Electrostatics 253

F sin
F


F cos

s
Fig. 6.1

Chapter

6
Work, Energy, Power and Collision
Introduction (ii) F sin in the perpendicular direction of displacement of
the body.
The terms 'work', 'energy' and 'power' are frequently
used in everyday language. A farmer clearing weeds in his
field is said to be working hard. A woman carrying water from
a well to her house is said to be working. In a drought
affected region she may be required to carry it over large
distances. If she can do so, she is said to have a large
stamina or energy. Energy is thus the capacity to do work.
The term power is usually associated with speed. In karate, a
powerful punch is one delivered at great speed. In physics we
Since body is being displaced in the direction of
shall define these terms very precisely. We shall find that
F cos  , therefore work done by the force in displacing the
there is a loose correlation between the physical definitions
body through a distance s is given by
and the physiological pictures these terms generate in our
W = (F cos  ) s = Fs cos 
minds.
or W = F. s
Work is said to be done when a force applied on the
Thus work done by a force is equal to the scalar (or dot
body displaces the body through a certain distance in the
product) of the force and the displacement of the body.
direction of force.
If a number of forces F 1 , F 2 , F 3 ...... F n are acting on a
Work Done by a Constant Force body and it shifts from position vector r 1 to position vector

Let a constant force F be applied on the body such r 2 then W = (F 1 + F 2 + F 3 + .... F n ).( r 2 − r 1 )
that it makes an angle  with the horizontal and body is Nature of Work Done
displaced through a distance s
Positive work

By resolving force F into two components : Positive work means that force (or its component) is
parallel to displacement Direction of motion
(i) F cos in the direction of displacement of the body. F


s

Fig. 6.2
 254 Work, Energy, Power and Collision
Negative work means that force (or its component) is
opposite to displacement i.e.
F Direction of motion
0 o    90 o

s
90 o    180 o
The positive work signifies that the external force Fig. 6.6
favours the motion of the body.

Example: (i) When a person lifts a body from the

The negative work signifies that the external force
ground, the work done by the (upward) lifting force is positive
opposes the motion of the body.
F man
Example: (i) When a person lifts a body from the
ground, the work done by the (downward) force of gravity is
s
negative.

Fig. 6.3
Fg

s
(ii) When a lawn roller is pulled by applying a force
along the handle at an acute angle, work done by the applied
Fig. 6.7
force is positive. F

s
(ii) When a body is made to slide over a rough surface,
Fig. 6.4
the work done by the frictional force is negative.

s Minimum work : Wmin = − F s

(iii) When a spring is stretched, work done by the
F
F
external (stretching) force is positive.
+ s +
s
F Fig. 6.8

Fig. 6.5

When cos  = minimum = −1 i.e  = 180 o

Maximum work : Wmax = F s It means force does minimum [maximum negative]

work when angle between force and displacement is 180 o.
When cos  = maximum = 1 i.e.  = 0 o
(iii) When a positive charge is moved towards another
It means force does maximum work when angle
positive charge. The work done by electrostatic force
between force and displacement is zero.
between them is negative.
Negative work

Zero work

Under three condition, work done becomes zero W = Fs cos  = 0

 Work, Energy, Power and Collision 255

(1) If the force is perpendicular to the displacement [ F ⊥ s ]

Example: (i) When a coolie travels on a horizontal platform with a load on

s
his head, work done against gravity by the coolie is zero.

(ii) When a body moves in a circle the work done by the centripetal Fg

force is always zero.

(iii) In case of motion of a charged particle in a magnetic field as

force [F = q(v  B)] is always perpendicular to motion, work done

by this force is always zero.

(2) If there is no displacement [s = 0]

F
Example: (i) When a person tries to displace a wall or heavy stone by applying
a force and it does not move, then work done is zero. s =0

(ii) A weight lifter does work in lifting the weight off the ground but

does not work in holding it up.

(3) If there is no force acting on the body [F = 0]

Example: Motion of an isolated body in free space.

Work Done by a Variable Force Dimension and Units of Work

When the magnitude and direction of a force varies Dimension : As work = Force  displacement
with position, the work done by such a force for an −2
[W] = [MLT ]  [L] = [ML 2 T −2 ]
infinitesimal displacement is given by dW =B F. d s
ds
Units : The units of work are of two types

F
Absolute units Gravitational units
A Joule [S.I.]: Work done is said kg-m [S.I.]: 1 kg-m of
Fig. 6.9
to be one Joule, when 1 work is done when a
Newton force displaces the force of 1kg-wt.
body through 1 metre in its displaces the body
The total work done in going from A to B as shown in
own direction. through 1m in its own
the figure is
From, W = F.s direction.
A F. d s = A (F cos  )ds
B B
W =
1 Joule = 1 Newton 1 m From W=Fs
In terms of rectangular component F = Fx ˆi + Fy ˆj + Fz kˆ
1 kg-m = 1 kg-wt  1 m
d s = dxˆi + dyˆj + dz kˆ
= 9.81 N  1 metre
ˆ ˆ
A (Fx ˆi + Fy ˆj + Fz k ).(dxˆi + dyˆj + dz k )
B
W =
xB yB zB
= 9.81 Joule
or W = x A Fx dx + y A Fy dy + z A Fz dz
 256 Work, Energy, Power and Collision
erg [C.G.S.] : Work done is gm-cm [C.G.S.] : 1 gm- i.e. Area under force-displacement curve with proper

said to be one erg when 1 cm of work is done when algebraic sign represents work done by the force.

dyne force displaces the a force of 1gm-wt Work Done in Conservative and
body through 1 cm in its displaces the body Non-conservative Field
own direction. through 1cm in its own (1) In conservative field, work done by the force (line
direction.
From W = F s integral of the force i.e.  F.d l ) is independent of the path
1 erg = 1dyne  1cm From W = F s followed between any two points.
I
1 gm-cm = 1gm-wt  W A→B = W A→B = W A→B
Relation between Joule A B
1cm. = 981 dyne  1cm Path I Path II Path III II
and erg
= 981 erg
or  F.d l =  F.d l =  F.d l
1 Joule = 1 N  1 m III
Path I Path II Path III
Fig. 6.11
= 10 dyne  10 cm
5 2

= 107 dyne  cm = 107 erg (2) In conservative field work done by the force (line

Work Done Calculation by Force Displacement integral of the force i.e.  F.d l ) over a closed path/loop is zero.
Graph W A→B + WB→ A = 0
  A B
Let a body, whose initial position is x i , is acted upon or  F.d l = 0
by a variable force (whose magnitude is changing
continuously) and consequently the body acquires its final Fig. 6.12
Force
position x f .

F
Conservative force : The forces of these type of fields
are known as conservative forces.
O xi xf Displacement Example : Electrostatic forces, gravitational forces,
x dx
elastic forces, magnetic forces etc and all the central forces
Fig. 6.10
are conservative in nature.
If a body of mass m lifted to height h from the ground
level by different path as shown in the figure
B B B B
Let F be the average value of variable force within the
interval dx from position x to (x + dx) i.e. for small
displacement dx. The work done will be the area of the I II III IV
l h
shaded strip of width dx. The work done on the body in h3
 h2
displacing it from position x i to x f will be equal to the sum h1

of areas of all the such strips A A A A

Fig. 6.13
dW = F dx
xf xf
W = xi
dW = 
xi
F dx

W =
xf Work done through different paths
x i (Area of strip of width dx )
W = Area under curve between x i and x f W I = F. s = mg  h = mgh
 Work, Energy, Power and Collision 257

WII = F. s = mg sin   l = mg sin  

h
= mgh
Work Depends on Frame of Reference
sin 
WIII = mgh 1 + 0 + mgh 2 + 0 + mgh 3 + 0 + mgh 4 With change of frame of reference (inertial), force does
not change while displacement may change. So the work
= mg (h1 + h2 + h3 + h4 ) = mgh
done by a force will be different in different frames.
WIV =  F. d s = mgh
Examples : (1) If
It is clear that WI = WII = WIII = WIV = mgh . a porter with a
Further if the body is brought back to its initial position suitcase on his head
A, similar amount of work (energy) is released from the moves up a staircase,
system, it means W AB = mgh and W BA = −mgh . work done by the

Hence the net work done against gravity over a round upward lifting force
h
trip is zero. relative to him will be
zero (as displacement Fig. 6.15
W Net = W AB + W BA = mgh + (−mgh ) = 0
relative to him is zero) while relative to a person on the
i.e. the gravitational force is conservative in nature.
ground will be mgh.
Non-conservative forces : A force is said to be non-
(2) If a person is pushing a box inside a moving train,
conservative if work done by or against the force in moving a
the work done in the frame of train will F.s while in the
body from one position to another, depends on the path
followed between these two positions and for complete cycle frame of earth will be F . (s + s 0 ) where s0 is the

this work done can never be zero. displacement of the train relative to the ground.

