READING AND WRITING
MIDTERMS – FIRST SEMESTER
COUNTERCLAIMS
TERMINOLOGIES TO REMEMBER
information that is certain and can be
proven based on documents, historical
FACT data, research, and observation;
difficult to refute because the bases
are founded
judgment or belief formed about
something that may not necessarily be
OPINION based on fact or knowledge; could be
based on preference, subjective view
of things around us
presentation of opinion about
something using language; needs to
be supported by evidence; the stand of
ARGUMENT
a writer on certain issues is developed
in a form of argument that is
complemented by evidence
an emotional state wherein the
intended reader is moved to agree with
PERSUASION
a belief or position through argument,
appeal, or course of action
an opinion based on personal
DEBATABLE
experience and values that should be
CLAIM
supported with evidence
details, facts, reasons, statistics,
expert research, and personal
EVIDENCE
experience that directly relate to and
support a debatable claim
cited and properly attributed websites,
CREDIBLE
reports, and articles developed by
SOURCES
experts
REFUTE to disprove a statement or theory
REBUT to claim or prove something is false
main idea, opinion, or theory of a
THESIS speaker or writer, who then attempts to
prove it
CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD CLAIM
1. Argumentative and debatable
2. Specific and focused
3. Interesting and engaging
4. Logical
GUIDELINES IN MAKING A CLAIM
1. The claim must be debatable.
2. The claim must be narrow.
3. The claim must have a credible source.
4. Resources must be properly cited.
PREPARATION IN MAKING A CLAIM
1. Be attentive.
2. Check the facts.
3. Be keen in language use.
4. Do cross-referencing.
CLAIM VS COUNTERCLAIM
CLAIM COUNTERCLAIM
Make the claim. The counterclaim itself –
which states an opposing
Provide evidence or logical argument.
arguments supporting the
claim. Evidence that people, in
fact, holding this view is
Where desired, follow this very much welcomed.
with rhetorical tools such
as appeals to emotion or An explanation as to why
logic to further convince people may hold this view.
the audience.
Finally, a rebuttal, in which
you explain why the
counterclaim is weak, and
your original position is
correct.
MAKING A COUNTERCLAIM
1. Place your claim
2. Length of your counterclaim
3. Find opposing viewpoints
4. Present opposing viewpoints fairly
5. Write
WRITING A BOOK REVIEW
THE FOUR STAGES IN WRITING A BOOK REVIEW
Before Reading
author, title, genre, preface, introduction, table of
contents, book cover/jacket, abstract or summaries
While Reading
characters, setting, theme, plot, style, argument,
quotes, index
Writing
pertinent info, significant characters and their
dialogue/habits, your likes and dislikes, conclude it
well, no spoilers!
Revising
Leave it alone! (for a day, at least) then modify
CONSIDERATIONS IN WRITING AN ARTICLE
CRITIQUE
Unique Features of an Article Critique
provide a critical evaluation of a piece of writing
Purpose and Audience
tell the readers/researchers if it is worth a read or
not
Pattern of Development
aligned with your purpose
 WRITING A LITERATURE REVIEW
TYPES OF A LITERATURE REVIEW
Stand Alone Literature Review
• provides an overview and analysis of the current
state of research on a topic or question
• normally just an assignment for a college class not
intended to be part of a thesis or dissertation
Part of a Research Proposal
• important in demonstrating how a proposed
research will be useful to a particular field
• used in class projects, research, thesis, and
dissertations
Part of a Research Report
• provides the context to which a researcher’s work is
a contribution
PREPARATIONS IN WRITING A LITERATURE REVIEW
Ask for specific clarifications from
CLARIFY your teachers if the assignment is
not very specific.
Look for available literature reviews
FIND MODELS
on the topic that you are working on.
NARROW THE When searching catalog or online,
TOPIC type specific key words.
If there is a portion where you can
indicate the specific year/s of your
CONSIDER
search, it is an advantage on your
THE SOURCES
part since you can easily trace the
development or status of the topic.
CONSIDERATIONS IN WRITING A LITERATURE
REVIEW
Here the considerations in writing a literature review
according to Cenizal-Raymundo (2016):
Unique Features
• Content (from different published papers)
• Organization (Thematic, Chronological)
Purpose and Audience
• Purpose: to inform
• Audience: academics, researchers
Pattern of Development
• You may use different patterns
EMPOWERMENT TECHNOLOGY
MIDTERMS – FIRST SEMESTER
ADVANCED WORD PROCESSING SKILLS
INTEGRATING IMAGES AND EXTERNAL MATERIALS
KINDS OF MATERIALS
1. Pictures
Generally, these are electronic or digital pictures or
photographs you have saved in any local storage device.
There are three commonly used types of picture files. You
can identify them by the extension on their file names.
▪ JPG – Joint Photographic Experts Group
▪ .PNG – Portable Network Graphics
▪ .GIF – Graphics Interchange Format
▪ .SVG - Scalable Vector Graphics
2. Clipart
This is generally a .GIF type; line art drawings or images
used as generic representation for ideas and objects that
you might want to integrate in your document. Microsoft
Word has a library of clip arts that is built in or can be
downloaded and used freely. There are still other clip arts
that you can either purchase or freely download and use that
come from third-party providers.
3. Shapes
These are printable objects or materials that you can
integrate in your document to enhance its appearance or
allow you to have some tools to use for composing and
representing ideas or messages. If you are designing the
layout for a poster or other graphic material for advertising,
you might find this useful.
4. Smart Art
Generally, these are predefined sets of different shapes
grouped together to form ideas that are organizational or
structural in nature. If you want to graphically represent an
organization, process, relationships, or flow for infographic
documents, then you will find this easy and handy to use.
5. Chart
Another type of material that you can integrate in your Word
document that allows you to represent data characteristics
and trends. This is quite useful when you are preparing
reports that correlate and present data in a graphical
manner. You can create charts that can be integrate in your
document either directly in Microsoft Word or imported from
external files like Microsoft Excel.
6. Screenshot
Sometimes, creating reports or manuals for training or
procedures will require the integration of a more realistic
image of what you are discussing on your report or manual.
Nothing can get you a more realistic image than a
screenshot. Microsoft Word even provides a snipping tool
for your screen shots so you can select and display only the
part that you exactly like to capture on your screen.
a. In Line with Text
This is the default setting for images that are inserted or
integrated in your document. It treats your image like a
text font with the bottom side totally aligned with the text
line. This setting is usually used when you need to place
your image at the beginning of a paragraph. When
placed between texts in a paragraph or a sentence, it
distorts the overall appearance and arrangement of the
texts in the paragraph because it will take up the space
it needs vertically, pushing whole lines of texts upward.
b. Square
This setting allows the image you inserted to be placed
anywhere with the paragraph with the text going around
the image in a square pattern like frame.
c. Tight
This is almost the same as the square setting, but here
the text “hug” or conforms to the general shape of the
image. This allows you to get a more creative effect on
your document. This setting can mostly be achieved if
you are using an image that supports transparency like
a .GIF or .PNG file.
d. Through
This setting allows the text on your document to flow
even tighter taking the contours and shape of the image.
Again, this can be best used with .GIF or .PNG type of
image.
e. Top and Bottom
This setting pushes the texts away vertically to the top
and/or the bottom of the image so that the image
occupies a whole text line on its own.
f. Behind Text
This allows your image to be dragged and placed
anywhere on your document but with all the texts
floating in front of it. It effectively makes your image look
like a background.
g. In Front of Text
As it suggests, this setting allows your image to be
placed right on top of the text as if your image was
dropped right on it. That means whatever part of the text
you placed the image on, it will be covered by the image.
 BASIC SPREADSHEET SKILLS IMAGING AND DESIGN FOR ONLINE ENVIRONMENT
BASIC EXCEL FORMULAE BASIC PRINCIPLES OF GRAPHICS AND LAYOUT
ARITHMETIC 1. Balance
Addition (+) The visual weight of objects, texture, colors, and space is
Subtraction (-) evenly distributed on the screen.
Multiplication (*)
Division(/)

*type <=> before the formula, thus:

=a1+a2 <then, hit the ENTER key>
AVERAGE
a function used to compute for the average of the
number of a range. 2. Emphasis/Contrast
COUNTIF An area in the design that may appear different in size,
a function used to count the cells with a specified texture, shape or color to attract the viewer’s attention.
content within a range
SUMIF
a function used to compute for the summation of a
range if a certain condition is met
AVERAGEIF
a function used to compute for the average of a
range if a certain condition is met
ADVANCED PRESENTATION SKILLS 3. Movement
• The font “Sans Serif” should be used in Visual elements guide the viewer’s eyes around the screen.
presentations
• Use light background in a dimly lit room
• Use dark background in a well-lit room

• 4. Pattern, Repetition, and Rhythm

These are the repeating visual element on an image or
layout to create unity in the layout or image. Rhythm is
achieved when visual elements create a sense of organized
movement.

5. Proportion
Visual elements create a sense of unity where they relate
• well with one another.
• Use white spaces to let the eyes rest
• Know when to use png, gif, and jpeg image formats.
 6. Variety
This uses several design elements to draw a viewer’s
attention.

