CONCEPTS OF MECHANICS

KAYE EMERALD J. DY
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 TABLES OF CONTENT

1: TYPES OF FORCES --------------------------------------------------------------------------1

 Contact Forces------------------------------------------------------------------------------1
 Non - contact Forces ----------------------------------------------------------------------3
 Fundamental Forces-----------------------------------------------------------------------4

2: NEWTON'S FIRST LAW OF MOTION--------------------------------------------------5

 Inertial Frame of Reference---------------------------------------------------------------6

3: NEWTON’S SECOND LAW OF MOTION----------------------------------------------7

 Application for the Second Law of Motion--------------------------------------------8
 Limitations of the Second Law of Motion---------------------------------------------8

4: FRICTION --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------9
 Kinetic Friction----------------------------------------------------------------------------10
 static Friction-------------------------------------------------------------------------------11
 Fluid Resistance----------------------------------------------------------------------------12

5: NEWTON'S THIRD LAW OF MOTION------------------------------------------------13

 Applications for the Third Law of Motion--------------------------------------------14
 Limitations of the Third Law of Motion-----------------------------------------------15

6: CONSERVATION AND NON- CONSERVATION FORCES-----------------------15

 Conservation of Mechanical Energy----------------------------------------------------16

7: KINETIC ENERGY --------------------------------------------------------------------------16

 Relativistic Kinetic Energy --------------------------------------------------------------16

8: WORK - ENERGY THEOREM------------------------------------------------------------17

9: POWER------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------18
 Definition of Power-----------------------------------------------------------------------19
 Equation of Power-------------------------------------------------------------------------19
 Application for Power---------------------------------------------------------------------20

10: GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY -----------------------------------------21

 Work done by the Gravitation Potential Energy -------------------------------------22

11: ELASTIC POTENTIAL ENERGY-------------------------------------------------------22

 Work done on a Spring--------------------------------------------------------------------23
 Conservation of the Total Mechanical Energy ---------------------------------------23

12: PROPONENTS IF MECHANICS -------------------------------------------------------24

 Isaac Newton-------------------------------------------------------------------------------24
 James Prescott Joule-----------------------------------------------------------------------25
 James Watt----------------------------------------------------------------------------------26
 Blaise Pascal--------------------------------------------------------------------------------27
 Archimedes of Syracuse------------------------------------------------------------------28
 Democritus & Leucippus ----------------------------------------------------------------29
 Daniel Bernoulli ---------------------------------------------------------------------------30
 Evangelista Torricelli---------------------------------------------------------------------31

REFERENCES------------------------------------------------------------------------------------32
TYPES OF FORCE

-Force is defined as the push or pull movement that changes the motion of the body. It is an external
agent that is applied on the body. Force is divided into two main types, contact forces and Non- contact forces.
Force is a vector quantity and hence has both magnitude and direction. Forces can also long-range force or
short-range force. Long range is gravitational force or electrostatic force while short range force is the atomic or
nuclear force. The long-range force decreases with increase in distance rapidly as they have an inverse relation.

Force is a physical cause that can change an object’s state of motion or dimensions. Force is a
fundamental concept in physics, representing a physical influence capable of altering an object's state of motion
or its dimensions. It serves as the impetus behind the dynamic interactions observed in the physical world,
driving the changes in position, velocity, and shape of objects. This influential factor is deeply rooted in Sir
Isaac Newton's laws of motion, providing a foundational framework for understanding the fundamental
principles that govern the behavior of matter.

When a force is applied to an object, it induces a response, initiating a transformation in the object's
motion or structure. This transformative effect can manifest in various ways, such as altering the speed and
direction of an object's movement or causing it to deform or change shape. Forces are vector quantities,
possessing both magnitude and direction, and they are typically classified into two main types: contact forces,
which result from direct physical interaction, and action-at-a-distance forces, which exert influence without
direct contact.

 Contact Forces
-Forces that act on a body either directly or through a medium are called contact forces. Contact forces
are a fundamental aspect of the study of physics, providing valuable insights into the interactions between
objects in our physical world. These forces, aptly named "contact forces," play a pivotal role in shaping the
dynamics of objects, exerting their influence either directly or through a medium. In the intricate web of
physical interactions, contact forces serve as the driving agents behind the motion, deformation, and
equilibrium of bodies.

Contact forces are the one as the name suggests there is a contact between the two bodies under
consideration. That means one body is exerting force on the other body because of the contact between the
two.
So, the force that is found due to or by the means of physical contact between two bodies is known as
contact force.
Some of the examples of content forces in day to day life are – Pushing a door, Playing Basketball,
Hitting the football, working on laptop, pushing sofa and so on.

I. Types of contact forces

Contact forces are subdivided into some types these are as follows -:

 Spring force -The Hooke’s law talks about spring force. The spring force is a result of movement
or displacement of molecules. The displacement of molecules is in a direction opposite to the
displacement of spring. It is a type of Normal force.

 Applied force – Muscular force is the other name for applied force. The force due to action of
muscles.

 Air resistance force -It is a type of Normal force. Air resistance force is the one in which the force
acts in the opposite direction in presence of gas. Air resistance force is directly proportional to the
area under contact, if the area increases the air resistance force increases and also if the velocity
through the gas increases.

 Frictional force- Friction is a dissipative force that acts opposite to the direction of motion and
offers resistance to the motion of the object. It is a result of contact with the surface or when there
is an interaction between the object and the surface and the object tries to Move this force offered
by resistance. It is a type of Normal force.

 Normal force – It is a force that is result of contact between surfaces. As this force acts
perpendicular to the surface under consideration this is known as Normal force. Some examples of
Normal force are – spring force, air resistance force, tension force and so on.

 Tension force – The force that is produced with the Help of rope, cable or string. This force only
pulls the suspended mass attached to it. It doesn’t have the pushing ability.
 When we delve into the realm of contact forces, it becomes evident that they encompass a wide array
of phenomena, showcasing the diversity of ways in which objects interact with each other. Whether it's the
force applied by one object directly on another or the subtle yet impactful forces transmitted through a
medium, contact forces are the orchestrators of the intricate dance that unfolds within the physical universe.

One prominent example of contact forces is the force of friction, a ubiquitous and omnipresent
influence that opposes the relative motion or tendency of such motion between two surfaces in contact.
Friction, in its various forms, plays a crucial role in everyday experiences, affecting the way objects move
across surfaces and contributing significantly to the stability and control of various mechanical systems.

 Non-Contact Forces
-Forces that act through spaces without making direct contact with the body are called non-contact
forces. Non-contact forces, an intriguing aspect of the fundamental principles governing the physical world,
refer to forces that exert their influence over a body without the need for direct physical contact. In the
intricate tapestry of physics, these forces operate across spaces, navigating through the ethereal realm without
a tangible link to the objects they affect. It is fascinating to explore how these invisible threads of influence
weave through the fabric of the universe, transcending the limitations of physical touch.

Non-contact forces are those that don’t have contact between the two bodies. This force doesn’t arise
due to physical contact between the surfaces but acts through the space between the two bodies.

Some of the examples of Non-contact forces are as follows -:

 Gravitational force
 Nuclear force – Strong
 Weak Nuclear force
 Electromagnetic force

1. Gravitational force- The force that is present due to the attraction between the two objects is defined
as the gravitational force.

2. Electromagnetic force- it is due to the electric or magnetic affinity of the molecules that generates this
force and results in binding of atoms and solids

3. Nuclear force – it can divide based on strength as – Weak and strong.Weak nuclear force-The force is
present between radioactive decay molecules and is generated during their decay.While, Strong
nuclear force is required in Binding of the nucleus.

In the cosmic ballet of non-contact forces, the gravitational force, an omnipresent and pervasive
phenomenon, exemplifies this ethereal dance. Gravity extends its influence across vast expanses, connecting
celestial bodies in an unseen gravitational embrace. Whether it's the moon tugging at the Earth or the sun
orchestrating the intricate movements of planets within our solar system, the gravitational force is a silent
maestro conducting its celestial symphony without any discernible touch.

