accepted practice. Situated learning explains learning in various contexts, such as factories, high
school halls, street gangs, business offices, and playgrounds. It is often described as
"enculturation," where novices take on more responsibility until they can function independently.
Knowledge is viewed as a creation of the community over time, with practices and identities
constituting the knowledge of that community. Situated learning emphasizes that much of what is
learned is specific to the situation in which it is learned. However, knowledge and skills can be
applied across contexts, making it a crucial aspect of educational psychology and education.
Constructivists share similar goals for learning. They emphasize knowledge in userather
than the storing of inert facts, concepts, and skills. Learning goals include developing abilities to
find and solve ill-structured problems, critical thinking, inquiry, selfdetermination, and openness to

Group No. (1,2,3,4)
multiple perspectives (Driscoll, 2005). Even though there is no single constructivist theory, many
constructivist approaches recommend five conditions for learning:
1. Embed learning in complex, realistic, and relevant learning environments.
2. Provide for social negotiation and shared responsibility as a part of learning.
3. Support multiple perspectives, and use multiple representations of content.
4. Nurture self-awareness and an understanding that knowledge is constructed.
5. Encourage ownership in learning. (Driscoll, 2005; H. H. Marshall, 1992)
COMPLEX LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS AND AUTHENTIC TASKS.

Constructivists believe that students should not be given stripped-down, simplified problems and
basic skills drills, but instead should encounter complex learning environments that deal with
“fuzzy,” ill-structured problems. The world beyond school presents few simple problems or
step-by-step directions, so schools should be sure that every student has experience solving
complex problems. Complex problems are not just difficult ones; rather, they have many parts.
There are multiple, interacting elements in complex problems and multiple possible solutions.
There is no one right way to reach a conclusion, and each solution may bring a new set of problems.
These complex problems should be embedded in authentic tasks and activities, the kinds of
situations that students would face as they apply what they are learning in the real world. Students
may need support (scaffolding) as they work on these complex problems, with teachers helping
them find resources, keeping track of their progress, breaking larger problems down into smaller
ones, and so on.
SOCIAL NEGOTIATION
Vygotsky's constructivists believe that higher mental processes develop through social negotiation
and interaction, emphasizing collaboration in learning. Teaching aims to develop critical thinking
and argumentation, requiring students to talk and listen. In individualistic cultures, adopting an
intersubjective attitude is challenging.
MULTIPLE PERSPECTIVES AND REPRESENTATIONS OF CONTENT.
Students often oversimplify when presented with only one model or approach to understanding
complex content. This can occur in educational psychology classes, where students may have
misconceptions about guided discovery learning. To improve understanding, resources should
provide multiple representations using different analogies, examples, and metaphors.

Group No. (1,2,3,4)
CONNECTIONISM
While Thorndike is recognized as the pioneer of behavioral psychology,

Long after his research was finished, the word behaviorism was coined. His most well-known
investigation, which he named the "process of connectionism," examined how cats used trial
and error to escape from a closed box.
According to his research, the cats would either experience a profitable outcome
(escaping) or a profitless end (being trapped) if they tried various methods of escaping. The
cat would learn which behaviors were profitable and which were not by these results, which
would reduce the amount of trial and error. According to Thorndike, profitable responses
should be stamped out and reward responses should be stamped in.
The principles underpinning Thorndike's work are as follows:

* Learning requires the teacher to stimulate the learner by rewarding successful
practices.
* A series of stimulus-reward connections can be linked together if they belong to the
same action.
* Intelligence is a function of the number of connections learned.
* Connections become strengthened with practice and weakened when practice is
discontinued.
Because of previously encountered situations, learning is transferred.

Later on, Thorndike improved his theories to include other factors like the
consequences of a long lapse between an action and its result and the rate at which an
activity is forgotten if it isn't repeated.
Example:
The story goes that it took Thomas Edison 2000 tries to perfect the light bulb. Soon after
his earth-shattering invention, he was asked what it felt like to fail 1999 times. His answer was
that he hadn't failed that many times; rather, he just found 1999 ways that didn't work.
If you are going to instruct people to use trial and error to solve a problem, you need to be
aware that there are a number of different features to trial and error. For instances, the
desired outcome may be to find the best solution to a particular problem (specific) or to find a
solution that can be used in other contexts (generalised).
Whichever approach you take, you need to:
• let learners decide what outcome they are seeking to a problem

• investigate the root cause of the problem with them
• generate a list of possible solutions together, addressing the cause, not just the symptoms
• help learners to filter out the non-feasible solutions
• test each of the remaining solutions by trial and error
• support learners to form conclusions as to which solutions work best.