INFOGRAPHICS
Information graphics or infographics are used to represent
information, statistical data, or knowledge in a graphical
manner usually done in a creative way to attract the viewer’s
attention.
PRINCIPLES AND BASIC TECHNIQUES OF IMAGE
MANIPULATION
A. Choose the right file format.
Try to make a real-life photograph into GIF to see the
difference between PNG, GIF, and JPEG. Knowing the
purpose is the key to finding out the best file format.
B. Choose the right image size.
A camera with 12 megapixels constitutes to a bigger image
size. Monitors have a resolution limit, so even if you have a
million megapixels, it will not display everything.
C. Caption it.
Remember to put a caption on images whenever possible.
If it is not related to the web page, then remove it.
PEH 1
MIDTERMS – FIRST SEMESTER
Individuals who do not show symptoms of diseases or
injuries such as pain and disability usually think that they are
healthy.
Health and fitness are not interchangeable terms.
Health refers to the presence or absence of disease and
injury
Fitness refers to the functional capacity of the body to
perform movement.
According to the General Adaptation Syndrome, when the
stress or demand on the body is low, the body is not
stipulated to adapt. When the stress or load is too high, the
organs and tissues will break.
PRINCIPLES OF EXERCISE TRAINING
PRINCIPLES OF EXERCISE TRAINING
PRINCIPLE OF OVERLOAD
• states that the body must work harder than what it
is used to in order for it to adapt.
• It implies that exercise is a controlled form of stress
that will stimulate the body to become stronger.
PRINCIPLES OF PROGRESSION
• states that the body should experience a gradual
increase in workload.
• If the principle of overload asks “ How hard?” then
the principle of progression asks “How soon?”
PRINCIPLE OF SPECIFICITY
This principle simply states that exercising a specific piece
or component of the body primarily develops that part. It
implies that to become better at a selected exercise or skill,
you need to perform that exercise or skill.
PRINCIPLE OF INDIVIDUALITY
states that no two persons are the same and their rate of
adaptation to the same workload differs.
It emphasizes the need to create an exercise program that
is individual- specific.
PRINCIPLE OF REVERSIBILITY
• The adaptations that take place as a result of
training are all reversible.
• The Principle of Reversibility is another way of
stating the principle of disuse.
WHAT FACTORS SHOULD BE CONSIDERED WHEN
DESIGNING A PERSONAL FITNESS PROGRAM?
Exercise is an activity that will stimulate the body to adapt
and become stronger
• The stimulus has to be appropriate to derive the
health benefits.
• If the stimulus is too light, the body will not adapt,
and if it too hard, it may cause some injuries.
The FITT Principle is a helpful guide in designing a
personalized fitness program.
• Understanding the F.I.T.T. principle helps you
create a workout plan which will be beneficial in
reaching your fitness goals.
Factor Definition
Frequency Number of meetings in a week
Intensity Effort level of the exercise
Time Period covered in an exercise session
Type Kind of activity
FREQUENCY
• How often you exercise
• Three to five times a week is a safe frequency for
each component of health-related physical fitness
For Cardio:
Include your goal, guidelines recommend moderate
exercise five or more days every week or intense cardio
three days every week to improve your health. If your goal
is to lose weight, you'll need to work often up to six or more
days a week.
For Strength Training:
The suggested frequency is two to three
nonconsecutive days a week, it should be one to two days
between sessions. If you are doing a split -routine, like upper
body at some point and lower body subsequent, your
workouts are going to be more frequent than total body
workouts.
INTENSITY
• How easy or hard the designed task is
accomplished or the magnitude of work done.
• The body’s response by the number of times the
heart pumps measured in beats per minute
determines the intensity.
• Workable heart rate’s capacity will help in getting
ideal Targeted Heart Rate (THR) range.
For Cardio:
You will usually monitor intensity by heart rate or
pulse rate. The recommendation for steady-state workouts
is at a moderate intensity and for interval training it should
be done at a high intensity for a shorter period of time.
For Strength Training:
• Monitoring the intensity of strength training involves
a special set of parameters. The intensity depends
on the workload you are doing, the amount of
weight you lift, and the number of repetitions and
sets.
• For a beginner use a lighter weight and do fewer
sets with high repetitions (two or three sets of 12 to
20 repetitions).
• If your goal is to develop muscle, do a higher
number of sets with a moderate amount of
repetitions (four sets of 10 to 12 reps each).
• If you want to create strength, use heavyweights to
try to do more sets with fewer repetitions for
example, five sets of three repetitions each.
Take Note:
• Your resting pulse rate is the number of times your
heart beats per minute after you are at rest
• What is a normal resting heart rate?
For adults, a normal resting heart rate ranges between 60
and 100 beats a minute. Usually, a lower resting heart rate
means your heart is working more efficiently and is more fit.
TIME
Time is the length of the physical activity. Considering the
other aspects of the F.I.T.T principle, time differs depending
on the health-related fitness component targeted.
For Cardio:
The suggested cardio exercise is 30 to 60 minutes
but the duration of your workout depends on the type of
exercise. For a beginner, you might start with a workout of
15 to 20 minutes. If you're doing steady-state cardio, like
going for a run, you may exercise for 30 minutes to an hour.
If you're doing interval training and working at a high
intensity, your workout should be shorter, around 20
minutes to half-hour
For Strength Training:
How long you lift weights depends on the type of
workout you're doing and on your schedule. For total body
workout, you may take up to an hour, but a split routine may
take less time because you're working for fewer muscle
groups.
TYPE
Type refers to the definite physical activity selected to
improve a component of health-related fitness.
For Cardio:
• Cardio is changeable since any activity that makes
your heart rate up counts.
• Having more than one cardio activity helps reduce
boredom.
For Strength Training:
It includes any exercise using resistance like
dumbbells, barbells, machines, and many others to work
your muscles.
HOW TO USE THE F.I.T.T. PRINCIPLE IN YOUR
WORKOUT
The F.I.T.T. principle provide guides on how to control your
program and get favorable results. To avoid boredom,
injuries, and weight loss plateaus, this principle will help you
figure out how to alter workout types, time, intensity and
activities.
FITT principle acknowledges the importance of optimum
fitness development. The physical activity program is used
as a guideline for fitness routine to achieve results.
Execution of exercise is also related to its intensity. The
more the activity is repeated, the more chances of
developing fitness.
You may also utilize one or more of the F.I.T.T. principles,
such as:
• Changing the frequency by adding day of jogging or
walking
• Changing the intensity by adding some running
intervals or walking faster
• Changing the time spent jogging each workout day
• Changing the type of workout by dancing, cycling,
or running.
PARTS OF AN EXERCISE PROGRAM
EXERCISE
Exercise is a structured form of stress that should
be specifically designed to trigger adaptations and improve
performance. The exercise program is structured so that the
body receives just the right amount of stimulus.
The exercise program should also be structured so
that the body is gradually eased into the correct exercise
intensity and gradually returned to normal resting state. An
exercise workout has three components: warm-up, exercise
load and cool-down.
WARM-UP
A warm-up is essential prior to actual workload as it
prepares the body for more strenuous activity.
• It increases the blood flow to the working muscles
without an abrupt increase in lactic acid
accumulation.
The body makes lactic acid when it is low in the
oxygen it needs to convert glucose into energy.
Lactic acid buildup can result in muscle pain,
cramps, and muscular fatigue. These symptoms
are typical during strenuous exercise and are not
usually anything to worry about as the liver breaks
down any excess lactate.
• According to research, the warmer the body and
muscle, the higher is the muscular output.
• A good warm-up also prepares the heart, muscles,
and joints for the next activity by decreasing joint
stiffness and increasing the nerve impulses.
Characteristics of a Good Warm-up
Time 6-10 minutes
Intensity Moderate
Type of General multi-joint movements
Activity followed by specific movements
Recovery Allow a 5 minutes recovery period
before actual exercises
• The warm-up starts with general multi-joint such as
jogging or skipping to increase over - all body
temperature.
• It is followed by dynamic stretching exercises to
activate the neuromuscular units and improve
coordination and proprioception.
• The last part of the warm-up is a series of specific
movements that mimic the actual activity.
Movements are practiced at a slower speed and
ensure that the intensity of the warm-up is not
strenuous.
• Focus on the movement pattern because the warm-
up is both physical and mental preparation.
 WHY ARE DYNAMIC STRETCHES BETTER THAN
STATIC STRETCHES DURING WARM-UP?
Flexibility exercises
increase the range of motion by lengthening the
muscle and tendons surrounding the joint.
Dynamic stretches
are flexibility exercises that emphasize on the active
range of motion and are performed without holding
the joint for a period of time
Static stretches
are exercises that hold the joint in a stationary
position for a period of time.
Dynamic stretches are better performed during warm-up
because the movement keeps the muscles warm whereas
static stretching will lower muscle temperature because the
exercises are stationary
COOL-DOWN
Cool-down is essential after a workout as it permits the pre-
exercise heart rate and blood pressure for a gradual
recovery.
• Cooling down may be most vital for competitive
endurance athletes, like marathoners, because it
helps regulate blood flow.
Recovery
is just as important as the workload because during
this period, the body starts to make microscopic
changes essential for adaptation. Recovery starts
at the cool down.
• A well-planned cool down can quickly clear the by-
products of muscle contraction as well as replenish
the energy and oxygen stores used during the
workout. It is important to allot time for this part of
the training session.
• The cool down bridges the period between workout
and rest. This transition is important to deter the
pooling of blood in the lower extremities.
• An abrupt stop from the workout may slow down the
heart activity and abruptly decrease blood pressure,
which can cause dizziness. This drop in blood
pressure is a result of less blood returning to the
heart.
 GUIDELINES THAT CAN HELP IN DETERMINING THE • Body Mass Index
FITNESS GOALS The body mass index is a widely accepted tool to
1. Write short-term and long-term performance evaluate body composition. The score reflects how
goal heavy the person is, relative to his/her height.
A short-term goal is something that can be achieved in 6 to • Waist Girth
8 weeks while a long-term goal is something that can be The Waist Girth is an important tool to assess the
achieved in 6 months or more. A long-term goal is usually relative amount of fat in the abdominal region.
made of several short-term goals that build on each other. Muscle Imbalance
2. Set Realistic goals occurs when muscle pairs have different strength
It is important that goals are attainable in the given period. and the muscle surrounding the joints are tight. A
Review your current fitness level and decide on modest muscle imbalance will eventually lead to chronic
gains. You can also ask your teacher or friends who musculoskeletal injuries.
exercise for a possible goal. This will keep you from getting Muscle screening
frustrated. can be used to evaluate the presence of muscle
3. Write Specific goals imbalance. Movement patterns like squats, lunges,
Write a goal for each fitness component instead of writing a trunk rotation and push-ups can show
general one. (e.g. climb four flights of stairs without getting neuromuscular deficiency.
tired instead of improve fitness level). A specific goal helps These movement patterns utilize several muscle groups
you focus on what has to be done. and the movement is made over several joints. The
4. Write fitness contract deviations from the correct technique should be carefully
A fitness contract is a concrete is a concrete commitment. It observed in order to identify the overactive or underactive
is a visual reminder of the goals you have identified and it muscles.
strengthens your resolve to keep your exercise program. It 1. Squat
makes you accountable for the consequences of your The squat is a multi-joint movement that has the ability to
actions. show neuromuscular deficit in the core muscles and the
Objective Description lower extremity muscles.
What, why, who, when and how? 2. Lunge
S Specific You should have a definite direct The lunge is another movement that evaluates movement
target objective stability and neuromuscular deficit of the lower extremities.
Objectives should be measurable It can also show if an individual has poor flexibility as well
M Measurable
to truthfully gauge your goal as balance problems.
Goals should be stimulating, 3. Trunk Rotation
Attainable/
A neither too comfortable nor too The trunk rotation is a common movement in many sports
Achievable
difficult that involve throwing. Throwing movements push the center
Goals should be attainable given of gravity of the body outside of the normal region and forces
R Realistic
the resources, effort and time
the deep normal muscles to counteract the displacement. It
Goals must be timely, helpful and
T Time is important that the abdominal remains stiff to facilitate a
attainable in a period of time
powerful throwing action.
Goals must be motivational and
E Exciting encouraging to level up and 4. Push-up
improve The push-up is a basic exercise that evaluates the strength
Evaluate the workout you have of the arms and abdominal muscles as well as the flexibility
done, its regularity, moderation, of the shoulder joint.
R Recorded
time given, and the progress
made with the type of training
THE HEALTH-RELATED FITNRSS BATTERY TEST
• One Minute Push-up
One Minute Push-up test assesses muscular
fitness of the muscles in the upper torso.
• One Minute Curl-up
The One Minute Curl-up test aims to assess the
muscular fitness of the muscles in the abdominal
area.
• Sit and Reach
The Sit and Reach test evaluate the flexibility of the
hip and the hamstring area.
GENERAL MATHEMATICS
MIDTERMS – FIRST QUARTER
EARTH SCIENCE Planetary differentiation
MIDTERMS – FIRST SEMESTER • the process of separating out different constituents
THE ORIGIN OF EARTH of a planetary body, where the body develops into
PLANET compositionally distinct layers
