Anatomy and Physiology

Chapter 1: Human Organism Major Organs of the Body

Anatomy & Physiology

investigates body structure

Anatomy
to dissect
Systemic
studies body organ-systems
Anatomy
Regional studies body regions
Anatomy organization of the body areas
Surface
studies external features,
Anatomy
Anatomical using technologies (x-rays,
imaging ultrasound, MRI)
Study of nature
investigates processes and
functions
Physiology Examining body’s response to
stimuli
Examining body’s maintenance to
stable internal condition
Human
Study of human organism
Physiology
Systemic
studies body organ-systems
Physiology
Cellular studies body cells; functions of
Physiology organ system
Importance of Anatomy and Physiology
responds to stimuli
Stimulus - senses react
environmental changes
Understand
how the body: environmental cues
Diseases
injury
Structural and Functional Organization
Six levels from chemical to organism:
Chemical level Atoms combine to form molecules
Molecules from organelles
Cell level Cells - basic units of life
Molecules - source of energy
Tissue - group of cells with
similar structure and function
Tissue level
similar cells and surrounding
materials that make up tissues.
Two or more tissue types that
Organ level perform together one/more
functions
Organ-system group of organs contributing to
level some function
Living thing as a whole
Organism level one cell - bacteria
Trillion cells - human
Organ System of the Body
Provides protection
regulates temperature
Prevents water loss
Integumentary
system Helps produce Vit. D
Consist: Skin, Hair, Nails,
Sebaceous Glands, Sweat
Glands
Protection & support
Allows body movement
Produces blood cells
Skeletal
system Stores minerals and adipose
tissue
Consist: Bones, associated
cartilages, ligaments, joints
Produces body movements
Maintains posture
Muscular
System Produces body heat
Consist: Muscles attached to the
skeleton by tendons
Major regulatory system
Helps to response and receive
stimuli
Detects sensations and controls
Nervous
movements
system
Physiological processes and
intellectual functions
Consist: Brain, Spinal cord,
Nerves, Sensory receptors
Major regulatory system
Influences metabolism, growth,
Endocrine
reproduction, & other functions
System
Endocrine glands (e.g. pituitary -
secretes hormones)
Anatomy and Physiology
Transport nutrients, waste
products, gasses, and hormones
through the body
Cardiovascular Immune response
System The regulation of body
temperature
Consist: Heart, Blood vessels,
Blood
Immune system; Combats
disease
Any excess fluid go to LS
Removes foreign substance from
Lymphatic the blood and lymph
System Maintains tissue fluid balance
Absorbs dietary fats from the
digestive tract
Lymphatic Vessels, Lymph nodes,
& other Lymphatic organs
Exchange oxygen & carbon
dioxide between the blood and air
Respiratory
Regulates blood pH
System
Consists: Lungs, & Respiratory
Passages
Mechanical and chemical
processes of digestion
Absorption of nutrients
Digestive
System Elimination of waste
Consist: Mouth, Esophagus,
Stomach, Intestines, Other
accessory organs
Removes waste products from
the blood
Urinary Regulates blood pH, ion balance
System & water balance
Consist: Kidneys, Urinary
Bladder, and ureters
Produces oocytes
The site of fertilization & fetal
development
Female Produces milk for the newborn
Reproductive Produces hormones - influence
System sexual function and behaviors
Consist: Ovaries, Uterine Tubes,
Uterus, vagina, Mammary glands,
etc.
Produces & transfer sperms to
Male the female
Reproductive Produces hormones
System ConsistTestes, Accessory
structures, Ducts, Penis
Characteristics of Life
functional interrelationships
Organization
between individual parts
Ability to use energy to perform
Metabolism
other vital functions
ability to sense and respond to
environmental changes both
Responsiveness internal and external
environments
increase in size
Growth
Example: bone
changes in form and size
Differentiation - changes in cell
structure form immature cell to
Development
mature
Example: tissues (skin), hair,
muscle
formation of new cells or new
Reproduction
organisms
Homeostasis
● maintenance of constant internal
environment despite fluctuations in the
external or internal environment
● Self-regulating processes to maintain
stability
measures of body properties
Variables
that may change in value
Example: body temperature,
heart rate, blood pressure,
blood glucose level, blood cell
counts, Respiratory rate
Maintain normal body
Homeostatic temperature: sweating &
mechanism shivering to maintain in set
point
normal extent of increase or
Normal range decrease around a set point
Body temp: ave. 98.6 F
normal, or average value of a
variable
Over time, body temperature
Set point fluctuates around a set point
some variables can be
temporarily adjusted depending
on body activities
Anatomy and Physiology
Negative feedback mechanism Terminology and Body Plane
● Maintain homeostasis
● To decrease person standing erect with face and
● Maintains the variation within the normal palms forward
range Anatomical
Detection deviation away from set point Position all relational descriptions based on
reversal of deviation toward set the anatomical position, regardless
Correction
point and normal range of body orientation
The components of negative feedback:
Directional Terms
Monitors value of a variable by
1. Receptor
detecting stimuli
Determines the set point of
2. Control variable
center receives receptor signal
e.g. brain
directly causes change in
3. Effector
variable
Example process
Receptors in the skin monitor body temperature

Control center compares the value of the variable

in the set point

If response is needed, the control center will

stimulate effectors: sweat glands, will secrete
sweat.
Term Definition Example
If the value of the variable has returned in the set A person is in the
point, effectors do not receive any information Supine Lying face up
supine position
from the control center. The secretion of sweat A person is in the
will stop. Prone Lying face down
prone position
The nose is inferior
Inferior Below
to the forehead
The nose is superior
Superior Above
to the chin
The teeth are
Anterior Front
anterior to the throat
The spine is
Posterior Back posterior to the
sternum
Positive feedback mechanism The spine is dorsal to
Dorsal Back
● Normal response the sternum
● Response to the original stimulus result in The umbilical is
the deviation from the set point becoming Ventral Front
ventral to the spine
greater
Closer to the
● To increase The elbow olecranon
point
● Required to return in homeostasis Proximal is proximal to the
*only for
● E.g, childbirth carpal
extremities
Example of positive feedback to negative feedback
Farther to the
Positive feedback point The talus is distal to
Stress 🠞 sympathetic response 🠞 heart rate, BP, Distal
*only for the hip
respiration rate 🠞 parasympathetic response 🠞 extremities
stress Away from the The ears are lateral
Lateral
Negative feedback midline to the nose
Toward the The sternum is
Medial middle or medial to the
midline shoulder
Toward or on Skin is superficial to
Superficial
the surface the heart
Away from the Heart is deep to the
Deep
surface/internal ribs
Anatomy and Physiology

Body Planes

separates the body into right

Sagittal plane
and left parts
a sagittal plane along the
Median plane midline that divides body into
equal left and right halves
Transverse
separates the body into
/ horizontal
superior and inferior parts.
plane
a vertical plane that separates
Frontal / coronal
the body into anterior and
plane
posterior parts.
Longitudinal Cut along the length of the
section organ
Oblique section Diagonally cut

Plane of Section
Through an
Organ

Body Parts & Regions

Upper limbs upper arm, forearm, wrist, hand

Lower limbs thigh, lower leg, ankle, foot
Central region head, neck, trunk
Anatomy and Physiology
SUBDIVISION OF THE ABDOMEN Layer covering the internal
Visceral
organs
a fluid-filled space between the
Cavity
membranes
Three sets of serous membranes and cavities
1. Pericardium around heart
visceral
covers heart
pericardium
parietal
thick, fibrous
pericardium
Space in pericardial
pericardial cavity
membranes
Pericardial fluid The fluid

