LIPIDS

MC 2: Biochemistry
Faisal H. Jackarain, RN, MPH, CLSSYB
Faculty, Manila Doctors College of Nursing
 STRUCTURE AND
CLASSIFICATION OF LIPIDS
• Lipid: An organic compound found in living organisms that is
insoluble (or only sparingly soluble) in water but soluble in
non-polar organic solvents
• Unlike other biomolecules, lipids do not have a common
structural feature that serves as the basis for defining such
compounds
• Classification is based on two methods
– Biochemical function
– Saponification
 STRUCTURE AND
CLASSIFICATION OF LIPIDS
CLASSIFICATION BASED ON BIOCHEMICAL FUNCTION
• For purposes of simplicity of study, lipids are divided into five
categories based on their biochemical function:
– Energy-storage lipids (triacylglycerols)
– Membrane lipids (phospholipids, sphingoglycolipids, and
cholesterol)
– Emulsification lipids (bile acids)
– Messenger lipids (steroid hormones and eicosanoids)
– Protective-coating lipids (biological waxes)
 STRUCTURE AND
CLASSIFICATION OF LIPIDS
CLASSIFICATION BASED ON SAPONIFICATION
• Saponification reaction - Hydrolysis reaction that occurs in a basic
solution
• Based on saponification reactions, lipids are divided into two
categories:
– Saponifiable lipids (triacylglycerols, phospholipids,
sphingoglycolipids, cholesterol, and biological waxes)
– Nonsaponifiable lipids (bile acids, steroid hormones, and
eicosanoids)
 STRUCTURE AND
CLASSIFICATION OF LIPIDS
STRUCTURAL DIVERSITY OF LIPIDS
• Lipids exhibit structural diversity
• Some are esters, some are amides, and some are alcohols
(acyclic, cyclic, and polycyclic)
Figure 19.1 - Structural Formula of Types of Lipids
 STRUCTURE AND
CLASSIFICATION OF LIPIDS
A lipid is an organic compound found in living organisms that is:

a.soluble in water and insoluble in nonpolar organic solvents.

b.soluble in water and soluble in nonpolar organic solvents.
c.insoluble in water and insoluble in nonpolar organic solvents.
d.insoluble in water and soluble in nonpolar organic solvents.
 STRUCTURE AND
CLASSIFICATION OF LIPIDS
A lipid is an organic compound found in living organisms that is:

a.soluble in water and insoluble in nonpolar organic solvents.

b.soluble in water and soluble in nonpolar organic solvents.
c.insoluble in water and insoluble in nonpolar organic solvents.
d.insoluble in water and soluble in nonpolar organic solvents.
TYPES OF FATTY ACIDS
• Fatty acids: Naturally occurring monocarboxylic acids with
linear (unbranched) carbon chain
– Have even number of carbon atoms
• Long-chain fatty acids (C12 to C26 )
• Medium-chain fatty acids (C8 to C10 )
• Short-chain fatty acids (C4 to C6 )
• Two types:
– Saturated - All C–C bonds are single bonds
– Unsaturated
• Monounsaturated
• Polyunsaturated
TYPES OF FATTY ACIDS
SATURATED FATTY ACIDS
• Fatty acids with a carbon chain in which all C–C
bonds are single bonds
• Numbering starts from the end of –COOH group
• Consider the structural notations for palmitic acid:
TYPES OF FATTY ACIDS
UNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS
• Monounsaturated fatty acid: Fatty acid with a
carbon chain in which one carbon–carbon double
bond is present
• There are different ways of depicting the structure
TYPES OF FATTY ACIDS

POLYUNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS (PUFAs)

• Fatty acids with a carbon chain in which two or more
carbon–carbon double bonds are present
• Up to six double bonds are found in biochemically
important PUFAs
TYPES OF FATTY ACIDS

DOUBLE-BOND POSITION IN UNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS

• Numbering starts from the other end of –COOH
• Structural notation indicates number of C atoms
• Example:
– 18:2 signifies that a fatty acid has 18 carbons with 2
double bonds
TYPES OF FATTY ACIDS

TYPES OF UNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS

• Omega (ω)-3 fatty acid: Unsaturated fatty acid with its
endmost double bond three carbon atoms away from its
methyl end

• Omega (ω)-6 fatty acid: Unsaturated fatty acid with its

endmost double bond six carbon atoms away from its
methyl end
TYPES OF FATTY ACIDS

A fatty acid is a naturally occurring _____ acid that nearly

always contains an _____ number of carbon atoms with a
carbon chain that is _____.