Example: Frictional force, Viscous force, Airdrag etc. Energy

If a body is moved from position A to another position B The energy of a body is defined as its capacity for

on a rough table, work done against frictional force shall doing work.

depend on the length of the path between A and B and not (1) Since energy of a body is the total quantity of work

only on the position A and B. done, therefore it is a scalar quantity.

W AB = mgs (2) Dimension: [ML2 T −2 ] it is same as that of work or

Further if the body is brought back to its initial position
A, work has to be done against the frictional force, which
opposes the motion. Hence the net work done against the
R
friction over a round trip is not szero.
F
Fig. 6.14
W BA = mgs .
W Net = W AB + W BA = mgs + mgs = 2 mgs  0 .
i.e. the friction is a non-conservative force.
torque.
(3) Units : Joule [S.I.], erg [C.G.S.]
Practical units : electron volt (eV), Kilowatt hour
(KWh), Calories (cal)
Relation between different units:
1 Joule = 10 7 erg
1 eV = 1 . 6  10 −19 Joule
1 kWh = 3 . 6  10 6 Joule
1 calorie = 4 . 18 Joule
(4) Mass energy equivalence : Einstein’s special theory of
relativity shows that material particle itself is a form of energy.
The relation between the mass of a particle m and its
equivalent energy is given as
E = mc 2 where c = velocity of light in vacuum.
 258 Work, Energy, Power and Collision
If m = 1 amu = 1 . 67  10 −27 kg

then E = 931 MeV = 1 . 5  10 −10 Joule . (iii) Nuclear bomb : When the nucleus is split up due to

If m = 1kg then E = 9  10 16 Joule mass defect (The difference in the mass of nucleons and the

Examples : (i) Annihilation of matter when an electron nucleus), energy is released in the form of  -radiations and

(e − ) and a positron (e + ) combine with each other, they heat.

annihilate or destroy each other. The masses of electron and (5) Various forms of energy

positron are converted into energy. This energy is released in (i) Mechanical energy (Kinetic and Potential)
the form of  -rays. (ii) Chemical energy
− +
e + e → + (iii) Electrical energy
Each  photon has energy = 0.51 MeV. (iv) Magnetic energy
Here two  photons are emitted instead of one  (v) Nuclear energy
photon to conserve the linear momentum.
(vi) Sound energy
(ii) Pair production : This process is the reverse of
(vii) Light energy
annihilation of matter. In this case, a photon ( ) having
(viii) Heat energy
energy equal to 1.02 MeV interacts with a nucleus and give
(6) Transformation of energy : Conversion of energy
(e − ) and positron (e + ) . Thus energy is
 (Photon)
rise to electron
from one form to another is possible through various devices
converted into matter. e– + e+
and processes.
Fig. 6.16

Table : 6.1 Various devices for energy conversion from one form to another

Mechanical → electrical Light → Electrical Chemical → electrical

Light Cathode
N S Anode
– +

A

+ –
Dynamo Photoelectric Primary

cell cell

Chemical → heat Sound → Electrical Heat → electrical

Fe

Hot Cold

G Cu

Coal

Burning Microphone Thermo-couple

 Work, Energy, Power and Collision 259

Heat → Mechanical Electrical → Mechanical Electrical → Heat

Engine Motor Heater

Electrical → Sound Electrical → Chemical Electrical → Light

Anode Cathod
+ –
e

Speaker Voltameter Electrolyte Bulb

Kinetic Energy (1) Expression for kinetic energy :

The energy possessed by a body by virtue of its motion, Let m = mass of the body,
is called kinetic energy.
u = Initial velocity of the body (= 0)
Examples : (i) Flowing water possesses kinetic energy F = Force acting on the body,
which is used to run the water mills.
a = Acceleration of the body,
(ii) Moving vehicle possesses kinetic energy.
s = Distance travelled by the body,
(iii) Moving air (i.e. wind) possesses kinetic energy
v = Final velocity of the body
which is used to run wind mills.
From v 2 = u 2 + 2 as
(iv) The hammer possesses kinetic energy which is
v2
used to drive the nails in wood.  v 2 = 0 + 2 as  s =
2a

(v) A bullet fired from the gun has kinetic energy and Since the displacement of the body is in the direction
due to this energy the bullet penetrates into a target. of the applied force, then work done by the force is

v v2
u=0 W = F  s = ma 
2a
F
1
W = mv 2
2
s
Fig. 6.17 This work done appears as the kinetic energy of the
1
body KE = W = mv 2
2
 260 Work, Energy, Power and Collision
(2) Calculus method : Let a body is initially at rest and (5) Work-energy theorem: From equation (i)

force F is applied on the body to displace it through small dW = mv dv .


displacement d s along its own direction then small work Work done on the body in order to increase its velocity
done from u to v is given by

dW = F.d s = F ds v v v 2 
v

W = u mv dv = m u v dv = m  2 
 dW = m a ds [As F = ma]   u

 dv  1
 dW = m
dv  W = m[v 2 − u 2 ]
ds  As a = dt  2
dt  
Work done = change in kinetic energy
ds
 dW = mdv .
dt
W = E
 dW = m v dv …(i)
This is work energy theorem, it states that work done
 ds  by a force acting on a body is equal to the change in the
 As dt = v 
 
kinetic energy of the body.
Therefore work done on the body in order to increase
This theorem is valid for a system in presence of all
its velocity from zero to v is given by
types of forces (external or internal, conservative or non-
v
v v 
v 2  1 conservative).
W= 0 mv dv = m 0 v dv = m  2  = 2 mv
2

  0
If kinetic energy of the body increases, work is positive
This work done appears as the kinetic energy of the i.e. body moves in the direction of the force (or field) and if
1 kinetic energy decreases, work will be negative and object
body KE = mv 2 .
2
will move opposite to the force (or field).
1
In vector form KE = m (v . v ) Examples : (i) In case of vertical motion of body under
2
gravity when the body is projected up, force of gravity is
As m and v .v are always positive, kinetic energy is
opposite to motion and so kinetic energy of the body
always positive scalar i.e. kinetic energy can never be negative.
decreases and when it falls down, force of gravity is in the
(3) Kinetic energy depends on frame of reference : direction of motion so kinetic energy increases.
The kinetic energy of a person of mass m, sitting in a train
(ii) When a body moves on a rough horizontal surface,
1
moving with speed v, is zero in the frame of train but mv 2 as force of friction acts opposite to motion, kinetic energy will
2
in the frame of the earth. decrease and the decrease in kinetic energy is equal to the
work done against friction.
(4) Kinetic energy according to relativity : As we
1 (6) Relation of kinetic energy with linear momentum:
know E = mv 2 .
2 As we know