Another captivating manifestation of non-contact forces is found in the electromagnetic interactions

that govern charged particles. Electric and magnetic forces, acting at a distance, dictate the behavior of
electrons, protons, and other charged entities. The magnetic field, a captivating force that guides compass
needles and shapes the dance of particles in particle accelerators, operates mysteriously without any tangible
connection between the interacting entities.

 Fundamental Forces
-The universe operates through four fundamental forces: strong, weak, electromagnetic, and
gravitational. Each force varies in range and strength. Gravity has infinite range but is the weakest.
Electromagnetic force is stronger and also has infinite range. Weak and strong forces operate at the subatomic
level, with the strong force being the most powerful, followed by the electromagnetic and weak forces, while
gravity remains the weakest. The intricate dance of the cosmos is governed by a quartet of fundamental
forces, each with its unique characteristics and influence on the fabric of the universe. These forces, acting on
particles at various scales, shape the very essence of existence. Let's delve into the cosmic symphony
orchestrated by these forces:

1. Gravity
-At the grandest scales, the cosmos bows to the influence of gravity, a force with an infinite reach but
the gentlest touch. It is the unseen hand that orchestrates the motion of planets, stars, and galaxies. Despite its
pervasive influence, gravity is the weakest force, yet its role in sculpting the vast cosmic tapestry cannot be
overstated.

2. Electromagnetic Force
 -Stepping into the realm of strength, the electromagnetic force takes center stage. Possessing both
infinite range and more potency than gravity, this force weaves the intricate bonds that hold atoms, molecules,
and matter together. From the glow of distant stars to the shimmering dance of electrons, electromagnetic
forces play a pivotal role in the cosmic ballet.

3. Weak Force:
-Venturing into the subatomic realm, we encounter the weak force—a subtle yet crucial player in the
cosmic drama. Operating on the smallest scales, the weak force governs processes like radioactive decay.
Though weaker than both the electromagnetic and strong forces, its impact on the microscopic stage is
profound, contributing to the ever-changing dynamics of particles.

4. Strong Force
-At the heart of the subatomic symphony, the strong force reigns supreme as the most powerful
among its peers. Binding quarks together to form protons and neutrons, the strong force defies distance,
operating within the confines of atomic nuclei. While it may not extend infinitely like gravity and
electromagnetism, its influence at the nuclear level is unparalleled.

In summary, these four fundamental forces—gravity, electromagnetic, weak, and strong—harmonize to sculpt the cosmic
ballet. From the vast expanses of the cosmos to the minuscule realms of subatomic particles, their interactions shape the
very foundation of reality, creating a cosmic tapestry woven with threads of force and motion.

NEWTON’S FIRST LAW OF MOTION

- Newton's first law states that every object will remain at rest or in uniform motion in a straight line
unless compelled to change its state by the action of an external force. This law declares that any object, whether it
is at rest or moving in a straight line with a constant velocity, will persist in that state unless acted upon by an external
force.

The law of inertia was first formulated by Galileo Galilei for horizontal motion on Earth and was later generalized
by René Descartes. Although the principle of inertia is the starting point and the fundamental assumption of classical
mechanics, it is less than intuitively obvious to the untrained eye. In Aristotelian mechanics and in ordinary experience,
objects that are not being pushed tend to come to rest. The law of inertia was deduced by Galileo from his experiments
with balls rolling down inclined planes.

The principle of inertia helps to provide the answer: since we are in motion together with Earth and our natural
tendency is to retain that motion, Earth appears to us to be at rest. By the time Newton had sorted out all the details, it was
possible to accurately account for the small deviations from this picture caused by the fact that the motion of Earth’s
surface is not uniform motion in a straight line (the effects of rotational motion are discussed below). In the Newtonian
formulation, the common observation that bodies that are not pushed tend to come to rest is attributed to the fact that they
have unbalanced forces acting on them, such as friction and air resistance.

The concept of inertia, introduced by Sir Isaac Newton, encapsulates the idea that objects inherently resist
changes in their motion. This inertia manifests in two distinct scenarios: an object at rest will remain stationary unless a
force compels it to move, and an object in uniform motion along a straight path will continue that motion indefinitely
unless acted upon by an external force.

This foundational principle underscores the idea that the natural state of an object is to maintain its current state of
motion, be it at rest or in uniform motion. The critical element that disrupts this inherent inertia is the intervention of an
external force. This external force serves as the impetus for alterations in an object's state of motion, compelling it to
accelerate, decelerate, or change direction.

Newton's First Law serves as a cornerstone in classical mechanics, providing a framework for comprehending the
dynamics of objects in motion. It not only elucidates the resistance of objects to changes in their motion but also
emphasizes the necessity of external influences to induce any such alterations. In essence, it sets the stage for the
subsequent laws of motion, offering a profound insight into the intricate interplay between forces and motion that govern
the physical world.
 Inertial Frame of Reference
- An inertial frame of reference is a frame where Newton’s law holds true. That means if no external
force is acting on a body it will stay at rest or remain in uniform motion.

Newton's first law of motion defines an inertial frame of reference which tells that a body remains at
rest to a frame or in a motion with respect to a frame unless any external force doesn't apply on it. The frame
can be at rest or can move with constant velocity.

This principle is central to classical mechanics and lays the groundwork for predicting and analyzing
the motion of objects. The key characteristic of an inertial frame is its relative state of motion with respect to
the environment; specifically, it must either be at rest or move at a constant velocity

Understanding and identifying inertial frames of reference is essential for solving problems in
physics, as it provides a standardized and reliable basis for formulating equations and making predictions.
 The concept becomes particularly valuable when analyzing complex systems involving multiple interacting
objects, allowing physicists and engineers to simplify calculations by selecting appropriate inertial frames.

Moreover, the significance of inertial frames extends beyond classical mechanics into the realm of
special relativity, where the constancy of the speed of light introduces new perspectives on frames of
reference. Inertial frames play a crucial role in reconciling classical and relativistic principles, guiding
scientists in their exploration of the fundamental nature of space, time, and motion.

In summary, the inertial frame of reference serves as a foundational concept that underpins our understanding of motion in
the physical world. Its adherence to Newton's laws provides a reliable framework for analyzing and predicting the
behavior of objects, making it an indispensable tool in the physicist's toolkit.

NEWTON’S SECOND LAW OF MOTION

- Newton’s second law is a quantitative description of the changes that a force can produce on
the motion of a body. It states that the time rate of change of the momentum of a body is equal in both
magnitude and direction to the force imposed on it. The momentum of a body is equal to the product of
its mass and its velocity. Momentum, like velocity, is a vector quantity, having both magnitude and direction. A
force applied to a body can change the magnitude of the momentum or its direction or both. Newton’s second
law is one of the most important in all of physics. For a body whose mass m is constant, it can be written in the
form F = ma, where F (force) and a (acceleration) are both vector quantities. If a body has a net force acting on
it, it is accelerated in accordance with the equation. Conversely, if a body is not accelerated, there is no net force
acting on it.

In more elaborate terms, the law asserts that the momentum of a body, defined as the product of its mass
and velocity, experiences alterations when subjected to external forces. This alteration manifests in changes to
the momentum's magnitude, direction, or both, depending on the characteristics of the applied force.

The intrinsic connection between force and motion outlined by Newton's Second Law underscores the
dynamic interplay between an object's mass and the external influences acting upon it. As such, this law
provides a quantitative framework for understanding the intricacies of motion, allowing for precise predictions
and analyses of the resulting effects when forces are applied to objects of varying masses and velocities.
Newton's Second Law, thus, stands as a cornerstone in the realm of classical mechanics, offering invaluable
insights into the fundamental principles governing the dynamics of physical systems.

 Application of Second Law of Motion

- We add force to a ball when we kick it in a specified direction. This force is in the direction in
which the ball is moving. If the applied force is greater, the ball will travel a greater distance, and if the
applied force is less, the ball will travel a shorter distance.

The application of the Second Law of Motion is vividly demonstrated when we kick a ball in a
specified direction. As per Newton's Second Law, the acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the
net force acting upon it and inversely proportional to its mass. In the case of kicking a ball, the force we apply
is instrumental in determining the subsequent motion of the ball.