Group No. (1,2,3,4)
CONDITIONING
A. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
Ivan Pavlov proposed association between stimuli and responses influence behavior
through classical conditioning.
Classical conditioning is about learning automatic reactions linked to a stimulus. It trains
us to respond involuntarily to something that didn’t originally trigger that response. Eventually,
the stimulus causes the response automatically.
1st
Pre-conditionin
g Act:
Unconditioned
Stimulus
A student has Conditioning: Repeat Post-conditioning:
phobia in Before each quiz, the Conditioned Response
numeracy test teacher plays a calming Teacher plays the
music track. Several calming music before a
2nd quizzes and the calming quiz and the student
Pre-conditionin music is consistently feels more relaxed and
g Act: Neutral played. less nervous.
Stimulus
Calming music
track provoking
no reaction
from the
student
The principle of classical conditioning marked a groundbreaking step in establishing

psychology as a scientific discipline and influenced the work of other behavioural
psychologists. (Bob Bates, n.d.)
KEY ELEMENTS:
Contiguity
-Association of two events because of repeated pairing.
Stimulus
-Event that activates behavior.
Response
-Observable reaction to a stimulus

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Respondents
-Responses (generally automatic or involuntary) elicited by specific stimuli.
Neutral stimulus
-Stimulus not connected to a response.
Unconditioned stimulus (US)

-Stimulus that automatically produces an emotional or physiological response.
Unconditioned response (UR)

-Naturally occurring emotional or physiological response.
Conditioned stimulus (CS)

- Stimulus that evokes an emotional or physiological response after conditioning.
Conditioned response (CR)

-Learned response to a previously neutral stimulus.
B. CONTIGUOUS CONDITIONING
The principle of contiguity states that when two or more sensations occur together
often enough, they will become associated. (S. B. Klein, 2015; Rachlin, 1991)
If one thing happens, we might remember the other thing that usually goes with it.
This is the basic idea behind the principle of contiguity.
Contiguity in Learning
Association Formation: When sensations occur together, one will trigger the memory of the other
later.
Example: Students associating words like "South," "Carolina," "Dakota," and "Park" due to frequent
exposure to them together.
C. OPERANT CONDITIONING
Burrhus Frederick Skinner developed the concept of Operant Conditioning. Through

his experiments, B. F. Skinner came to believe that we learn to behave in certain ways as we
operate on the environment.
People intentionally interact with their surroundings, and these purposeful actions are
referred to as operants.
B. F. Skinner’s experiments demonstrate that actions are not purely reflexive, unlike
Pavlov’s experiments, which show reflex-like responses or reactions to the environment.
According to B. F. Skinner, there are two types of behavior modification approaches: positive
and negative reinforcement.
Positive Reinforcement promotes good behavior through rewards.

Negative Reinforcement – deters undesirable behavior by linking it to unpleasant
consequences.

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If you were to use this as a behavior modification tool, always remember: Rewards and
punishments will only act as reinforcements if the reward is something an individual desires
or the punishment is something they fear. (Learning Theories Simplified, n.d.)
INTRODUCTION TO OPERANT CONDITIONING
Operant Behavior:
Deliberate actions on the environment.
Learning process: Operant conditioning.
B.F. Skinner's Contribution:
Skinner's perspective: Classical conditioning doesn't account for many learned behaviors.
Introduction of operant conditioning: Learning behaviors through interaction with the
environment.
BEHAVIOR AND ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES
A–B–C Model:
 Conceptualizing behavior as the interaction between antecedents, behavior itself,
and consequences.
 Influence of antecedents and consequences on behavior.
REINFORCEMENT IN OPERANT CONDITIONING
Definition of Reinforcement:
Reinforcement strengthens behaviors.
Reinforced behaviors increase in frequency or duration over time.
Individual Perception and Reinforcement:

Reinforcement depends on an individual's perception and the meaning attached to the
consequence.
Example: Students sent to the principal's office may find something reinforcing despite its
undesirability to others.
Positive Reinforcement:
Strengthening behavior by adding or presenting a new stimulus.
Examples: Food presentation for animals, receiving compliments for certain behaviors.
Unintentional Positive Reinforcement:

Instances where inappropriate behaviors are inadvertently reinforced.
Example: Elizabeth reinforcing problem behavior with laughter unintentionally.
Negative Reinforcement:
Strengthening behavior by removing or subtracting a stimulus.