a.monocarboxylic; even; branched

b.dicarboxylic; odd; unbranched
c.monocarboxylic; even; unbranched
d.dicarboxylic; even; branched
TYPES OF FATTY ACIDS

A fatty acid is a naturally occurring _____ acid that nearly

always contains an _____ number of carbon atoms with a
carbon chain that is _____.

a.monocarboxylic; even; branched

b.dicarboxylic; odd; unbranched
c.monocarboxylic; even; unbranched
d.dicarboxylic; even; branched
TYPES OF FATTY ACIDS

Which of the following statements is true about the classification

of fatty acids?

a.They are classified as saturated, monounsaturated, or

polyunsaturated fatty acids.
b.They are classified as saturated or branched unsaturated fatty
acids.
c.They are classified as saturated or polyunsaturated fatty acids.
d.None of the above.
TYPES OF FATTY ACIDS

Which of the following statements is true about the classification

of fatty acids?

a.They are classified as saturated, monounsaturated, or

polyunsaturated fatty acids.
b.They are classified as saturated or branched unsaturated fatty
acids.
c.They are classified as saturated or polyunsaturated fatty acids.
d.None of the above.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF
FATTY ACIDS
WATER SOLUBILITY
• Short-chain fatty acids have some solubility,
whereas long-chain fatty acids are insoluble
• Short-chain fatty acids are sparingly soluble
because of the presence of carboxylic group
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF
FATTY ACIDS
MELTING POINT
• Depends upon the
following:
– Length of carbon chain
– Degree of unsaturation
(number of double bonds in a
molecule)
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF
FATTY ACIDS
• Number of “bends” in a fatty
acid chain increases as the
number of double bonds
increases
• Less packing occurs
• Melting point is lower
• Tend to be liquid at room
temperature
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF
FATTY ACIDS
Which of the following best describe the physical
properties of fatty acids?
a.Melting points of fatty acids are influenced by the carbon
chain length.
b.Melting points of fatty acids are influenced by their degree of
unsaturation.
c.All physical properties of fatty acids are influenced by the
length and degree of unsaturation of their carbon chain.
d.All the above.
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF
FATTY ACIDS
Which of the following best describe the physical
properties of fatty acids?
a.Melting points of fatty acids are influenced by the carbon
chain length.
b.Melting points of fatty acids are influenced by their degree of
unsaturation.
c.All physical properties of fatty acids are influenced by the
length and degree of unsaturation of their carbon chain.
d.All the above.
 ENERGY-STORAGE LIPIDS:
TRIACYLGLYCEROLS
ENERGY-STORAGE MATERIALS
• With the notable exception of nerve cells, human cells
store small amounts of energy-providing materials
– Carbohydrate glycogen - Most widespread energy
storage material present in small amounts
• Major energy-storage material is triacylglycerol
– Concentrated primarily in special cells (adipocytes)
which are nearly filled with triacylglycerols
 ENERGY-STORAGE LIPIDS:
TRIACYLGLYCEROLS
TWO TYPES OF TRIACYLGLYCEROLS:
• Simple triacylglycerol: Triester formed from the
esterification if glycerol with three identical fatty acid
molecules
– Naturally occurring simple triacylglycerols are rare
• Mixed triacylglycerol: Triester formed from the
esterification of glycerol with more than one kind of fatty
acid molecule
ENERGY-STORAGE LIPIDS:
TRIACYLGLYCEROLS
FATS AND OILS
• Fats:
– Predominantly Saturated
– Solids or semisolids at room temperature
– Source: Animals
• Oils:
– Predominantly unsaturated
– Liquids at room temperature
– Sources: Plants and fish oil
• Pure oils and fats are colorless, odorless, and tasteless
 ENERGY-STORAGE LIPIDS:
TRIACYLGLYCEROLS
Triacylglycerols are _____ in their ability to store energy when
compared to glycogen, the energy storing form of glucose in the
human body.

a.less efficient
b.more efficient
c.equally efficient
d.insignificant
 DIETARY CONSIDERATIONS AND
TRIACYLGLYCEROLS
Studies Concerning Role of Dietary Factors as a Cause of
Disease
• Nations whose citizens have high dietary intakes of fats and
oils tend to have higher incidences of heart disease and
certain types of cancers
• Typical American diet contains too much fat
– Americans are being asked to reduce their total dietary fat
intake
• Other studies show that risk factors involve more than
simply the total amount of triacylglycerols consumed
 DIETARY CONSIDERATIONS AND
TRIACYLGLYCEROLS
“Good Fats” Versus “Bad Fats”
• Studies indicate that type of dietary fat and amount of
dietary fat are important to determine body responses to
dietary fat
• Current recommended amount for total fat intake in
calories:
– 15% - Monounsaturated fat
– 10% - Polyunsaturated
– <10% - Saturated fats
 DIETARY CONSIDERATIONS AND
TRIACYLGLYCEROLS
“Good Fats” Versus “Bad Fats”
• Studies also indicate that:
– Saturated fats are considered “bad fats”
– Monounsaturated fats are considered “good fats”
– Polyunsaturated fats can be both “good fats” and
“bad fats”
• Omega fats are important
 DIETARY CONSIDERATIONS AND
TRIACYLGLYCEROLS