When we kick a ball, we impart force to it in the direction we want it to move. This force acts as the
net force influencing the ball's acceleration. It's important to note that the direction of the applied force is
crucial, as it directly affects the resulting motion. If the applied force aligns with the direction in which the
ball is already moving, it adds to the velocity, causing the ball to travel a greater distance.

According to Newton's Second Law, the relationship between force, mass, and acceleration can be
expressed mathematically as F = ma, where F is the force applied, m is the mass of the object (in this case, the
ball), and a is the resulting acceleration. Therefore, by increasing the applied force, we increase the
acceleration of the ball, which, in turn, leads to a greater distance covered.

 Limitations of Second Law of Motion

-Only if the mass is constant. Since the mass changes as the speed approaches the speed of light,
F=ma is seen to be strictly a non-relativistic relationship which applies to the acceleration of constant mass
objects. Despite these limitations, it is extremely useful for the prediction of motion under these constraints.

The limitations of the Second Law of Motion become apparent when considering scenarios where the
mass is not constant. This is particularly evident when dealing with speeds approaching the speed of light, as
outlined by Einstein's theory of relativity. In such cases, the simple relationship F=ma, which forms the basis
of Newton's second law, is strictly non-relativistic and may not accurately describe the dynamics of objects
experiencing significant changes in mass.

The non-constant nature of mass at relativistic speeds challenges the applicability of F=ma in these
situations. According to Einstein's theory, as an object accelerates and its speed approaches the speed of light,
 its mass increases. Consequently, the traditional interpretation of force as mass times acceleration becomes
insufficient to accurately predict the motion of such objects.

Despite these limitations, it is crucial to acknowledge that Newton's Second Law remains an
exceptionally valuable tool for predicting motion under conditions where the mass is relatively constant. In
everyday scenarios, where speeds are far below the speed of light, F=ma provides accurate and practical
predictions of motion. Its simplicity and effectiveness in describing the behavior of objects under typical
conditions have made it a cornerstone in classical mechanics.

FRICTION
- Friction is the force that resists motion when the surface of one object comes in contact with the
surface of another. The mechanical advantage of a machine is reduced by friction, or in other words, the ratio of
output to input is reduced because of friction.

Friction is the resistance to motion of one object moving relative to another. it is not treated as a
fundamental force, like gravity or electromagnetism. Instead, scientists believe it is the result of the
electromagnetic attraction between charged particles in two touching surfaces.

Scientists began piecing together the laws governing friction in the 1400s, but because the interactions
are so complex, characterizing the force of friction in different situations typically requires experiments and
can't be derived from equations or laws alone.

For every general rule about friction, there are just as many exceptions. For instance, while two rough
surfaces (such as sandpaper) rubbing against each other sometimes have more friction, very smoothly polished
materials (such as plates of glass) that have been carefully cleaned of all surface particles may actually stick to
each other very strongly.

Friction is like the invisible hand that tries to slow things down when one object rubs against another.
Imagine trying to slide a book across a table – the force that makes it a bit tricky to slide smoothly is friction.

In simpler terms, friction is the resistance encountered when one surface meets another. It's like a kind
of "slowing down force" that affects how well machines work. When things rub against each other, like gears or
moving parts, friction can make it harder for them to do their job efficiently. So, when there's a lot of friction,
the machine's ability to turn input into output is not as effective, kind of like a speed bump on the road to
smooth motion.

 Kinetic Friction
- Kinetic friction is defined as a force that acts between moving surfaces. A body moving on the
surface experiences a force in the opposite direction of its movement. The magnitude of the force will depend
on the coefficient of kinetic friction between the two materials.

When objects slide or move against each other, they experience a force known as kinetic friction.
Imagine sliding a book across a table – you'll feel a resistance pushing back against the direction you're
pushing. This resistance is kinetic friction.

In simpler terms, kinetic friction is like a "slowing down" force that kicks in when things are already
in motion. It happens between surfaces that are in contact and moving past each other. The strength of this
force depends on how much the materials involved resist sliding against each other, which is expressed by
something called the coefficient of kinetic friction. In short, it's a measure of how sticky or slippery materials
are when they're rubbing against each other.

Additionally, it's important to note that the coefficient of kinetic friction is a dimensionless quantity,
representing the ratio of the force of kinetic friction to the normal force between the surfaces. The coefficient
of kinetic friction can vary depending on the nature of the materials in contact. For example, rough surfaces
tend to have higher coefficients of kinetic friction compared to smoother surfaces. Engineers and scientists
often conduct experiments to determine these coefficients for specific material combinations.

Understanding kinetic friction is crucial in various fields such as physics, engineering, and
transportation. It plays a significant role in designing systems where the movement of objects or surfaces is
involved, influencing factors like energy consumption, wear and tear, and overall efficiency. Reducing kinetic
friction is often a goal in engineering applications to optimize the performance of machinery and systems.

 Static Friction
- Static friction is a force that keeps an object at rest. Static friction definition can be written as: The
friction experienced when individuals try to move a stationary object on a surface, without actually triggering
any relative motion between the body and the surface on which it is on.
 Static friction is the force that comes into play when you're trying to move an object that's already at
rest on a surface. In straightforward terms, it's like the invisible barrier that keeps things in place when you
want to push or pull them. Picture a scenario where you're attempting to slide a box along the floor but find it
stubbornly refusing to glide smoothly. That resistance you encounter is static friction at work—it's the force
that needs to be overcome to set the object into motion.

To elaborate a bit more, static friction is all about the initial resistance before any relative motion
begins between the object and the surface. It's like the friendly reminder from physics that says, "Hold on a
moment, let's make sure everything is set before we start moving." So, when you're dealing with static
friction, you're essentially dealing with the challenge of overcoming the stillness of an object before you can
enjoy the satisfaction of seeing it slide or move.

Static friction is a fundamental concept in physics that plays a crucial role in understanding the
behavior of objects at rest on a surface. It is often described as the force that prevents the initiation of motion
when an attempt is made to move a stationary object. This force arises due to the microscopic interactions
between the surfaces of the object and the surface it rests upon.

In more technical terms, static friction operates at the contact point between the object and the
surface, where irregularities and imperfections on both surfaces interlock. These interlocking points create
resistance, making it difficult to initiate motion. The strength of static friction is influenced by factors such as
the nature of the materials in contact, the smoothness of the surfaces, and the applied force attempting to set
the object in motion.

It is important to note that static friction only comes into play when the object is at rest; once motion
begins, the friction transitions to kinetic friction. Overcoming static friction is often associated with the
application of an external force exceeding the maximum static friction force, after which the object starts
moving smoothly.

 Fluid Resistance
-Resistance to motion of a body in a fluid due to forces of friction being exerted between the body
and the fluid. Fluid resistance is directly proportional to the cross-sectional area of a body at right angles to
the motion, and directly proportional to the square of the velocity of the body relative to the fluid.

Fluid resistance is all about how much a thing slows down when moving through a liquid (like water
or air). Imagine trying to swim in a pool—the resistance you feel is fluid resistance. This resistance happens
because of the rubbing or friction between the moving object (you, in this case) and the liquid.
Two key things affect fluid resistance:

1. Size Matters: The wider an object is when it faces the direction it's moving, the more resistance
it experiences. It's like pushing your hand through water with your fingers closed versus fingers
spread wide—the latter meets more resistance.

2. Speed Matters Too: The faster you move through the liquid, the stronger the resistance. It's not
just a simple increase; it's actually proportional to the square of your speed. So, if you double
your speed, the resistance doesn't just double, it quadruples!

In a nutshell, fluid resistance is about how much something slows down in a liquid, and it depends on how big the
thing is and how fast it's moving. Think of it like swimming through water or driving through the air—the
resistance you feel is the fluid putting up a fight!

Additionally, the study of fluid resistance is crucial in various fields, including engineering, sports
science, and aerodynamics. Engineers use this knowledge to design vehicles, aircraft, and structures that can
efficiently move through fluids while minimizing energy consumption and wear and tear.