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Example: Car seatbelt buzzer stops (negative stimulus removal) upon buckling up, reinforcing
the action.
Negative Reinforcement Example:

Case study of a student avoiding oral presentations by getting "sick," maintaining this
behavior through the removal of an unpleasant stimulus.
Clarification on "Negative" in Negative Reinforcement:

Negative refers to subtraction, not the value judgment of the behavior itself.
DISTINGUISHING REINFORCEMENT AND PUNISHMENT
Reinforcement vs. Punishment:

 Reinforcement increases or strengthens behavior, while punishment decreases or
suppresses it.
 Individual perceptions of punishment vary.
Types of Punishment:
 Presentation Punishment (Type I): Adding a stimulus to suppress behavior.
 Removal Punishment (Type II): Removing a stimulus after inappropriate behavior.
KEY ELEMENTS
Operants
-Voluntary (and generally goal-directed) behaviors emitted by a person or an animal.
Operant conditioning
-Learning in which voluntary behavior is strengthened or weakened by consequences or
antecedents.
Antecedents
Events that precede an action. Consequences Events that follow an action.
Reinforcement
Use of consequences to strengthen behavior.
Reinforcer
Any event that follows a behavior and increases the chances that the behavior will occur again
Positive reinforcement
-Strengthening behavior by presenting a desired stimulus after the behavior.

Group No. (1,2,3,4)
Negative reinforcement
-Strengthening behavior by removing an aversive stimulus when the behavior occurs
Punishment
-Process that weakens or suppresses behavior.
Presentation punishment
-Decreasing the chances that a behavior will occur again by presenting an aversive stimulus
following the behavior; also called Type I punishment.
BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS IN EDUCATION
BEHAVIORAL ANALYSIS ON EDUACTION

Behavior analysis is between teachers and students that the teacher wants to change the
behavior of the students through ABAB method. Applied behavior analysis requires measurement
of behavior(A), then apply the intervwntion(B), then stop the intervention to see if the bevavior
goes back to the baseline level(A), and then reintroduce the intervention(B).
The best example to know more what is behavioral analysis is when during classes. Example
scenario, when a student answers none of all algebraic computations, is your expectations he/she
may answer all of them or have only one mistake? In order to change this, you will observe him/her
and plan a specific intervention using anteccedents, consequences, or both. Finally, keep tracm of
the results, and modify the plan if necessary
Every student have diffrence of IQ, some students need to make the diacussion or lesson to
discussed in very detailed in order for them to fully undertand the concept or lesson. Learning is
something that needs to be a continouos, not because you discussed the lesson for that day you
expect that they understand it. In order for them to fully funderstand the concept.
In addition , applied behavior analysis, an analusis of a classroom behavior in terms of
behavior concepts, and give specific strategies for preventing and dealing with
misbehavior.theories is that if any behavior persists over time, it is being maintained by some
reinforcer. To reduce misbehavior in the classroom, we must understand which reinforcers
maintain that misbehavior in the first place (Alberto& Trputman, 2013; Axelrod 2012; Rappaport &
Mimahan, 2012a, b; Scott, Naderaon, & Alter 2012; Walker & Graham 2013).
HOW STUDENT MISBEHAVIOR MAINTAINED

Behavioral learning theories suggest that any behavior that persists over time is maintained
by some reinforcer. To reduce misbehavior in the classroom, it is essential to understand which
reinforcers maintain that behavior in the first place. The most common reinforcer for classroom
misbehavior is attention—from the teacher, the peer group, or both. Students receiving one-to-one