2. Pleura Around lungs

visceral pleura covers lungs
parietal pleura lines inner wall of thorax
Body Cavities
Space between two pleural
pleural cavity
Dorsal body cavity membrane
● Encloses the organs of the nervous system Pleural fluid The fluid inside the cavity
Cranial Cavity The brain
Vertebral Cavity Spinal cord
The membrane covering the
Meninges
brain & spinal cord
Ventral body cavity
● Vast majority of the internal organs or the
viscera
Thoracic Cavity The heart and the lungs
Subdivided 2 sections
Encloses a lung and 3. Peritoneum All abdominal pelvic organ
Pleural cavities
surrounded by the ribs covers, anchors organs
Houses the heart, major blood visceral Mesenteries - double folded;
Mediastinum vessels, thymus, trachea, & peritoneum prodive pathway for nerves &
esophagus. BV
Abdominopelvic parietal lines inner wall of
Enclosed by muscles
cavity peritoneum abdominopelvic cavity
Peritoneum Houses the abdominopelvic Specific location of the space
cavity cavity peritoneal cavity
between serous membranes
Consist of two cavities Peritoneal fluid The fluid in the cavity
inferior Anatomical space between
Pelvic cavity The pelvis; urinary bladder, retroperitoneal
abdominal
rectum, reproductive organs
superior
Abdominal
Most of the digestive organs
Serous Membranes of the
Ventral Body Cavity
Walls of the cavities; surface of internal organs are
in contact with membranes
Parietal The walls of outer membrane
Anatomy and Physiology
Cell membrane

Intracellular /
materials inside the cell
cytoplasmic
Extracellular outside the cell
Structure:
Fluid mosaic model used to describe the cell
model membrane structure.
form a bilayer.
Polar head region
- Hydrophilic - love water
- exposed to water
Phospholipids around the membrane.
Nonpolar tail region
Chapter 3: Cell Structures and their functions - Hydrophobic. - hates
● Cells - smallest unit of life water
Cell Structures - facing the interior of the
membrane.
specialized structures in cells
Organelles
that perform specific functions
Living material surrounding the
nucleus
Cytoplasm Contains types of organelles
jelly-like substance that holds
organelles
Enclosed the cytoplasm Movement through the Cell membrane
is the outermost component of
a cell allows only certain substances
Selective
It forms a boundary between to pass in and out of the cell.
permeability
material inside the cell and the
Cell/plasma outside. Higher
membrane enzymes, glycogen, and
Supporting the cell contents concentration
potassium (K+)
inside the cell
Selective barrier in determining
the cell moving in & out. Higher
Sodium (NA+), calcium (Ca2+),
concentration
Communication of between and chloride (CI+)
outside the cell
cells
Cell membrane passage

A nonpolar that can pass

directly through the cell
O2 and CO2 membrane’s phospholipid
bilayer.