Understanding fluid resistance is particularly important in the field of aerodynamics, where the
interaction between an object and the air can significantly impact its performance. Aircraft designers, for
example, need to consider fluid resistance to optimize the shape and size of wings, fuselage, and other
components to ensure efficient flight.

In sports science, fluid resistance plays a key role in activities such as swimming and cycling.
Athletes and coaches need to be aware of how the size and speed of the body moving through water or air
affect performance. Swimmers, for instance, work on reducing drag by refining their body position and
streamlining their movements to minimize fluid resistance.
NEWTON’S THIRD LAW OF MOTION
- Newton's third law states that for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction. The "action" and
"reaction" refer to forces; if Object A exerts a force on Object B, then Object B exerts an equal amount of force
on Object A in the opposite direction.

Newton's Third Law of Motion, conceived by the brilliant mind of Sir Isaac Newton, is a cornerstone
principle in the realm of physics. This law succinctly articulates that for every action, there exists an equal and
opposite reaction. In more accessible terms, when one object imparts a force upon another object (termed as the
"action"), the recipient object promptly responds with an equally forceful push or pull in the opposite direction
(referred to as the "reaction"). This principle elegantly captures the inherent symmetry of force interactions in
the physical world, shedding light on the reciprocal nature of forces and their impact on objects.

To illustrate, if Object A exerts a force on Object B, be it a gentle nudge or a mighty shove, Object B
reacts with a force of the same magnitude but directed oppositely. This law extends beyond everyday
observations, serving as a universal guide to understanding the dynamic relationships between objects in
motion. Whether considering the launch of a rocket, the bounce of a basketball, or the collision of billiard balls,
Newton's Third Law remains a steadfast rule governing the balanced exchange of forces between interacting
objects.

Furthermore, Newton's Third Law plays a crucial role in explaining various phenomena and applications
in the physical world. One notable example is propulsion in rocketry. When a rocket expels gases with high
velocity in one direction (action), the rocket experiences an equal and opposite force propelling it forward
(reaction). This principle underlies the mechanics of space exploration and satellite launches, showcasing the
practical significance of Newton's Third Law in advancing technology and scientific discovery.

In the realm of sports, the law is evident in activities such as swimming and rowing. As a swimmer or
rower pushes against the water (action), the water exerts an equal and opposite force propelling the athlete
forward (reaction). This understanding helps optimize techniques and strategies in various water sports.

Newton's Third Law also provides insights into collision dynamics, whether it be in car crashes or
microscopic particle interactions. In a car collision, for instance, the force exerted by one vehicle on another
during impact is met with an equal force in the opposite direction, influencing the outcome of the collision and
contributing to vehicle safety design.

 Application of the Third Law of Motion

- Three examples of Newton's third law include the following: (1) a person in a rowboat exerts an action
force on the water, and the water exerts a reaction force on the rowboat propelling it forward; (2) a rocket's engine
exerts an action force on expanding and exploding fuel that then exerts a reaction force on the rocket propelling it
upward; (3) a helicopter's propeller and engine exert an action force on the air below them, and in turn the air
exerts a reaction force on the helicopter

1. Rowboat Motion:
 Imagine you're in a rowboat. When you push the water backward with an oar (action force), the water
pushes the boat forward (reaction force). Your push on the water creates an equal and opposite reaction
that moves the boat.

2. Rocket Launch:
 Picture a rocket taking off. The engine pushes expanding and exploding fuel downward (action force),
and, as a result, the fuel exerts an equal force upward on the rocket (reaction force). This interaction
propels the rocket into the sky.

3. Helicopter Lift:
 Think about a helicopter hovering in the air. The propeller and engine push the air downward (action
force), and in response, the air pushes the helicopter upward (reaction force). This opposing force enables
the helicopter to stay airborne.

In each scenario, one force leads to another, demonstrating Newton's idea that for every action, there is an equal and
opposite reaction.

 Limitations of the Third Law of Motion

- If a force is distributed over a large area, like the gravity of the Earth, it can be difficult to identify
an equal and opposite reaction force. Forces within an object, like electrostatic attractions between atoms, do
not have external equal and opposite reaction forces.

When forces are at play within an object, like the electrostatic attractions between atoms, there may
not be external forces with equal magnitude and opposite direction. This absence of external reaction forces
within the object further highlights a limitation of the Third Law of Motion.
CONSERVATIVE AND NON-CONSERVATIVE FORCES
- A conservative force is one for which the work done is independent of path. Equivalently, a force is
conservative if the work done over any closed path is zero. A non-conservative force is one for which the work
done depends on the path. For a conservative force, the infinitesimal work is an exact differential.

A conservative force is a force that does zero work done in a closed path. If only these forces act then
the mechanical energy of the system remains conserved. Conservative force abides by the law of conservation
of energy.
Examples of conservative force: Gravitational force, spring force etc.

On the other hand, non-conservative forces are those forces which cause a loss of mechanical energy
from the system. In the above case friction is the non-conservative force. But as we know energy can neither be
created nor destroyed hence these forces convert mechanical energy into heat, sound, light etc.
Examples of non-conservative forces: Friction, Air Resistance, and Tension in the cord.

 Conservation of Mechanical Energy

- The total amount of mechanical energy, in a closed system in the absence of dissipative forces (e.g.
friction, air resistance), remains constant. This means that potential energy can become kinetic energy, or vice
versa, but energy cannot “disappear”.

This law applies only to the extent that the forces are conservative in nature. The mechanical energy
of the system is defined as the total kinetic energy plus the total potential energy. In a system that comprises
only conservative forces, each force is associated with a form of potential energy and the energy only changes
between the kinetic energy and different types of potential energy, such that the total energy remains constant.

KINETIC ENERGY
- Kinetic energy is the energy an object has because of its motion. If we want to accelerate an object,
then we must apply a force. Applying a force requires us to do work. After work has been done, energy has
been transferred to the object, and the object will be moving with a new constant speed.

This application of force involves doing work, which results in the transfer of energy to the object. As a
consequence, the object gains kinetic energy and starts moving at a consistent speed. In more straightforward
terms, when we push or pull something to make it move, we are essentially giving it the energy it needs to keep
going.

Understanding kinetic energy involves recognizing that motion and energy are interconnected. The
process of transferring energy to an object through the application of force is fundamental to the concept. So,
when we perform work to set an object in motion, we are essentially providing it with the kinetic energy
required for continuous movement at a stable velocity.

 Relativistic Kinetic Energy

- the energy of an object approaches infinity as the velocity approaches the speed of light. Thus it is
impossible to accelerate an object across this boundary.

Relativistic kinetic energy is a fascinating concept in physics that comes into play when an object is
hurtling through space at speeds approaching that of light. As this velocity increases, something peculiar
happens to the energy associated with the object—it doesn't just increase; it tends towards infinity. In simpler
terms, the faster an object moves, especially when it's getting close to the cosmic speed limit (the speed of
light), its energy shoots up, seemingly without an upper limit. This quirk in nature leads to a rather intriguing
consequence: it becomes practically impossible to accelerate an object beyond this boundary. Attempting to
do so would mean the energy required to push it any faster would become impossibly large, reaching levels
that are beyond our current understanding and technological capabilities.

In summary, the idea behind relativistic kinetic energy reveals a fundamental limitation imposed by
the laws of physics. It's like trying to crank up the speed on a spaceship to ludicrous levels—there's a point
where the energy needed becomes so astronomical that achieving it becomes impractical, if not downright
impossible. This phenomenon sheds light on the unique and counterintuitive aspects of motion at extreme
speeds, providing a glimpse into the intriguing interplay between energy, mass, and the ultimate cosmic speed
limit.

Furthermore, the concept of relativistic kinetic energy is rooted in Albert Einstein's theory of special
relativity, which revolutionized our understanding of space, time, and energy. This phenomenon has profound
implications for our understanding of motion at relativistic speeds. It highlights the infeasibility of achieving
velocities comparable to or exceeding the speed of light within our current understanding of physics. As such,
the concept of relativistic kinetic energy serves as a crucial component in the framework of special relativity,
elucidating the constraints imposed by the fundamental laws of the universe on the motion of massive objects
at extreme speeds.
WORK-ENERGY THEOREM
- The work-energy theorem states that the work done by the net force on a body is equal to the change in kinetic
energy. The work-energy theorem, a fundamental principle in physics, establishes a critical connection between the work
applied to a body and the consequent change in its kinetic energy. At its core, this theorem asserts that the work performed
by the net force acting on an object is precisely equal to the alteration in its kinetic energy. This fundamental relationship
offers profound insights into the dynamic interplay between force and motion, providing a quantitative measure of how
external forces influence the energy state of a system.