OMEGA-6 AND OMEGA-3 FATTY ACIDS IN

AMERICAN DIET
• American diet is high in omega-6 fatty acids and
deficient in omega-3 fatty acids
– Fish are a good source for omega-3 fatty acids
 DIETARY CONSIDERATIONS AND
TRIACYLGLYCEROLS
ESSENTIAL FATTY ACIDS
• Fatty acids that must be obtained from dietary sources because
they cannot be synthesized within the body
• Two most important essential fatty acids are:
– Linoleic acid (18:2) - Omega 6
– Linolenic acid (18:3) - Omega 3
• Needed for proper membrane structure
• Serve as starting materials for the production of several
nutritionally important longer-chain omega-6 and omega-3 fatty
acids
DIETARY CONSIDERATIONS AND
TRIACYLGLYCEROLS
DEFICIENCY OF LINOLEIC AND LINOLENIC ACID
• Results in:
– Skin redness
– Infections and dehydration
– Liver abnormalities
DIETARY CONSIDERATIONS AND
TRIACYLGLYCEROLS
FAT AND FATTY ACID COMPOSITION OF NUTS
• Numerous studies now indicate that eating nuts
can have a strong protective effect against
coronary heart disease
– Low amounts of saturated fatty acids
– Also contain valuable antioxidant vitamins,
minerals, and plant fiber protein
DIETARY CONSIDERATIONS AND
TRIACYLGLYCEROLS
Considerable research in the past two decades has shown
that high intake of dietary triacylglycerols causes diseases
such as obesity, cancer, hypertension, and atherosclerosis.
This is not true for the Inuit people of Greenland because
their diet is high in _____ fatty acids.
a.saturated
b.Omega-3
c.Omega-6
d.Omega-9
DIETARY CONSIDERATIONS AND
TRIACYLGLYCEROLS
Considerable research in the past two decades has shown
that high intake of dietary triacylglycerols causes diseases
such as obesity, cancer, hypertension, and atherosclerosis.
This is not true for the Inuit people of Greenland because
their diet is high in _____ fatty acids.
a.saturated
b.Omega-3
c.Omega-6
d.Omega-9
CHEMICAL REACTIONS OF
TRIACYLGLYCEROLS
HYDROLYSIS
• Chemical properties of triacylglycerols are typical
of the functional groups esters and alkenes
• Carried out by enzymes produced by the pancreas
in a stepwise manner
– Breaking of outer fatty acids produces
diacylglycerol and monoacylglycerol
• Complete hydrolysis - When all three fatty acids
are removed
• Partial hydrolysis - When one or more fatty acid
residue remains
 CHEMICAL REACTIONS OF
TRIACYLGLYCEROLS
SAPONIFICATION
• Hydrolysis in basic solution
• Products: Fatty acid and glycerol salts

Fat or oil +3H2O ⎯⎯→ 3 fatty acids + glycerol

3 fatty acids +3 NaOH ⎯⎯→ 3 fatty acid salts +3 H2 O
CHEMICAL REACTIONS OF
TRIACYLGLYCEROLS
HYDROGENATION
• Addition of hydrogen across C–C multiple bonds,
which increases degree of saturation
• Many food products are produced by partial
hydrogenation of oils and fats
– Peanut oil → Peanut butter
– Liquid plant oil → Margarine
CHEMICAL REACTIONS OF
TRIACYLGLYCEROLS
HYDROGENATION
• Addition of hydrogen across C–C multiple bonds, which
increases degree of saturation
• Many food products are produced by partial hydrogenation of
oils and fats
– Peanut oil → Peanut butter
– Liquid plant oil → Margarine
CHEMICAL REACTIONS OF
TRIACYLGLYCEROLS
HYDROGENATION
• Addition of hydrogen across C–C multiple bonds, which
increases degree of saturation
• Many food products are produced by partial hydrogenation of
oils and fats
– Peanut oil → Peanut butter
– Liquid plant oil → Margarine
CHEMICAL REACTIONS OF
TRIACYLGLYCEROLS
OXIDATION
• Double bonds in triacylglycerols are subject to
oxidation with oxygen (an oxidizing agent)
• Leads to C=C breakage that produces both
aldehyde and carboxylic acid products
– Products often have objectionable odors, and
fats and oils are said to be rancid
• To avoid this unwanted oxidation process,
antioxidants are added as preservatives
– Example: Vitamin C and vitamin E are
naturally occurring antioxidant
 CHEMICAL REACTIONS OF
TRIACYLGLYCEROLS

