AIR POLLUTION

UNIT – 2
Asst. Prof. Shruti P. Dessai

1
 UNIT - 2
1 Introduction.
2 Meteorological factors influencing air pollution.
3 Plume behavior.
4 Minimum stack height.
5 Plume Rise
6 Wind rose diagram.
7 Pollutant dispersion Modelling.
8 Effect of topography on pollution dispersion.
9 Heat Island effect.

2
ZONES OF THE ATMOSPHERE

3
4
TROPOSPHERE

• The lower part of the

atmosphere where gases are
present.

• Extends up to 10 km.

• Consists of nearly 2/3rd of the

total mass of the atmosphere.

• Region of weather and clouds.

• The higher we go the cooler it

gets in this region.
5
TROPOPAUSE

• Layer that joins the

troposphere and
stratosphere.

• Height varies with latitude.

• Near the equator – 18km
• Near poles – 6 km.

6
STRATOSPHERE

• 30 km thick.
• The layer is free from the effect
of weather changes. Therefore
preferred by Jetliners liners.

• Temperature tends to rise due

to the presence of the ozone
layer.

• The ozone layer absorbs UV

radiation from the sun and
converts it into heat or chemical
energy. 7
MESOSPHERE

• Temperature decreases
with altitude.

• Ionization is strong
enough to reflect very
long radio waves sent up
from the surface.

8
IONOSPHERE / THERMOSPHERE

• This layer has very high

temperatures, as much as 870
near equators and 1430 near
poles.

• Almost all atoms in this layer are

ionized. Hence it is an excellent
conductor.

9
METEOROLOGICAL FACTORS
INFLUENCING AIR POLLUTION.

10
The degree to which air pollutants discharged from
various sources concentrate in a particular area depends
largely on the meteorological conditions.

Even though the total discharge of pollutants into the

atmosphere remains constant from day to day, the
degree of air pollution may vary widely because of
differences in meteorological conditions.

11
Important meteorological parameters that influence air pollution

Primary parameters Secondary parameters

1. Wind direction, speed 1. Precipitation

2. Temperature 2. Humidity

3. Atmospheric stability 3. Solar radiation

4. Mixing height 4.Visibility

• The parameters vary widely as a function of latitude,

season and topography 12
PRIMARY PARAMETER:

1. WIND DIRECTION AND SPEED

13
The direction and speed of the wind govern the drift
and diffusion of air pollutants discharged near the
ground level.

1. The higher the windspeed at/near the point of

discharge, the more rapidly are the pollutants carried
away from the source.
The pollutants dispersed will be rapidly diluted with
greater and greater volume of air.

2. If the wind speed is low, pollutants tend to be

concentrated near the area of discharge and longer the
period of such light winds, greater will be the
concentration of pollutants. 14
3. The concentration downwind from the source will be
inversely proportional to wind speed.

4. Hills may deflect the airflow either horizontally,

vertically, or both, and the amount of deflection depends
on the vertical stability of the atmosphere.

5. In valleys, the winds carrying a pollutant tend to flow

either up or down the valley, following its meandering.

15
 Primary parameter: 1. Wind Direction and Speed

Downwind Upwind
Wind Direction → 2

Source
16
Gustiness – a characteristic of surface winds is directly
proportional its speed and determines the extent to
which pollutants are mixed and diluted with the
surrounding air.

Gusty winds

17
PRIMARY PARAMETER:

3. ATMOSPHERIC STABILITY.

18
Primary parameter: 3. Atmospheric stability.

• Well mixed dry air, for

every 300 m increase in
altitude, the temperature
decreases by 1.8°C. This
temperature gradient is
known as normal lapse
rate.

19
HOW TO DETERMINE ATMOSPHERIC STABILITY

• Stability is dependent upon

• Environmental Lapse Rate (ELR)
• Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rates (DALR)
• Saturated Adiabatic Lapse Rates (SALR)

20
• Environmental lapse rate (ELR), is the rate of
decrease of temperature with altitude in the stationary
atmosphere at a given time and location.