But this formula is valid only for (v << c) If v is 1 1 P

E= mv 2 =   v 2 [As P = mv ]
comparable to c (speed of light in free space = 3  10 m / s ) 8 2 2 v 

then according to Einstein theory of relativity 1

 E= Pv
2
mc 2
E= − mc 2
1 − (v / c )
2 2
 Work, Energy, Power and Collision 261
P2
From above relation it is clear that a body can not have
or E=
2m kinetic energy without having momentum and vice-versa.
 P
 As v = m 
 

So we can say that kinetic energy

2
1 1 p
E= mv 2 = Pv =
2 2 2m
2E
and Momentum P = = 2mE
v

(7) Various graphs of kinetic energy

E E
E  P2
E  v2 m = constant
m = constant
v v

E
E
E
1 P E
m
m = constant
P = constant
m P

Stopping of Vehicle by Retarding Force

If a vehicle moves with some initial velocity and due to
 Stopping force (F)  Distance (x) = Kinetic energy
some retarding force it stops after covering some distance after
(E)
some time.
Kinetic energy (E)
(1) Stopping distance : Let m = Mass of vehicle,  Stopping distance (x) =
Stopping force (F)
v = Velocity, P = Momentum, E = Kinetic energy
mv 2
 x= …(i)
F = Stopping force, x = Stopping distance, 2F

t = Stopping time (2) Stopping time : By the impulse-momentum

theorem
Then, in this process stopping force does work on the
vehicle and destroy the motion. F  t = P  F  t = P
P
By the work- energy theorem  t=
F
1
W = K = mv 2 or t =
mv
…(ii)
2 F
Initial velocity = v Final velocity = 0
(3) Comparison of stopping distance and time for
two vehicles : Two vehicles of masses m1 and m2 are moving

x
Fig. 6.18
 262 Work, Energy, Power and Collision
with velocities v1 and v2 respectively. When they are stopped the particle between these two points without any change in
by the same retarding force (F). kinetic energy.
 
x1 E m v2 r
U 2 − U1 = −  r 2 F. d r = −W …(i)
The ratio of their stopping distances = 1 = 1 12 1
x2 E2 m 2v 2
We can define a unique value of potential energy only
t1 P m v
and the ratio of their stopping time = 1 = 1 1 by assigning some arbitrary value to a fixed point called the
t2 P2 m 2 v 2
reference point. Whenever and wherever possible, we take
(i) If vehicles possess same velocities
the reference point at infinity and assume potential energy to
v1 = v2
be zero there, i.e. if we take r1 =  and r2 = r then from
x1 m t m
= 1 ; 1 = 1 equation (i)
x2 m2 t2 m2
r
 
U = −   F. d r = −W
(ii) If vehicle possess same kinetic momentum

P1 = P2 In case of conservative force (field) potential energy is

 P 2   2m  m2 equal to negative of work done by conservative force in

x1 E
= 1 =  1   22 =
 m
x2 E2  2m1   P2  1
shifting the body from reference position to given position.

t1 P This is why, in shifting a particle in a conservative field

= 1 =1
t2 P2 (say gravitational or electric), if the particle moves opposite
(iii) If vehicle possess same kinetic energy to the field, work done by the field will be negative and so
x1 E change in potential energy will be positive i.e. potential
= 1 =1
x2 E2 energy will increase. When the particle moves in the direction

t1 P 2m1 E1 m1 of field, work will be positive and change in potential energy

= 1 = =
t2 P2 2m 2 E2 m2 will be negative i.e. potential energy will decrease.

Note : ❑ If vehicle is stopped by friction then

(2) Three dimensional formula for potential energy:

For only conservative fields F equals the negative gradient
1 1 
mv 2 mv 2 (−) of the potential energy.
v2
Stopping distance x = 2 = 2 =   
F ma 2 g
So F = −U (  read as Del operator or Nabla
[As a = g]   ˆ  ˆ  ˆ
operator and  = i+ j+ k )
x y z
mv mv v
Stopping time t = = = 
F m g g  U ˆ U ˆ U ˆ 
 F = − i+ j+ k
 x y z 
Potential Energy
where,
Potential energy is defined only for conservative forces.
U
In the space occupied by conservative forces every point is = Partial derivative of U w.r.t. x (keeping y and z
x
associated with certain energy which is called the energy of constant)
position or potential energy. Potential energy generally are of U
= Partial derivative of U w.r.t. y (keeping x and z
three types : Elastic potential energy, Electric potential energy y

and Gravitational potential energy. constant)

U
(1) Change in potential energy : Change in potential = Partial derivative of U w.r.t. z (keeping x and y
z
energy between any two points is defined in the terms of the constant)
work done by the associated conservative force in displacing (3) Potential energy curve : A graph plotted between
the potential energy of a
U(x)

C D
A

B
O x
Fig. 6.19
 Work, Energy, Power and Collision 263
particle and its displacement from the centre of force is dU
= negative , then F is in positive direction
dx
called potential energy curve.
i.e. force is repulsive in nature.
Figure shows a graph of potential energy function U(x)
In graph this is represented in region AB.
for one dimensional motion.
(iii) Zero force :
As we know that negative gradient of the potential
On increasing x, if U does not change,
energy gives force.
dU
dU = 0 then F is zero
 − =F dx
dx
i.e. no force works on the particle.
(4) Nature of force
Point B, C and D represents the point of zero force or
(i) Attractive force :
these points can be termed as position of equilibrium.
On increasing x, if U increases,
dU (5) Types of equilibrium : If net force acting on a
= positive , then F is in negative direction
dx particle is zero, it is said to be in equilibrium.
i.e. force is attractive in nature. dU
For equilibrium = 0 , but the equilibrium of particle can
dx
In graph this is represented in region BC.
be of three types :
(ii) Repulsive force :
On increasing x, if U decreases,

Stable Unstable Neutral

When a particle is displaced slightly
from its present position, then a force
acting on it brings it back to the initial
position, it is said to be in stable
equilibrium position.
When a particle is displaced slightly When a particle is slightly displaced from
from its present position, then a force its position then it does not experience
acting on it tries to displace the any force acting on it and continues to be
particle further away from the in equilibrium in the displaced position, it
equilibrium position, it is said to be in is said to be in neutral equilibrium.
unstable equilibrium.

Potential energy is minimum. Potential energy is maximum. Potential energy is constant.

dU dU dU
F=− =0 F=− =0 F=− =0
dx dx dx

d 2U d 2U d 2U
= positive = negative =0
dx 2 dx 2 dx 2
dU dU dU
i.e. rate of change of is positive. i.e. rate of change of is negative. i.e. rate of change of is zero.
dx dx dx

Example : Example : Example :

A marble placed at the bottom of a A marble balanced on top of a A marble placed on horizontal table.
hemispherical bowl. hemispherical bowl.
 264 Work, Energy, Power and Collision
Elastic Potential Energy [F] [MLT −2 ]
 [k ] = = = [ MT −2 ]
[x ] L
(1) Restoring force and spring constant : When a

spring is stretched or compressed from its normal position (x = Units : S.I. unit Newton/metre, C.G.S unit Dyne/cm.

0) by a small distance x, then a restoring force is produced in Note :❑ Dimension of force constant is
the spring to bring it to the normal position. similar to surface tension.

According to Hooke’s law this restoring force is (2) Expression for elastic potential energy : When a
proportional to the displacement x and its direction is always spring is stretched or compressed from its normal position (x

opposite to the displacement. = 0), work has to be done by external force against restoring

force. F ext = − F restoring = k x

m
Let the spring is further stretched through the distance
x=0 dx, then work done
F
m Fext dW = F ext . d x = Fext . dx cos 0 o = kx dx [As cos 0o = 1]

+x Therefore total work done to stretch the spring through

F
a distance x from its mean position is given by
m Fext
x
x x x2  1 2
–x W = 0 dW = 0 kx dx = k   = kx
Fig. 6.20  2  0 2

This work done is stored as the potential energy in the

stretched spring.