What are the important triacylglycerol reactions?

a.Hydrolysis, hydrogenation, and oxidation
b.Hydrogenation, saponification, and hydrolysis
c.Hydrolysis, saponification, hydrogenation, and
oxidation
d.Hydrolysis, saponification, oxidation, and
hydrohalogenation
 CHEMICAL REACTIONS OF
TRIACYLGLYCEROLS

What are the important triacylglycerol reactions?

a.Hydrolysis, hydrogenation, and oxidation
b.Hydrogenation, saponification, and hydrolysis
c.Hydrolysis, saponification, hydrogenation, and
oxidation
d.Hydrolysis, saponification, oxidation, and
hydrohalogenation
 CHEMICAL REACTIONS OF
TRIACYLGLYCEROLS

Partial triacylglycerol hydrolysis occurs during the

process of digestion in the human body, and it
produces a _____ and _____.
a.glycerol; three fatty acids
b.diacylglycerol; two fatty acids
c.monoacylglycerol; one fatty acid
d.monoacylglycerol; two fatty acids
 CHEMICAL REACTIONS OF
TRIACYLGLYCEROLS

Partial triacylglycerol hydrolysis occurs during the

process of digestion in the human body, and it
produces a _____ and _____.
a.glycerol; three fatty acids
b.diacylglycerol; two fatty acids
c.monoacylglycerol; one fatty acid
d.monoacylglycerol; two fatty acids
 CHEMICAL REACTIONS OF
TRIACYLGLYCEROLS

Which of the following statements regarding saponification of

triacylglycerols is correct?
a.Saponification is a hydrolysis reaction carried out in an alkaline (basic)
solution.
b.Saponification of animal fats is the process by which soaps were
made in pioneer times.
c.Saponification is a hydrolysis reaction resulting in the formation of
carboxylate ions.
d.All the above.
 CHEMICAL REACTIONS OF
TRIACYLGLYCEROLS

Which of the following statements regarding saponification of

triacylglycerols is correct?
a.Saponification is a hydrolysis reaction carried out in an alkaline (basic)
solution.
b.Saponification of animal fats is the process by which soaps were
made in pioneer times.
c.Saponification is a hydrolysis reaction resulting in the formation of
carboxylate ions.
d.All the above.
 CHEMICAL REACTIONS OF
TRIACYLGLYCEROLS

What process is utilized to convert liquid plant oils into

semi-solid materials that, when ingested, play a role in
raising blood cholesterol levels?

a.Halogenation
b.Hydrohalogenation
c.Hydrogenation
d.Hydrolysis
 CHEMICAL REACTIONS OF
TRIACYLGLYCEROLS

What process is utilized to convert liquid plant oils into

semi-solid materials that, when ingested, play a role in
raising blood cholesterol levels?

a.Halogenation
b.Hydrohalogenation
c.Hydrogenation
d.Hydrolysis
 CHEMICAL REACTIONS OF
TRIACYLGLYCEROLS

What process results in breaking the carboncarbon

double bonds producing both short chain aldehyde and
carboxylic acid products causing the fats and oils to
become rancid?
a.Oxidation
b.Hydrolysis
c.Saponification
d.Hydrogenation
 CHEMICAL REACTIONS OF
TRIACYLGLYCEROLS