Must past through its channels

Na+ to pass through transmembrane
protein channels
The route of ● Size
transport ● Shape
through the ● charge of the substance
membrane - Positive charge needs
depends: protein to pass through
Some substances require
Carrier carrier molecules to transport
molecules them across the cell
membrane, such as glucose.
Some substances require a
Vesicular
vesicular transport across the
transport
membrane.
must fuse with the cell
Vesicle
membrane for transport.
Anatomy and Physiology
Passive Membrane transport
● does not require the cell to expend energy.
DIFFUSION
Solute move in higher concentration to lower
concentration in solution
With concentration gradient; does not require ATP
More solute particles occur in an area of higher
concentration than in an area of lower
concentration.
substances dissolved in a
Solutes
predominant liquid or gas
Solvent Liquid or gas
the difference in the
concentration of a solute in a
solvent between two points
divided by the distance
Concentration between the two points.
Gradient
steeper when the concentration
difference is large and/or the
distance is small.
substances can diffuse directly
Lipid soluble through the phospholipid
bilayer.
Easily diffuse phospholipids
substances, such as ions, can
diffuse across the cell
Water-soluble membrane only by passing
through cell membrane
channels.
OSMOSIS
the diffusion of water (a solvent) across a
selectively permeable membrane from a region of
higher water concentration to one of lower water
concentration.
the force required to prevent
Osmotic
movement of water across cell
pressure
membrane
Greater concentration of a
solution = greater osmotic
pressure
Osmotic pull Pulling the water
Less solute
lower concentration of solutes
and a higher concentration of
Hypotonic water relative to the cytoplasm
of the cell.
More solvent
Lysis - swelling
Equal substances
The concentrations of various
solutes and water are the same
Isotonic
on both sides of the cell
membrane.
Neither shrinks nor swell
More solute
Hypertonic The solution has a higher solute
concentration and lower water
concentration relative to the
cytoplasm of the cell.
Crenation - cell shrinkage
A carrier mediated transport
involving membrane proteins
(channels or carrier proteins) to
Facilitated substance across the cell
diffusion membrane.
Higher concentration to lower
concentration
are proteins within the cell
membrane involved in
Carrier carrier-mediated transport.
molecules Can move water soluble of
electrically charged ions across
the cell membrane
Two classes of cell membrane channels
constantly allow ions to pass
Leak channels through.
- Always open
limit the movement of ions
Gated channels across the membrane by
opening and closing.
Active Membrane transport
● Utilizes membrane proteins to move
substances across the cell membrane from
the regions of lower concentration to higher
concentration against concentration
gradient.
● Requires ATP; if ATP is not available, Active
transport stops
A major example of active
transport
Sodium-
Potassium a higher concentration of Na+
Pump outside cells;a higher
concentration of K+ inside cells.
Require ATP
uses the energy provided by a
concentration gradient established
by the active transport of one
substance, such as Na+ to
transport other substances.
Secondary
Active In cotransport
Transport the diffusing substance moves in
the same direction as the
transported substance.
In countertransport
The diffusing substance moves in
an opposite direction to the
transported substance.
A membrane-bound sacs that
transported the large
water-soluble(cannot be
Vesicles
transported by carrier molecules
) molecules across cell
membranes.
a process that brings materials
Endocytosis into cells using vesicles.
(into)
Receptor-
Anatomy and Physiology
mediated endocytosis
Process of endocytosis exhibits;
occurs when a specific substance
binds to the receptor molecule
and is transported into the cell.
Phagocytosis
is often used for endocytosis
when solid particles are ingested.
Phago = eat
Pinocytosis
has much smaller vesicles
formed, and they contain liquid
rather than solid particles.
Pino = drink
Release if substances from the
Exocytosis
cell through the fusion of a vesicle
(out)
with the cell membrane
Organelles
Nucleus
The large organelle within the cell (center)
The brain of the cell
Contains genetic material
Nuclei - plural
consists of outer and inner
Nuclear
membranes with a narrow
Envelope
space between them
Nuclear contains holes = nuclear pores
membrane
Contains the dna, RNA
Formation of inner & outer
membrane
Nuclear pores
Passageways of materials; in &
out of nucleus
Genetic material: 23 pairs
Chromosomes
(DNA, proteins)
Chromatin loosely coiled and collectively
diffuse bodies with no
Nucleoli surrounding membrane that are
found within the nucleus
There are usually one to
several nucleoli within the
nucleus
Ribosomes
are the organelles where proteins are produced.
produced in the nucleolus.
may be attached to other organelles, such as the
ER
type of cytoplasmic organelle
subunits of formed within a nucleolus.
ribosomes ribosomal components exit the
nucleus through nuclear pores.
Ribosomes that are not
Free Ribosomes
attached to any other organelle
Endoplasmic Reticulum
series of membranes forming sacs and tubules
that extend from the outer nuclear membrane into
the cytoplasm.
with attached ribosomes
Rough ER
Synthesizing large amount of
protein
no attached ribosomes
site for lipid synthesis
Smooth ER cellular detoxification
It stores calcium ions in skeletal
muscle cells.
Golgi Apparatus
Golgi Complex
consists of closely packed stacks of curved,
membrane-bound sacs.
collects, modifies, packages, and distributes
proteins and lipids manufactured by the ER.
forms vesicles, some of which are secretory
vesicles, lysosomes, and other vesicles.
Secretory vesicles
Pinch off from Golgi apparatus move cell to the cell
membrane
Membrane in SV then fuses with cell membrane,
the contents of the vesicles are released to the
exterior of the cell by exocytosis.
Accumulate in cytoplasm and released to the
exterior when the cell receives signal.
Lysosomes
membrane-bound vesicles formed from the Golgi
apparatus.
contain a variety of enzymes that function as
intracellular digestive systems.
Peroxisomes
small, membrane-bound vesicles containing
enzymes that break down fatty acids, amino acids,
and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2).
Hydrogen peroxide
by-product of fatty acid
Amino acid
breakdown and can be toxic to a cell.
Mitochondria
small organelles responsible for producing
considerable amounts of ATP by aerobic (with O2)
metabolism.
Cristae
Inner membrane that has Numerous folds
Mitochondrial matrix
Material within inner membrane
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) & enzymes
inside mitochondria
Cells with a large energy requirement have more
mitochondria than cells that require less energy.
Cytoskeleton
internal framework to the cell.
consists of protein structures that support the cell,
hold organelles in place, and enable the cell to
change shape.
protein structures are: microtubules,
microfilaments, and intermediate filaments.
Microtubules hollow structures formed from
protein subunits.
Anatomy and Physiology
helping to support the
cytoplasm of cells
assisting in cell division
Forming essential components
of certain organelles, such as
cilia and flagella.
small fibrils formed from protein
subunits that structurally
Microfilaments
support the cytoplasm,
determining cell shape.
Some microfilaments are
involved with cell movement.
in muscle cells enable the cells
to shorten, or contract.
fibrils formed from protein
subunits that are smaller in
Intermediate
diameter than microtubules but
Filaments
larger in diameter than
microfilaments.
provide mechanical support to
the cell.
Keratin
specific type of intermediate
a protein associated with skin
cells.
Centrioles
specialized area of cytoplasm
centrosome close to the nucleus where
microtubule formation occurs.
contains two centrioles, which
are normally oriented
perpendicular to each other.
Each centriole is a small,
cylindrical organelle composed
of microtubules.
centriole is involved in the
process of mitosis.
Cilia
Coordinated movement
transport mucus - dust particles
are embedded, upward and
away from the lungs
project from the surface of
certain cells.
cylindrical structures that
extend from the cells
composed of microtubules.
Flagella
much longer, and they usually
occur only one per cell.
Sperm cells each have one
flagellum which propels sperm
cell
Microvilli
specialized extensions of the
cell membrane that are
supported by microfilaments.
numerous cells that have them
and they increase the surface
area of those cells.
do not actively move as cilia
and flagella do
abundant on the surface of cells
that line the intestine, kidney,
and other areas in which
absorption is an important
function.
Whole Cell Activity
● A cell’s characteristics are determined by
the type of proteins produced.
● proteins produced are in turn determined by
the genetic information in the nucleus.
Influences the structural and
function characteristics of the
entire organism
DNA molecule consists of
DNA nucleotides joined together to
form two nucleotide strands.
two strands are connected and
resemble a ladder that is
twisted around its long axis.
DNA strands, sequence of
nucleotides that provides a
Gene
chemical set of instructions for
making a specific protein.
The process by which
information stored in the genes
Gene Expression of DNA molecules directs
manufacture of the various
proteins of the cell.
First step in Gene Exp
Occurs in the nucleus
The information stored in the
region of the DNA is used to
produced complementary RNA
molecule — messenger RNA
(mRNA)
DNA nucleotides pair only with
specific RNA nucleotides.
Transcription
DNA’s thymine pairs with RNA’s
adenine.
DNA’s adenine pairs with RNA’s
uracil
DNA’s cytosine pairs with
RNA’s guanine
DNA’s guanine pairs with RNA’s
cytosine.
Occurs when an mRNA
molecule moves to ribosomes
in the cytoplasm. The
nucleotide sequence of the
molecule is used to determine
Translation the composition of polypeptide
chain — precursor to a protein
Synthesis of proteins based on
the information in the mRNA.
Anticodon
Anatomy and Physiology
Pairs with the codon of the
mRNA.
Transfer RNA transports
specific amino acids from the
cytoplasm to the
ribosome-mRNA complex and
initiates formation of the
polypeptide chain. The process
continues until the entire
polypeptide is completely
formed.
Protein synthesis relies on the
cell activity to decode the
information stored in the
nucleotide sequence of the
Genetic Code mRNA produced during
translation
Codons
Information in mRNA is carried
in groups of three nucleotides
Carry amino acid to the
Transfer RNAs
ribosomes
Cell Cycle
● During growth and development, cell
division occurs to increase the number of
cells or replace damaged or dying ones.
● This cell division involves a cell cycle.
Two major phases
Interphase
non dividing phase
Spindle fibers formation
Gathers protein/protein synthesis
G1 phase Cell carries normal metabolic
activity
S phase DNA is replicated/reproduction
G2 phase Cell prepares to divide
End of interphase:
a cell has two complete sets of genetic material
DNA is dispersed throughout the nucleus as thin
threads (chromatids)
Cell division
Formation of daughter cells from a single parent
cell
Two copies of chromosomes:
Diploid
Human - 46
Haploid Half of diploid
23 pairs of chromosomes
1 pair - sex chromosomes
22 pair - autosomes
XX chromosomes - female
XY chromosomes - male
Cell division for reproductive
Meiosis organs
46 🠞23 pairs chromosomes
Mitosis
Cell dividing phase
A parent cell divides to form two
daughter cells with the same
amount and type of DNA
Two genetically identical strands
Chromatids
of chromatin
Centromere Region of chromatids
First phase in mitosis
Nuclear envelope & nucleolus
disappears, freeing chromatin
Chromatin condenses to form
visible chromosomes — each
composed of the two chromatids
Prophase
Spindle fibers extend from the
centrioles
Some attach to the centromeres
of each chromosomes
Centrioles divide and migrate to
each pole of the cell
The chromosomes align near the
center of the cell
Metaphase Each chromosome now has pair
of spindle fibers attached to it,
one each centriole pair
Beginning, chromatids separate at
centromere — each chromatid is
a chromosome
Two identical sets of 46
chromosomes are present in the
cell
Two sets of 46 chromosomes is
moved by spindle fibers toward
Anaphase the centriole at one of the poles of
the cell
End, set of chromosomes has
reached an opposite pole of the
cell — cytoplasm begins to divide.
Cleavage/pinching in of the parent
cell is evident.
Cytokinesis
The separate process begins
the chromosomes in each of the
daughter cells become organized
to form two separate nuclei, one
in each newly formed daughter
cell.
The chromosomes begin to
unravel and resemble the genetic
material during interphase.
Telophase Chromosomes uncoil to form long
chromatin strands
Remnants of the spindle fibers
disintegrate
End, complete splitting of the
parent cell into two similar
offspring cells is complete — has
now nucleus, half of cytoplasm,
organelles of the parent cell
Anatomy and Physiology
Tumors
● abnormal proliferation of cells.
● They are due to problems occurring in the
cell cycle.
● Some tumors are benign (not harmful) and
some are malignant (cancer).
● Metastasis - Malignant tumors can spread
by a process.
Chapter 4:Tissues
Tumors and Histology