Group No. (1,2,3,4)
tutoring rarely misbehave, but in the typical classroom, students have to go out of their way to get
the teacher's personal attention and have an audience of peers who might encourage or applaud
their misdeeds.
TEACHER'S ATTENTION: Sometimes students misbehave because they want the teacher's attention,
even if it is negative. This is a more common reason for misbehavior than many teachers think. Pay
attention to these students when they are doing well and ignore them (as much as possible) when
they misbehave. When ignoring their actions is impossible, imposing time out (e.g., sending these
students to a quiet corner) may be effective.
PEERS' ATTENTION: Another common reason why students misbehave is to get the attentive and
approval of their peers. Even preschoolers and early elementary school students misbehave to gain
peer attention, but beginning around the third grade, especially during middle and high school
years, it is particularly likely that student misbehavior is linked to peer attention and support.
Strategies for reducing peer-supported misbehavior are quite different from those for dealing with
misbehavior meant to capture the teacher's attention. Ignoring misbehavior will be ineffective if
the misbehavior is reinforced by peers. If simple reminders (such as moving close to the student)
are not working, the two primary responses to peer-supported misbehavior are to remove the
offender from the classroom to deprive her of peer attention or to use group contingencies,
strategies in which the entire class (or groups of students within the class) is rewarded on the basis
of everyone's good behavior.
RELEASE FROM UNPLEASANT STATES OR ACTIVITIES: A third important reinforcer for misbehavior
is release from boredom, frustration, fatigue, or unpleasant activities (Caine & McClintic, 2014).
Students often misbehave simply to escape from unpleasant activities, such as asking permission to
get a drink of water, go to the washroom, or sharpen their pencils. The best solution for
misbehaviors arising from boredom, frustration, or fatigue is prevention. Actively involving students
in lessons, using cooperative learning methods, and changing instruction and assessments can help
resolve frustration-related behavior problems.
Identifying Causes of Misbehavior

Even though some types of students are more prone to misbehavior than others, these
characteristics do not cause misbehavior. Some students misbehave because they perceive that the
rewards for misbehavior outweigh the rewards for good behavior. For example, students who do
not experience success in school might perceive that the potential rewards for hard work and good
behavior are small, so they turn to other sources of rewards. Some, particularly those who are
failing in many different domains, find their niche in groups that hold norms that devalue
achievement and other prosocial behavior (Wentzel, 2003). The role of the delinquent peer group
in maintaining delinquent behavior cannot be overstated. Delinquent acts among adolescents and

Group No. (1,2,3,4)
preadolescents are usually done in groups and are supported by antisocial peer norms (Gardner &
Steinberg, 2005; Perkins & Borden, 2003).
Ethics of Behavioral Methods

The behavior analysis strategies described in this chapter can be powerful. Properly applied,
they will usually bring the behavior of even the most disruptive students to manageable levels.
However, there is a danger that teachers might use such techniques to overcontrol students. They
could be so concerned about getting students to sit down, stay quiet, and look productive that they
lose sight of the fact that school is for learning, not for social control. Behavior management
systems can increase time for learning, but unless the quality of instruction, appropriate levels of
instruction, and incentives for learning are also adequate, the additional time might be
wasted.Some people object to applied behavior analysis on the basis that it constitutes bribing
students to do what they ought to do anyway. However, all classrooms use rewards and punishers
(such as grades, praise, scolding, and suspension). Applied behavior analysis strategies simply apply
these rewards in a more systematic way and avoid punishers as much as possible.
Applied behavior analysis methods should be instituted only when it is clear that preventive
or informal methods of improving classroom management are not enough to create a positive
environment for learning. It is unethical to overapply these methods, but it might be equally
unethical to fail to apply them when they could avert serious problems. For example, it might be
unethical to refer a child to special education or to suspend, expel, or retain a child on the basis of a
pattern of behavior problems before using positive behavior management methods long enough to
see whether they can resolve the problem without more draconian measures.
PRINCIPLES OF APPLIED BEHAVIOR
Behavior management strategies, such as nonverbal cues, reminders, and mild punishment,
are informal applications of behavioral learning theories. These practices, along with efficient class
management and engaging lessons, can create a good learning environment in most classrooms.
However, more systematic behavior modification methods may be needed, such as Positive
Behavioral Interventions and Supports (PBIS), which has been found to enable schools to improve
schoolwide behavior and other outcomes using these strategies. (Alberto & Troutman, 2013; Mazur,
2013; Miltenberger, 2012; Shea & Bauer, 2012)
In classrooms where most students are well-behaved but a few have persistent behavior
problems, individual behavior management strategies can be effective. In classrooms where many
students exhibit behavior problems, particularly when there is peer support for misbehavior,
whole-class strategies or group contingencies may be needed (Bradshaw, 2012). Such strategies are
most often required when many low-achieving students or students who lack motivation are put in
one class, as often happens in special-education classes and in schools that use tracking or other
between-class ability grouping methods.

Group No. (1,2,3,4)
Setting up and using any applied behavior analysis program requires following a series of
steps, proceeding from the observation of the behavior through program implementation to
program evaluation. The steps listed here are, to a greater or lesser extent, part of all applied
behavior analysis programs:
1. Identify target behavior(s) and reinforcer(s).