What process results in breaking the carboncarbon

double bonds producing both short chain aldehyde and
carboxylic acid products causing the fats and oils to
become rancid?
a.Oxidation
b.Hydrolysis
c.Saponification
d.Hydrogenation
MEMBRANE LIPIDS: PHOSPHOLIPIDS
An Introduction
• All cells are surrounded by a membrane that
confines their contents
• Up to 80% of the mass of a cell membrane can be
lipid materials dominated by phospholipids
• Phospholipid: Lipid that contains one or more
fatty acids, a phosphate group, a platform molecule
to which the fatty acid(s) and the phosphate group
are attached, and an alcohol that is attached to the
phosphate group
MEMBRANE LIPIDS: PHOSPHOLIPIDS
Types of Phospholipids Based on Platform Molecule
MEMBRANE LIPIDS: PHOSPHOLIPIDS
GLYCEROPHOSPHOLIPIDS
• Lipids that contain two fatty acids and a
phosphate group esterified to a glycerol molecule
and an alcohol esterified to the phosphate group
• All attachments (bonds) between groups are
ester linkages
– Contain four ester linkages when contrasted
to three ester linkages in triacylglycerols
MEMBRANE LIPIDS: PHOSPHOLIPIDS
GLYCEROPHOSPHOLIPIDS
• Undergo hydrolysis and saponification reactions in
a manner similar to that for triacylglycerols
• The alcohol attached to the phosphate group in a
glycophospholipid is usually one of three amino
alcohols:
– Choline - Phosphatidylcholines
– Ethanolamine - Phosphatidylethanolamines
– Serine - Phosphatidylserines
MEMBRANE LIPIDS: PHOSPHOLIPIDS
GLYCEROPHOSPHOLIPIDS
• Structurally glycerophospholipids are similar to
triacylglycerols, but they have different biochemical
functions
– Triacylglycerols serve as energy-storage molecules
– Glycerophospholipids function as components of cell
membranes
– A major structural difference between the two types
of lipids is that of their “polarity”, which is responsible
for their differing biochemical functions
• Triacylglycerols are a nonpolar
• Glycerophospholipids are polar
MEMBRANE LIPIDS: PHOSPHOLIPIDS
SPHINGOPHOSPHOLIPIDS
• Structures based on the
18-carbon monounsaturated
aminodialcohol sphingosine
• Contains one fatty acid and
one phosphate group
attached to a sphingosine
molecule, and an alcohol
attached to the phosphate
group
MEMBRANE LIPIDS: PHOSPHOLIPIDS
SPHINGOPHOSPHOLIPIDS
• Participate in hydrolysis and saponification
reaction
• Sphingophospholipids in which the alcohol
esterified to the phosphate group is choline are
called sphingomyelins
– Found in all cell membranes and are
important structural components of the
myelin sheath of neurons
MEMBRANE LIPIDS: PHOSPHOLIPIDS

What is the most abundant type of

membrane lipid?
a.Cholesterol
b.Sphingoglycolipids
c.Phospholipids
d.Eicosanoids
MEMBRANE LIPIDS: PHOSPHOLIPIDS

What is the most abundant type of

membrane lipid?
a.Cholesterol
b.Sphingoglycolipids
c.Phospholipids
d.Eicosanoids
MEMBRANE LIPIDS: SPHINGOGLYCOLIPIDS
SPHINGOPHOSPHOLIPIDS
• Contains both a fatty acid
and a carbohydrate
component attached to a
sphingosine molecule
MEMBRANE LIPIDS: SPHINGOGLYCOLIPIDS
CEREBROSIDES
• Simplest sphingoglycolipids
• Contain a single monosaccharide unit–either glucose or
galactose
• Occur primarily in brain (7% of dry mass)
MEMBRANE LIPIDS: SPHINGOGLYCOLIPIDS

GANGLIOSIDES
• Complex sphingoglycolipids
• Contain a branched chain of up to seven
monosaccharide residues
• Occur in the gray matter of the brain as well as in
the myelin sheath
MEMBRANE LIPIDS: SPHINGOGLYCOLIPIDS

What is the membrane lipid, sphingoglycolipid, made

up of?
a. sphingosine; fatty acid; monosaccharide
b. sphingosine; fatty acid; oligosaccharide
c. sphingosine; glycerol; fatty acid
d. Both (a) and (b)
MEMBRANE LIPIDS: SPHINGOGLYCOLIPIDS

What is the membrane lipid, sphingoglycolipid, made

up of?
a. sphingosine; fatty acid; monosaccharide
b. sphingosine; fatty acid; oligosaccharide
c. sphingosine; glycerol; fatty acid
d. Both (a) and (b)
MEMBRANE LIPIDS: CHOLESTEROL
CHOLESTEROL –
THIRD MAJOR TYPE OF MEMBRANE LIPID
• Is a steroid
– Lipid whose structure is based on a fused-ring system
of three 6-membered rings and one 5membered ring
• Cholesterol: C 27 steroid molecule and precursor for other
steroid-based lipids
– Important in human cell membranes, nerve tissue, and
brain tissue
– Important in chemical synthesis of various hormones
and vitamins essential for life
MEMBRANE LIPIDS: CHOLESTEROL
MEMBRANE LIPIDS: CHOLESTEROL