groups of specialized cells and

Tissues the extracellular substances
surrounding them.
histo: tissue
Histology Microscopic study of tissue
structure
Epithelial Tissue
● Epi: upon
● Thele: covering
● Found everywhere; inside & outside the
body
● Protects against foreign materials entering
the body.
● Primarily cellular tissue — very little
extracellular material between the cells
● Forms layers that cover the surfaces and
line the hollow organs of the body
● Covers the body surface
● Form covering and linings
● Epithelial cell - Always oriented; basal
surface points toward the basement
membrane
Characteristics
Differentiation ● Mostly composed of cells
● a sperm cell and an oocyte unite to form a ● Covers body surface
single cell, then a great number of mitotic ● Has an exposed surface (free
divisions occur to give the trillions of cells of surface/apical)
the body. ● Attaches at the basal surface
● The process by which cells develop with ● Has specialized cell connections and matrix
specialized structures and functions attachments
● During differentiation of a cell, some ● Is avascular - no blood vessels
portions of DNA are active, but others are ● Capable of regeneration
inactive. Functions
Apoptosis ● Protecting underlying structure
● Programmed cell death; self -destruction ● Acting as a barrier
● normal process by which cell numbers ● Permitting the passage of substances
within various tissues are adjusted and ● Secreting substances
controlled. ● Absorbing substances
● In the developing fetus, apoptosis removes Surface of the cells anchored in
extra tissue, such as cells between the Basal surface
place
developing fingers and toes.
Composed of extracellular
● In some adult tissues, apoptosis eliminates
material secreted by the epithelial
excess cells to maintain a constant number
cells.
of cells within the tissue.
● Begins, the chromatin within the nucleus Basement For support and guiding cell
condenses and fragments—fragmentation membrane migration during tissue repair
of the nucleus & finally death and Porous and regulates the
fragmentation of the cell. movement to and from the
Cellular Aspects of Aging epithelial tissue above it
● Existence of a cellular clock
● Presence of death genes
● DNA damage
● Formation of free radicals
● Mitochondrial damage
Anatomy and Physiology
Classification gallbladder, bile nutrients;
ducts, & secretes mucus
Simple Epithelium ventricles of the
Single layer of cells brain
Each cell extending from the basement membrane
to the free surface
Types Structure Function
Single layer of
cell, Flat cells,
nuclei appear Single layer of
as bumps cells, some
Simple cells are tall &
Found: Diffusion, thin and reach
Squamous
lining of BV & filtration free surface,
Epithelium
heart, lymphatic some do not
vessels, alveoli, Nucleus are in
kidney tubules, different areas
lining in serous & appear
membrane stratified
Pseudostratified Synthesize and
columnar
Almost always
secretes mucus
ciliated

Found:
Lining of nasal
cavity, nasal
sinuses,
auditory tubes,
Single layer of pharynx,
cell, cube trachea,
shape cells, bronchi
some cells
have microvilli
Secretion and
or cilia
absorption by
cells; movement
Found:
Simple of particles
kidney tubules,
Cuboidal embedded in
glands and their
Epithelium mucus out of the
ducts, choroid Stratified Epithelium
terminal
plexuses of the
bronchioles by More than one layer of cells
brain, lining of
cilia only deepest layer of cells attaches to the
terminal
bronchioles of basement membrane
the lungs, Types Structure Function
surfaces of the Several layer of
ovaries cells cuboidal in
the basal layer
& progressively
flattened
Protection
Found:
against abrasion
Stratified Keratinized
forms barriers
Squamous outer layer of
Single layer of against water
Movement of of Epithelium skin
tall, narrow loss and
particles Nonkeratinized
cells, some infection.
bronchioles, mouth
cells have cilia Throat, larynx,
oocytes through
uterine tubes; esophagus,
Found: anus, vagina,
Simple secretion of cells
Glands and inferior urethra,
columnar of the glands;
some ducts corneas
Epithelium absorption (cells
bronchioles of
in intestine);
lungs, auditory
Produces
tubes, uterus,
digestive
uterine tubes,
enzymes;
stomach,
absorbs
intestines,
Anatomy and Physiology

Unicellular Single cell = goblet cell

Glands Merocrine
Multicellular glands
Single, non branched duct
Simple Tubular
Straight tube; no branched out
Simple Glands Merocrine
Appear Simple Branched Tubular
cuboidal when Several tubular; branching single
is not stretched duct
and squamous Fluctuations in Merocrine
when is the volume of
stretched by the fluid in an Simple Acinar
Transitional Single saclike
fluid organ
Epithelium Holocrine
Protect against
Found: caustic effects of Simple Branched Acinar
Lining of urinary urine Several acinar; branching single
bladder, duct
ureters, Merocrine
superior urethra Multicellular glands
Have several branched ducts
Compound Tubular
Multiple ducts; each w/ narrow
Compound
tubular
glands
Merocrine
Compound Acinar
Multiple ducts; each several
saclike
Apocrine - fatty
Not contact with other cells Merocrine - protein rich
Smooth free surface Compound Tubuloacinar
Reduce friction Multiple ducts; several tubular
Free Surface E.g. tissue lining blood vessels and acinar
(endothelium) Merocrine
Folded free surface Modes of secretion
Increased surface area Merocrine Release secretory products
Cell Connections secretion through exocytosis
Mechanically bind epithelial cells Release secretory products when
desmosomes Apocrine a portion of the free surface of the
together
secretion Epi Cells pinches off, releasing
Hemidesmos Bind cells to the basement
cytoplasmic contents
omes membrane
Holocrine Release secretory products
Cell connection structures that secretion through shedding of entire cells
Tight junctions form barriers and anchor cells
together.
Connective Tissue
Found below tight junctions ● Diverse primary tissue type that makes up
Adhesion
Help tight junctions anchor part of every organ in the body.
Belts
epithelial cells to each other. ● Consists of cell separated from each other
Group of channels allow small by abundant extracellular matrix
molecules and ions to pass from Functions
Gap Junctions
one epithelial cell to an adjacent ● Enclosing and separating other tissue
one. ● Connecting tissues to one another
● Supporting and moving parts of the body
Glands ● Storing compounds
● Cushioning and insulating
Produce chemical — hormones ● transporting
Endocrine ● protecting
Ductless glands based on
Glands Cells of Connective tissue
structure and mode of secretion
Exocrine Produces saliva, sweat, digestive Blast
Glands tract secretions. Create the matrix
Structure Cytes
maintain
Anatomy and Physiology
Clasts Composed of large cells and
remodeling small amount of extracellular
Osteo - bone matrix
Osteoblasts Consist of loosely arranged
Form bone
collagen and reticular fibers
Osteocytes Maintain bone - Packing material, thermal
Osteoclasts Break bone insulator, energy storage,
fibroblasts Form - fibrous connective tissue protection against injury
Maintain - fibrous connective
fibrocytes
tissue
Chondro - cartilage
chondroblasts
Form cartilage
chondrocytes Maintain cartilage
Large white blood cells capable of
Forms the framework of lymphatic
Macrophages moving about and ingesting Reticular
tissue
foreign substances tissue
- Provides superstructure
Nonmotile cells that release
Mast cells
chemicals
Extracellular matrix
Collagen fibers
Protein fiber Resemble microscopic ropes,
very flexible but resist stretching
Reticular fibers Large number of protein fibers
Very fine, short collagen fibers, Dense
that form thick bundles and fill
that branch to form a supporting connective
nearby all of the extracellular
network tissue
space.
Elastic fiber Mostly collagen fibers
Ability to return to their original Dense regular - same direction of
shape after being stretched or Dense
collagen fibers
compressed collagenous
Dense irregular - different
connective
Ground substance direction of collagen fibers
tissue
Ground Consist of non fibrous molecules - Withstand great pulling
substance Shapeless background against forces
collagen fibers
Proteoglycans
Are large molecules that consist
of a protein core attached to many
polysaccharides
Fluid

Classification - regular

Protein fibers that forma lacy Dense elastic Abundant elastic fibers among its
Loose
network w/ numerous spaces connective collagen fibers
connective
filled w/ ground substance and tissue - Allows tissue to stretch
tissue
fluid. and recoil
Consist of collagen fibers & some
elastic fibers
Are the fibroblast
Areolar
Cushions most organs and other
connective
tissues
tissue
- Support, loose packing,
nourishment

- regular
Supporting connective tissue
Composed of
Adipose tissue adipocytes/fat cells Cartilage chondrocytes/cartilage cells
located in spaces — lacunae
Anatomy and Physiology
Resilient - proteoglycans in the
matrix trap water
Most abundant type
Covers end of bones where they
Hyaline
come together to form joints
cartilage
Forms smooth, resilient surfaces
– withstand compression