a celestial body moving in an elliptical orbit around • Earth's surface experienced turmoil, violent
a star earthquakes, continual volcanic eruptions, and
PLANET EARTH covering of the surface with flowing lava
The Origin • Eventually, iron and nickel accumulated and formed
• still being studied Earth's core.
• scientists study meteorites and the oldest rocks on • As Earth cooled, a thin layer of solid rock formed
Earth to understand what happened during those the crust, including the continents and ocean
earliest times in the Solar System basins.
• two hypotheses merged explaining how the • In between the core and the crust is the mantle,
structure of the Earth was formed which is made up of semi-molten silicate rocks and
Earth Structure other minerals.
• Homogeneous Accretion Hypothesis HETEROGENEOUS ACCRETION HYPOTHESIS
• Heterogeneous Accretion Hypothesis states that the Earth’s core has formed at the same time as
Accretion Earth
• the accumulation of particles into a massive object • The early Earth had its basic layered structure with
by gravitationally attracting more matter, typically core, mantle, and crust
gaseous matter, in an accretion disk Processes:
HOMOGENEOUS ACCRETION HYPOTHESIS • When the nebula cooled down its particles
the formation of the Earth began after the condensation of condensed, depending on their condensation
fine particles of the primitive solar nebula (PSN) about 4.6 points.
billion years ago o Oxides of aluminum and calcium
• early Earth had a uniform solid composition: condensed first, followed by iron and nickel.
o Iron o When the nebula cooled further, the
o Magnesium silicates condensed.
o Nickel • The condensed particles collided with each other
o Silicates and were accreted.
o Uranium and Thorium 1. Aluminum and calcium oxides
Processes: 2. Iron and Nickel
• Re-melting • formed the Earth's core
• Iron-catastrophe 3. Silicates, volatile particles and water
• Planetary differentiation • formed the outermost layer of the earth
Remelting GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE
• internal heating associated with: Petrology
o Gravitational contraction ▪ a branch of geology that deals with the origin,
o Radioactive decay on the Earth's interior composition, structure, and classification of rocks
▪ caused the early Earth to become Stratigraphy
so hot that it became a hot mass of ▪ the study of rock layers (strata) and layering
molten matter (stratifications)
Radioactive Decay Paleontology
• the process wherein unstable atoms emit energetic ▪ studies the life that existed before, or sometimes at
particles and gamma rays the start of, the Holocene epoch (the current
Iron catastrophe geologic epoch)
• Denser substances such as iron (Fe) and nickel (Ni) ▪ includes the study of fossils
sink toward its core.
NICOLAS STENO
• The less-dense materials such as sodium (Na),
▪ Danish scientist
potassium (K), calcium (Ca), and silicates were
▪ 1669, he published the 1 st Laws of Stratigraphy
displaced and they moved upward.
o The layers of rocks closer to the surface
• It took many years for Iron and Nickel to accumulate
must be younger than the layers below
and reach the center of about 4000 miles deep.
them.
 GIOVANNI ARDUINO
▪ Italian geologist, mining specialist
▪ he developed the first classification scheme of
geological time
o based on his many studies of rocks of the
southern Alps in Italy
▪ he grouped the rocks into four series based on their
depth and composition:
Primary layer
is the lowest layer of metamorphic and volcanic
rocks.
Secondary layer
were hard sedimentary rocks
Tertiary and Quarternary layers
the layer of softer alluvial deposits
WILLIAM SMITH
▪ English engineer and geologist
▪ he discovered that each rock formation in the canal
excavations on the coal mines he worked on
contained fossils
▪ he noted that sedimentary strata could be identified
and correlated by their distinctive fossil content
▪ based on his study and of many geologists, the
principle of fossil succession was formulated
PRINCIPLE OF FOSSIL SUCCESSION
states that fossilized organisms succeed one another in a
definite and determinable order
▪ Any period can be recognized by its fossil content.
FOSSILS
▪ remains or imprint of an organism from a previous
geologic time
▪ can be recognized as Time Indicators
o used in correlating rocks of similar age in
different regions
o Index Fossils
Index Fossils
▪ determine the date of the layer where they are
found
▪ used as indicators of environmental conditions
TYPES OF FOSSILS
True form fossils
✓ formed when the entire animal or plant is trapped
and preserved in ice, tar, or other materials that
prevent decay
Mold fossils
✓ are the hollow impression of a living thing in rock
The mold reflects only the shape and surface
marking of the organisms. When an organism is
covered with sediments that will eventually harden,
an imprint is left after its body decays.
Cast fossils
✓ are formed when mold fossils are filled with a
mineral that hardens, forming a replica of the
original fossil
Trace fossils or Ichnofossils
✓ are impressions on rocks that show certain animal
activities. Fossils can be footprints, eggs,
droppings, or nests of animals
▪ based on the information gathered from the study of
rock composition and structure, rock layers, and
fossils
▪ represents the interval of time occupied by the
geologic history of Earth
▪ provides a meaningful time frame wherein events of
the geologic past are arranged
▪ based on the information gathered from the study of
rock composition and structure, rock layers, and
fossils
▪ two ways to measure geologic time
Relative dating
▪ places events or rocks in their chronological
sequence or order of occurrence without knowing
their actual age
Absolute dating
▪ place actual ages of rocks and events
▪ used is the radiometric dating technique based on
the decay rate of certain radioactive nuclides within
fossils, rocks, and any artifact
▪ the formal subdivision of Earth time
▪ represented in a vertical manner similar to the
vertical successions of rock strata on Earth
▪ the division is based on periods:
o age (millions of years)
o epoch (tens of millions of years)
o period (one hundred million years)
o era (several hundred million years
o eon (half a billion years or more)
 PRECAMBRIAN EON
encompasses approximately the first 4.1 billion years of the
geologic time scale
Hadean Eon
✓ "chaotic Eon"
✓ from 4.6 Ga to 3.8 Ga, lasted for 800 million years
✓ "Hades" meaning hell
✓ coincides with the event called Late Heavy
Bombardment (LHB
✓ extremely hot mantle caused severe volcanism
✓ oceans and atmosphere were formed
✓ Earth's core and crust stabilized
Archean Eon
✓ from about 3.8 Ga to 2.5 Ga, lasted for 1.3 billion
years
✓ defined by the oldest rock and the oldest fossils
containing apex chert and stromatolite
✓ Earth was probably warm – the atmosphere
contained mostly methane and had little to no
oxygen
✓ Earth was covered with the ocean
✓ continent's formation began
Proterozoic Eon
✓ from 2.5 Ga to 542 Ma, lasted for over 1.9 billion
years
✓ considered the longest eon - almost half the age of
Earth
✓ time of great changes: oxygenation of the
atmosphere, origin, and diversification of eukaryotic
life, and appearance of multicellular animal
✓ More diverse forms of fossils: shell-bearing
organisms have been found in sedimentary rocks
PHANEROZOIC EON
Paleozoic Era (Early)
✓ many fossils were found in layers of sedimentary
rocks
✓ time that life greatly diversified
✓ marine invertebrates probably lived near the shores
of shallow water
Paleozoic Era
✓ fossils of trilobites and brachiopods were found
preserved in rocks
Paleozoic Era (Middle)
✓ marine-life forms had developed shells
- shells formed beds of limestone and coral reefs
✓ an amphibian came out of the sea
✓ land plants also began to develop
- giant ferns and marsh plants increased in number
✓ marine life also developed: clams and snails
increased in number, species of fish became more
abundant and in greater variety
Paleozoic Era (Late)
✓ appearance of reptiles
✓ the terrestrial climate changed
o Many kinds of plants, such as land ferns,
grew during this era.
o Scientists believed that the remains of
these plants formed huge coal deposits in
many parts of the world.
Mesozoic Era (early-middle)
✓ formation of several continents
✓ formation of continents, new bodies of water also
formed
✓ great changes in plant and animal life occurred
- Scientists have found footprints, eggs, bones, and
other fossils of reptiles
✓ largest creatures existed: dinosaurs
Mesozoic Era (late)
✓ more continents broke up
✓ dinosaurs and other life forms died
- The only surviving reptiles today are turtles,
snakes, lizards, crocodiles, and alligators.
Cenozoic Era (early-middle)
✓ mountains were uplifted
✓ new life forms started to appear
✓ widespread volcanic activity formed immense flows
of lava and basalt
✓ warm-blooded animals: marsupials and primitive
mammals roamed the land
Cenozoic Era (late)
✓ modern horse, modern birds, and deciduous trees
also developed
✓ glaciers covered the northern hemisphere, hence,
the term Ice Age
- The Ice Age is believed to have lasted for about
two million years.
✓ rise of man and mammals
- Some of the earliest records of humans were the
discovered stone tools
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE EARTH
EARTH
▪ the only planet with known life
▪ can support life
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE EARTH
▪ right distance from the sun
▪ magnetic field that protects it from harmful solar
radiation
▪ insulating atmosphere that keeps the planet warm
▪ right chemical ingredients for life including water
and carbon
▪ processes that shape the Earth and its environment
and constantly cycle elements through the planet
Planet’s Habitability:
▪ ability to harbor life
▪ results from a complex network of interactions
between the planet itself, the system it’s a part of,
and the star it orbits
Planetary Habitability Index (PHI)
▪ measure of an astronomical body’s potential to
have a habitable environment to sustain life
 DISTANCE FROM A STAR Earth’s Temperature
▪ must be at a comfortable distance from a star ▪ –25˚C to 45˚C
Earth ▪ All organisms adapted
✓ having “Goldilocks” conditions LOW TEMPERATURE
✓ in an area of space that is not too hot and not too ▪ cause chemicals to react slowly
cold ▪ interferes with the reactions necessary for life
Closer to the Sun ▪ freeze water, making liquid water unavailable
✓ liquid water would not be possible HIGH TEMPERATURE
✓ life forms will not exist ▪ 125°C, protein and carbohydrate molecules and
Farther from the Sun genetic materials (e.g., DNA and RNA) start to
✓ would be colder break apart
✓ liquid water would always be solid ice ▪ quickly evaporate water
“The most impressive attribute of the Earth is the existence AXIAL TILT
and amount of liquid water on its surface.” AXIAL TILT
-Geoffrey Marcy, Astronomer, University of California ▪ also called obliquity
Importance of Water: ▪ describes the tilt of the Earth's axis to its orbital
✓ life functions carried out by cells, tissues, and plane
organs EARTH’S TILT
✓ helps dissolve certain nutrients and carry them ▪ 23.5°
throughout an organism ▪ controls the seasons
✓ disposing of bodily wastes ▪ serves to distribute energy globally on an annual
TERRESTRIAL cycle
Planets must have… o Light energy coming from the sun allows
✓ large mass: retain the atmosphere cells to run the chemical reactions
✓ molten core: serves as a heat engine driving the necessary for life.
geological processes ROTATION
Earth’s Atmosphere TOO SHORT
✓ about 100 miles thick ▪ the atmospheric wind velocities will be too great for
✓ keeps the surface warm life
✓ protects it from radiation, small to medium-sized TOO LONG
meteorites ▪ the diurnal temperature changes
✓ provides chemicals needed for life (such as ▪ would not be conducive to life
nitrogen and carbon dioxide) GEOCHEMISTRY
ATMOSPHERE Earth’s System
Mars ▪ circulate and replenish nutrients
✓ about 1/100th that of Earth’s ✓ water cycle
Venus ✓ an atmosphere
✓ 100 times thicker than Earth’s atmosphere ✓ volcanoes
✓ made almost entirely of greenhouse gases, making ✓ sub-surface water/molten rock
the surface too hot for life Planets Systems
SMALL PLANETS AND MOON ▪ If none,
✓ have insufficient gravity to hold an atmosphere ✓ nutrients can not be delivered to their organisms
✓ gas molecules escape to space ✓ cannot support life
✓ leaving the planet or moon without an insulating Planets Vital Elements/Nutrients
blanket or a protective shield ▪ Spread so thin,
ORBITAL ECCENTRICITY ✓ hard to obtain (such as on a gas planet)
ECCENTRICITY ✓ life cannot exist
▪ ratio describing the shape of the elliptical orbit ▪ Too active circulation system,
Great Eccentricity ✓ such as the constant volcanism on Jupiter’s moon
✓ greater the temperature fluctuation ✓ interferes with an organism’s ability to get enough
✓ makes the temperature on the planet’s surface too nutrients
extreme for life
TEMPERATURE
▪ -15°C to 115°C
✓ Life possible
✓ liquid water can still exist
 EARTH SYSTEM EARTH’S SUBSYSTEM
▪ the Blue Marble Earth EARTH’S SYSTEM
▪ taken on December 7, a collection of four interdependent parts called “spheres”
1972 that interact to form a complex and continuously changing
▪ 29,000 km from the whole
planet's surface ▪ a closed system
▪ taken by the crew of the ▪ the earth’s subsystems are interconnected by
Apollo 17 spacecraft on its processes and cycles
way to the Moon EARTH’S SUBSYSTEM
▪ Earth from the ▪ intermittently store, transform and/or transfer matter
Mediterranean Sea to and energy throughout the whole Earth system
Antarctica ▪ governed by the laws of conservation of matter and
EARTH energy
a complex system of interacting physical, chemical, and ▪ driven mainly by the Sun and sometimes from
biological processes that have been occurring since the energy sources within the Earth
beginning of time ATMOSPHERE
SYSTEM ▪ rooted in the Greek word atmos which means gas
A system is a set of interconnected components that are and sphaira which means globe or ball
interacting to form a unified whole. ▪ layers of gases that blankets the planet held by the
▪ a collection of interdependent parts enclosed within planet’s gravity
a defined boundary ▪ serves as the Earth’s blanket
Matter Energy ▪ composed of gases in varying amounts
▪ flows freely through the system ▪ generally composed of:
Matter ✓ 78% Nitrogen
▪ anything that has mass and takes up space ✓ 21% Oxygen
▪ one of the two most basic components of our ✓ 0.93% Argon, and the remaining
universe ✓ 0.04% Carbon dioxide
Energy ✓ 0.10% is made up of different trace gases
▪ the ability to do work and vapor
▪ can be transferred through heat, light, or 2 important processes changed Earth’s Atmosphere:
electromagnetic waves ▪ The radiation of the sun caused water (H2O) to split
KINDS OF SYSTEM apart.
the transfer of matter and energy must be determined
CLOSED SYSTEM
Energy (Hydrogen escaped back to outer space while
▪ transferred or exchanged oxygen accumulated.)
with its surroundings ▪ Evolution of cyanobacteria and began the process
Matter of photosynthesis.
▪ contained within the
system
(Oxygen released during the photosynthesis
OPEN SYSTEM supplied the rest of oxygen in the atmosphere.)
Energy and Matter LAYERS OF ATMOSPHERE
▪ transferred or the lowest layer of the
exchanged within its atmosphere
surrounding system
where we live in