1 2
i.e. F  − x  Elastic potential energy U = kx
2

or F = −k x 1  F
U= Fx  As k = x 
…(i) 2  

where k is called spring constant. F2  F

U=  As x = k 
2k  
If x = 1, F = k (Numerically)
1 2 1 F2
or k=F  Elastic potential energy U = kx = Fx =
2 2 2k
Hence spring constant is numerically equal to force
Note :❑ If spring is stretched from initial
required to produce unit displacement (compression or
position x 1 to final position x 2 then work done
extension) in the spring. If required force is more, then spring
= Increment in elastic potential energy
is said to be more stiff and vice-versa. 1
= k (x 22 − x 12 )
2
Actually k is a measure of the stiffness/softness of the
❑ Work done by the spring-force on the block
spring.
in various situation are shown in the following table
F
Dimension : As k =
x

Table : 6.2 Work done for spring

Initial state of the Final state of the Initial position (x1) Final position (x2) Work done (W)
 Work, Energy, Power and Collision 265
spring spring

Natural Compressed 0 –x –1/2 kx2

Natural Elongated 0 x –1/2 kx2

Elongated Natural x 0 1/2 kx2

Compressed Natural –x 0 1/2 kx2

Elongated Compressed x –x 0

Compressed Elongated –x x 0

(3) Energy graph for a spring : If the mass attached  Total energy E =
1 2
ka …(ii)
2
with spring performs simple harmonic motion about its mean
position then its potential energy at any position (x) can be [Because velocity of mass is zero at extreme position]

given by 1
 K= mv 2 = 0 ]
2
x=0
Now kinetic energy at any position
m
1 1
O K = E −U = k a2 − k x 2
2 2
x=–a
m 1
K= k (a 2 − x 2 ) …(iii)
2
A
x=+a From the above formula we can check that
m
1 2
U max = ka [At extreme x =  a]
B 2
Fig. 6.21
and U min = 0 [At mean x = 0]

1 2
K max = ka [At mean x = 0]
2

and K min = 0 [At extreme x =  a]

1 2
U= kx …(i)
2 1 2
E= ka = constant (at all positions)
So for the extreme position 2

1 2 It means kinetic energy and potential energy changes

U= ka [As x =  a for extreme]
2 parabolically w.r.t. position but total energy remain always
Energy

constant irrespective to position of the mass

E
U Electrical Potential Energy
K It is the energy associated with state of separation
A O B
between charged particles that interact via electric force. For
x =– a x=0 x = +a
Position two point charge q 1 and q 2 , separated by distance r.
Fig. 6.22
1 q q
U= . 1 2
This is maximum potential energy or the total energy of 4 0 r
mass.
 266 Work, Energy, Power and Collision
While for a point charge q at a point in an electric field
where the potential is V

U = qV

As charge can be positive or negative, electric potential

energy can be positive or negative.

Gravitational Potential Energy Work Done in Pulling the Chain Against Gravity
It is the usual form of A chain of length L and mass M is held on a frictionless
F12 F21
potential energy and this is the m1 m2 table with (1/n)th of its length hanging over the edge.
energy associated with the state of M
r Let m = = mass per
separation between two bodies L
Fig. 6.23
that interact via gravitational force. unit length of the chain and y L/n
is the length of the chain
For two particles of masses m1 and m2 separated by a
hanging over the edge. So the
distance r
mass of the chain of length y Fig. 6.25
G m1m 2 will be ym and the force acting on it due to gravity will be
Gravitational potential energy U = −
r
mgy.
(1) If a body of mass m at height h relative to surface of
The work done in pulling the dy length of the chain on
earth then
the table.
mgh
Gravitational potential energy U = dW = F(– dy) [As y is decreasing]
h
1+
R i.e. dW = mgy (– dy)
Where R = radius of earth, g = acceleration due to So the work done in pulling the hanging portion on the
gravity at the surface of the earth. table.
0
(2) If h << R then above formula reduces to U = mgh. 0 y2  mg L2
W =− 
L/n
mgy dy = −mg 
 2

 L / n
=
2n 2
(3) If V is the gravitational potential at a point, the
potential energy of a particle of mass m at that point will be MgL
 W= [As m = M/L]
2n 2
U = mV
Alternative method :
(4) Energy height graph : When a body projected If point mass m is
vertically upward from the ground level with some initial pulled through a height h
L/2
velocity then it possess kinetic energy but its initial potential
then work done W = mgh n
energy is zero. Centre of mass
Similarly for a chain
As the body moves upward its potential energy we can consider its centre
Fig. 6.26
increases due to increase in height but kinetic energy of mass at the middle point
decreases (due to decrease in velocity). At maximum height of the hanging part i.e. at a height of L/(2n) from the lower
its kinetic energy becomes zero and potential energy M
end and mass of the hanging part of chain =
Energy

maximum but through out the complete n

E motion, total energy
remains constant as shown in the figure. So work done to raise the centre of mass of the chain
U
on the table is given by
K

Height
Fig. 6.24
 Work, Energy, Power and Collision 267

W=
M
g
L
[As W = mgh] at any point remains constant throughout the motion. It does
n 2n
not depend upon time. This is known as the law of
MgL conservation of mechanical energy.
or W =
2n 2
(K + U ) = E = 0
Velocity of Chain While Leaving the Table
[As E is constant in a conservative field]
 K + U = 0
(L/n) i.e. if the kinetic energy of the body increases its potential
L energy will decrease by an equal amount and vice-versa.
(2) Law of conservation of total energy : If some non-
conservative force like friction is also acting on the particle,

Fig. 6.27 the mechanical energy is no more constant. It changes by the

amount equal to work done by the frictional force.
(K + U) = E = W f
Taking surface of table as a reference level (zero [where Wf is the work done against
potential energy)
friction]
Potential energy of chain when 1/nth length hanging The lost energy is transformed into heat and the heat
− MgL
from the edge = energy developed is exactly equal to loss in mechanical energy.
2n 2
We can, therefore, write E + Q = 0
Potential energy of chain when it leaves the table
MgL [where Q is the heat produced]
=−
2 This shows that if the forces are conservative and non-
Kinetic energy of chain = loss in potential energy conservative both, it is not the mechanical energy which is
1 MgL MgL conserved, but it is the total energy, may be heat, light, sound
 Mv 2 = −
2 2 2n 2
or mechanical etc., which is conserved.
1 MgL  1 
 Mv 2 = 1− 2 
2 2  n  In other words : “Energy may be transformed from one
kind to another but it cannot be created or destroyed. The
 1 
 Velocity of chain v= gL 1 − 2 
 n  total energy in an isolated system remain constant". This is
Law of Conservation of Energy the law of conservation of energy.