Muscle Tissue
● To contract or shorten making movement
possible
● Muscle fibers - Muscle contraction results
from contractile proteins located within the
muscle cells
More collagen & bundles of Fibers appear striated, cells are
collagen fibers large, long, cylindrical with many
Compression, pulling/tearing Skeletal nuclei
Fibrocartilage muscle
forces Movement of the body and
Found in the disks between the voluntary control
vertebrae

Cylindrical and striated

Contains elastic fibers in addition
Single nucleus
Elastic to collagen and proteoglycans
cartilage Coiled fibers Branched and connected to one
Cardiac
Able to recoil to its orig shape another by intercalated disks -
muscle
contain gap junctions
Pumps blood
Involuntary control

Hard connective tissue consist of

Bone
living cells and mineralized matrix
Tapered t each end
Not striated
Single nucleus
Smooth Regulates size of organs
muscle Forces fluid through tubes
Controls the amount of light
entering the eye
Spongy bone Goosebumps
Spaces between Involuntary control
trabeculae/plates, of bone
Compact bone
More solid
Almost no space between many
thin layers of mineralized matrix
Blood
Unique
Fluid Matrix is liquid, enabling blood Nervous Tissue
connective cells & platelets — formed ● Forms the brain, spinal cord, and nerves
tissue elements, to move through BV ● Responsible for coordinating & controlling
Enables blood to flow rapidly body activities
through the body
Neurons / Conducting electrical signals
nerve cell Cell body
Anatomy and Physiology
Nucleus & site of general cell
function
Dendrites
Receive stimuli lead to electrical
changes
Axon
Conduct electrical changes
Glial cells
Support cells of the NS
Nourish, protect, insulate neurons
Tissue membrane
● Thin sheet or layer of tissue that covers a
structure or lines of cavity
Skin / cutaneous membrane
● External tissue membrane
● Stratified squamous epithelium and dense
connective tissue
Mucous membrane
● Line cavities that open to the outside of the
body
● Contain glands & secrete mucus
Serous membrane
● Line trunk cavities that do not open to the
outside of the body
● Do not contain mucous glands but secrete
serous fluid - lubricate surface
Synovial membrane
● Line joint cavities and secrete lubricating
fluid
● Synovial fluid - joint slippery, reduce friction,
smooth movement within joint
Tissue damage & inflammation
Tissues are damage
Isolates and destroys harmful
Inflammation agents
Produces redness, hear, swelling,
pain, disturbance
Agent causing the injury is not
Chronic
removed or something else
inflammation
interferes w/ the healing process
Tissue repair
Substitution of viable cells for
Tissue repair dead cells by
By regeneration or fibrosis
clot formation
Inflammation
Formation of granulation tissue
Involve
Regeneration
Fibrosis
Sever wound = wound contracture
Contraction of fibroblast in the
Wound
granulation tissue, pulls edges of
contracture
the wound closer together
New cells = same type as the
destroyed cells, normal function is
Regeneration restored
Stem cells can divide throughout
life other dividing cells
Destroyed cells are replaced by
Fibrosis /
different cell types - cause scar
Replacement
formation
Chapter 5:Integumentary system
● Consists of skin and accessory structures
(hair, glands, nails)
● Integument - covering
● Protection, sensation, vitamin d production,
temperature regulation, and excretion
● Can indicate physiological imbalances in the
body
Skin
Epidermis
● Stratified squamous epithelium
● In its deepest layers, new cells are
produced by mitosis.
● Many cells prevent water loss and resist
abrasion
● The outermost cells protects the cell
underneath
● Lacks blood vessels
Cells change shape and chemical
Keratinization composition during the
movement.
A protein filed in keratinization
makes it rigid and durable,
Keratin Acts as a permeability barrier and
resists abrasion, as keratinization
proceeds.
Strata Divides the epidermis
Cuboidal or columnar cells;
mitotic division
One daughter cell becomes new
Stratum stratum basale cell and divide
basale again
As cell move to the surface,
changes in the cells produce
intermediate strata
Flattened appearance and
Stratum
accumulate lipid-filled vesicles
spinosum
called Lamellar bodies
Flat diamond shape
Stratum Accumulate more keratin and
granulosum release contents of the lamellar
bodies to the extracellular space
Thin, clear zone between stratum
granulosum and corneum
No longer have nuclei or
Stratum organelles
lucidum Thick skin
All five strata
Areas subject to pressure or
friction (palms, soles, fingertips)
Anatomy and Physiology
*Only the number of epidermal
strata
Thin skin
Lacks stratum lucidum
Cover rest of the body
*Only the number of epidermal
strata
Most superficial stratum
Dead squamous cells filled with
keratin — give its structural
strength
Coated and surrounded by lipids
release from the lamellar bodies
Waterproofing
Stratum
corneum Dandruff
Excessive sloughing of SC cells
from the surface of the scalp
Callus
Thickened skin
Corn
Thicken form of a cone-shaped
structure
Dermis
● Dense layer of connective tissue
● Collagenous connective tissue
● Nerves, hair, follicles, smooth muscles,
glands, lymphatic vessels
● Collagen and elastic fibers
● Strength of dermis
●
Skin, hair, eye color
Protection against ultraviolet light
Large amount
Freckles, mole, nipple, genitalia
Less amount
Lips, palm, soles
Determines genetic factors,
exposure to light, and hormones
Estrogen & melanocyte
stimulating hormone
Hormone increases melanin
production during pregnancy
Produced melanin
Irregularly shaped cells
Located between stratum basale
Melanocytes & stratum spinosum
All humans have same amount,
amount, kind, & distribution of
melanin — skin variations
Cyanosis Bluish color; decrease in O2.
Yellow pigment
Carotene
Source of vit. A
Subcutaneous Tissue
● Hypodermis
● Not part of the skin
● Attached skin to underlying bone & muscle
● Supplies blood vessels & nerves
● Loose connective tissue
Body fat

Direction of collagen fibers

Skin is the most resistant to Padding & insulation
stretch along these lines Adipose 21% - 30%
Cleavage /
Tissue Acceptable female body fat %
tension lines Incision made across = scar tissue
13% - 25%
Incision made parallel = less scar
Acceptable male body fat %
tissue
Overstretched of the skin, leaves
Stretch marks Accessory Skin structures
line visible through epidermis
● Attached to/embedded into the skin
Extend toward the epidermis Hair
Contain blood vessels; blood flow ● Found everywhere except psalm, soles,
through these lips, nipples, parts of genitalia, distal
Dermal Friction ridges segments of the fingers & toes
papillae Fingerprints & footprints ● Produced in the hair bulb
The parallel arrangement, curving
ridges of dermal papillae
Increase friction and grip
Injection
Delivers material to the blood
slowly
Intradermal
injection Administered by drawing the skin
taut; inserting a small needle at a
shallow angle into the dermis
Subcutaneous Pinching the skin to form tent
injection Inserting into the adipose tissue
Delivers to the blood faster
Intramuscular Long needle at a 90° to skin into
injection the muscle deep at the
subcutaneous tissue
Skin color
pigment
Melanin
Anatomy and Physiology
Smooth muscle cells in each hair
follicle
Arrector pili Contraction cause hair become
perpendicular to skin surface –
goosebumps