TROPOSPHERE all weather occurs

most clouds appear

composed of 99% of the water

vapor
ozone layer is found
STRATOSPHERE
 composed of ozone molecules
(O3 ) - absorb high-energy
ultraviolet (UV) light from the
Sun, converting the UV energy
into heat
gets warmer the higher you go
less-turbulent layer provides a
smoother ride
commercial passenger jets fly in
the lower stratosphere
most meteors burn up
have a relatively high
concentration of iron and other
metal atoms
temperatures grow colder as you
rise
on top layer, has the coldest
MESOSPHERE temperatures in Earth's
atmosphere, about -90° C (-130°
F)
air is far too thin to breathe
air pressure at the bottom of the
layer is well below 1% of the
pressure at sea level and
continues dropping as you go
higher
absorbs high-energy X-rays and
UV radiation from the Sun
raising its temperature to
hundreds or at times thousands
of degrees
the air is so thin that it would feel
cold to us
THERMOSPHERE
more like outer space than a part
of the atmosphere
many satellites orbit Earth within
the thermosphere
temperatures in the upper part -
500°C (932° F) to 2,000°C
(3,632° F) or higher
Aurora, the Northern Lights and
Southern Lights, occur
uppermost layer of our
atmosphere
EXOSPHERE
considers to be the actual "final
frontier"
the "air" is very, very thin,
making this layer even more
space-like than the
thermosphere
the air is constantly - though very
gradually - "leaking" out of
Earth's atmosphere into outer
space
not a distinct layer
a series of regions in parts of the
mesosphere and thermosphere
where the electrically charged
IONOSPHERE atoms and molecules are formed
– ions
High-energy radiation from the
Sun has knocked electrons loose
from their parent atoms and
molecules
the upper regions of the
ionosphere
MAGNETOSPHERE region where the behavior of
charged particles is strongly
affected by the magnetic fields of
Earth and the Sun
GEOSPHERE
▪ comes from the Greek word geo meaning ground
▪ pertains to the solid part of the earth
▪ divided into three layers:
✓ Crust
✓ Mantle
✓ Core
Composed of:
✓ Rocks - naturally occurring solid aggregate of
minerals, organic material, or natural glass
✓ Regolith - loose particles of rocks that enveloped
the surface of Earth
✓ Geologic Landforms: mountains and hills
▪ the thinnest layer of the Earth
▪ measures about 40 km on average, ranging from 5–
70 km in depth
Two types of crust:
Continental crust
▪ Thicker : varies in thickness between 6 and 43 miles
(25 and 70km)
▪ Lighter: richer in SiO2 and Al2O3
▪ Older: some of the rocks in the continental crust are
up to 4 billion years old
Oceanic crust
▪ Deeper: can be found at the bottom of the oceans
or below the continental crust
▪ Denser: consist mainly of Basalt, rich in iron and
magnesium
▪ Have more tightly packed rocks: harder
 ▪ Thinner and Younger: constantly being recycled
through the process of subduction
Tectonic Plate
▪ also called lithospheric plate
▪ a massive, irregularly shaped slab of solid rock,
generally composed of both continental and
oceanic lithosphere
▪ not stationary but are in relative motion one from
another
▪ Covergent (moving one toward the other)
▪ Divergent (moving away from the other)
▪ Transform (moving laterally)
▪ “float” on the soft, plastic upper mantle
Mohorovicic Discontinuity
▪ boundary that separates the upper mantle from the
crust
Mantle
Two main parts:
▪ Upper mantle: attached to the layer above it called
the crust
▪ Lithosphere: the crust and the upper mantle
Astenosphere
▪ less fixed, warmer region of the upper mantle
▪ the temperatures: so high that the rock that makes
up the asthenosphere melts into a liquid
▪ only tiny parts of the asthenosphere are liquid but it
is soft enough to move to push around the plates
above
Gutenberg Discontinuity
▪ boundary that separates the lower mantle and the
outer core
Core
▪ divided into: outer and inner core
▪ made up of molten metallic core
▪ gave rise to the magnetic field, protects the planet
from the charged particles of the solar wind
Outer Core
✓ made mostly of iron and nickel
✓ approximately 2300 km thick
✓ very hot, with a temperature between 40000C
and 50000C
✓ liquid because of the very high temperature
Inner Core
✓ about 1,250 km thick
✓ the hottest layer
✓ the temperature is approximately 5400oC
✓ Made up of the nickel alloy: Nickel and Iron
✓ still exists as solid due to the extremely high
pressures that it is experiencing
Lehmann Discontinuity
▪ the boundary between the outer and inner core
 EARTH: The Blue Planet BIOSPHERE
Early Stage of Earth ▪ composed of all living things and the areas where
▪ did not have water or water vapor at its surface they are found
▪ hypotheses: ▪ includes all animals, microbes, and plants
a. much of the water on the planet was ▪ extends to the upper areas of the atmosphere, to
delivered by comet and meteor impacts the deep parts of the oceans where marine
b. most of Earth’s water came from chemical organisms can still survive, and in the zone that the
reactions within the planet’s interior interaction between the different subsystems is
HYDROSPHERE most dynamic
The subsystem that contains all the water found on Earth. EARTH’S ECOSYSTEM
▪ extends from Earth's surface downward several the actual interactions, relationships, communities, and
kilometers into the lithosphere populations of organisms and nonliving things within biomes
WATER Divided into three scales:
Found on the surface: Micro
➢ oceans and seas small ecosystem - pond, under a rock, in a tree
➢ lakes, rivers, streams, and creeks Messo
Found under the surface: medium - a forest, a lake
➢ water trapped in the soil Biome
➢ groundwater ✓ a large-scale ecosystem or biophysical zones that
➢ water vapor in the atmosphere have similar plants, animals, and other organisms
that are adapted to the terrain and climate of that
▪ includes frozen water on our planet – the ice caps region
and glaciers ✓ rainforest, desert, ocean
Water Distribution ✓ divided into the land (terrestrial) and water (aquatic)
➢ 70% of the earth's surface is covered with liquid Five Major Biomes
water Grassland Biome
➢ 97% Saline ➢ made of rolling hills of various kinds of grass
➢ 3% Freshwater ➢ divided into: savannas and temperate grasslands
➢ receives just enough rain to sustain grass but not
▪ Process inlvolved: water cycle also known as the enough to grow many trees
hydrological cycle. ➢ few trees grow in grasslands but sporadic wildfires
HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE keep them under control
➢ driven by the sun’s energy Forest Biome
➢ the continuous movement of water on, above, and ➢ can be tropical, temperate, boreal forest, or taiga
below the surface of the Earth ➢ made up of trees and other woody plants
➢ allows water to circulate and travel to different ➢ the climate is different in each type of forest
regions of Earth o Tropical Rainforest Biome
Transpiration o Temperate Forest Biome
➢ process of water movement through a plant and its Tundra Biome
evaporation from aerial parts, such as leaves, ➢ coldest of all biomes
stems and flowers ➢ has low biotic diversity and simple vegetation
Surface Runoff Desert Biome
➢ the movement of excess liquid across the surface ➢ relatively sparse vegetation
of the land and into nearby creeks, streams, or ➢ characterized by low rainfall (less than 50 cm) per
ponds year
Infiltration ➢ most deserts have specialized vegetation as well as
➢ the process by which water on the ground surface specialized animals that can adapt to their
enters the soil condition.
Percolation Freshwater Biome
➢ comes from the Latin word percolare, which means ➢ encompasses rivers, lakes, streams, bogs, ponds,
"to strain through” and freshwater swamps
➢ refers to the movement and filtering of fluids through Marine Biome
porous materials ➢ world’s largest type of ecosystem
Aquatic Biome
➢ the rainforest of the ocean
➢ includes freshwater (ponds, lakes, rivers) and
marine (ocean, estuaries)
➢ houses numerous species of plants and animals