Cholesterol in Food
• Liver synthesizes almost 1g of cholesterol everyday
– Not necessary to consume in the form of diet
• Cholesterol ingestion decreases biosynthetic
cholesterol production
• Animal food contains lots of cholesterol
• Plant food contains negligible amounts of cholesterol
MEMBRANE LIPIDS: SPHINGOGLYCOLIPIDS
The membrane lipid cholesterol is a steroid whose
structure is based on a fused-ring system that
involves _____ six-membered ring(s) and _____
five-membered ring(s).
a.2, 2
b.3, 2
c.3, 1
d.1, 3
MEMBRANE LIPIDS: SPHINGOGLYCOLIPIDS
The membrane lipid cholesterol is a steroid whose
structure is based on a fused-ring system that
involves _____ six-membered ring(s) and _____
five-membered ring(s).
a.2, 2
b.3, 2
c.3, 1
d.1, 3
CELL MEMBRANE
CELL MEMBRANE (PLASMA MEMBRANE)
• Lipid-based structure that separates aqueous interior of
a cell from the aqueous environment surrounding the cell
– Up to 80% of plasma membrane is lipid material
• The membranes are lipid bilayers made up of
phospholipids
– Lipid bilayer: Nonpolar tails of phospholipids are in
the middle and polar heads are on the surface
• 6–9 nanometers thick
• Contains at least one unsaturated fatty acid
CELL MEMBRANE
CELL MEMBRANE
Cholesterol and Cell Membrane
• Cholesterol molecules are also components of plasma
membranes
– Cholesterol helps regulate membrane fluidity–the fused-ring
system does not allow rotation of fatty acid tails in the vicinity
– Fits between fatty acid chains of the lipid bilayer
CELL MEMBRANE
Membrane Proteins
• Lipid bilayers also contain proteins
– Responsible for moving substances such as
nutrients and electrolytes across the membrane
– Act as receptors that bind hormones and
neurotransmitters
• The membrane proteins and some lipids further react
with carbohydrate molecules
– Act as markers, substances that play roles in
processes by which different cells recognize each
other
CELL MEMBRANE
Figure 19.21 - Proteins as Important Structural Components of Cell Membranes
CELL MEMBRANE
Transport Across Cell Membranes
• To maintain cellular processes, various types of
molecules are transported across the cell membranes
• Three types of transport:
– Passive transport
– Facilitated transport
– Active transport
CELL MEMBRANE
Passive Transport
• Process in which a substance moves across a cell
membrane by diffusion from a region of higher
concentration to a region of lower concentration
– No cellular energy expenditure
– Only a few types of molecules, including O2 , N2 ,
urea, and ethanol, can cross membranes by this
process
CELL MEMBRANE
Facilitated Transport
• Process in which a substance moves across a cell
membrane, with the aid of a membrane protein, from a
region of higher concentration to a region of lower
concentration
– No cellular energy expenditure
– Specific protein carriers or transporters are
involved in the process
CELL MEMBRANE
Active Transport
• Process in which a substance moves across a cell
membrane, with the aid of membrane proteins, against
a concentration gradient
– Involves expenditure of cellular energy
• Supplied by ATP molecules
– Proteins involved in active transport are called
“pumps”
CELL MEMBRANE
CELL MEMBRANE
CELL MEMBRANE

Which of the following polarity-based descriptions

is correct for the interior of a lipid bilayer?
a.Polar heads
b.Nonpolar heads
c.Nonpolar tails
d.None of the above
CELL MEMBRANE

Which of the following polarity-based descriptions

is correct for the interior of a lipid bilayer?
a.Polar heads
b.Nonpolar heads
c.Nonpolar tails
d.None of the above
CELL MEMBRANE

What type of transport across membranes requires

the expenditure of cellular energy?
a.Passive
b.Facilitated
c.Active
d.Dialysis
CELL MEMBRANE

What type of transport across membranes requires

the expenditure of cellular energy?
a.Passive
b.Facilitated
c.Active
d.Dialysis
EMULSIFICATION LIPIDS:
BILE ACIDS
• Emulsifier: Substance that can disperse and stabilize
water-insoluble substances as colloidal particles in an
aqueous solution
• Bile acid: Cholesterol derivative that functions as an
emulsifying agent that makes dietary lipids soluble in
aqueous environment of the digestive tract
– Approximately one third of cholesterol produced
by liver is converted to bile acids
– Similar to the action of soap in washing process
EMULSIFICATION LIPIDS:
BILE ACIDS
BILE ACIDS
• Tri- or dihydroxy cholesterol derivatives
• The carbon 17 side chain of cholesterol has been
oxidized to a carboxylic acid
– The oxidized acid side chain is bonded to an
amino acid (either glycine or taurine) through an
amide linkage
• Bile: A fluid containing emulsifying agents secreted
by the liver, stored in the gallbladder, and released into
the small intestine during digestion
EMULSIFICATION LIPIDS:
BILE ACIDS
EMULSIFICATION LIPIDS:
BILE ACIDS