2. Establish a baseline for the target behavior.
3. Choose a reinforcer and criteria for reinforcement.
4. If necessary, choose a punisher and criteria for punishment.
5. Observe behavior during program implementation, and compare it to the baseline.
6. When the behavior management program is working, reduce the frequency of reinforcement.
In order to implement a behavior management program, it is essential to observe the

misbehaving student and identify one or a small set of closely related behaviors. Tackling too many
behaviors at a time risks failure, as the student might not clearly see what they must do to be
reinforced. The first behavior targeted should be serious, easy to observe, and (most importantly)
occur frequently.
Establishing a baseline involves observing the student to see how often the target behavior
occurs. Before doing so, it is crucial to clearly define exactly what constitutes the behavior.
Classroom reinforcers, such as praise, privileges, and tangible rewards, are essential for
promoting appropriate behavior in students. Praise is particularly effective for students who
misbehave, and it is often recommended to start a behavior management program by using
attention and praise for appropriate behavior. If praise is not sufficient, stronger reinforcers may be
used. Small rewards, such as stars or "smilies," can make praise more concrete and visible.
Behavioral learning theories strongly favor the use of reinforcers for appropriate behavior
rather than punishers for inappropriate behavior. Punishment often creates resentment, which can
lead to other problems. Alternatives to punishment include restitution for harm done. However,
punishment may be necessary in some circumstances when reinforcement strategies are
impossible or ineffective.
Punishments, such as reprimands, being sent out of class or to the principal's office, and
detention or missed recess, should be the last option considered. Corporal punishment, such as
spanking, is illegal in most states and districts but should never be used in schools. O'Leary and
O'Leary (1972) listed seven principles for the effective and humane use of punishment:
1. Use punishment sparingly.

2. Make it clear to the child why they are being punished;
3. Provide the child with an alternative means of obtaining positive reinforcement;
4. Reinforce the child for behaviors that are incompatible with those you wish to weaken (e.g.,
punish for being off task, reinforce for being on task).
5. Never use physical punishment.

Group No. (1,2,3,4)
In effective learning environments, it is important to avoid using physical punishment when
students are in a very angry or emotional state.
GESTALT-INSIGHT LEARNING
GESTALT-INSIGHT LEARNING
As perception continues, the features may be organized into patterns. These processes were
studied in Germany early in the twentieth century by psychologists called Gestalt theorists. Gestalt
means “pattern” or “configuration” in German, refers to people’s tendency to organize sensory
information into patterns or relationships.
GESTALT THEORY
Gestalt Theory was an early cognitive view that challenged many assumptions of
behaviorism. Although Gestalt Theory no longer is viable, it offered important principles that are
found in current conceptions of perception and learning. The Gestalt movement began with a small
group of psychologies in early twentieth century. In 1912, Max Wertheimer wrote an article on
apparent motion.
The subsequent publication in English of Kurt Koffka’s “The Growth of the Mind (1924)” and
Wolfgang Köhler’s “The Mentality of Apes (1925)” helped the Gestalt movement spread to the
United States. Many Gestalt psychologists, including Wertheimer, Koffka, and Köhler, eventually
emigrated to the United States, where they applied their ideas to psychological phenomena.
In a typical demonstration of the apparent motion perceptual phenomenon, two lines
together are exposed successively for a fraction of a second with a short time interval between each
exposure. An observer sees not two lines but a single line moving from the line exposed first toward
the line exposed second. If the time interval between exposure of the two lines is too long, the
observer sees the first lines then the second but no motion and if the observer sees two lines side
by side but no motion, the interval is too short.
This apparent motion is known as the phi phenomenon and demonstrates that subjective
experiences cannot be explained by referring to the objective elements involved.
Gestalt theorists stressed the role of organization in perception and learning. Verbal learning
researchers used serial learning, free recall, and paired-associate tasks. Several important findings
were obtained from verbal learning research. The Gestalt view stressed the role of
understanding-comprehending the meaning of some event or grasping the principle or rule
underlying performance.