Glands
Simple branched acinar glands
Sebaceous
glands Connected by duct to the
superficial part of hair follicle
Produced by Sebaceous glands
Oily, white substance rich in lipids.
Released by holocrine secretion
Sebum
Lubricates the hair & surface of
the skin
Prevents drying & protect against
some bacteria
Sweat glands
Simple, tubular glands release
sweat by merocrine secretion
Mostly water w/ few salts
The base of the hair Eccrine sweat Ducts open onto the surface of the
Hair Follicle Invagination of the epidermis that glands skin through sweat pores.
extends deep into the dermis 🠝temperature = sweat -
Protrudes above the surface of the evaporates, cools body temp.
hair Emotional sweating
Hair Shaft Palms, soles, armpits
Columns of dead keratinized
epithelial cells Simple, coiled, tubular glands
Below hair shaft Produced a thick secretion rich in
Hair root Columns of dead keratinized organic substances
epithelial cells Primarily released by merocrine
Hair bulb Expanded base of the root secession & some glands
Apocrine demonstrate holocrine secretion
Medulla Softer center sweat glands
Active at puberty
White outer layer
Cortex Odorless
Hard that surrounds medulla Body odor
outermost layer Break down of bacteria mix with
Covering the cortex sweat
Cuticle Single layer of overlapping cells
Nails
that holds the hair in the hair
● Thin plate
follicle.
● Consist layers of dead stratum corneum
Extension of the dermis that cells - hard type of keratin
protrudes into the hair bulb. ● Continuously grow; no resting stage
Hair papilla Contains blood vessels that
supply the hair bulb w/ the
nourishment needed to produce
hair.
Hair cycles
Hair being replaced
Mitosis
Growth stage Undergo Keratinization
Next growth stage: new hair
formed & old hair falls out
Growth stops & hair is held in hair
Resting stage
follicle
melanin
Hair color
Occurs in the hair bulb
Anatomy and Physiology
Nail body Visible part ● Injury to a tissue by heat, cold, friction,
chemicals, electricity/radiation
Nail root Part of nail covered by the skin
Cuticle / Stratum corneum extends onto the Part of the stratum basale
eponychium nail body Partial
remains viable & regeneration of
-thickness
Distally extend of nail root the epidermis occurs from within
burns
With stratum basale, rise cells to burn area
Nail matrix
form nail Only epidermis
Thicker; produces most of the nail First degree Red & painful
An underlying that nail attaches burn Slight edema/swelling
Nail bed
With stratum basale No scarring
Small part of nail matrix Both epidermis & dermis
Lunula Redness pain, edema, blister
White, crescent shaped area at
the based of the nail Healing - 2 weeks
Second degree
burn No scarring
Physiology of the integumentary system Burn deep into dermis
Protection Red, tan, white
● Reducing water loss Might scar
● Skin as barrier that prevents microorganism Epidermis & dermis are destroyed
and other foreign substances
Recovering from the edges of the
● Stratified squamous epithelium of the skin
Full-thickness burn wound
protects underlying structures against
burns / third Painless - sensory receptors are
abrasion
degree burn destroyed
● Melanin absorbs UV rays
● Hair (head) heat insulator, eyebrow keep White, tan, brown, black, deep
sweat out, eyes and eyelashes protect eyes cherry red
● Nail protects the end of the fingers and toes Deeper than subcutaneous tissue
from damage Damage - muscle, bone, other
Sensation tissue
● Sensory receptors associated in the skin Painless
● In epidermis & dermis - pain, heat, cold, &
Amputation or complete removal
pressure Fourth degree of the damage tissue is require
● Around the hair follicle - movement of the burn
hair Infection can cause death
Temperature regulation Skin graft - epidermis and part of
● Body temp maintained at 37℃ dermis from other part of the body
● Maintain homeostasis - BV in dermis is place over the burn
constrict and smaller amounts of warm New skin - only epidermis; no
blood flow through the skin – decrease in glands of hair
skin temp
● Dermal blood vessels dilate - skin temp Chapter 6: Skeletal system
drops below 15℃ Functions
Excretion ● Body support
● Removal of waste products from the body ● Organ protection
● Water & salts, sweats - urea, uric acid, ○ Cartilage - collagen & tough
ammonia ○ Ligaments - strong bands of fibrous
● Sweat do not play significant role of connective tissue (bone to bone)
excretion ○ Tendons - bone to muscle
● body movement
As a diagnostic aid ● Mineral storage
● Blood cell production
Yellowish skin color Bone Histology
Jaundice ● Matrix - nonliving material
Liver is damaged by a disease
● The cell produce matrix and become
Rashes & Problems everywhere in the body entrapped it
lesions E.g. reddish rash, ● Old matrix - new matrix
● Fibrous protein collagen - flexibility, resist
Vitamin a Produce excess keratin -
pulling / compression
deficiency sandpaper texture
● Proteoglycans - water trapping proteins;
Nails - lose normal contour, makes cartilage smooth & resilient
Iron deficiency
become flat or concave (spoon
anemia Bone Matrix
shaped)
● 35% - organic material (proteoglycans &
Burns collagen)
Anatomy and Physiology
● 65% - inorganic material
● Hydroxyapatite - calcium phosphate crystal
in inorganic material.
● Brittle Bone disease/osteogenesis
imperfecta - imperfect bone formation
Bone Cells
Bone formation
Bone building cells
repair
remodeling
Osteoblast Produce collagen and
proteoglycans
Ossification/osteogenesis
New bone by osteoblast
Can occur multiple times
By appositional growth
Bone matrix
Storage
Lacunae
Spaces in bone matrix
Osteocytes Canaliculi
Narrow and long spaces; house of
osteocytes
Nutrients & gasses can pass
through small amount of fluid in
canaliculi or lacunae
Remodeling; reabsorption
Bone destroying cells
Breakdown of bone
As bone in broken down, Ca2+
goes back into the blood
Osteoclasts
massive , multinucleated cells,
develop red bone marrow
Ruffled border
Specialized reabsorption-specific
area of the membrane
Spongy and Compact Bone
● Lamellar bone - mature bone
● Lamellae - organized into thin, concentric
sheets/layers
● Lacunae - spaces in bone matrix
Less bone matrix
More porous
More space
Spongy Bone Trabeculae
Interconnecting rods or plates of
bone
Thin & several lamellae
No blood cells
Solid outer layer surrounding each
bone
More matrix, denser, fewer pores
Blood vessels enter the substance
of the bone
Osteon
Compact bone Functional unit
/ cortical bone Concentric rings of matrix
Contain osteocytes
Central Canal
Circular target of osteon
Osteocytes are located in lacunae
between lamellar rings and
canaliculi between lacunae across
lamellae
Bone Anatomy
Structure of long bone
● Traditional model for bone structure
Center portion surrounding a
Diaphysis
hollow center – Medullary cavity
Epiphysis Ends of long bone
Spongy bone with outer layer of
compact bone
Articular Hyaline cartilage covering the end
cartilage of long bone
Epiphyseal
plate/ growth Between epiphysis & diaphysis
plate
Epiphyseal line Ossified of epiphyseal plate
Red marrow Site of blood cell formation
Yellow marrow Adipose tissue
Connective tissue covering the
Peritoneum
outer surface of bone
Single cell layer of connective
tissue that lines the internal
Endosteum
surfaces of all cavities within
bones
Bone Development
Intramembranous ossification
● Skull bones, part of mandible , diaphyses of
the clavicles
Anatomy and Physiology
locations in the membrane where
Centers of
Intramembranous ossification
Ossification
begin
Larger membrane-covered spaces
Fontanels / soft
between the developing skull
spots
bones that haven’t been ossified

Endochondral ossification
● Some of this cartilage starts at
approximately at 8 week of embryonic
development
● Processes may not begin in other cartilage
as late as 18-20 y.o.
● Based of the skull, part of the mandible,
epiphyses of the clavicle, remaining skeletal
system

Bone Growth
Growth in Bone length
● At the epiphyseal plate
● epiphyseal plate separates the epiphysis
from the diaphysis
● Long bones grow by creating new cartilage
in the epiphyseal plate
● Cartilage calcification and ossification in the
epiphyseal plate occur by the same basic
process as calcification and ossification of
the cartilage model during endochondral
bone formation

