Similarity Transformation

If the eigenvectors of the matrix A are chosen as the basis vectors of a transformation, P, the
resulting system matrix will be diagonal.

Although their state-space representations are different, similar systems have the same transfer function and
hence the same poles, eigenvalues, determinant.
Similarity Transformations on State Equations
Transform the system to a new set of state variables,
z, where the new state variables are related to the
original state variables, x, as follows:
Diagonalizing a System in State Space
To be an eigenvector, the transformation Ax must be collinear with x

X is not
an eigen vector X is eigen vector
State Space to a Transfer Function Conversion

Time Domain Solution of State Equations:

Zero-input response
Zero-state response

Assuming zero initial conditions:

State-transition matrix:

Transfer function:
State-Transition Matrix
A matrix whose product with the state vector x at the time t0 gives x at a time t, where t0 denotes the initial time.

Find the eigenvalues using:

Since each term of the STM is the sum of responses generated by the eigenvalues:
Transfer function
Nonlinearities
• Output of the system varies linearly with input and system satisfies additivity and homogeneity properties
(combinedly Superposition principle).

• An electronic amplifier is linear over a specific range but exhibits the nonlinearity called saturation at high
input voltages.
• A motor that does not respond at very low input voltages due to frictional forces exhibits a nonlinearity
called dead zone.
• Gears that do not fit tightly exhibit a nonlinearity called backlash: The input moves over a small range
without the output responding.
A linear relationship can be established at a point on the nonlinear curve if range of input values about that
point is small and the origin is translated to that point.
Linearization
• Identify nonlinear components in the systems & write the nonlinear differential equation describing the
system.
• When we linearize a nonlinear differential equation, we linearize it for small-signal inputs about the steady-
state solution when the small-signal input is equal to zero.
• This steady-state solution is called equilibrium.
• For example, when a pendulum is at rest, it is at equilibrium. The angular displacement is described by a
nonlinear differential equation, but it can be expressed with a linear differential equation for small
excursions about this equilibrium point.
• We linearize the nonlinear differential equation, and apply Laplace transform on linearized differential
equation to find TF, assuming zero initial conditions.
• Consider a system whose input is x(t) and output is y(t). Here, y=f(x)
• If the normal operating condition corresponds to then y=f(x) expanded into a Taylor series about this
point as follows:
For small excursions of x
P1. Linearization

Cosine curve does indeed look like a straight line of

slope 5 near π=2.
 P2. Linearization
Linearize for small excursions about

The presence of the term cos(x) makes this equation nonlinear. Since we want to linearize the equation about
P3. Linearization
Linearize the nonlinear equation z=xy in the region
 P4. Linearization
In the steady state, the voltage across the inductor will be zero,
since di/dt is zero in the steady state, given a constant battery source
20 V 14.78 A
Small-signal
source which is the equilibrium value of the network current.

TF for small excursions about i = 14.78 or, equivalently, about v(t)= 0.

P5. Linearize Simple pendulum

Linearize the state equations about the pendulum’s equilibrium

point—the vertical position with zero angular velocity, i.e., x1 = 0; x2 = 0.

Mg is the weight,
T is an applied torque in the θ direction,
L is the length of the pendulum. which are linear and a
good approximation for
Assume the mass is evenly distributed, small excursions away from
with the center of mass at L/2. the equilibrium point.
P6. Nonlinear translational mechanical system
The spring is nonlinear, where the relationship between
the spring force and the spring displacement is

Assume the output to be the displacement of the mass, x(t).

The applied force is

The applied force at equilibrium is 10N.