What cholesterol derivative(s) function as a

lipidemulsifying agent in the aqueous environment
of the digestive tract?
a.Cholic acid
b.12-deoxycholic acid
c.7-deoxycholic acid
d.All of these
EMULSIFICATION LIPIDS:
BILE ACIDS

What cholesterol derivative(s) function as a

lipidemulsifying agent in the aqueous environment
of the digestive tract?
a.Cholic acid
b.12-deoxycholic acid
c.7-deoxycholic acid
d.All of these
MESSENGER LIPIDS:
STEROID HORMONES
HORMONES
• Biochemical substances produced by a ductless
gland that has a messenger function
• Serve as a means of communication between various
tissues
– Some hormones are lipids
• The lipids that play the role of “chemical messengers”
include:
– Steroid hormone - Derivative of cholesterol
– Eicosanoid - Derivative of fatty acids
MESSENGER LIPIDS:
STEROID HORMONES
HORMONES
• There are two major classes of steroid hormones:

– Sex hormones - Control reproduction and secondary

sex characteristics
– Adrenocorticoid hormones - Regulate numerous
biochemical processes in the body
MESSENGER LIPIDS:
STEROID HORMONES

SEX HORMONES
• Classified into three major subclasses:
– Estrogens—the female sex hormones
– Androgens—the male sex hormones
– Progestins—the pregnancy hormones
MESSENGER LIPIDS:
STEROID HORMONES
MESSENGER LIPIDS:
STEROID HORMONES
MESSENGER LIPIDS:
STEROID HORMONES
ADRENOCORTICOID HORMONES
• Produced by the adrenal glands
• 28 Different hormones have been isolated from the
adrenal cortex
• Types of adrenocorticoid hormones:
+
– Mineralocorticoids - Control the balance of Na
+
and K ions in cells
– Glucocorticoids - Control glucose metabolism
and counteract inflammation
MESSENGER LIPIDS:
STEROID HORMONES
MESSENGER LIPIDS:
STEROID HORMONES

What are the two large families of lipids that have

messenger functions?
a.Steroid hormones and phospholipids
b.Steroid hormones and eicosanoids
c.Steroid hormones and triacylglycerols
d.Steroid hormones and sphingolipids
MESSENGER LIPIDS:
STEROID HORMONES