This theorem's significance becomes even more apparent when applied across a spectrum of scenarios and
contexts. For instance, in the analysis of projectile motion or the study of objects subjected to gravitational forces, the
work-energy theorem serves as a powerful tool for predicting and understanding system dynamics. By considering the
work done on an object in conjunction with its initial and final kinetic energies, one can unravel the underlying principles
governing the motion and energy transformations within the system.

Beyond theoretical applications, the work-energy theorem holds practical relevance in numerous real-world
domains. Engineers leverage its principles to design and optimize efficient systems, ensuring that energy is effectively
utilized and conserved. In the realm of sports and transportation, athletes and designers alike draw upon the insights
provided by the work-energy theorem to enhance performance and efficiency. Its versatility underscores its status as a
universal principle, bridging the gap between theoretical concepts and their tangible applications in diverse fields.

In essence, the work-energy theorem stands as a testament to the intricate relationship between force, work, and
energy. Serving as a robust framework for understanding classical mechanics, it not only enriches our theoretical
understanding of physical systems but also empowers us to address practical challenges and innovate in various
technological and scientific domains.

POWER
- Power is defined as the rate at which work is done upon an object. Power is a time-based quantity.
Which is related to how fast a job is done. Power is a fundamental concept that describes how quickly work is
performed on an object. In simple terms, power is the speed at which a task is completed. It is a measure of the
rate at which energy is transferred or work is accomplished over time. Imagine power as the engine of a car – it
indicates how fast the car can perform tasks. So, when we talk about power, we're essentially talking about the
efficiency and speed at which work is carried out on an object.

Power, in the context of physics and engineering, is a fundamental concept that plays a crucial role in
understanding the dynamics of various systems. It is defined as the rate at which work is done upon an object, and it is
inherently tied to the element of time. This temporal aspect of power highlights the efficiency and speed at which tasks or
work are completed.
To delve deeper, power is a measure of how quickly energy is transferred or work is accomplished over a
specific period. In practical terms, it is akin to the speed at which a particular task is executed. The analogy of a
car engine provides a tangible representation – just as an engine's power indicates how fast a car can perform
tasks, the concept of power quantifies the efficiency and speed at which work is carried out on an object.

In various fields, such as mechanics, electrical engineering, and thermodynamics, power serves as a critical
parameter for evaluating the performance of systems. For instance, in the realm of machines and engines, the power
output directly influences their ability to perform tasks efficiently. Similarly, in electrical systems, power is a key metric
for assessing the rate at which electrical energy is consumed or generated.
Understanding power is essential not only for theoretical applications but also for practical considerations in
designing and optimizing systems for optimal performance. The concept of power provides a unified framework
for analyzing and comparing the efficiency and speed of diverse processes, making it a cornerstone in the study
and application of physics and engineering principles.

 Definition of Power
- Power is work done over time. It can also be described as a force moved a distance over time. Power, in
the realm of physics, is fundamentally characterized as the amount of work accomplished within a
specified time frame. This concept is intricately linked to the interplay between force, distance, and time.
At its core, power encapsulates the dynamic nature of exerting force to produce an effect, and the
efficiency with which this force is applied over a given temporal interval. To delve deeper, power is not
merely the exertion of physical prowess; it is a quantitative measure that elucidates the rate at which
energy is transformed or work is performed. This multifaceted definition underscores the dynamic
equilibrium between the magnitude of force applied, the distance covered, and the time elapsed, offering
a comprehensive perspective on the essence of power in the context of physics and mechanical systems.

 Equation for Power

- The formula for power is mentioned below.
Power = Work / time
P=W/t
 Here is an example of how to use the power formula. Consider the example above where a person applies a force
to move a crate. The person applies a force of 7 N and moves the crate 3 m. This takes the person 9 seconds. What is the
power of the person?

The first step is to calculate the work. This can be calculated according to

W = Fd

Substituting the known values gives

W = (7N)(3m)

So, the work is W = 21J. The next step is to calculate the power according to the work-time equation for power, which is

P = W/t

Therefore, the power is

P = 21J/9s

The power of the person is 2.3W.

 Application of Power
- The concept of power can be applied in many everyday situations, such as driving a car, running up
stairs, and moving furniture.

Whether you run up a flight of stairs in 5 seconds or take a slow walk up the same flight in 40
seconds, you are doing the same amount of work. However, you are doing it at a different rate. When you run
up the stairs you are working much faster. While running up the stairs you have a higher power than when
you walk up the stairs.

In the realm of physical activities, consider lifting a heavy object. If you lift it quickly, you're
applying more power than if you lift it slowly, even though the work done – lifting the object – remains the
same.

Imagine pushing a shopping cart. If you push it with force and speed, you're exerting more power
than if you push it gently. The key is how quickly you can get the cart moving.

In essence, power is about the combination of force and speed, influencing various aspects of our
daily lives, making tasks more efficient and effective when applied thoughtfully.

GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY

- Gravitational potential energy is the energy possessed or acquired by an object due to a change in its
position when it is present in a gravitational field. In simple terms, it can be said that gravitational potential
energy is an energy that is related to gravitational force or to gravity.

This form of energy is intricately tied to the position of an object within a gravitational field. When an
object undergoes a change in its position relative to the gravitational force acting upon it, it experiences a
corresponding alteration in its gravitational potential energy.

In essence, gravitational potential energy is a measure of the work that can be done by gravity as the
object moves within the gravitational field. This concept is rooted in the fundamental force of gravity, described
by Sir Isaac Newton, which attracts objects with a force proportional to their masses and inversely proportional
to the square of the distance between their centers.

A form of potential energy that an object possesses by virtue of its position within a gravitational field.
The gravitational potential energy of an object is directly related to both its mass and its distance from the
center of the Earth, or any other massive body generating the gravitational field.

Gravitational potential energy plays a crucial role in various natural phenomena, such as the motion of
celestial bodies, the operation of hydroelectric power plants, and the understanding of orbits in space. It is also a
key component in the conservation of mechanical energy, where the sum of kinetic and potential energy
remains constant in the absence of non-conservative forces like friction or air resistance.

In summary, gravitational potential energy provides a quantitative measure of the energy associated with
an object's position in a gravitational field, highlighting the dynamic interplay between mass, height, and the
force of gravity. This concept is foundational in understanding and analyzing a wide range of physical
phenomena.
  Work Done Gravitational Potential Energy
- Work done against gravity in lifting an object becomes potential energy of the object-Earth system.
The change in gravitational potential energy, ΔPE g, is ΔPEg = mgh, with h being the increase in height and g
the acceleration due to gravity.

When we lift something against gravity, we're doing work, and this work transforms into what we call
Gravitational Potential Energy (PEg) in the object-Earth system.

The formula for this change in potential energy is ΔPEg = mgh. Breaking it down, 'm' is the mass of
the object, 'g' is the acceleration due to gravity (about 9.8 m/s² on Earth), and 'h' is how much higher the
object is lifted.

So, as we lift an object, we're essentially using energy to work against gravity. The change in
potential energy depends on how heavy the object is, how high we lift it, and the strength of gravity.
Understanding this relationship helps us grasp the basic principles of how energy and gravity interact.

ELASTIC POTENTIAL ENERGY

- Elastic potential energy is the potential energy stored by stretching or compressing an elastic object by
an external force such as the stretching of a spring. It is equal to the work done to stretch the spring which
depends on the spring constant k and the distance stretched.

Elastic potential energy is like a hidden power within stretchy things, such as springs or rubber bands.
When you pull or squash these materials, they store energy that can be used later. The amount of stored energy
depends on two things: how stretchy or squishy the material is (we call this its "spring constant," represented by
'k') and how much you pull or push it (the distance it moves).