Group No. (1,2,3,4)
EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING THEORY
Experiential Learning Theory (ELT) is a learning framework developed by David Kolb. This theory
suggests that individuals learn best through direct experiences and reflection on those experiences.
It emphasizes the importance of active engagement and hands-on experiences in the learning
process.
Key principles emerging from this framework guide effective implementation in educational settings.
According to Kolb, learning style model is based on two continuous dimensions concerning:
a. How people take in information: through concrete experience (doing) or abstract
conceptualisation (thinking).
b. How people internalise information: through active experimentation (testing) or reflective
observation (watching).
Integrating these dimensions into educational practices allows for a tailored approach,
acknowledging and respecting the diverse learning styles of students.
The experiential learning cycle is represented as a cycle of actions with no particular starting
point, depending on the person’s natural inclination to be a doer, watcher, thinker or experimenter.
The theory is that by following the cycle round, meaningful learning will take place. The learning
cycle in Experiential Learning Theory (ELT) consists of four stages. These four stages of ELT
emphasize the importance of engaging in concrete experiences, reflecting on those experiences,
connecting them to abstract concepts, and actively applying the knowledge gained. This iterative
process promotes deep learning and the development of practical skills.
FOUR STAGES OF THE LEARNING CYCLE:

1. Concrete Experience: This is the first stage where the learner actively experiences an activity.
It’s the ‘doing’ stage where the learner is thrown into a new situation without any idea of
what might happen. It’s about being open to new experiences and willing to get involved
(Woolfolk & Hoy, 2018).
2. Reflective Observation: This is the ‘watching’ or ‘reflecting’ stage where the learner tries to
understand what just happened. They observe their experiences from many perspectives,
looking for meanings and causal relationships (Bates, 2019).
3. Abstract Conceptualization: This is the ‘thinking’ or ‘learning from the experience’ stage.
The learner forms new ideas or modifies existing ones based on their reflections. They draw
conclusions and form theories (Woolfolk & Hoy, 2018).

Group No. (1,2,3,4)
4. Active Experimentation: The final stage is about ‘testing’ or ‘trying out what you have
learned’. The learner applies their ideas to the world around them to see what happens.
They use their theories to solve problems and make decisions (Bates, 2019).
Experiential Learning Theory (ELT) also recognizes individuals have different learning styles
that influence their approach to learning. Kolb propose four learning styles. He described the
characteristics of these in respect of learners as follows:
a. Divergers – They learn best by observation and brainstorming.
b. Assimilators – They excel at learning wide-ranging information and organising it in a clear logical
format.
c. Convergers – They learn best by working with practical applications.
d. Accommodators – They prefer to learn by working in teams to complete tasks.
Understanding learners’ preferred learning styles can inform instructional strategies and activities
that cater to their unique needs and preferences, enhancing the effectiveness of experiential
learning.
Experiential Learning and the Role of Teachers
According to Mayer and Schunk, learning occurs when experience (including practice)
causes a relatively permanent change in an individual's knowledge, behavior, or potential for
behavior. The change may be deliberate or unintentional, for better or for worse, correct or
incorrect, and conscious or unconscious. To qualify as learning, this change must be brought
about by experience-by the interaction of a person with his or her environment.
Carl Rogers favoured experiential learning over direct instruction. For him experiential
education included:
• the personal involvement of the learner
• an excitement which stimulated both feeling and cognition
• self-initiated learning
• learning based on meaning
Rogers also believed that teachers play a crucial role in facilitating experiential learning
by creating a supportive and empathetic learning environment. By fostering a climate that
allows freedom to learn, teachers can encourage the development of fully-functioning
individuals who possess qualities such as dependability, realism, sociability, constant
self-discovery, and an alertness to newness.

Group No. (1,2,3,4)
Enhancing Learning Through Experiential Education and Educational Technologies
The use of educational technologies allows more time to be dedicated to experiential

learning, which focuses on acquiring skills through human knowledge and face-to-face
interactions. This type of learning is reinforced by the transfer of experience. Despite criticism
that traditional education lacks real-life experience, modern education offers practical
opportunities for students. Educators who engage in experiential learning with their students
enable them to develop a sense of contributing to society. (Buehlmann & Espinoza, 2014)
SUMMARY
The study of human learning focuses on how individuals acquire and modify their
knowledge, skills, strategies, beliefs, and behaviors. Learning represents an enduring change
inbehavior or in the capacity to behave in a given fashion, which results from practice orother
experiences. This definition excludes temporary changes in behavior due to illness,fatigue, or
drugs, as well as behaviors reflecting genetic and maturational factors, although many of the
latter require responsive environments to manifest themselves.The scientific study of learning
had its beginnings in writings of such early philosophers as Plato and Aristotle. Two prominent
positions on how knowledge is acquiredare rationalism and empiricism. The psychological
study of learning began late in thenineteenth century.
The passage discusses five learning approaches: Behavioral, Social Cognitive,