Bone Remodeling
● Old bone replaced with new bone
● Osteoclasts remove old bone and
osteoblasts deposit new bone
● Woven bone 🠞 lamellar bone
Anatomy and Physiology
● Bone growth, bone shape, adjustment of the Steroid hormone derived from vit
bone to stress, bone repair, and calcium ion, d3
Ca2+ regulation in the body Secreted by C cells in the thyroid
Hollow cylindrical is lighter in Calcitonin gland when Ca2+ levels are to high
weight than a solid rod
Calcitonin 🠞 🠝blood 🠞 bone
Structure of Hollow cylindrical with the same
height, weight, compositions as Skeletal Anatomy
long bone ● Axial - skull, auditory ossicles, hyoid bone,
solid rod but with greater diameter
– support much more weights w/o the vertebral column, thoracic cage (rib
bending cage)
● Appendicular skeleton - upper limbs, lower
Osteoclasts breakdown bone
limbs, 2 girdles - belt (pectoral and pelvic)
matrix
Bone shapes
Osteoblast move in & lay down a
Compact bone
layer of bone
Lamellae produced until an osteon
is formed
Bone matrix is removed from the
Spongy bone surface of trabeculae 🠞 cavity,
filled new bone matrix
Bone Repair
● Can undergo repair if damaged

Hematoma
Localized mass of blood released
Hematoma from blood vessels
formation
BLOOD CLOT
Callus
Callus
Mass of bone tissue that forms at
formation
a fracture site
Callus The cartilage in the callus is
Ossification replaced a spongy bone
New bone of callus and the dead
Bone bone adjacent to the fracture site
remodeling have been replaced by compact
bone
Calcium Homeostasis
● Calcium blood 🠞 calcium bone = bone
formation
● Calcium blood 🠜 calcium bone = bone
breakdown
● Calcium blood - 8.5 - 10.5 m
Remove calcium from bone
osteoclasts causing blood calcium level
increase
Deposit calcium into bone causing
Osteoblasts
blood calcium levels decrease
Increases bone breakdown –
calcitonin decrease bone
breakdown
Parathyroid Longer than wide
Maintenance of blood Ca2+ within Long bones
hormone Upper and lower limbs
homeostasis
Parathyroid hormone 🠞 🠝bone Long as wide (square)
🠞Blood 🠞 back to thyroid Short bones
Wrist, ankle
Increase blood Ca2+ level
Calcitriol Thin, flattened shape
Flat bones
Anatomy and Physiology
Skull bones, ribs, scapulae, Cranial Bones/cranium
sternum
House and protects the bone
Vertebrae and facial bone
Immovable Sutures, coronal, sagittal,
Irregular bones Shapes do not in other bone joints lambdoid, squamous
shape Top of the skull
Calvaria Removed to view inferior of the
skull
Connected to the two parietal
bones by the coronal suture
Supraorbital foramen/notch
Superior border of orbits (eye)
Skeletal terminology 1. Frontal Glabella
Bone Smooth region between 2 orbits
Foramen Hole; e.g. eyes Frontal sinus
Tunnel like passage through the One of the paranasal sinus
Canal / meatus
bone Anterior cranial fossa
Fossa Depression in the bone (lubog) Supports lobes of the brain
Tubercle/ Half of the superior region
Rounded projection Makes up majority of the portion of
tuberosity
Process Sharp projection from a bone (usli) the skull
2. Parietal
Bone Sagittal suture
Smooth, rounded end – forms a
condyle Joined two parietal bones
joint w/ another bone
Lambdoid suture
Axial Skeleton Connected to the occipital bone
Connected by squamous suture
Skull 3. Temporal
bone Related to time – hair on the
● 8 cranial bones + 14 facial bone = 22 bone
temples turns gray
3 main regions
meets the parietal bone
Zygomatic process
Squamous part 🠞 zygomatic bone
Squamous part Zygomatic arch
Bridge across the side of the skull
Mandibular fossa
Attachment sure of the mandible
Temporal bone as the prominent
external auditory canal/meatus
Tympanic part
external auditory canal/meatus
Transmit sound waves 🠞 eardrum
Extends inward toward the center
of the skull
Thick, bony ridge, hollow
Internal auditory canal
Posterior surface of the petrous
part
Petrous part
Mastoid process
Large bony inferior projection
Seen & felt – posterior of the ear
Mastoid air cells
Connected middle air can be
infected — mastoiditis
Attachment site for 3 muscles
Styloid
necessary — tongue, hyoid bone,
process
pharynx
Allows passage of nerve
Stylomastoid controlling facial muscles
foramen
Between styloid and mastoid
Jugular Jugular veins to carry majority of
foramina the blood away from the brain
Entry point for blood delivery to
Carotid canals
the brain
Anatomy and Physiology
Opening dried skull at the border
Foramen
of the petrous parr & sphenoid
lacerum
bone
4. Occipital
Skull’s posterior wall and base
bone
Foramen
Large hole
magnum
Posterior
Support cerebellum
cranial fossa
Occipital Two rounded either side of the
condyles foramen magnum
Point attachment for several neck
Nuchal lines Specialized regions in the skull
muscles – move the head
Paranasal
Sinuses found in the frontal bone
sinuses
Single bone extends across the
Sphenoid bone Cone shape fossae
skull
Allow eyes to rotate within the
Saddle shape fossae
Orbits
Surround and protects pituitary
gland Nasolacrimal canal
Carrying tears eye 🠞 optic canal
3 Paired foramina sella tunica
Foramen rotundum Rounded opening anteriorly &
Sella turcica - Floor of Middle cranial Nasal cavity separate left and right halves by
fossa the nasal septum
Foramen ovale
- Part of lateral skull wall Facial Bones
Foramen spinosum cheekbones
- Posterior wall of the orbit Anterior to the sphenoid bone
Zygomatic
Sphenoidal Zygomatic arch
Within body of sphenoid bone bones
sinuses Zygomatic process of the temporal
Located each side of the sphenoid bone
Optic canal
bone, anterior Sphenoidal sinuses Upper jaw
Superior Ridge where cranial nerves Palatine process
orbital fissure control eye movement enters orbit Two maxillary bones
Hard palate
Very porous, fragile bone Rood of the mount
Ethmoid Bone Maxilla/
Forming nasal septum Maxillae Incisive foramen
Nasal septum Large nasal cavity Posterior to the front teeth and
Ethmoidal allows passage of blood vessels &
Sinuses within ethmoid bone nerves
sinuses
Prominent ridge side of the Infraorbital foramen
Crista galli Passage focal nerve & artery
ethmoid bone
cribriform side of crista galli Horizontal plates fuse to form the
Palatine bones
Cribriform Houses one of the olfactory bulbs hard palate (posterior)
plates - transmit signals smell Smallest of the skull bone
Numerous foramina; allow Lacrimal House of depression –
Olfactory bones nasolacrimal duct enters the
olfactory nerves to enter nasal
foramina nasolacrimal canal
cavity
Perpendicular Thin bony plate Nasal bones Bridge of the nose
plate Forms the septum Lower jaw
conchae Two scroll shaped bones Freely moving
Inferior nasal Mandibular fossae
Separate bone Maxillae & posterior temporal
conchae
bone attachments
Mandible Mandibular condyle
Mandible & temporal bone
Coronoid process
Anterior to the mandibular condyle
Mental foramen
Nerves & BV to the chin
Posterior portion of the nasal
Vomer
septum
Inferior Nasal Provide increase surface area
Conchae One of the three conchae
Anatomy and Physiology
Vertebral body Solid body disks
Hyoid Bone Vertebral arch Protects the spinal cord
● Speech and swallowing
Vertebral
● Unpaired Occupied by the spinal cord
foramen
● Not part of the adult skull
● No bony attachment Vertebral canal Entire spinal cord & cauda equina
Pedicle Attached to the body
lamina Forms vertebral foramen
Transverse
Extends laterally
process
Spinous Junction between laminae
process Seen & felt
Intervertebral
Two vertebrae meet
formina
Intervertebral
Pedicles of adjacent vertebrae
noches
Vertebrae Two superior & two inferior
process articular process
smooth ; between superior and
Articular facet
inferior articular process
Intervertebral
Vertebrae separated
disk
Vertebral column
● Support
● 26 bones = 7 cervical + 12 Thoracic + 5
Lumbar + 1 sacral + 1 coccygeal bone