21
 Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate (DALR)
• The lapse rate of a parcel of dry air as it moves
upwards in a hydrostatically stable environment and
expands slowly to lower environmental pressure
without exchange of heat is known as the dry
adiabatic lapse rate.

• The dry adiabatic lapse rate (DALR) 9.8°C per km.

• Under conditions of adiabatic lapse rate a smoke plume

will rise directly into the atmosphere by virtue of low
density because of higher temperature until it reaches
air of similar density.
22
• Saturated Adiabatic Lapse Rate (SALR), or
Moist Adiabatic Lapse Rate (MALR)
• is therefore the rate at which saturated air
cools with height.
• 5°C / km

23
Super adiabatic lapse rate (Rate more than adiabatic)

On a clear summer day, rapid heating of the earth by the

sun warms up the air near the surface to the point where
the lapse rate is super adiabatic.

Under this condition, the atmosphere is said to be in

unstable equilibrium and marked vertical mixing of the air
which results in pollutant dispersion.

24
• Sub-adiabatic atmospheric conditions are
stable and result in poor dispersion.

25
 Atmospheric stability condition
Condition 1: If an air parcel is warmer than its surrounding
environment, then it will be less dense than its
surroundings and will rise.
This condition is stable.

Condition 2: If an air parcel is cooler than its surrounding

environment, then it will be denser than its environment
and will sink.
This condition is unstable.

Condition 3: If an air parcel has the same temperature as

its surrounding environment, then the parcel will not move
and remain in suspension in the atmosphere.
This condition is neutral
26
 Environment

Atmospheric stability 27
(DALR/SALR) STABILITY PARCEL OF AIR
Parcel of air is WILL
COOL STABLE SINKS
WARM UNSTABLE RISES
SAME NEUTRAL REMAIN
SUSPENDED 28
 SPECIFIC STABILITY CONDITIONS (1/6)

Absolute Stability: DALR > SALR > ELR.

• Air parcels (Dry and Saturated) will cool faster than the
environment and therefore always will be colder than
the surrounding environment.
• That is, both are stable. Hence, this is called absolute
stability.

29
 SPECIFIC STABILITY CONDITIONS (2/6)

Absolute Instability: ELR > DALR > SALR.

• Air parcels (Dry and Saturated) will cool more slowly
than the environment and therefore always be warmer
than the surrounding environment. Both are unstable.
• Air parcels will be buoyant and rise like hot air
balloons.

30
 SPECIFIC STABILITY CONDITIONS (3/6)
Dry Neutral: (DALR = ELR) > SALR
• The ELR is the same as the DALR, dry parcels will thus
be neutral, and the atmosphere has neutral stability.
• Note: saturated parcels, being warmer, will be unstable.

31
SPECIFIC STABILITY CONDITIONS (4/6)
Wet Neutral: DALR > (SALR = ELR)
• he ELR is the same as the SALR, wet parcels of air will
thus be neutral.
• Note: Dry parcels, being cooler will be stable.

32
SPECIFIC STABILITY CONDITIONS (5/6)

Conditional Stability: DALR > ELR > SALR

• Dry Parcel will be cooler than the environment and
wet parcel will be warmer than the environment.
• This means that saturated parcels will be unstable and
dry parcels will be stable.

33
SPECIFIC STABILITY CONDITIONS (6/6)

Extreme Stability (Inversion): ELR is negative

• Both parcel of air are cooler than the environment.
• In this situation, no air parcel may rise. This often has
negative effects on pollution dispersal.

34
PRIMARY PARAMETER:

2.TEMPERATURE.

35
 Temperature Inversion
• Under normal conditions, the temperature usually
decreases with an increase in altitude.
• But on some occasions, the situations get reversed and
the temperature starts increasing with height rather than
decreasing.This is called temperature inversion.

36
• In an inversion, a dense cold stratum of air at ground
level gets covered by warmed air at a higher level. This
phenomenon is known as inversion.

• During inversion, vertical air movement is stopped and

pollution is concentrated near the surface beneath the
inversion layer. Therefore the atmosphere is stable and
very little turbulence or mixing takes place.