(1) Law of conservation of energy Power

For a body or an isolated system by work-energy Power of a body is defined as the rate at which the
 
theorem we have K 2 − K 1 =  F. d r body can do the work.
W W
…(i) Average power (Pav. ) = =
t t
But according to definition of potential energy in a  
  dW F. d s
Instantaneous power (Pinst.) = = [As
conservative field U 2 − U 1 = −  F. d r …(ii) dt dt
 
So from equation (i) and (ii) we have dW = F. d s ]
  
 ds
K 2 − K 1 = −(U 2 − U 1 ) Pinst = F. v [As v = ]
dt
or K 2 + U 2 = K 1 + U 1
i.e. power is equal to the scalar product of force with
i.e. K + U = constant. velocity.
For an isolated system or body in presence of Important Points
conservative forces, the sum of kinetic and potential energies
 268 Work, Energy, Power and Collision
−2 −1
(1) Dimension : [P] = [F] [v] = [MLT ] [LT ] (1) Velocity : As Fv = P = constant
dv  mdv 
 [P ] = [ML 2 T −3 ] i.e. m v=P  As F = dt 
dt  
(2) Units : Watt or Joule/sec [S.I.]
 v dv =  m dt
P
or
Erg/sec [C.G.S.]
v2 P
By integrating both sides we get = t + C1
Practical units : Kilowatt (KW), Mega watt (MW) and 2 m
Horse power (hp) As initially the body is at rest i.e. v = 0 at t = 0, so
C1 = 0
Relations between different units :
1/2
 2 Pt 
1 Watt = 1 Joule / sec = 10 erg / sec
7  v= 
 m 
1hp = 746 Watt  2 Pt 
1/2
(2) Position : From the above expression v =  
1 MW = 10 6 Watt  m 
1/2
ds  2 Pt   ds 
1 KW = 10 3 Watt or =   As v = dt 
dt  m   
(3) If work done by the two bodies is same then  2 Pt 
1/2

power 
1
i.e.
 ds =
 
 m 
 dt

time By integrating both sides we get

i.e. the body which perform the given work in lesser  2P 
1/2
2 3/2
s=  . t + C2
time possess more power and vice-versa.  m  3
Now as at t = 0, s = 0, so C 2 = 0
(4) As power = work/time, any unit of power multiplied
1/2
 8P 
by a unit of time gives unit of work (or energy) and not power, s=  t3/2
 9m 
i.e. Kilowatt-hour or watt-day are units of work or energy.
Collision
J
1 KWh = 10 3
 (60  60 sec ) = 3 .6  10 6 Joule Collision is an isolated event in which a strong force
sec
acts between two or more bodies for a short time as a result
(5) The slope of work time curve gives the
of which the energy and momentum of the interacting
instantaneous power. As P = dW/dt = tan
particle change.
Work
In collision particles may or may not come in real touch

e.g. in collision between two billiard balls or a ball and bat,
there is physical contact while in collision of alpha particle by
a nucleus (i.e. Rutherford scattering experiment) there is no
Time
Fig. 6.28 physical contact.
(1) Stages of collision : There are three distinct
(6) Area under power-time curve gives the work done identifiable stages in collision, namely, before, during and
dW after. In the before and after stage the interaction forces are
as P =
dt zero. Between these two stages, the interaction forces are

 P dt
very large and often the dominating forces governing the
 W =
motion of bodies. The magnitude of the interacting force is
 W = Area under P-t curve
often unknown, therefore, Newton’s second law cannot be
Position and Velocity of an Automobile w.r.t Time used, the law of conservation of momentum is useful in
An automobile of mass m accelerates, starting from relating the initial and final velocities.
rest, while the engine supplies constant power P, its position
and velocity changes w.r.t time.
F

u1 u2 v1 v2
m1 m2 m1mm m2 m1 m2
1 2
Fext
t
t
Before collision During collision After collision
 Work, Energy, Power and Collision 269
force is 'Internal' therefore the total momentum of system
always remains conserved.
(ii) Energy conservation : In a collision 'total energy' is
also always conserved. Here total energy includes all forms of
energy such as mechanical energy, internal energy, excitation
energy, radiant energy or even mass energy.
These laws are the fundamental laws of physics and
(2) Momentum and energy conservation in collision
applicable for any type of collision but this is not true for
(i) Momentum conservation : In a collision, the effect of
conservation of kinetic energy.
external forces such as gravity or friction are not taken into
(3) Types of collision : (i) On the basis of
account as due to small duration of collision (t) average
conservation of kinetic energy.
impulsive force responsible for collision is much larger than
external force acting on the system and since this impulsive

Perfectly elastic collision Inelastic collision Perfectly inelastic collision

If in a collision, kinetic energy after If in a collision kinetic energy after If in a collision two bodies stick
collision is equal to kinetic energy before collision is not equal to kinetic energy together or move with same velocity
collision, the collision is said to be before collision, the collision is said to after the collision, the collision is
perfectly elastic. inelastic. said to be perfectly inelastic.

Coefficient of restitution e = 1 Coefficient of restitution 0 < e < 1 Coefficient of restitution e = 0

Here kinetic energy appears in other The term 'perfectly inelastic' does
forms. In some cases (KE)final < (KE)initial not necessarily mean that all the

(KE)final = (KE)initial
such as when initial KE is converted
into internal energy of the product (as
heat, elastic or excitation) while in
other cases (KE)final > (KE)initial such
as when internal energy stored in the
colliding particles is released
initial kinetic energy is lost, it implies
that the loss in kinetic energy is as
large as it can be. (Consistent with
momentum conservation).

Examples : (1) Collision between atomic Examples : (1) Collision between two Example : Collision between a bullet
particles billiard balls. and a block of wood into which it is
(2) Bouncing of ball with same velocity (2) Collision between two automobile fired. When the bullet remains
after the collision with earth. on a road. embedded in the block.

In fact all majority of collision belong

to this category.

(ii) On the basis of the direction of colliding bodies

Head on or one dimensional collision Oblique collision

In a collision if the motion of colliding particles before and after If two particle collision is ‘glancing’ i.e. such that their
the collision is along the same line, the collision is said to be directions of motion after collision are not along the initial
head on or one dimensional. line of motion, the collision is called oblique.

If in oblique collision the particles before and after

 270 Work, Energy, Power and Collision
collision are in same plane, the collision is called 2-
dimensional otherwise 3-dimensional.

Impact parameter b is zero for this type of collision. Impact parameter b lies between 0 and (r1 + r2 ) i.e .

0 < b < (r1 + r2 ) where r1 and r2 are radii of colliding bodies.

v1
u1 u2 v1 v2 m1
m1 m2 m1 m2 u1
m1 b 
m2  u2
Before collision After collision
Before collision After collision
m2
v2

Example : collision of two gliders on an air track. Example : Collision of billiard balls.

Perfectly elastic head on collision Note : ❑ The ratio of relative velocity of

Let two bodies of masses m 1 and m 2 moving with separation and relative velocity of approach is defined as
initial velocities u 1 and u 2 in the same direction and they coefficient of restitution.
collide such that after collision their final velocities are v 1
v 2 − v1
e=
and v 2 respectively. u1 − u 2

u1 u2 v1 v2 or v 2 − v 1 = e (u 1 − u 2 )
m1 m2 m1 m2
❑ For perfectly elastic collision, e = 1
Before collision After collision
Fig. 6.30  v 2 − v1 = u1 − u 2 [As shown in eq. (vi)]

❑ For perfectly inelastic collision, e = 0

According to law of conservation of momentum
 v 2 − v 1 = 0 or v 2 = v 1
m 1 u1 + m 2 u 2 = m 1 v1 + m 2 v 2 … (i)
It means that two body stick together and move with
 m 1 (u 1 − v 1 ) = m 2 (v 2 − u 2 ) …(ii)
same velocity.
According to law of conservation of kinetic energy
❑ For inelastic collision, 0 < e < 1
1 1 1 1
m 1 u12 + m 2 u 22 = m 1 v 12 + m 2 v 22 …(iii)  v 2 − v 1 = e (u 1 − u 2 )
2 2 2 2

 m 1 (u 12 − v 12 ) = m 2 (v 22 − u 22 ) …(iv) In short we can say that e is the degree of elasticity of

collision and it is dimensionless quantity.

Dividing equation (iv) by equation (ii)

v1 + u1 = v 2 + u 2 …(v) Further from equation (v) we get

 u1 − u 2 = v 2 − v1 …(vi) v 2 = v1 + u1 − u 2

Relative velocity of separation is equal to relative Substituting this value of v 2 in equation (i) and
velocity of approach. rearranging
 Work, Energy, Power and Collision 271
 m − m2  2m 2 u 2  m − m1  2m1u1
we get, v1 =  1  u1 +
 …(vii) v 2 =  2  u2 +
 …(viii)
 m1 + m 2  m1 + m 2  m1 + m 2  m1 + m 2

Similarly we get,

(1) Special cases of head on elastic collision

(i) If projectile and target are of same mass i.e. m1 = m2

 m − m2  2m 2  m − m1  2m1u1
Since v1 =  1  u1 +
 u2 and v 2 =  2  u2 +

 1
m + m 2  m 1 + m2  1
m + m 2  m 1 + m2

Substituting m 1 = m 2 we get

v1 = u 2 and v 2 = u1

It means when two bodies of equal masses undergo head on elastic collision, their velocities get interchanged.