Regional Differences
Located in the vertebral column
region
Greatest range of motion
Cervical Support and move head
vertebrae Atlas
Held the head; nod
Axis
Shaking the head
Last degree of motion in cervical
Thoracic region
vertebrae Support thoracic cage (heart &
lungs
Lumbar
Body weight
vertebrae
Between Two hip bones
Median sacral crest
Former spinous processes - form
ridge
Sacrum Sacral hiatus
Opening in inferior sacrum
Sacral promontory
Bulge
Separation abdominal and pelvic
cavity
tailbone
Coccyx
Anatomy and Physiology
3-5 semi fused vertebrae
(s1,s2,s3, s4, s5)

Thoracic Cage
● Rib cage
● Protects the heart, lungs within thorax
● Semi Rigid chamber
● increase/decrease volume – respiration

12 pairs
1-7 - true ribs; attach directly to
costal cartilage
Ribs 8-12- false ribs; do not attach
directly to sternum
Floating ribs
11 & 12
Breastbone; sword shape
Manubrium
- Sword handle
- Jugular notch = superior
margin (top)
body/gladiolus
Sternum
- Sward
Xiphoid process
- Sword tip
Sternal angle
Manubrium joins the body of the
sternum

Appendicular skeleton
● Allows movement of appendages
● Support weight
Pectoral Girdle & Upper Limb
● Upper limb - throwing, grasping, lifting,
pulling, touching
Anatomy and Physiology
Radial tuberosity
Biceps brachii muscle of the arm
Styloid process
Ligaments of the wrist attaches
Wrists: carpals
wrists Eight carpals bones
Scaphoid
Boat shaped;
Lunate
Moon shape
Proximal row
Triquetrum
Three cornered
Pisiform
Pea shape
Hamate
Hooked process
Capitate
Head shape
Distal row
Trapezoid
Like geometric from
Trapezium
No two side parallel
Straight Line To Pinky Here
mnemonics:
Comes The Thumb
Hand: metacarpals and phalanges
attached to the carpal bones and
form the bony framework of the
Pectoral girdle: scapula & clavicle Metacarpals hand
bone
Shoulder blade 5 digits
flat, triangular bone One thumb - pollex
Acromion Small long bones
Phalanges
Shoulder tip Thumb - proximal and distal
Process of scapula
scapula Scapular spine
Acromion process to posterior
surface of scapula
Glenoid cavity
Locate superior lateral portion of
the bone, head of humerus
clavicle Collarbone
Arms: Humerus
humerus Upper arm
Humeral head Glenoid Cavity
Anatomical
Distal to the head
neck
Surgical neck Common fracture site
Deltoid
Attachment of deltoid muscle
tuberosity
capitulum Humerus articulate with the radius
trochlea Humerus articulate with the ulna
Forearm: Ulna & Radius
longer
Trochlear notch
Articulate in the humerus Pelvic Girdle & Lower Limb
Ulna
Styloid process ● Lower limb - support the body, walking,
Small process standing, running
Ligaments of the wrist attaches ● Pelvic girdle - attached more firmly to the
Lateral (thumbs) to the side of body
forearm Pelvic girdle: hip bones & sacrum
Radius Head Pelvis
Pelvic girdle
Articulates in the humerus Pelvic girdle & coccyx
Anatomy and Physiology
Hip bones
Large bony plate
Coxal bones Acetabulum
3 indiv bones converge near the
center of the hip
largest hip bone
Anterior superior iliac spine
Posterior superior iliac spine
Greater sciatic notch
Posterior side of ilium
Ilium
Iliac fossa
Large depression medial side of
ilium
Auricular surface form sacroiliac
joint
Posterior than pubis
Ischial tuberosity
Ischium Thick
Ischial spine Leg: Tibia and fibula
Site of ligament attachment Medial; Shibone
Pubis symphysis Tibia
Pubis Larger
Thick pad of fibrocartilage
Lateral
Obturator
Two bones surround Does not articulate with femur
foramen Fibula
But head articulates end of the
Pelvic inlet - opening tibia
True pelvis
Pelvic outlet - inferior opening
Tibial Point of attachment for quadriceps
tuberosity femoris muscle group
Ankle
Consist of distal end of tibia (medial malleolus) &
fibula(lateral malleolus)

Thigh: Femur
Largest bone Foot: Tarsals, metatarsals, phalanges
Rounded head Foot
Articulates tibia Talus - ankle
Well-defined neck Calcaneus - heel
Tarsal bones Navicular
Greater Smaller; Two projections lateral to the medial
trochanter the neck Intermediate
Lesser lateral cuneiforms
Inferior and posterior to the neck
trochanter foot are arranged and numbered
Kneecap Metatarsal
in a manner very similar to the
patella bones &
Large sesamoid bone located meta-carpal bones and phalanges
phalanges
within the tendon. of the hand
Anatomy and Physiology
articular surfaces of bones within
Articular
synovial joints are covered with a
cartilage
thin layer
meniscus Flat pad of fibrocartilage
Fluid articulates surfaces of the
Joint cavity
bones in a synovial joint
Joint capsule Enclosed cavity
Fibrous
Outer layer of the joint capsule
capsule
lines the joint cavity everywhere
Synovial
except over the articular cartilage;
membrane
Joints inner layer of the joint capsule
● articulation is a place where two bones lubricating film covering the
come together. synovial fluid
surfaces of the joint
● Movable & immovable synovial membrane may extend
● Synarthrosis - non movable joint Bursa
as a pocket, or sac
● amphiarthrosis - slightly movable joint
● diarthrosis freely movable joint Tendon sheath synovial membrane may extend
● Inflammation of a bursa, often
Bursitis
Fibrous Joints resulting from abrasion
● No joint cavity Types:
● No movement Inflammation of a bursa, often
Plane joint
are fibrous joints between the resulting from abrasion,
Sutures
bones of the skull two saddle-shaped articulating
in a newborn, some parts of the Saddle joint surfaces oriented at right angles to
fontanels
sutures are quite wide each other.
fibrous joints in which the bones Hinge joint one plane only movement
syndesmoses are separated by some distance restrict movement to rotation
and held together by ligaments. Pivot Joint
around a single axis.
pegs fitted into sockets and held in ball (head) at the end of one bone
Gomphoses place by ligaments. The joint Ball & socket
and a socket in an adjacent bone
between a tooth and its socket joint
into which a portion of the ball fits.
Ellipsoid joints joint limits its range of movement
/ Condyloid nearly to that of a hinge motion,
joints but in two planes.

Synovial Joints
● Contain synovial fluids
● Allow movement between articulating bone
Anatomy and Physiology
Types of movement

Flexion Bending movement ; decrease

Extension Straighten: increase
Hyperextension180 degrees; looking up the stars
Plantar flexion
standing on the toes
Dorsiflexion When walking on the heels,
movement away from the median
Abduction
or midsagittal plane;
movement toward the median
Adduction
plane
rotation of the forearm so that the
Pronation
palm is down
rotation of the fore-arm so that
supination
the palm faces up
turning the foot so that the
eversion plantar surface (bottom of the
foot) faces laterally
turning the foot so that the
Inversion
plantar surface faces medially.
Turing surface around its long
Rotation
axis
Circumduction Freely movable joints ; shoulder
Protraction Movement in structure; mandible
Retraction Glides posteriorly
Superior direction; closing the
Elevation
mouth
To one side; mandible side to
Excursion
side
opposition Unique movement of thumb
Reposition Return to anatomical position