Information Processing, Cognitive Vonstructivists, and Social Constructivists. Behavioral
approaches focus on observable behaviors and the environment's influence on learning,
emphasizing repetition, practice, and conditioning. Social cognitive approaches emphasize
social interactions, observational learning, and self-efficacy. Information processing views
learning as a cognitive process, focusing on attention, memory, and problem-solving
strategies. Social constructivist approaches emphasize social and cultural aspects, and
cognitive constructivists emphasize learners' active role in constructing their own knowledge.
Connectionism is a theory by Edward Thorndike which is built on the foundation that

learning is the result of associations forming between stimuli and responses. These
associations or “habits” become strengthened or weakened by the nature and frequency of
the stimulus-response pairings.
Classical Conditioning, introduced by Pavlov, links stimuli and involuntary responses; it

involves neutral stimuli becoming triggers for learned responses through association.
Contiguous Conditioning highlights associations formed when sensations repeatedly occur
together, triggering memories later on. Operant Conditioning, developed by Skinner,
emphasizes deliberate actions and consequences, dividing behavior into operants and
employing reinforcement (positive and negative) and punishment to shape behavior. It
focuses on antecedents, behavior, and consequences (A-B-C model), demonstrating how
interactions with the environment influence learned behaviors. Ultimately, these theories
revolutionized psychology by illustrating how stimuli, actions, and outcomes impact human
behavior and learning.

Group No. (1,2,3,4)
Behavior analysis is between teachers and students that the teacher wants to change
the behavior of the students through ABAB method.In addition , applied behavior analysis, an
analusis of a classroom behavior in terms of behavior concepts, and give specific strategies for
preventing and dealing with misbehavior.theories is that if any behavior persists over time, it
is being maintained by some reinforcer.The most common reinforcer for classroom
misbehavior is attention—from the teacher, the peer group, or both.Applied behavior analysis
methods should be instituted only when it is clear that preventive or informal methods of
improving classroom management are not enough to create a positive environment for
learning.Setting up and using any applied behavior analysis program requires following a
series of steps, proceeding from the observation of the behavior through program
implementation to program evaluation.
Gestalt means “pattern” or “configuration” in German that refers to people’s tendency

to organize sensory information into patterns or relationships.Gestalt Theory was an early
cognitive view that challenged many assumptions of behaviorism, The subsequent
publication in English of Kurt Koffka’s “The Growth of the Mind (1924)” and Wolfgang Köhler’s
“The Mentality of Apes (1925)” helped the Gestalt movement spread to the United States.
Gestalt theorists stressed the role of organization in perception and learning, help you to
understand and comprehend the meaning of some event or grasping the principle or rule
underlying performance.
The Experiential Learning Theory (ELT), by David Kolb, says individuals learn best
through direct experiences . It has four stages: Concrete Experience, Reflective Observation,
Abstract Conceptualization, and Active Experimentation. ELT also notes four learning styles:
Divergers, Assimilators, Convergers, and Accommodators which can guide teaching to fit each
person's way of learning. Carl Rogers also believed that teachers help students learn best
when they make learning exciting and let students discover things on their own.
SUMMARY

Group No. (1,2,3,4)
REFERENCES
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Kounin, J. S. (1970). Discipline and group management in classrooms. New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart
& Winston.
James, W. (1899/2001). Talks to teachers on psychology and to students on some of life's ideals.
Mineola, NY: Dover.
Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York, NY: Freeman.
Bandura, A. (2016). Moral disengagement: How people do harm and live with themselves. New York,
NY: Worth.
Bandura, A. (1993). Perceived self-efficacy in cognitive development and functioning. Educational