Example : Collision
Before collision of two billiard balls After collision
Sub case : u 2 = 0 i.e. target is at rest
10 kg 10 kg 10 kg 10 kg
v1 = 0 and v 2 = u1
u1 = u2 = v1 = 20 m/s v2 = 50 m/s
50m/s 20m/s

(ii) If massive projectile collides with a light target i.e. m1 >> m2

 m − m2  2m 2u 2  m − m1  2m1u1
Since v1 =  1  u1 +
 and v 2 =  2  u2 +

 m1 + m 2  m 1 + m2  1
m + m 2  m 1 + m2

Substituting m 2 = 0 , we get

v1 = u1 and v 2 = 2u1 − u 2

Example : Collision of a truck with a cyclist

u1 = 120 km/hr
m1 = 10 kg
3
m2 = 60 kg
u2 = 10
km/hr

v1 = 120 km/hr
Before collision
v2 = 230 km/hr Sub case : u 2 = 0 i.e. target is at rest

v1 = u1 and v2 = 2u1

After collision

(iii) If light projectile collides with a very heavy target i.e. m1 << m2
 272 Work, Energy, Power and Collision
 m − m2  2m 2 u 2  m − m1  2m1u1
Since v1 =  1  u1 +
 and v 2 =  2  u2 +

 m1 + m 2  m1 + m 2  m1 + m 2  m1 + m 2
Substituting m 1 = 0 , we get
v1 = − u1 + 2u 2 and v 2 = u 2

Example : Collision of a ball with a massive wall.

Sub case : u 2 = 0 i.e. target is at rest

u2 = 2 m/s v2 = 2 m/s
u1 = 30 m/s v1 = – u1 and v2 = 0
v1 = – 26 m/s
i.e. the ball rebounds with same speed in
m1 = 50gm
opposite direction when it collide with
m2 = 100 kg stationary and very massive wall.
Before collision After collision

(2) Kinetic energy transfer during head on elastic K 4m1m 2

or = …(iii)
K (m 1 + m 2 ) 2
collision

K 4m1m 2
Kinetic energy of projectile before collision Ki =
1
m1u12 or = …(iv)
2 K (m 1 − m 2 ) 2 + 4 m 1 m 2

Kinetic energy of projectile after collision K f =

1
2
m 1 v 12 Note : ❑ Greater the difference in

masses, lesser will be transfer of kinetic

Kinetic energy transferred from projectile to target K
energy and vice versa
= decrease in kinetic energy in projectile
1 1 1 ❑ Transfer of kinetic energy will be maximum
K = m 1 u 12 − m 1 v 12 = m 1 (u 12 − v 12 )
2 2 2 when the difference in masses is minimum

Fractional decrease in kinetic energy i.e. m1 − m 2 = 0 or m 1 = m 2 then

1 K
m (u 2 − v 12 ) 2 = 1 = 100 %
K 2 1 1 v  K
= = 1 −  1 
 …(i)
K 1  u1 
m 1 u 12
2 So the transfer of kinetic energy in head on

elastic collision (when target is at rest) is maximum when the

We can substitute the value of v1 from the equation
masses of particles are equal i.e. mass ratio is 1 and the
 m − m2  2m 2 u 2
v 1 =  1  u1 +
 transfer of kinetic energy is 100%.
 m1 + m 2  m1 + m 2
❑ If m 2 = n m 1 then from equation (iii) we get
 m − m2 
If the target is at rest i.e. u2 = 0 then v1 =  1  u1
 K 4n
 m1 + m 2  =
K (1 + n)2
2
K  m − m2  ❑ Kinetic energy retained by the projectile
From equation (i) = 1 −  1 
 …(ii)
K  m1 + m 2 
 K 
  = 1 − kinetic energy transferred by projectile
 K  Retained
 Work, Energy, Power and Collision 273

 K   m −m 
2
 m − m2 
2 m2
Assuming =n
   = 1 − 1 −  1 2
  = 1 
   m 1 + m 2  m1
 K Retained   m1 + m 2  
 
2u 1
(3) Velocity, momentum and kinetic energy of stationary  v2 =
1+n
target after head on elastic collision
2nm 1 u 1
(ii) Momentum of target : P2 = m 2 v 2 =
(i) Velocity of target : We know 1+n

 m − m1  2m 1 u 1
v 2 =  2 u2 +

 m1 + m 2  m1 + m 2  2u 1 
 As m 2 = m 1 n and v 2 = 1 + n 
 

u1 u2=0 v1 v2 2m 1 u 1
m1 m2 m1 m2  P2 =
1 + (1 / n)

Before collision After collision

(iii) Kinetic energy of target :
Fig. 6.31
2
1 1  2u  2 m 1 u 12 n
K2 = m 2 v 22 = n m 1  1  =
2 2 1 + n  (1 + n) 2
2m 1 u 1
 v2 =
m1 + m 2 4 (K 1 )n  1 2
=  As K 1 = 2 m 1 u 1 
(1 − n) 2 + 4 n  
2u 1
= As u 2 = 0 and
1 + m 2 / m1 (iv) Relation between masses for maximum velocity,

momentum and kinetic energy

Velocity For v 2 to be maximum n must be minimum

2u1
v2 = m2 Target should be very
1+n i.e. n= → 0  m 2  m 1
m1
light.

Momentum For P2 to be maximum, (1/n) must be minimum or n

2m1u1 must be maximum. Target should be
P2 =
(1 + 1 / n)
m2 massive.
i.e. n= →   m 2  m 1
m1

Kinetic energy For K 2 to be maximum (1 − n)2 must be minimum.

4 K1 n m2 Target and projectile

K2 = i.e. 1 − n = 0 n = 1 =  m 2 = m1
(1 − n)2 + 4 n m1 should be of equal
mass.

Perfectly Elastic Oblique Collision

Let two bodies moving as shown in figure.

By law of conservation of momentum

v1
m1
u1
m1 
m2  u2

Before collision After collision

m2
v2
Fig. 6.32
 274 Work, Energy, Power and Collision
Along x-axis, m 1 u 1 + m 2 u 2 = m 1 v 1 cos  + m 2 v 2 cos  From the law of conservation of linear momentum

...(i) m 1u1 + m 2 u 2 = m 1v1 + m 2 v 2 …(ii)

Along y-axis, 0 = m 1 v 1 sin  − m 2 v 2 sin  By solving (i) and (ii) we get

...(ii)  m − em 2   (1 + e ) m 2 
v 1 =  1  u1 + 
  m +m
u2

 m1 + m 2   1 2 
By law of conservation of kinetic energy
 (1 + e ) m 1   m 2 − e m1 
1 1 1 1 Similarly v 2 =   u 1 +  u2

m 1 u 12 + m 2 u 22 = m 1 v 12 + m 2 v 22  1m + m 2   m1 + m 2 
2 2 2 2
...(iii) By substituting e = 1, we get the value of v1 and v 2 for
perfectly elastic head on collision.
In case of oblique collision it becomes difficult to solve
(2) Ratio of velocities after inelastic collision : A
problem unless some experimental data is provided, as in
sphere of mass m moving with velocity u hits inelastically
these situations more unknown variables are involved than
with another stationary sphere of same mass.
equations formed.
u1 = u u2 = 0 v1 v2
Special condition : If m 1 = m 2 and u 2 = 0 substituting m m m m

these values in equation (i), (ii) and (iii) we get

Before collision After collision

u 1 = v 1 cos  + v 2 cos  Fig. 6.33

...(iv)