People play an important part in maintaining the flow of

energy in the biosphere.

Sometimes, however, people disrupt the flow.

We are all part of the delicate interaction between the

atmosphere, the geosphere, and the hydrosphere.

Our life processes drive us to be in constant need of

interaction with the planet we live on.

At the same time, the planet (along with the other spheres)
changes accordingly to our inputs.

Our fragile connection with our planet is something that we

must protect for the survival of future generations of life on
Earth.
PRE CALCULUS
MIDTERMS – FIRST SEMESTER
PHILOSOPHY OF THE HUMAN PERSON
MIDTERMS – FIRST SEMESTER
METHODS OF PHILOSOPHIZING
DETERMINING TRUTH
▪ Truth is central in the study of philosophy. A
person’s quest for truth is the reason why
philosophy exists.
▪ But truth somehow is as elusive as ever, which
made philosophers agree that there is no definite
measure in determining the truth.
▪ Somehow the thinkers of the past and the present
concerned to the idea that truth is relative to the kind
of standard one adheres to.
REASON
▪ Philosophy is distinguish from the other fields of
study by the methods it employs.
▪ The methods in philosophy involve a strong sense
of commitment to reason as a source of knowledge
in arriving at truth.
TRUTH, FACT, AND OPINION
Fact
is a piece of information having objective reality
which is acknowledged by the greater whole.
Truth
is a proposition believed to be the absolute reality.
Opinion
is a judgment based on personal convictions, which
may or may not be factual, truthful, or false
THEORIES OF TRUTH
Since truth is a vague concept, philosophers formulated
several theories to understand truth.
THE CORRESPONDENCE THEORY
the truth of a proposition is determined by its relationship
(correspondence) to the way things actually are in the world
(reality). Hence, for this realist theory, a proposition is true,
if, and only if, what it contends relates to what is real. Truth,
therefore, corresponds to facts; hence, truth is absolute.
THE COHERENCE THEORY
▪ The coherence theory of truth contends that a
proposition is true if is consistent with a system of
other propositions considered true.
▪ The truthfulness, therefore, of a person’s judgment
(proposition) is based on his/her statements’
coherence to a certain set of establish beliefs.
▪ This idealist theory of truth puts premium to the
culture of a person and his/her set of beliefs as
imposed by the society. Since people have different
cultures, traditions, so what may be true to one
culture or society may or may not be true to others.
▪ Simply put, a belief is true if one could incorporate
it, through a consistent and rational manner, into a
bigger and more complex system of beliefs.
PRAGMATIC THEORY
▪ The pragmatic theory holds that a proposition is true
if is useful. Pragmatics linked the nature of truth with
the principle of action and the concept of utility
(usefulness).
▪ This theory also contends that judgment must be
continually verified and validated by having close
encounter and interaction with the world.
LOGIC AND CRITICAL THINKING
▪ Why should we become a critical thinker?
▪ Be the master of your own life
▪ To ask ”why” is to ask for the reasons for some
beliefs and opinions (that is, to find out the premises
for a certain conclusion)
▪ To evaluate how the reasons successfully support
the claim (that is, to evaluate how the premises
support the conclusion)
▪ A critical thinker is a truth-pursuer, and logic is truth-
preserving.
CRITICAL THINKING
▪ is the process of thinking clearly, with accuracy and
precision; of thinking carefully, with logic and depth;
and of thinking open-mindedly, by examining points
of view and acknowledging assumptions and biases
within a given viewpoint.
▪ It is the process of assessing opinions.
▪ It refers to a set of skills relating to the recognition,
analysis, evaluation, and construction of
arguments.
▪ Critical thinking skills are important because they
enable us to deal effectively with social, scientific,
and practical problems, and all aspects of life.
LOGIC
▪ is centered on the analysis and construction of
argument.
▪ Logic and critical thinking serve as paths to freedom
from half-truths and deceptions.
▪ Critical thinking is distinguishing facts (objective)
and opinions or personal feelings (subjective).
RATIONAL CHOICE
In making rational choices, first we suspend beliefs and
judgments until all facts have been gathered and
considered.
THREE CONCEPTS THAT INFLUENCE THE
INTERPRETATION OF THE MEANING OF FACTS
• cultural systems,
• values,
• beliefs
Though facts are important, critical thinking also takes into
consideration cultural systems, values, and beliefs.
These three concepts could influence the interpretation of
the meaning of facts. Critical thinking helps us uncover bias
and prejudice and open to new ideas not necessarily in
agreement with previous thought.
 FACT AND OPINION ▪ There are times when a person utters arguments
Warnings, an advice, belief, or opinion lacks a claim that that deceive and prove nothing. These arguments
anything is being proved. If an opinion or belief has no somehow could sound convincing and be very
evidence or reason that supports some conclusion, there is persuasive in order to shape other’s opinion and
no argument deliver flawed judgment and reason. These
CLAIMS OF FACT arguments are called fallacies.
▪ for many facts there is no need for argument FALLACY DEFINITION EXAMPLE
▪ some facts are easy to validate as others are more “You are
Attacking the
difficult irritatingly ugly,
individual person
▪ verification is the basis of claims of fact Ad hominem
instead of the
that is why you
▪ a claim of fact is not necessarily a true statement cannot
argument
▪ do not confuse a claim of fact with a factual claim promoted.”
FACTUAL CLAIMS Telling the hearer “You have to
▪ facts that define, classify, or make inferences about that something bad pass this text
Appeal to will happen to message to 10
the past, present, or future.
force him/her if he/she people or else
▪ Types does not accept the you will receive
o Historical argument bad luck.”
o Casual connections Urging the hearer to “I cannot take
o Predictive accept the argument the exam. You
▪ Proof requirements Appeal to
based upon an have to
pity
o Reliable authority appeal to emotions, consider, my
o Accurate and recent data sympathy, etc. dog just died.”
o Clearly defined terms “Everybody
Urging the hearer to
CLAIMS Appeal to wants him/her to
accept a position
▪ But claims don’t stand alone in bringing the popular be president; we
because majority of
audience to the conclusion. opinion should support
the people hold to it
▪ Each claim needs to be accepted as both relevant him/her too.”
and true to create an effective argument- to prove “We have been
Trying to get
doing this since
the conclusion true. someone to accept
time
▪ A true claim is one which is proven accurate through Appeal to something because
immemorial,
evidence and reasoning. tradition it has been done or
therefore this is
▪ A relevant claim is one which leads logically to the believed for a long
the right thing to
conclusion, relating directly to it. time
do.”
▪ Only occasional claims do not need evidence to be “I am pretty
accepted as true. These claims are called prima Assuming the thing because my
Begging the
facie, or, true at first sight. that you are trying to mom said I am
question
▪ An argument with a conclusion that follows logically prove is true pretty, and I
from its claim is a valid argument. believe her.”
▪ An argument with a claim that is not relevant (even “Hydrogen (H) is
Assuming that what
just one) is deemed an invalid argument, and Fallacy of air. Oxygen (O)
is true of the part is
immediately loses its persuasiveness. composition is air. Therefore,
true to the whole
▪ An argument built of all claims that are accepted as H2O is air.”
“Her entire
relevant and true (i.e. the argument is already valid)
family is a family
is a sound argument.
Assuming that what of beauty
▪ An argument with a claim that is not accepted as Fallacy of
is true of the whole queens. I’m sure
true is deemed unsound argument and it no longer division
is true for the parts she will be a
proves the conclusion true. beauty queen
FALLACIES too.”
▪ Aside from the truth theories presented, there are “Her
other means by which a person can determine the grandmother
truth. One is by looking into the error in reasoning Using the same loves to eat
(judgment). It is a settle fact that a human is a term in an argument apples but she is
Fallacy of
rational animal, but his/her sense of rationality must in different places the apple of the
equivocation
first be validated in order to determine the but the word has eyes of her
truthfulness of his/her contention. different meanings grandmother. I’m
sure her
grandmother will
 have a hard time
eating her.”
A fallacy is a defect in an argument other than its having
false premises. To detect fallacies, it is required to examine
the argument’s content. Fallacies committed errors in
reasoning and thus, result to false conclusion and worse,
distort the truth.
INDUCTIVE AND DEDUCTIVE REASONING
▪ The main difference between inductive and
deductive reasoning is that inductive reasoning
aims at developing a theory while deductive
reasoning aims at testing an existing theory.
▪ Inductive reasoning moves from specific
observations to broad generalizations, and
deductive reasoning the other way around.
▪ Deductive reasoning moves from generalized
statement to a valid conclusion, whereas
▪ Inductive reasoning moves from specific
observation to a generalization.
Inductive reasoning
is a method of logical thinking that combines
observations with experiential information to reach a
conclusion. When you can look at a specific set of data and
form general conclusions based on existing knowledge from
past experiences, you are using inductive reasoning.
The term inductive reasoning refers to reasoning
that takes specific information and makes a broader
generalization that's considered probable while still
remaining open to the fact that the conclusion may not be
100% guaranteed.
▪ In deductive reasoning, the conclusions are certain,
▪ whereas, in inductive reasoning, the conclusions
are probabilistic.
EVALUATING OPINIONS
▪ Distinguishing between fact and opinion requires
attention and scrutiny, because it is indeed a
challenge to weed out opinions based on one’s
biases and subjective views from facts based on
accurate and objective information.
▪ As a critical thinker, our obligation is to, “never
accept the truth of any statement of belief unless
there is adequate evidence for it.”
▪ So the truth of any statement , opinion, of belief
must go through a certain process of checking them
out.
TRUTH AND OPINION
TRUTH
▪ It is the problem of being clear about what you are
saying when you say some claim or other is true
▪ The study of what is real
▪ A statement about the way the world actually is
▪ Objective view of things.
Truth matters, both to us as individuals and to society as a
whole. As individuals, being truthful means that we can grow
and mature, learning from our mistakes. For society,
truthfulness makes social bonds, and lying and hypocrisy
break them.
OPINION