Understanding elastic potential energy is handy in designing things like bouncy toys or safe structures.
It's like knowing the hidden power of stretchy materials and making sure they won't break or deform too much.
So, next time you stretch a rubber band, remember you're playing with a little dose of elastic potential energy!

Elastic potential energy is a fascinating concept rooted in the fundamental principles of physics. This
form of potential energy is associated with the deformation of elastic objects, such as springs or rubber bands,
when subjected to external forces. The energy stored within these objects during the stretching or compression
process is known as elastic potential energy.

 Work Done on a Spring

- Work done in a spring is calculated using the equation: Work Done = Force x Distance. The force is
the force applied to the spring, and the distance is the distance that the spring is moved.

Work done on a spring is determined by the equation: Work Done = Force × Distance. This formula
helps us measure the energy involved when we compress or extend a spring. When we apply force to a spring,
it changes its shape, either getting shorter or longer. The amount of work done depends on how much force
we apply and the distance the spring moves. If the force and movement are in the same direction, the work
done is positive, meaning we're adding energy to the spring. If the force is in the opposite direction, the work
done is negative, indicating that we're taking energy out of the spring. This concept is crucial in understanding
how springs behave in various applications, from everyday items to complex mechanical systems. Engineers
and scientists use this knowledge when designing things like shock absorbers, suspension systems, and other
devices that involve springs.

In summary, the work done on a spring is a way of measuring the energy changes that happen when
we manipulate a spring's shape. The equation, Work Done = Force × Distance, captures this relationship, with
positive work indicating energy input and negative work indicating energy output. This concept is widely
applied in engineering and physics to design and analyze systems that rely on the elasticity of materials, such
as springs in mechanical devices.

 Conservation of Total Mechanical Energy

- The sum of the potential energy and kinetic energy at any position in a closed system will always
remain the same. The amount of potential energy and kinetic energy keeps changing, but the total mechanical
energy in a system remains constant.

The Conservation of Total Mechanical Energy is a fundamental principle in physics that states the
total energy within a closed system remains constant. In simpler terms, this means that if you have an object
in motion within a closed space, like a swinging pendulum or a roller coaster, the sum of its potential energy
(related to its position in a gravitational field) and kinetic energy (linked to its motion) will stay the same at
any point in time, even though each type of energy may change individually. For example, as a pendulum
 swings, it constantly shifts between having more potential energy when it's higher up and more kinetic energy
when it's swinging faster at the bottom. Yet, the total mechanical energy— the combination of potential and
kinetic energy—remains unchanged.

This principle is a powerful tool in physics, allowing scientists and engineers to understand and
predict the behavior of moving objects. It's like having a consistent measure of the total 'motion energy' in a
system, helping us design things like amusement park rides or study how planets move in space. By
recognizing that the total mechanical energy doesn't fluctuate in a closed system, we gain valuable insights
into the dynamic nature of objects in motion and can apply this understanding to various real-world scenarios.

The Conservation of Total Mechanical Energy is closely related to the concept of work and energy
transfer within a system. According to the work-energy theorem, the work done on an object is equal to the
change in its kinetic energy. In a closed system where external forces are absent or negligible, the total
mechanical energy remains constant because any change in kinetic energy is compensated by an opposite
change in potential energy and vice versa.

PROPONENTS FOR MECHANICS

 Isaac Newton
- Isaac Newton contributed significantly to the field of science over his lifetime. He invented calculus
and provided a clear understanding of optics. But his most significant work had to do with forces, and
specifically with the development of a universal law of gravitation and his laws of motion.

Newton's most famous work came with the publication of his "Philosophiae Naturalis Principia
Mathematica" ("Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy"), generally called Principia. In it, he
determined the three laws of motion for the universe.
Newton's first law describes how objects move at the same velocity unless an outside force acts upon
them. (A force is something that causes or changes motion.) Thus, an object sitting on a table remains on the
table until a force — the push of a hand, or gravity — acts upon it. Similarly, an object travels at the same
speed unless it interacts with another force, such as friction.

His second law of motion provided a calculation for how forces interact. The law states that a force is
equal to the change in the momentum (mass multiplied by velocity) per change in time. Therefore, when more
force is applied to an object, its acceleration also increases, but when the mass of the object increases and the
force remains constant, its acceleration decreases.

Newton's third law states that for every action in nature, there is an equal and opposite reaction. If one
body applies a force on a second, then the second body exerts a force of the same strength on the first, in the
opposite direction.

From all of this, Newton calculated the universal law of gravitation. He found that as two bodies
move farther away from one another, the gravitational attraction between them decreases by the inverse of the
square of the distance. Thus, if the objects are twice as far apart, the gravitational force is only a fourth as
strong; if they are three times as far apart, it is only a ninth of its previous power.

 James Prescott Joule

- James Prescott Joule experimented with engines, electricity and heat throughout his life. Joule's
findings resulted in his development of the mechanical theory of heat and Joule's law, which quantitatively
describes the rate at which heat energy is produced from electric energy by the resistance in a circuit.

Initially many 19th century scientists were skeptical of Joule’s work, but his efforts proved
fundamental to the modern understanding of thermodynamics. The SI unit of work, the joule, was named in
honor of his significant scientific contributions.

Joule’s dedication to experimentation eventually led to his formulation of the law that now bears his
name in 1840. According to Joule’s law, the heat generated in an electric wire is proportional to the current
squared multiplied by the resistance. The law is often written as P=I2R, where P equals power loss, I is the
current in amperes, and R is the resistance given in ohms. Joule included the law within the treatise “On the
Production of Heat by Voltaic Electricity”, which was published in abbreviated form in the Proceedings of
the Royal Society.

One of Joule's most notable contributions was the development of the mechanical theory of heat. He
conducted a series of carefully controlled experiments in the 1840s, where he studied the conversion of
mechanical work into heat. Through these experiments, he provided crucial evidence supporting the idea that
heat is a form of energy and that it is conserved in various energy transformations.
 In 1843, Joule published a paper in the "Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society" titled "On
the Calorific Effects of Magneto-Electricity and on the Mechanical Value of Heat." This paper laid the
foundation for his later formulation of the first law of thermodynamics, which states that energy is neither
created nor destroyed, but it can change forms.

Joule's most famous work, however, came in 1847 when he formulated Joule's law. This law
quantitatively describes the relationship between electrical energy and heat production in a conductor with
resistance. The law is essential in understanding power losses in electrical circuits and is expressed by the
equation P=I²R, where P is power loss, I is the current, and R is the resistance.

 James Watt
- Watt established one unit of horsepower to be equivalent to 33,000 pounds lifted one foot
per minute. In honor of his work related to efficiency and power, a unit of power commonly used for
both electricity and mechanics, the watt, was named after him.

James Watt, a trailblazing figure in the realms of efficiency and power, played a pivotal role
in shaping our understanding of mechanical energy. His groundbreaking contribution involved
establishing a unit of horsepower, a term that was not only a measure of mechanical power but also a
catalyst for the development of standardized power metrics. Watt meticulously defined one
horsepower as the force required to lift 33,000 pounds by one foot in a minute.

This ingenious concept became a cornerstone for quantifying power across various
applications, demonstrating its versatility and applicability. To pay homage to Watt's remarkable
work and enduring influence, the scientific community adopted the "watt" as a unit of power. This
unit, named in recognition of James Watt, seamlessly integrates into both the fields of electricity and
mechanics, embodying the efficiency and power principles that Watt ardently championed.

Today, the watt stands as a testament to Watt's legacy, serving as a universal measure that
continues to shape how we assess and harness power in our modern world. The ripple effects of his
contributions extend far beyond his era, underscoring the profound impact that a single visionary
mind can have on the trajectory of scientific understanding and technological progress.

James Watt's legacy extends beyond the quantification of power; his work also
revolutionized the efficiency of steam engines. In the 18th century, Watt made significant
improvements to the steam engine, transforming it from a rudimentary machine into a highly
efficient and practical source of power. One of his key innovations was the separate condenser, a
device that drastically increased the engine's efficiency by preventing the mixing of steam and cold
water.