0 = v 1 sin  − v 2 sin  ...(v) v 2 − v1 v 2 − v1

 e= =
u1 − u 2 u−0
and u 12 = v 12 + v 22 …(vi)
 v 2 − v 1 = eu …(i)

Squaring (iv) and (v) and adding we get By conservation of momentum :

u 12 = v 12 + v 22 + 2v 1 v 2 cos( +  ) …(vii) Momentum before collision = Momentum after collision

Using (vi) and (vii) we get cos( +  ) = 0 mu = mv 1 + mv 2

  + = /2  v1 + v 2 = u …(ii)

i.e. after perfectly elastic oblique collision of two bodies of u

Solving equation (i) and (ii) we get v 1 = (1 − e )
2
equal masses (if the second body is at rest), the scattering
u
angle  +  would be 90 o . and v 2 = (1 + e )
2
Head on Inelastic Collision
v1 1 − e
 =
(1) Velocity after collision : Let two bodies A and B v2 1 + e
collide inelastically and coefficient of restitution is e.
(3) Loss in kinetic energy
Where
Loss in K.E. (K) = Total initial kinetic energy
v − v 1 Relative velocity of separation
e= 2 =
u1 − u 2 Relative velocity of approach – Total final kinetic energy

 v 2 − v 1 = e (u 1 − u 2 ) 1 1  1 1 
=  m 1 u 12 + m 2 u 22  −  m 1 v 12 + m 2 v 22 
2 2  2 2 
 v 2 − v 1 = e (u 1 − u 2 ) …(i)
 Work, Energy, Power and Collision 275
Substituting the value of v1 and v 2 from the above   1 
= h0 1 + 2e 2  
expressions   1 − e 2 
 1 
 As 1 + e + e + .... =
2 4
1  m1m 2  
1−e2 
Loss (K) =   (1 − e 2 ) (u1 − u2 )2 
2  m1 + m 2 
1 + e 2 
 H = h0  2 
By substituting e = 1 we get K = 0 i.e. for perfectly  1 − e 
elastic collision, loss of kinetic energy will be zero or kinetic (4) Total time taken by the ball to stop bouncing
energy remains same before and after the collision. 2h0 2h1 2h2
T = t0 + 2 t1 + 2 t 2 + 2 t3 + .. = +2 +2 + ..
g g g
Rebounding of Ball After Collision With Ground
2h 0
If a ball is dropped from a height h on a horizontal floor, = [1 + 2e + 2e 2 + ......] [As h1 = e 2 h 0 ;
g
then it strikes with the floor with a speed.
h 2 = e 4 h0 ]
v 0 = 2gh0 [From v = u + 2 gh]
2 2
2h0
= [1 + 2e (1 + e + e 2 + e 3 + ......)]
and it rebounds from the floor with a speed g

2h 0   1  2h0  1 + e 
= 1 + 2e   =  
g   1 − e  g 1 − e 

h0  1 + e  2h 0
h1 h2  T = 
1 − e  g
v0 v1 v2
t0 t1 t2 Perfectly Inelastic Collision
Fig. 6.34 In such types of collisions, the bodies move independently
before collision but after collision as a one single body.

(1) When the colliding bodies are moving in the

v 1 = e v 0 = e 2gh 0
same direction
 velocity after collision 
 As e =  By the law of conservation of momentum
 velocity before collision 
m 1 u 1 + m 2 u 2 = (m 1 + m 2 )v comb
v2
(1) First height of rebound : h1 = 1 = e 2 h 0 m 1 u1 + m 2 u 2
2g  v comb =
m1 + m 2
 h1 = e2h0 vcomb
u1 u2
m1 m2 m1 m2
(2) Height of the ball after n th
rebound : Obviously,
the velocity of ball after n rebound will be
th
Before collision After collision

vn = e nv0 Fig. 6.35

Therefore the height after nth rebound will be

Loss in kinetic energy
v2
hn = n = e 2 n h 0 1 1  1
2g K =  m 1 u 12 + m 2 u 22  − (m 1 + m 2 )v comb
2

2 2  2
 hn = e 2 n h 0
1  m1m 2 
K =   (u 1 − u 2 ) 2
(3) Total distance travelled by the ball before it 2  m 1 + m 2 

stops bouncing [By substituting the value of vcomb]
H = h0 + 2 h1 + 2 h2 + 2 h3 + ... = h0 + 2 e h0 + 2 e h0 + 2 e h0 + ...
2 4 6
(2) When the colliding bodies are moving in the
H = h 0 [1 + 2 e (1 + e + e
2 2 4
+ e ....)]
6
opposite direction
 276 Work, Energy, Power and Collision
By the law of conservation of momentum

m 1 u 1 + m 2 (−u 2 ) = (m 1 + m 2 )v comb

(Taking left to right as positive) Momentumbullet + Momentumblock = Momentumbullet and block

m 1 u1 − m 2 u 2 system
 v comb =
m1 + m 2 mu + 0 = (m + M )v
u1 u2 mu
m1 m2  v= …(i)
(m + M )
Before collision
(2) Velocity of bullet : Due to energy which remains in
Fig. 3.36
the bullet-block system, just after the collision, the system
(bullet + block) rises upto height h.
when m 1 u 1  m 2 u 2 then v comb  0 (positive)
By the conservation of mechanical energy
i.e. the combined body will move along the direction of 1
(m + M )v 2 = (m + M )gh  v = 2 gh
motion of mass m 1 . 2

Now substituting this value in the equation (i) we get

when m 1 u 1  m 2 u 2 then v comb  0 (negative)
mu
2 gh =
i.e. the combined body will move in a direction opposite m+M
to the motion of mass m 1 .
 (m + M ) 2 gh 
 u= 
(3) Loss in kinetic energy  m 

K = Initial kinetic energy – Final kinetic energy (3) Loss in kinetic energy : We know that the formula

1 1  1  for loss of kinetic energy in perfectly inelastic collision

=  m 1 u 12 + m 2 u 22  −  (m 1 + m 2 ) v comb
2

 2 2   2  1 m 1m 2
K = (u1 − u 2 )2 (When the bodies are
1 m 1m 2 2 m1 + m 2
= (u1 − u 2 )2
2 m1 + m 2 moving in same direction.)

Collision Between Bullet and Vertically  K =

1 mM
u2
Suspended Block 2 m+M

A bullet of mass m is fired horizontally with velocity u in [As u 1 = u , u 2 = 0 , m 1 = m and m 2 = M ]

block of mass M suspended by vertical thread. (4) Angle of string from the vertical
After the collision bullet gets embedded in block. Let From the expression of velocity of bullet
the combined system raised upto height h and the string  (m + M ) 2 gh  2
u  m  2
u=  we can get h =  
makes an angle  with the vertical.  m  2g  m + M 

(1) Velocity of system From the figure

Let v be the velocity of the system (block + bullet) just L−h h u2  m 
2
cos  = =1 − =1−  
after the collision. L L 2 gL  m + M 