▪ A personal belief, view or judgement that are held
despite their inability to be proven to be true, thus
they are inherently subjective. You cannot prove
that someone is handsome, or that a piece of art is
beautiful. You can only collect a consensus.
▪ Subjective view of things, your own point of view.
▪ An opinion is a statement that expresses a feeling,
an attitude, a value judgment, or a belief. It is a
statement that is neither true nor false.
▪ A statement that expresses a feeling, judgement,
belief, or attitude.
CORRESPONDENCE THEORY
Correspondence theory is what we use to often verify
truths.
▪ True propositions are those that correspond with
reality.
The basic idea of the correspondence theory is that what we
believe or say is true if it corresponds to the way things
actually are – to the facts. This idea can be seen in various
forms throughout the history of philosophy.
LINGUISTIC TURN
Linguistic philosophy is the view that many or all
philosophical problems can be solved (or dissolved) by
paying closer attention to language, either by reforming
language or by better understanding our everyday
language.
▪ The linguistic turn was a major development in
Western philosophy during the 20th century.
▪ The most important characteristics of which
philosophy and the other humanities primarily on
the relationship between philosophy and language
Gustav Bergmann
▪ An Austrian born American philosophers
▪ Introduced linguistic turn in his review of Peter
Strawson’s individuals in 1960.
PHENOMENOLOGY AND EXISTENTIALISM
Phenomenology
▪ The work often considered to constitute the birth of
phenomenology is Husserl’s logical investigations
▪ Utilizes a distinctive method to study the structural
features of experience and of things as
experienced. It is primarily a descriptive discipline
and is undertaken in a way that is largely
independent of scientific, including casual,
explanations and accounts of the nature of
experience
▪ Account ofphenomenology as the descriptive study
of the structural features of the varieties of
experience, and a number of concrete
phenomenology analyzes, including those of
meaning,part-whole relations and intentionality.
▪ Edmund Husser
Father of Phenomenology
 A german mathematician and philosopher
Existentialism
▪ Existentialism is a cath-all term for those
philosophers who consider the nature of the human
conditions as a key philosophical problem and who
share the view that this problem is best addressed
through ontology.
▪ Existence precedes essence.
▪ Man creates himself.
▪ Jean-Paul Satre
Jean-Paul-Charles-Aymard Sartre was a French
philosopher, playwright, novelist, political activist,
biographer, and literary critic.
FACT
• A fact is a statement that can be verified. It can be
proven to be true or false through objective
evidence.
• A statement that can be verified through objective
evidence
FACT OPINION
✓ Can be proven ✓ Cannot be verified
✓ Is true even if a now
person agrees or ✓ Is true or false
doesn’t depending on
✓ Often uses each person
numbers, ✓ Often uses
statistics, and comparisons like
dates with best, most, more,
references less etc.
KOMUNIKASYON
MIDTERMS – FIRST SEMESTER
REGISTER Bilang Barayti ng Wika
Barayti = Pagkakaiba-iba
SA PAANONG PARAAN NAGKAKAROON NG
PAGKAKAIBA ANG WIKANG GINAGAMIT NG TAO?
▪ Pakikipag-ugnayan ng tao
▪ Lugar na kinabibilangan
▪ Kaugalian ng tao
▪ Larangang kinabibilangan
REGISTER
▪ Isang opisyal na listahan ng mga pangalan,
kapanganakan, pagpapakasal, kamatayan.
▪ Pagpapatala ng pangalan sa halalan (politika).
▪ Pagpasok ng mga mensahe sa utak/pagtanda o
pag-alala sa natutuhan (sikolohiya).
▪ Isang listahan ng mga listahan sa isang hotel
(turismo).
ANG REGISTER BILANG ESPESYALISADONG
TERMINO
▪ Ang isang salita o termino ay maaaring magkaroon
ng iba’t ibang kahulugan ayon sa larangan o
disiplinang pinaggamitan nito.
▪ Register ang tawag sa ganitong uri ng mga termino.
▪ Tinatawag na register ang mga espesyalisadong
termino gaya ng mga salitang siyentipiko o teknikal
na nagtataglay ng iba’t ibang kahulugan sa iba’t
ibang larangan o disiplina.
Text
▪ Ang text sa cellphone ay tumutukoy sa ipinadalang
mensahe patungo sa isa o iba pang cellphone.
▪ Ang text sa literatura ay tumutukoy sa anomang
nakasulat na akda gaya ng tula, sanaysay, at
kuwento
Spin
▪ Ang spin sa washing machine ay nangangahulugan
ng mabilis na pag-ikot ng makina upang mapiga o
matanggal ang tubig sa mga damit.
▪ Ang spin sa paggawa ng sinulid ay
nangangahulugan ng paghahabi ng hibla o ber
upang maging sinulid.
Kapital
▪ Ang kapital sa larangan ng pagnenegosyo ay
nangangahuluhan ng puhunan.
▪ Ang kapital sa larangan ng heograpiya ay
nangangahulugan ng punong lungsod o kabisera.
GAMIT NG REGISTER SA IBANG PROPESYON
Iba ang register ng wika ng guro sa abogado. Iba rin ang sa
inhinyero, computer programmer, game designer,
negosyante, at iba pa.
Samantala, ang doktor at nars ay pareho ang register ng
wika sapagkat iisa ang kanilang propesyon o larangan—
ang medisina.
BARAYTI NG WIKA
BARAYTI NG WIKA
▪ Nakikipag-ugnayan ang tao sa kanyang kapwa tao
mula sa ibang lugar na may naiibang kaugalian at
wika na may naiiba kaugalian at wika.
▪ Mula sap ag-uugnayang ito ay may nalilinang na
wikang may pagkakaiba o istandard na pinagmulan
nito.
TORE NG BABEL
▪ Mula sa Genesis 11:1-9, sinasabing naging labis na
mapagmataas at mapagmalaki ang mga tao sa
paghahangas ng lakas at kapangyarihan, sila ay
nagkaisang magtayo ng toreng aabot hanggang
langit.
▪ Pinarusahan sila ng Diyos sa pamamagitan ng
pagbibigay sa kanila ng iba’t ibang wika.
DAYALEK
Barayti ng wikang nililikha ng dimensyong heograpiko.
Ginagamit sa isang particular narehiyon, malaki man o
maliit.
Makilala ang dayalekto hindi lamang sa pagkakaroon nito
ng set ng mga distinct na bokabularyo kundi maging sa
punto o tono at sa istraktura ng pangungusap.
Ito ay yaong unang wikang kinalimutan at ugat ng
komunikasyon sa tahanan at pamayanan, lalawigan. Ito rin
ang wikang unang kinagisnan, naririnig at namumutawi sa
bibig ng mga tao, ng mga magulang sa tahanan at
sambayanan.
IDYOLEK
Kahit iisang wika ang sinasalita ngtao ay mayroon pa ring
iba’t ibang paraan ng pagsasalita ang bawat tao.
Sa barayting ito,lumilitaw ang katangian at kakayahan ng
taong magsalita at bumigkas.
May pagkakaiba ang paraan ng salita ng isang tao sa iba
pang tao batay na rin sa kanya-kanyang estilo at paraan ng
paggamit ng wika kung saan higit siyang komportable sa
pagpapahayag.
SOSYOLEK
Ito ang barayti ng wikang nakabatay sa katayuan o antas
panlipunan o dimensyong sosyal ng mga taong gumagamit
ng wika.
Nagpapangkat-pangkat ang tao batay sa kalagayang
panlipunan, paniniwala, oportunidad, kasarian, edad at iba
pa.
Nakabatay ang wika sa katayuan sa lipunan at pangkat na
kinabibilangan
Nabibilang din sa barayting sosyolek ang wika ng mga
“coño” na tinatawag ding coñotic o conyospeak isang
baryant ng Taglish.
Maaari ding tumukoy sa pangkat ng isang
propesyon,particular na trabaho,o gagawin ng tao ang
sosyolek.
Ang jargon o mga natatanging bokabularyo ng particular na
pangkat ay makapagpapakilala sa kanilang trabaho o
gawain.
Jargon
Halimbawa, ang mg abogado ay makikilala sa mga jargon
na tulad ng exhibit, appeal, complainant, at iba pa.
ETNOLEK
Ito ay barayti ng wika mula s amga etnolongguwistikong
grupo, Ito ay nagmula sa dalawang salita na pinagsama
“etniko” at “dialek”.
Taglay nito ang mga salitang nagiging bahagi na ng
pagkakakilanlan ng isang pangkat-etniko.
PIDGIN AT CREOLE
Pidgin
Ito ay nabuo mula sa dalawang taong may magkaibang wika
na upang magkaintindihan ay napagsasama-sama ang
ibang salita.
Bunga nito ang tinatwag na makeshift language sa Ingles.
✓ Nagmula sa dalawang kultur ana may magkaibang
wika
✓ Wala itong pormal na istruktura
Creole
Isang uri din ng barayti ng wika na nagmula sa pagiging
pidgin hanggang sa lumaganap at nakasanayan na at
naging pangunahing wikang isang lugar.
GAMIT NG WIKA AYON KAY ROMAN JAKOBSON
ROMAN JAKOBSON
▪ Isa sa mga nagtatag ng Linguistic
Circle of New York.
▪ Functions of Language ang
kanyang naging ambag sa larangan ng
semiotics o ang pag-aaral sa mga
palatandaan at simbolo at kung paano ito
gamitin.
CONATIVE
Ito ay ang gamit ng wika upang makahimok at
makaimpluwensya sa iba sa pamamagitan ng pag-uutos at
pakiusap.
*Tuwing panahon ng eleksyon ay naririnig o nababasa natin
ang mga pahayg na “Huwag po ninyong kalimutang isulat
ang pangalan ko sa inyong balota!” mula sa mga politiko.
REFERENTIAL/INFORMATIVE
Ipinakikita nito ang gamit ng wikang nagmula sa aklat at iba
pang sangguniang pinagmulan ng kaalaman upang
magparating ng mensahe at impormasyon
*Ayon kay Don Gabor, sa kanyang aklat na Speaking Your
Mind in 101 Difficult Situation, may anim na paraan kung
paano magkakaroon ng maayos na pakikipagtalastasan.
EMOTIVE
Mga pagkakataong naibabahagi natin ang ating
nararamdaman o emosyon sa ating kausap.
“Nalulungkot talaga ako sa nangyayaring ‘yan.”
“Natatakot ako na baka lumala pa ang giyera.”
PHATIC
Ginagamit ang wika upang makipagugnayan sa kapwa at
makapagsimula ng usapan, small talk sa Ingles.
“Kumain ka na?”
“Kumusta ka?”
METALINGUAL
Ito ay pahayag o paraan ng paggamit ng wika na ang paksa
mismo ay wika tulad ng komentaryo ukol sa koda, ukol sa
sintaks, ukol sa istraktura ng wika at iba pang pag-aaral ng
wika.
POETIC
Saklaw nito ang gamit ng wika sa masining na paraan ng
pagpapahayag gaya ng panulaan, prosa, sanaysay, at iba
pa.
*Isang aklat na maputi, ang isinusulat: luha! Kaya’t wala
kang mabasa kahit isa mang talata. Kinabisa at inisip
mulang ating pagkabata. Tumanda ka’t nagkauban, hindi
mo pa maunawa.
GAMIT NG WIKA SA LIPUNAN AYON KAY M.A.K. HALLIDAY
M.A.K. HALLIDAY
Michael Alexander Kirkwood Halliday
• Iskolar mula sa Inglatera.
• “Ang wika ay isang panlipunang phenomenon
• Inilahad niya ang pitong tungkulin ng wika na
mababasa sa kanyang aklat na Explorations in the
Functions of Language (1973).
INSTRUMENTAL
• Ginagamit sa pagtugon sa mga pangangailangan
ng isang tao/tagapagsalita, pisikal, emosyonal, o
sosyal.
• Matugunan ang materyal na pangangailangan
o Gusto ko ng…
o Nais ko ng…
o Kailangan ko ng…
• Paglilista ng mga misyon ng isang pangkat
• Paghingi ng tulong
• Pagtukoy sa nais na kainin
REGULATORI
• Gamit ng wika upang kumontrol ng kilos, asal, o
paniniwala ng iba at makaimpluwensya ang
tagapagsalita sa kaniyang kausap
o Huwag kang…
o Dapat nating…
o Gawin mo ang…
• Pag-uutos
 • Street signs TEORYANG BOW-WOW
• Mga batas na nagsasaad kung ano ang tama at Ang wika raw ay nagmula sa panggagaya ng mga
mali sinaunang tao sa mga tunog na nilikha ng mga hayop
HEURISTIKO bow-wow para sa aso, ngiyaw para sa pusa, kwak-
• Gamit ng wika upang matuto, magtanong, at kwak para sa pato at moo para sa baka.
makatuklas ng mga bagong kaalaman TEORYANG POOH-POOH
o Bakit? Isinasaad sa teoryang ito na nagmula raw ang wika sa mga
o Paano? salitang namutawi sa mga bibig ng sinaunang tao nang
o Saan nagmula? nakaramdam sila ng masisidhing damdamin tulad ng tuwa,
• Paghahanap ng solusyon sa isang problema galit, sakit, sarap, kalungkutan at pagkabigla.
• Pagsulat ng tesis TEORYANG TA-TA
• Pakikipagdebate Sa teoryang ito isinasaad na may koneksiyon ang kumpas
INTERAKSIYONAL o galaw ng kamay ng tao sa paggalaw ng dila. Ito ang
• Gamit ng wika upang lumikha at magpanatili ng nagiging sanhi ng pagkatuto ng taong lumikha ng tunog at