What are the two large families of lipids that have

messenger functions?
a.Steroid hormones and phospholipids
b.Steroid hormones and eicosanoids
c.Steroid hormones and triacylglycerols
d.Steroid hormones and sphingolipids
MESSENGER LIPIDS:
EICOSANOIDS
EICOSANOIDS
• Arachidonic acid (20:4) derivatives
• Have profound physiological effects at extremely low
concentrations
• Are hormone-like molecules
• Exert their effects in the tissues where they are
synthesized
• Usually have a very short “life”
MESSENGER LIPIDS:
EICOSANOIDS
PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF EICOSANOIDS
• Include mediation of:
1. Inflammatory response
2. Production of pain and fever
3. Regulation of blood pressure
4. Induction of blood clotting
5. Control of reproductive functions, such as
induction of labor
6. Regulation of the sleep/wake cycle
MESSENGER LIPIDS:
EICOSANOIDS
PRINCIPAL TYPES OF EICOSANOIDS
1. Prostaglandin: C20 -fatty-acid derivative containing
cyclopentane ring and oxygencontaining functional groups
– Involved in:
• Raising body temperature
• Inhibiting the secretion of gastric juices
• Increasing the secretion of a protective mucus layer into
the stomach
• Relaxing and contracting smooth muscle
• Directing water and electrolyte balance
• Intensifying pain and enhancing inflammation responses
MESSENGER LIPIDS:
EICOSANOIDS
PRINCIPAL TYPES OF EICOSANOIDS
2. Thromboxane: C20 -fatty-acid derivative containing
a cyclic ether ring and oxygencontaining functional
groups
̶Promote platelet aggregation
3. Leukotriene: C20 -fatty-acid derivative containing
three conjugated double bonds and hydroxy groups
– Promote inflammatory and hypersensitivity
(allergy) responses
MESSENGER LIPIDS:
EICOSANOIDS
MESSENGER LIPIDS:
EICOSANOIDS
The physiological effects of eicosanoids include
mediation of:
a.the inflammatory response and the regulation of
blood pressure.
b.the production of pain and fever and the regulation of
the sleep/wake cycle.
c.the induction of blood clotting and the control of the
reproductive functions.
d.all the above.
MESSENGER LIPIDS:
EICOSANOIDS
The physiological effects of eicosanoids include
mediation of:
a.the inflammatory response and the regulation of
blood pressure.
b.the production of pain and fever and the regulation of
the sleep/wake cycle.
c.the induction of blood clotting and the control of the
reproductive functions.
d.all the above.
PROTECTIVE-COATING LIPIDS:
BIOLOGICAL WAXES
BIOLOGICAL WAX
• Monoester of a long-chain fatty acid and a longchain
alcohol
• The fatty acids found in biological waxes:
– Generally saturated fatty acids
– Contain 14 to 36 carbon atoms
• The alcohols found in biological waxes:
– May be saturated or unsaturated
– May contain 16 to 30 carbon atoms
PROTECTIVE-COATING LIPIDS:
BIOLOGICAL WAXES
What is the chemical makeup of a biological wax?
a.A monoester of a long-chain fatty acid and a
short-chain alcohol
b.A monoester of a short-chain fatty acid and a
short-chain alcohol
c.A monoester of a short-chain fatty acid and a
long-chain alcohol
d.A monoester of a long-chain fatty acid and a
long-chain alcohol
PROTECTIVE-COATING LIPIDS:
BIOLOGICAL WAXES
What is the chemical makeup of a biological wax?
a.A monoester of a long-chain fatty acid and a
short-chain alcohol
b.A monoester of a short-chain fatty acid and a
short-chain alcohol
c.A monoester of a short-chain fatty acid and a
long-chain alcohol
d.A monoester of a long-chain fatty acid and a
long-chain alcohol
SAPONIFIABLE AND
NONSAPONIFIABLE LIPIDS
SAPONIFIABLE LIPIDS
• Lipids that undergo hydrolysis in a basic solution to
yield 2 or more small molecules
• Linkage makeup:
– Triacylglycerols—3 ester bonds
– Glycerophospholipids—4 ester bonds
– Sphingophospholipids—1 amide and 2 ester bonds
– Sphingoglycolipids—1 amide, 1 ester, and 1
glycosidic bond
– Biological waxes—1 ester bond
SAPONIFIABLE AND
NONSAPONIFIABLE LIPIDS
Figure 19.31 - Classification of Lipids
SAPONIFIABLE AND
NONSAPONIFIABLE LIPIDS

Which of the following is a nonsaponifiable lipid?

a.Sphingophospholipids
b.Triacylglycerols
c.Steroid hormones
d.Glycerophospholipids
Concept Question 1
Triacylglycerols found in animals are solids and are called
fats; however, those found in plants are liquids and are called
oils. What is the structural difference in the triacylglycerol
animal fats and plant oils?
a.Triacylglycerols in fats are composed of unsaturated fatty acids,
and in oils, they are composed of saturated fatty acids.
b.Triacylglycerols in fats are composed of saturated fatty acids,
and in oils, they are composed of unsaturated fatty acids.
c.Fats are triacylglycerol mixtures that are liquid at room
temperature, and oils are triacylglycerol mixtures that are solid at
room temperature.
d.None of the above.
Concept Question 1
Triacylglycerols found in animals are solids and are called
fats; however, those found in plants are liquids and are called
oils. What is the structural difference in the triacylglycerol
animal fats and plant oils?
a.Triacylglycerols in fats are composed of unsaturated fatty acids,
and in oils, they are composed of saturated fatty acids.
b.Triacylglycerols in fats are composed of saturated fatty acids,
and in oils, they are composed of unsaturated fatty acids.
c.Fats are triacylglycerol mixtures that are liquid at room
temperature, and oils are triacylglycerol mixtures that are solid at
room temperature.
d.None of the above.
Concept Question 2
As a result of injury or damage to bodily tissue,
inflammation occurs, which is mediated by _____
that belongs to a class of messenger lipids known
as _____.
a.thromboxanes; steroids
b.prostaglandins; steroids
c.thromboxanes; eicosanoids
d.prostaglandins; eicosanoids
Concept Question 2
As a result of injury or damage to bodily tissue,
inflammation occurs, which is mediated by _____
that belongs to a class of messenger lipids known
as _____.
a.thromboxanes; steroids
b.prostaglandins; steroids
c.thromboxanes; eicosanoids
d.prostaglandins; eicosanoids