  1  mu  
2
L or  = cos −1 1 −   
L–h
 2 gL  m + M  

M
m u h
M

Fig. 3.37

 The area under the force-displacement graph is equal
to the work done.
 Work done by gravitation or electric force does not
depend on the path followed. It depends on the initial and
final positions of the body. Such forces are called
conservative. When a body returns to the starting point
under the action of conservative force, the net work done
is zero that is  dW = 0 .
 Work done against friction depends on the path
followed. Viscosity and friction are not conservative forces.
For non conservative forces, the work done on a closed
path is not zero. That is  dW  0 .
 Work done is path independent only for a conservative
field.
 Work done depends on the frame of reference.
 Work done by a centripetal force is always zero.
 Energy is a promise of work to be done in future. It is
the stored ability to do work.
 Energy of a body is equal to the work done by the body
and it has nothing to do with the time taken to perform the
work. On the other hand, the power of the body depends
on the time in which the work is done.
 When work is done on a body, its kinetic or potential
energy increases.
 When the work is done by the body, its potential or
kinetic energy decreases.
 According to the work energy theorem, the work done
is equal to the change in energy. That is W = E .
 Work energy theorem is particularly useful in
calculation of minimum stopping force or minimum
stopping distance. If a body is brought to a halt, the work
done to do so is equal to the kinetic energy lost.
 Potential energy of a system increases when a
conservative force does work on it.
Work, Energy, Power and Collision 277
 The kinetic energy of a body is always positive.
 When the momentum of a body increases by a factor
n, then its kinetic energy is increased by factor n2.
 If the speed of a vehicle is made n times, then its
stopping distance becomes n2 times.
 The total energy (including mass energy) of the
universe remains constant.
 One form of energy can be changed into other form
according to the law of conservation of energy. That is
amount of energy lost of one form should be equal to
energy or energies produced of other forms.
 Kinetic energy can change into potential energy and
vice versa.
When a body falls, potential energy is converted into kinetic
energy.
 Pendulum oscillates due to conversion of kinetic
energy into potential energy and vice versa. Same is true
for the oscillations of mass attached to the spring.
 Conservation laws can be used to describe the
behaviour of a mechanical system even when the exact
nature of the forces involved is not known.
 Although the exact nature of the nuclear forces is not
known, yet we can solve problems regarding the nuclear
forces with the help of the conservation laws.
 Violation of the laws of conservation indicates that the
event cannot take place.
 The gravitational potential energy of a mass m at a
height h above the surface of the earth (radius R) is given
mgh
by U = . When h << R, we find U=mgh.
1 + h/R
1
 Electrostatic energy in capacitor - U = CV 2 , where
2
C is capacitance, V = potential difference between the
plates.
 Electric potential energy of a test charge q0 at a place
where electric potential is V, is given by : UP=q0V.
 Electric potential energy between two charges (q1 and
q2) separated by a distance r is given by U =
1 q1q 2
.
4 0 r
 278 Work, Energy, Power and Collision
Here 0 is permittivity of vacuum and determining power, time taken to perform the work is

1 / 4   0 = 9  10 9 Nm 2 C −2 . significant but it is of no importance for measuring energy

 Magnetic energy stored in an inductor – of a body.

1 2  Collision is the phenomenon in which two bodies exert

U= LI , where L = inductance, I = current.
2 mutual force on each other.
 Energy gained by a body of mass m, specific heat C,  The collision generally occurs for very small interval of
when its temperature changes by  is given by : time.
Q = mC  .  Physical contact between the colliding bodies is not
 The Potential energy associated with a spring of essential for the collision.
constant k when extended or compressed by distance x is  The mutual forces between the colliding bodies are
1 2
given by U = kx . action and reaction pair. In accordance with the Newton’s
2
third law of motion, they are equal and opposite to each
 Kinetic energy of a particle executing SHM is given by
other.
1
: K= m  2 (a 2 − y 2 ) where m = mass,  = angular  The collision is said to be elastic when the kinetic
2
frequency, a= amplitude, y = displacement. energy is conserved.

 Potential energy of a particle executing SHM is given  In the elastic collisions the forces involved are
1 conservative.
by : U = m 2 y 2 .
2  In the elastic collisions, the kinetic or mechanical
 Total energy of a particle executing SHM is given by : energy is not converted into any other form of energy.
1
E = K + U = m  2a2 .  Elastic collisions produce no sound or heat.
2
1  There is no difference between the elastic and
 Energy density associated with a wave =  2 a 2
2 perfectly elastic collisions.
where  =density of medium,  = angular frequency, a =  In the elastic collisions, the relative velocity before
amplitude of the of the wave. collision is equal to the relative velocity after the collision.
     
 Energy associated with a photon : That is u1 − u 2 = v 2 − v1 where u 1 and u 2 are initial
 
E = h = hc /  , where h = planck’s constant,  = velocities and v 1 and v 2 are the velocities of the colliding
frequency of the light wave, c = velocity of light,  = wave bodies after the collision. This is called Newton's law of
length. impact.
 Mass and energy are interconvertible. That is mass  The collision is said to be inelastic when the kinetic
can be converted into energy and energy can be converted energy is not conserved.
into mass.
 In the perfectly inelastic collision, the colliding bodies
 A mass m (in kg) is equivalent to energy (in J) which is stick together. That is the relative velocity of the bodies
equal to mc2 where c = speed of light. after the collision is zero.
 A stout spring has a large value of force constant,  In an elastic collision of two equal masses, their
while for a delicate spring, the value of spring constant is kinetic energies are exchanged.
low.
 If a body of mass m moving with velocity v, collides
 The term energy is different from power. Whereas elastically with a rigid wall, then the change in the
energy refers to the capacity to perform the work, power
momentum of the body is 2mv.
determines the rate of performing the work. Thus, in
 Work, Energy, Power and Collision 279
 
v −v vn  hn 
1/2
 e =  2 1 is called coefficient of restitution. Its value en = = 
u1 − u 2 v0  h0 
is 1 for elastic collisions. It is less than 1 for inelastic   
 P = F . v = F v cos  where v is the velocity of the
collisions and zero for perfectly inelastic collision.  
body and  is the angle between F and v .
 During collision, velocity of the colliding bodies
changes.  Area under the F − v graph is equal to the power
dissipated.
 Linear momentum is conserved in all types of
collisions.  Power dissipated by a conservative force (gravitation,
electric force etc.) does not depend on the path followed. It
 Perfectly elastic collision is a rare physical
depends on the initial and final positions of the body. That
phenomenon.

 Collisions between two ivory or steel or glass balls are is  dP = 0 .

nearly elastic.  Power dissipated against friction depends on the path

 The force of interaction in an inelastic collision is non-
conservative in nature.
followed. That is  dP  0 .

 Power is also measured in horse power (hp). It is the

 In inelastic collision, the kinetic energy is converted
fps unit of power. 1 hp = 746 W.
into heat energy, sound energy, light energy etc.
 An engine pulls a train of mass m with constant
 In head on collisions, the colliding bodies move along
velocity. If the rails are on a plane surface and there is no
the same straight line before and after collision.
friction, the power dissipated by the engine is zero.
 Head on collisions are also called one dimensional
 In the above case if the coefficient of friction for the
collisions.
rail is  , the power of the engine is P =  mgv .
 In the oblique collisions the colliding bodies move at
 In the above case if the engine pulls on a smooth track
certain angles before and/or after the collisions.
on an inclined plane (inclination  ), then its power
 The oblique collisions are two dimensional collisions.
P = (mg sin  ) v .
 When a heavy body collides head-on elastically with a
 In the above case if the engine pulls upwards on a
lighter body, then the lighter body begins to move with a
rough inclined plane having coefficient of friction  , then
velocity nearly double the velocity of the heavier body.
power of the engine is
 When a light body collides with a heavy body, the
P = ( cos  + sin  )mg v .
lighter body returns almost with the same speed.
 If the engine pulls down on the inclined plane then
 If a light and a heavy body have equal momenta, then
power of the engine is
lighter body has greater kinetic energy.
P = ( cos  − sin  )mg v .
 Suppose, a body is dropped form a height h0 and it
strikes the ground with velocity v0. After the (inelastic)
collision let it rise to a height h1. If v1 be the velocity with
which the body rebounds, then
1/2 1/2
v1  2 gh1  h 
e= =  = 1
v0  2 gh0   h0 

 If after n collisions with the ground, the velocity is vn

and the height to which it rises be hn, then