mga ugnayang interpersonal at/o pakikipagkapwa matutong magsalita.
o Kumusta na? TEORYANG YO-HE-HO
o Ingat! Pinaniniwalaan ng mga nagmungkahi ng teoryang ito na
o Okay ka lang ba? ang tao ay natutong magsalita bunga diumano ng kanyang
pwersang pisikal.
• Pakikilahok sa mga pangkatang-gawain
• Pagsulat ng liham para sa isang kaibigan
KASAYSAYAN NG WIKANG PAMBANSA
PANAHON NG KATUTUBO
• Pakikipag-chat o text sa mga kamag-anak
Baybayin
PERSONAL
• katutubong paraan ng pagsulat
• Gamit ng wika upang ipahayag ang sariling
saloobin sa grupong kinabibilangan at upang • binubuo ng 17 titik na hawig sa mga ginagamit ng
maisiwalat ang indibidwal na mga katangian mga Indones
o Sa palagay ko… • binubuo ng tatlong patinig at 14 na katinig
o Kung ako ang tatanungin… Paraan ng paggamit ng Baybayin:
o Sa tingin ko… • Ang mga katinig at binibigkasna may
• Pagsulat ng diary o journal kasamangtunog ng patinig na /a/.
• Paglikha ng sariling profile sa mga social • Kung nais basahin o bigkasin ang mga katinig na
networking sites kasamaang tunog na /e/ o /i/, nilalagyan ang titik ng
• Pagsulat ng bukas na liham ukol sa isang tuldok sa itaas.
napapanahong isyu • Kung angtunog ng /o/ o /u/ ang nais isama sa
IMAHINATIBO pagbasang mga katinig, tuldok sa ibaba nito ang
nilalagay.
• Gamit ng wika upang lumikha gaya ng mga tula,
bugtong, kuwento, at iba pang malikhaing akda • Kung nais kaltasin ay ang anomangtunog ng patinig
o Noong unang panahon… na kasamang katinig sahulihan ng isang salita,
o Isang prinsesa nakaupo sa tasa. ginagamitan ito ng panandangkrus (+)
• Pagkukuwento • Gumagamit ng dalawang palihis na guhit // sa
• Paglikha ng bugtong hulihan ng pangungusap bilang hudyat ng
pagtatapos nito.
• Pagsulat ng nobela, dula, at iba pang akdang
PANAHON NG ESPANYOL
pampanitikan
IMPORMATIBO • Layunin ng mga Espanyol na ikintal sa isip at puso
ng mga katutubo ang Kristiyanismo.
• Gamit ng wika upang magbahagi ng kaalaman
o Ipinababatid sa lahat na… • Upang mas maging epektibo ang pagpapalaganap
o Narito ang mga detalye ukol sa … ng Kristiyanismo, ang mga misyonerong Espanyol
o Batay sa aklat… mismo ang nag-aral ng mga wikang katutubo.
• Pag-uulat • Nakita nilang mas madaling matutuhan ang wika ng
isang rehiyon kaysa ituro sa lahat ang wikang
• Pagtuturo
Espanyol.
PINAGMULAN NG WIKA
• Iniutos ng Hari na gamitin ang wikang Espanyol sa
TEORYANG DING-DONG
pagtuturo ngunit hindi ito nasunod.
Batay sa teoryang ito, nagmula raw ang wika sa
panggagaya ng mga sinaunang tao sa mga tunog ng
kalikasan.
Mga Dekri na Hindi Natupad:
• 1550
mayroong dekri na nagsasaad ba dapat magtatag ng mga
paaralan para sa pagtuturo ng Espanyol sa mga Pilipino
• 1642 at 1752
ordinansa na nagbigay-diin sa pagtatag ng mga paaralan sa
iba’t ibang distrito upang maturuan ng Espanyol ang mga
katutubo
• 1792
nagkaroon ng dekri na nagbawal sa paggamit ng mga
katutubong wika
• Disyembre 20,1865
iniutos ng reyna ng Espanya ang pagtatatag ng sistema
para sa pagtuturo sa primarya na may tiyak na mga tuntunin
sa pagtuturo at superbisyon.
o Kasama sa kurikulum ang praktikal na pagtuturo sa
Espanyol at ortograpiya.
o Ipagbabawal dito ang pakikipag-usap gamit ang
mga katutubong wika sa oras ng klase.
o Ang mga guro na hindi tutupad ay maparurusahan
at pagmumultahin.
Doctrina Christiana
• Kauna-unahang limbag na aklat sa Pilipinas (1593).
• Layunin na maging kasangkapan sa pagtuturo ng
mga pangunahing doktrinang Kristiyano.
Naging balakid sa pagsasakatuparan ng mga dekring galing
sa Espanya ang pagsalungat ng mga prayleng Espanyol sa
pamahalaan hinggil sa mga programang pang-edukasyon
at pangwika.
PANAHON NG REBOLUSYONG PILIPINO
Isa sa mga nagpasiklab sa politikal at literaturang
paghihimagsik ng mga Pilipino ang pagbitay sa tatlong pari
na sina Mariano Gomez, Jose Burgos, at Jacinto Zamora sa
salang rebolusyon at paglabag sa batas ng mga Espanyol.
• 1872
Nagkaroon ng kilusang propagandista na naging
simula ng kamalayang maghimagsik
• Nang itatag ni Andres Bonifacio ang Katipunan,
Tagalog ang ginamit sa kanilang kautusan at
pahayagan.
• Sumibol ang “Isang Bansa, Isang Diwa”.
• Pinili nilang gamitin ang Tagalog sa pagsulat ng
mga sanaysay, tula, kuwento, liham, at mga
talumpating punong-puno ng damdaming
makabayan.
• Ginawang opisyal na wika ang Tagalog bagama’t
walang isinasaad na ito ang magiging wikang
pambansa ng Republika ng Biak na Bato.
Mga Basahing Propaganda:
• Diariong Tagalog sa Maynila
• La Solidaridad sa Espanya
• Iba pang mga polyeto at aklat
Nang itatag ang Unang Republika sa pamumuno ni
Aguinaldo, isinaad na ang paggamit ng Tagalog ay
opsiyonal.
PANAHON NG AMERIKANO
1898
• Itinatag ng mga Amerikano ang mga pampublikong
paaralan at ginamit nila ang Ingles bilang wikang
panturo nang dumating sila sa Pilipinas.
• Nagkaroon ng pambansang sistema ng edukasyon
sa kapuluan at ipinahayag na Ingles ang gagawing
wikang panturo.
• Hindi naging madali ang paggamit ng Ingles sa
pagtuturo sa mga mag-aaral ng tinatawag na
tatlong R (Reading, wRiting, aRithmetic) dahil hindi
maiwasan ng mga guro ang paggamit ng
bernakular.
• Nang mapalitan ang director ng Kawanihan ng
Edukasyon, ipinahayag na wikang Ingles LAMANG
ang gagamiting wikang panturo at ipinagbabawal
ang paggamit ng bernakular.
Dahilan ng Pagtaguyod ng Wikang Ingles:
1. Ang pagtuturo ng bernakular sa mga paaralan ay
magreresulta sa suliraning administratibo.
2. Ang paggamit ng iba't ibang bernakular sa
pagtuturo ay magdudulot lámang ng rehiyonalismo
sa halip na nasyonalismo.
3. Hindi magandang pakinggan ang magkahalong
wikang Ingles at bernakular.
4. Malaki na ang nagasta ng pamahalaan nara sa
edukasyong pambayan at paglinang ng Ingles
upang maging wikang pambansa.
5. Ingles ang nakikitang pag-asa upang magkaroon
ng pambansang pagkakaisa.
6. Ingles ang wika ng pandaigdigang pangangalakal.
7. Ang Ingles ay mayaman sa katawagang pansining
at pang-agham.
8. Yamang nandito na ang Ingles ay kailangang
hasain ang paggamit nito.
Dahil sa Pagtataguyod ng Bernakular:
1. Walumpung porsiyento ng mag-aaral ang
nakaaabot ng hanggang ikalimang grado lang kayâ
pagsasayang lámang ng panahon at pera ang
pagtuturo sa kanila ng Ingles na walang kinalaman
sa kanilang sosyal at praktikal na pamumuhay.
2. Kung bernakular ang gagamiting panturo, magiging
epektibo ang pagtuturo sa primarya.
3. Kung kailangan talagang linangin ang wikang
komon sa Pilipinas, nararapat lámang na Tagalog
ito sapagkat isang porsiyento lámang ng tahanang
Pilipino ang gumagamit ng Ingles.
4. Hindi magiging maunlad ang pamamaraang
panturo kung Ingles ang gagamitin dahil hindi
naman natututo ang mga mag-aaral kung paano
nila malulutas ang mga problemang kahaharapin
nila sa kanilang pang-arawaraw na pamumuha
5. Ang paglinang ng wikang Ingles bilang wikang
pambansa ay hindi nagpapakita ng nasyonalismo.
 6. Nararapat lámang na magsagawa ng mga bagay
para sa ikabubuti ng lahat katulad ng paggamit ng
bernakular.
7. Walang kakayahang makasulat ng klasiko sa
wikang Ingles ang mga Pilipino.
8. Hindi na nangangailangan ng mga kagamitang
panturo upang magamit ang bernakular, kailangan
lamang na ito ay pasiglahin.
Batas Komonwelt Blg. 184 (1935)
• Opisyal na paglikha ng Surian ng Wikang
Pambansa
• Layuning magsagawa ng saliksik, gabay, at
alituntunting magiging batayan sa pagpili ng wikang
pambansa
• Napili ang Tagalog bilang batayan ng wikang
pambansa (1937)
PANAHON NG HAPONES
• ENERO 3, 1942
itinatag ng mga Hapon ang Japanese Military
Administration matapos masakop ang Maynila.
o Ipinagbawal ang paggamit ng Ingles sa anomang
aspekto ng buhay ng mga Pilipino
o Ipinagamit nila ang katutubong wika, partikular ang
wikang Tagalog sa pagsulat ng mga akdang
pampanitikan
o Gintong panahon ng panitikan
• Naging opisyal na wika ang Tagalog at ang wikang
Nihonggo.
• Naging masigla ang talakayan tungkol sa wika,
muling binuhay ang Surian ng Wikang Pambansa
sa pagnanais ng mga Hapones na itaguyod ang
pagkakaroon ng Wikang Pambansa.
PANAHON NG PAGSASARILI HANGGANG SA
KASALUKUYAN
• Pinagtibay na ang wikang opisyal sa bansa ay
Tagalog at lngles sa bisa ng Batas Komonwelt
Bilang 570.
• Noong Agosto 13, 1959 ay pinalitan ang tawag sa
wikang pambansa, ito ay naging Pilipino sa bisa ng
Kautusang Pangkagawaran Blg. 7 na pinalabas ni
Jose B. Romero, ang dating Kalihim ng Edukasyon.
• Noong 1963, ipinag-utos na awitin ang
Pambansang Awit sa titik nitong Pilipino batay sa
Kautusang Tagapagpaganap Blg 60 s. 1963 na
nilagdaan ni Pangulong Diosdado Macapagal.
Nang umupo naman si Ferdinand E. Marcos bilang pangulo
ng Pilipinas, iniutos niya ang mga sumusunod:
o Sa bisa ng Kautusang Tagapagpaganap Blg 96 s.
1967, na ang lahat ng edipisyo, gusali, at
tanggapan ay pangalanan sa Pilipino.
o Ang ulong-liham ng mga tanggapan ng
pamahalaan ay isulat sa Pilipino, kalakip ang
kaukulang teksto sa Ingles sa ilalim ng
Memorandum Sirkular Blg. 172 (1968).
• Ang pormularyo sa panunumpa sa tungkulin ng
mga pinunó at kawani ng pamahalaan ay sa Pilipino
gagawin.
• Noong 1969 inilabas ang Kautusang
Tagapagpaganap Blg. 187 na nag-uutos sa lahat
ng kagawaran, kawanihan, tanggapan, at iba pang
sangay ng pamahalaang gamitin ang wikang
Pilipino hangga't maaari sa Linggo ng Wikang
Pambansa at pagkaraan naman ay sa lahat ng
opisyal na komunikasyon at transaksiyon.
Noong Hunyo 19, 1974 ang Kagawaran ng Edukasyon at
Kultura sa pamumuno ni Kalihim Juan L. Manuel ay
nagpalabas ng Kautusang Pangkagawaran Blg. 25 s. 1974
ng mga panuntunan sa pagpapatupad ng Patakarang
Edukasyong Bilingguwal.
• Sa termino ni dating Pangulong Cory Aquino
isinulong ang paggamit ng wikang Filipino
• Bumuo ng bagong batas ang Constitutional
Commission. Sa Saligang Batas 1987 ay nilinaw
ang mga kailangang gawin upang maitaguyod ang
wikang Filipino. (Artikulo XIV Seksiyon 6 ng
Saligang Batas 1987)
Noong Agosto 25, 1988 ay ipinalabas ang Kautusang
Tagapagpaganap Blg. 335 na magsasagawa ng mga
sumusunod na hakbang:
1. Magsakatuparan ng mga hakbang para sa
paggamit ng Filipino sa opisyal na komunikasyon,
transaksyon, at korespondensya sa kanikanilang
opisina, maging nasyonal at lokal;
2. Magtalaga ng isa o higit pang tauhan, ayon sa
pangangailangan, sa bawat tanggapan upang
mangasiwa sa mga komunikasyon at
korespondensya na nasusulat sa Filipino;
3. Isalin sa Filipino ang mga pangalan ng opisina,
gusali at edipisyong publiko, at mga karatula ng
lahat ng opisina at mga dibisyon nito o
instrumentaliti ng mga iyon at, kung nanaisin, ilagay
sa ibaba nito sa malilit na letra ang tekstong Ingles;
4. Isa-Filipino ang "Panunumpa sa Katungkulan" ng
lahat ng mga pinuno at tauhan ng pamahalaan; at
5. Gawing bahagi ng programa ang mga pagsasanay
ukol sa pagpapaunlad sa mga kawani ng bawat
opisina ang kasanayan sa paggamit ng Filipino sa
mga komunikasyon at korespondensyang opisyal.
Noong 1995 ay muling isinaalang-alang at nirebisa ang
itinakdang academic units para sa Wikang Filipino sa
General Education Curriculum.
Noong Hulyo 15, 1997 ay nilagdaan sa ilalim ng
pamamahala ni dating Pangulong Fidel V. Ramos ang
Proklamasyon Blg. 1041 na nagpapahayag ng taunang
pagdiriwang ng Buwan ng Wikang Pambansa tuwing
Agosto 1 hanggang 31
 ARTIKULO XIV NG KONSTITUSYON NG 1987
WIKA
Sek. 6.
Ang wikang pambansa ng Pilipinas ay Filipino.
Samantalang nalilinang, ito ay dapat payabungin at
pagyamanin pa salig sa umiiral na mga wika ng Pilipinas at
sa iba pang mga wika.