Psychologist, 28, 117-148.
Usher, E. L., & Schunk, D. H. (2017). Social cognitive theoretical perspective of self-regulation. In D.
H. Schunk & J. A. Greene (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation of learning and performance (2nd ed.).
New York, NY: Routledge.
Duckworth, A. L., & Gross, J. J. (2014). Self-control and grit: Related but separable determinants of
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Duckworth, A. L., Peterson, C., Matthews, M. D., & Kelly, D. R. (2007). Grit: Perseverance and
passion for long-term goals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 9, 1087-1101.
Kazdin, A. E. (2001). Behavior modification in applied settings (6th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
Kazdin, A. E. (2008). The Kazdin method for parenting the defiant child. Boston, MA:
Houghton-Mifflin.
Bruning, R. H., Schraw, G. J., & Norby, M. M. (2011). Cognitive psychology and instruction(5th ed.).
Boston, MA: Pearson.
Schunk, D. H. (2016). Learning theories: An educational perspective (7th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn &
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Levitin, D. J. (2015, January 15). Why the modern world is bad for your brain. The Guardian:
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Judd, T. (2013). Making sense of multitasking: Key behaviours. Computers and Education.
Leppink, J., Paas, F., van Gog, T., van der Vleuten, C. P. M., & van Merriënboer, J. J. C. (2014).
Effects of pairs of problems and examples on task performance and different types of cognitive load.

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Choi, H-H., van Merriënboer, J. J. G., & Paas, F. (2015). Effects of the physical environment on
cognitive load and learning: Towards a new model of cognitive load.
Rosch, E. H. (1973). On the internal structure of perceptual and semantic categories. In T. Moore
(Ed.), Cognitive development and the acquisition of language (pp. 111-144).
Chi, M. T. H., & Wylie, R. (2014). The ICAP Framework: Linking cognitive engagement active learning
outcomes. Educational Psy- chologist, 49, 219-243.
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Issues in Education: Contributionsfrom Educational Psychology, 3, 151-194.
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of the conceptual, pedagogical, cultural, and political challenges facing teachers. Review of
Educational Research, 72, 131-175.
Piaget, J. (1971). Biology and knowledge. Edin- burgh, UK: Edinburgh Press.
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Handout in The Teacher and the School Curriculum (PROFED109)

Group No. (1,2,3,4)

BEHAVIORAL LEARNING THEORIES AND APPROACHES TO LEARNING

Furthermore, the module elucidates the concept of connectionism, highlighting its

MODULE LEARNING OBJECTIVES

BEHAVIORAL LEARNING THEORIES AND APPROACHES TO LEARNING

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY 1

LEARNING THEORY AND PHILOSOPHY

Beginnings of the Psychological Study of Learning

The formal beginning of psychology as a science is difficult to pinpoint (Mueller,

Wundt’s Psychological Laboratory. His laboratory acquired an international reputation with

Structuralism and Functionalism

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY 2

LEARNING THEORY AND RESEARCH

• Provide frameworks for interpreting environmental observations and serve as bridges

Correlational Examines relations between variables

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY 3

METHODS OF ASSESSING LEARNINGS:

Direct observations Instances of behavior that demonstrate learning

RELATION OF LEARNING AND INSTRUCTION

Instructional principles common to diverse learning theories

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY 4

Integration of Theory and Practice

CRITICAL ISSUES FOR LEARNING THEORIES

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY 5

5. Systematic Measurement of Changes: Monitor and measure changes resulting from

ABAB Design in Research:

 Commonly used in research on applied behavior analysis.

Methods for Encouraging Behaviors

REINFORCING WITH TEACHER ATTENTION

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY 6

SELECTING REINFORCERS: THE PREMACK PRINCIPLE

Applying Operant Conditioning: Using Praise Appropriately

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY 7

Applying Operant Conditioning: Using Praise Appropriately

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY 8

 Removal of disruptive student for 5 to 10 minutes.

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY 9

SOME CAUTIONS ABOUT PUNISHMENT

Applying Operant Conditioning: Using Praise Appropriately

 In demonstrating a skill (for example, threading a sewing machine, performing a dissection,

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY 10

MOTIVATION AND REINFORCEMENT

Bandura’s Three forms of Reinforcement

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY 11

STRENGHTENING OR WEAKENING INHIBITIONS. The ripple effect, as described by Kounin (1970),

AGENCY AND SELF EFFICACY

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY 12

SELF-EFFICACY IN LEARNING AND TEACHING

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY 13

Teacher’s Sense of Efficacy

SELF-REGULATED LEARNING: SKILL AND WILL

What Influences Self-Regulation?

2 Concepts Related to Volition

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY 14

CAPACITY, DURATION, AND CONTENT OF SENSORY MEMORY.

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY 15

EXAMPLES OF GESTALT PRINCIPLES

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY 16

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY 17

ATTENTION AND MULTITASKING

What’s Wrong with Multitasking?