Watt's improvements to the steam engine had a profound impact on the Industrial
Revolution, facilitating the mechanization of various industries. Factories, transportation, and
numerous other sectors experienced a surge in productivity and growth, thanks to the newfound
efficiency of Watt's steam engine.

 Blaise Pascal
- Pascal is famous for his contributions to probability theory and his work with Pascal's Triangle
which is used in binomial expansion. Pascal is also known for inventing an early digital calculator, a syringe,
a hydraulic press, and the roulette wheel. In the field of physics, Blaise contributed to the study of
atmospheric pressure by discovering that vacuums are real and exist in the real world. From his study of
atmospheric pressure, he invented the syringe and hydraulic press.

Blaise Pascal, renowned for his multifaceted contributions to science, made lasting impacts on
physics, particularly in the realms of probability theory, fluid mechanics, and hydrodynamics. Beyond his
well-known work on Pascal's Triangle and probability, Pascal conducted groundbreaking experiments on
atmospheric pressure. His use of a barometer to demonstrate the inverse relationship between atmospheric
pressure and altitude challenged prevailing notions and provided pivotal evidence for the existence of
vacuums in the natural world.

Pascal's exploration of atmospheric pressure led to the formulation of Pascal's Law, a fundamental
principle in fluid mechanics. This law states that changes in pressure applied to an enclosed fluid are
transmitted uniformly to all parts of the fluid and its container. This insight not only revolutionized our
 understanding of fluid dynamics but also laid the groundwork for the development of hydraulic machinery.
Pascal's hydraulic press, a practical application of his discoveries, demonstrated the transformative potential
of his work, enabling the manipulation of heavy objects and finding applications across diverse industries.

In addition to his theoretical contributions, Pascal's inventions, including the syringe and the
hydraulic press, showcased the practical implications of his scientific inquiries. His pioneering work in fluid
mechanics, coupled with his innovative applications of pressure-related principles, left an indelible mark on
physics and engineering. Blaise Pascal's legacy extends beyond probability and mathematics, encompassing
foundational contributions to the understanding of the physical properties of fluids and the practical
applications of pressure in various technological advancements.

 Archimedes of Syracuse
-Archimedes invented the crucial sciences of mechanics and hydrostatics. Archimedes created one of
the essential physics concepts that is the centre of gravity. He discovered the laws of levers and pulleys that
allow moving heavy objects using small forces. Archimedes calculated the most precise value of pi.

Archimedes of Syracuse, a brilliant Greek mathematician and physicist, left an indelible

mark on the field of physics with his groundbreaking contributions. One of his most enduring
achievements is the formulation of Archimedes' Principle, which elucidates the buoyant force
exerted on a submerged object. This principle has far-reaching implications, forming the cornerstone
of hydrostatics and providing essential insights into the behavior of floating and submerged bodies.
Archimedes' meticulous studies in hydrostatics not only advanced our understanding of fluid
mechanics but also laid the foundation for subsequent developments in naval architecture and
engineering.

In addition to his work on buoyancy, Archimedes made significant strides in mechanics,

particularly in the understanding of levers and pulleys. His elucidation of the principles governing
these simple machines demonstrated his keen grasp of mechanical advantage and the balance of
forces. These insights played a pivotal role in the development of machinery for lifting and moving
heavy loads, proving instrumental in various engineering applications. Archimedes' practical
contributions extended beyond theoretical frameworks, as exemplified by his invention of the
Archimedean screw, a device employed for raising water. This ingenious device, with its enduring
utility, showcases his ability to apply theoretical knowledge to solve real-world problems.

Furthermore, Archimedes' mathematical prowess manifested in his precise calculations, most

notably his accurate approximation of the value of pi. Using a method based on inscribed and
circumscribed polygons, he calculated pi with remarkable accuracy, contributing significantly to the
advancement of geometry and mathematical understanding. His work on centers of gravity further
enriched the field of physics, providing a foundational understanding that continues to be relevant in
the study of balance and equilibrium. Archimedes' multifaceted contributions, spanning hydrostatics,
mechanics, and mathematics, have left an enduring legacy, influencing generations of scientists and
engineers.

 Democritus and Leucippus

-Democritus discovered that everything in the Universe is composed of atoms that are unbreakable
building blocks. Additionally, he discovered that the volume of a cone is one-third the volume of a cylinder.

Democritus and Leucippus, ancient Greek philosophers, made pioneering contributions to the field of
physics, notably through their development of the atomic theory. Democritus, in particular, proposed that all
matter is composed of indivisible and indestructible particles called atoms. These atoms, he suggested, vary in
size, shape, and arrangement, accounting for the diverse properties of different substances. The concept of the
atom as an unbreakable building block formed the basis of their atomic theory, challenging prevailing notions
of continuous matter.

In addition to their atomic theory, Democritus and Leucippus introduced the idea of the void or empty
space. They postulated that atoms move through an infinite void, and it is the interactions and combinations
of these atoms in the void that give rise to the observable diversity of matter. Democritus also made attempts
to quantify qualitative aspects of reality, such as his discovery that the volume of a cone is one-third that of a
cylinder with the same base and height. This early exploration into the quantification of physical properties
demonstrated a nascent understanding of mathematical relationships in the physical world.

While the original works of Democritus and Leucippus have been largely lost to history, their ideas
endured and influenced later thinkers. The Roman philosopher and poet Lucretius expounded upon
 Democritus' atomic theory in his epic poem, "De Rerum Natura, and the revival of interest in atomism during
the scientific revolution drew inspiration from these ancient Greek philosophers. Their speculative ideas,
though lacking the rigor of modern scientific methods, laid the conceptual groundwork for the eventual
development of atomic theory in the scientific community.

 Daniel Bernoulli
- Daniel Bernoulli was a mathematician and scientist who lived in the 1700s. He was a prolific
inventor and published several books about physics and mathematics. His most famous work is
Hydrodynamica, which gives the first statement of Bernoulli's principle relating the pressure in a fluid to its
velocity.

Daniel Bernoulli, an influential mathematician and scientist of the 18th century, left an indelible mark
on physics with his groundbreaking contributions. Foremost among his achievements is Bernoulli's Principle,
elucidated in his seminal work "Hydrodynamica." This principle articulates the relationship between the
velocity and pressure of a fluid, establishing that as the speed of a fluid increases, its pressure decreases, and
vice versa. Bernoulli's Principle has become foundational in fluid dynamics, serving as a cornerstone for
understanding phenomena such as the lift generated by an airplane wing and the flow of liquids through pipes.

In addition to his work on fluid dynamics, Bernoulli significantly advanced the kinetic theory of
gases. Applying statistical methods to describe the behavior of gas molecules, he provided crucial insights
into their motion and collisions. This work laid the groundwork for the broader understanding of the kinetic
theory of gases, a cornerstone of thermodynamics. Bernoulli's contributions also extended to mathematics,
where he made advancements in calculus and differential equations, further enriching the theoretical tools
available for physicists and mathematicians of his time.

The practical applications of Bernoulli's principles are widespread in engineering, particularly in the
design and analysis of fluid systems. His work has found application in the understanding and prediction of
fluid behavior in pipes, nozzles, and various engineering systems. Today, Daniel Bernoulli's legacy endures as
his principles continue to be integral in the education of scientists, physicists, and engineers, shaping our
comprehension and application of fluid dynamics and kinetic theory. His pioneering work has left an enduring
impact on the fields of physics and engineering, serving as a testament to the timeless significance of his
contributions.

 Evangelista Torricelli
- Evangelista Torricelli was an Italian scientist who was the first man to create a sustained vacuum
and to discover the principle of a barometer. He also achieved some important results in the development of
the calculus.

Evangelista Torricelli (1608–1647) was a pioneering Italian scientist whose contributions to physics
and mathematics had a profound impact during the 17th century. Best known for inventing the mercury
barometer in 1643, Torricelli created a practical device for measuring atmospheric pressure, revolutionizing
the understanding of air pressure and atmospheric dynamics. By filling a tube with mercury and inverting it
into a dish of mercury, he created a sustained vacuum, revealing the principle behind the barometer and
providing a tool for meteorologists to predict weather changes. This invention marked a significant step
forward in the study of fluid dynamics and established Torricelli as a trailblazer in the field.