Alinsunod sa mga tadhana ng batas at sang-ayon sa

nararapat na maaaring ipasya ng Kongreso, dapat
magsagawa ng mga hakbangin ang Pamahalaan upang
ibunsod at puspusang itaguyod ang paggamit ng Filipino
bilang midyum ng opisyal na komunikasyon at bilang wika
ng pagtuturo sa Sistemang pangedukasyon.
Sek. 7.
Ukol sa mga layunin ng komunikasyon at pagtuturo, ang
mga wikang opisyal ng Pilipinas ay Filipino at, hangga’t
walang ibang itinatadhana ang batas, Ingles. Ang mga
wikang panrehiyon ay pantulong na mga wikang opisyal sa
mga rehiyon at magsisilbi na pantulong na mga wikang
panturo roon. Dapat itaguyod nang kusa at opsyonal ang
Kastila at Arabic.
Sek. 8.
Ang Konstitusyong ito ay dapat ipahayag sa Filipino at
Ingles at dapat isalin sa mga pangunahing wikang
panrehiyon, Arabic, at Kastila
Sek. 9.
Dapat magtatag ang Kongreso ng isang komisyon ng
wikang pambansa na binubuo ng mga kinatawan ng iba’t
ibang mga rehiyon at mga disiplina na magsasagawa, mag-
uugnay at magtataguyod ng mga pananaliksik sa Filipino at
iba pang mga wika para sa kanilang pagpapaunlad,
pagpapalaganap at pagpapanatili.