Beyond his work on the barometer, Torricelli made substantial contributions to mathematics and
physics. As a skilled mathematician, he delved into the development of calculus, particularly in advancing the
method of indivisibles, an early form of integral calculus. His mathematical insights influenced subsequent
mathematicians and played a role in shaping the evolving field.

Additionally, Torricelli's exploration of fluid dynamics extended beyond the barometer, as he

formulated Torricelli's Law, describing the flow of fluids through an orifice and contributing fundamental
principles to the understanding of fluid mechanics. His legacy also includes advancements in optics, where he
studied the properties of lenses and investigated the refraction of light. Torricelli's work continues to be
foundational in multiple scientific disciplines, showcasing his enduring impact on the development of physics
and mathematics.
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https://byjus.com/physics/force/#types-of-force

https://studymind.co.uk/notes/contact-and-noncontact-forces/#:~:text=Examples%20of%20contact
%20forces%20include,%2C%20magnetism%2C%20and%20electric%20forces.

https://home.cern/science/physics/standard-model

https://www1.grc.nasa.gov/beginners-guide-to-aeronautics/newtons-laws-of-motion/#:~:text=Newton's
%20First%20Law%3A%20Inertia&text=Newton's%20first%20law%20states%20that,action%20of
%20an%20external%20force.

https://byjus.com/physics/frames-of-reference/

https://www.britannica.com/science/Newtons-laws-of-motion/Newtons-second-law-F-ma

https://unacademy.com/content/jee/study-material/chemistry/newtons-second-law/#:~:text=Application
%20of%20Newton's%20Second%20Law%20of%20Motion&text=We%20add%20force%20to%20a,will
%20travel%20a%20shorter%20distance.

http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/limn2.html#:~:text=only%20if%20the%20mass
%20is,acceleration%20of%20constant%20mass%20objects.

https://byjus.com/physics/frictional-force/#:~:text=Friction%20is%20the%20force%20that,is%20reduced
%20because%20of%20friction.

https://byjus.com/physics/kinetic-friction/#:~:text=Kinetic%20friction%20is%20defined%20as,Table
%20of%20Contents

https://byjus.com/physics/static-friction/#:~:text=Asked%20Questions
%20%E2%80%93%20FAQs-,What%20is%20Static%20Friction%3F,on%20which%20it%20is%20on.

https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095825257#:~:text=Resistance
%20to%20motion%20of%20a,body%20relative%20to%20the%20fluid.

https://www.khanacademy.org/science/hs-physics/x215e29cb31244fa1:forces-and-motion/
x215e29cb31244fa1:introduction-to-momentum/v/newton-s-third-law-of-motion#:~:text=Newton's
%20third%20law%20states%20that,A%20in%20the%20opposite%20direction.

https://study.com/learn/lesson/newtons-third-law-examples.html#:~:text=Three%20examples%20of
%20Newton's%20third,a%20reaction%20force%20on%20the

https://testbook.com/physics/newtons-third-law-of-motion#:~:text=Limitations%20of%20Newton's
%20Third%20Law%20of%20Motion&text=If%20a%20force%20is%20distributed,equal%20and
%20opposite%20reaction%20forces.

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-osuniversityphysics/chapter/8-2-conservative-and-non-
conservative-forces/#:~:text=A%20conservative%20force%20is%20one,work%20is%20an%20exact
%20differential.

https://www.siyavula.com/read/za/physical-sciences/grade-10/mechanical-energy/22-mechanical-energy-
05#:~:text=Law%20of%20Conservation%20of%20Mechanical%20Energy%3A%20The%20total
%20amount%20of,but%20energy%20cannot%20%E2%80%9Cdisappear%E2%80%9D.

https://www.khanacademy.org/science/physics/work-and-energy/work-and-energy-tutorial/a/what-is-
kinetic-energy#:~:text=Kinetic%20energy%20is%20the%20energy,with%20a%20new%20constant
%20speed.

https://phys.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/University_Physics/Book%3A_Physics_(Boundless)/
27%3A__Special_Relativity/27.3%3A_Relativistic_Quantities#:~:text=Relativistic%20kinetic%20energy
%20equation%20shows,E0%3Dmc2.

https://byjus.com/physics/work-energy-theorem-and-its-application/#:~:text=State%20the%20work
%20energy%20theorem,the%20change%20in%20kinetic%20energy.

https://byjus.com/physics/power/#:~:text=We%20can%20define%20power%20as,approximately
%20equal%20to%20745.7%20watts.

https://study.com/learn/lesson/power-formula-equation-examples.html#:~:text=Power%20describes
%20how%20fast%20energy,up%20stairs%2C%20and%20moving%20furniture.
https://byjus.com/jee/gravitational-potential-energy/#:~:text=Gravitational%20potential%20energy%20is
%20the,gravitational%20force%20or%20to%20gravity.

https://pressbooks.bccampus.ca/humanbiomechanics/chapter/7-3-gravitational-potential-energy-2/
#:~:text=Work%20done%20against%20gravity%20in,the%20acceleration%20due%20to%20gravity.

https://byjus.com/elastic-potential-energy-formula/#:~:text=Elastic%20potential%20energy%20is
%20the,k%20and%20the%20distance%20stretched.

https://studymind.co.uk/notes/work-done-in-a-spring/#:~:text=Work%20Done%20in%20a%20Spring
%20is%20calculated%20using%20the%20equation,it%20is%20compressed%20or%20stretched.

https://unacademy.com/content/neet-ug/study-material/physics/a-brief-note-on-conservation-of-
mechanical-energy/#:~:text=The%20law%20of%20conservation%20of%20mechanical%20energy
%20proves%20that%20the,in%20a%20system%20remains%20constant.

https://www.space.com/15898-isaac-newton.html#:~:text=Sir%20Isaac%20Newton%20contributed
%20significantly,and%20his%20laws%20of%20motion.

https://nationalmaglab.org/magnet-academy/history-of-electricity-magnetism/pioneers/james-joule/
#:~:text=James%20Prescott%20Joule%20experimented%20with,the%20resistance%20in%20a
%20circuit.

https://nationalmaglab.org/magnet-academy/history-of-electricity-magnetism/pioneers/james-watt/
#:~:text=Watt%20established%20one%20unit%20of,watt%2C%20was%20named%20after%20him.

https://study.com/learn/lesson/blaise-pascal-inventions-contributions.html#:~:text=In%20the%20field
%20of%20physics,the%20syringe%20and%20hydraulic%20press.

https://byjus.com/physics/archimedes/#:~:text=Archimedes%20invented%20the%20crucial
%20sciences,most%20precise%20value%20of%20pi.

https://study.com/academy/lesson/daniel-bernoulli-biography-inventions-atomic-
theory.html#:~:text=Daniel%20Bernoulli%20was%20a%20mathematician,a%20fluid%20to%20its
%20velocity.

https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Torricelli/#:~:text=Evangelista%20Torricelli%20was
%20an%20Italian,the%20development%20of%20the%20calculus.

https://byjus.com/physics/a-comparative-study-between-non-conservative-and-conservative-force/#a-
comparative-study-between-non-conservative-and-conservative-force

https://byjus.com/physics/conservation-of-mechanical-energy/

https://unacademy.com/content/nda/study-material/physics/types-of-force-and-examples/#:~:text=Force
%20is%20simply%20defined%20as,spring%20force%20and%20so%20on.

https://www.khanacademy.org/science/physics/forces-newtons-laws/newtons-laws-of-motion/a/what-is-
newtons-first-law#:~:text=Newton's%20first%20law%3A%20An%20object,use%20of%20the%20verb
%20remains.

https://www.britannica.com/science/Newtons-laws-of-motion

https://www1.grc.nasa.gov/beginners-guide-to-aeronautics/newtons-laws-of-motion/

https://www.toppr.com/ask/question/which-law-of-newton-defines-an-inertial-frame-ofreference/

https://www.livescience.com/37161-what-is-friction.html