37
38
Warmer air – Inversion layer

Cooler air

39
Inversion occurs more frequently in autumn and winter
months and the accumulation of smoke and other
contaminants further aggravates pollution by preventing
the sun’s rays from warming up the ground and the
adjacent air.

Fog is commonly associated with inversions because the

temperature near the ground falls below the dew point.

Narrow valleys are favourable to inversions since

horizontal movement is restricted.

During inversions, visibility is greatly reduced and

contamination is maximum.
40
Types of Inversions:
1. Radiation inversion.
2. Subsidence inversion.
3. Double Inversion

41
1. Radiation inversion.
• Usually occurs at night, when earth looses heat by
radiation and cools the air in contact with it.

• If the air is moist and temperature is below dew point,

fog will form.

• The cool air stratum is covered by warmer air, and

vertical movement is stopped until the sun warms the
lower air, next morning.

• More common in winter because of longer nights and in

valley areas because of restricted horizontal air
movement by surrounding high grounds.
42
Radiation inversion.
43
 ↑
Altitude

Temperature →

44
RADIATION INVERSION
• In India, because of the intense solar radiation heating
the ground, inversions are broken within a few hours
after sunrise. However fog and mist may prolog it by
cutting out sunlight from reaching the ground.

45
2. Subsidence inversion.
Occurs at modest altitude and remains for several
days.
Caused due to sinking or subsidence of air in
anticyclones (high-pressure areas surrounded by
low pressure areas).

The air circulating the area descends slowly at the

rate of 1000 m per day. As the air sinks, it gets
compressed and gets heated to form a warm
dense layer. This acts as a lid to prevent the upward
movement of contaminants.
46
Subsidence inversion.

47
SUBSIDENCE INVERSION 48
3. If radiation and subsidence inversion occurs
simultaneously it is known as “double inversion”.
Subsidence inversion

Radiation inversion

49
PRIMARY PARAMETER:

4. MAXIMUM MIXING DEPTH.

50
 Mixing Height/Depth.

Mixing Height/Depth- height above the earth’s

surface to which related pollution will extend,
primarily through the action of atmospheric
turbulence.

51
• Once air pollutants are released into the atmosphere
their dispersion is entirely dependent on the weather
conditions.

• The vertical extent to which mixing takes place varies

diurnally, from season to season, and is also affected by
topographical features. The greater the vertical extent,
the larger the volume of the atmosphere available to
dilute the pollutant concentration.

52
• Thermal buoyancy effects determine the depth of
the convection mixing layer, which is called
MAXIMUM MIXING DEPTH (MMD).

• The MMD values available as an average for a period

of 1 month are known as MEAN MAXIMUM
MIXING DEPTH (MMMD).

53
• When an air parcel is heated by solar radiation at the
earth’s surface, its temperature rises above that of the
surrounding air. After heating, the parcel of air will
continue to rise within the local atmosphere until its
temperature equals the local atmospheric
temperature.

• At that point the air parcel and its surrounding will be

in equilibrium and that height defines the limit of the
convective mixing layer or the maximum mixing
depth.

54
• MMD is usually low at night and increases during
daylight hours.

• Under severe inversion at night, the value may be

essentially zero while values up to 2000 -5000 m
are common during the daytime.

55
On a seasonal basis, the MMD is minimum in
the winter – December and January.

And maximum during summer – May and June.

56
57
58
SECONDARY PARAMETER:

1. PRECIPITATION

59
 Secondary parameter: 1. Precipitation

• Precipitation/ rainfall – exerts a two-fold cleansing

action on the pollutants discharged into the
atmosphere.

• Accelerated deposition of particulate matter on the

ground and hence its removal from the atmosphere.

• It also helps to remove the concentration of gaseous

pollutants which are soluble in air.

60
SECONDARY PARAMETER:

2. HUMIDITY

61
 Secondary parameter: 2. Humidity

• The moisture content of the atmosphere

influences the corrosive activity of air pollutants.

• It also indicates the potential for the formation

of fog.

62
SECONDARY PARAMETERS:

3. SOLAR RADIATION

63
Secondary parameters: 3. Solar radiation

Depending on the location, solar radiation can have

a pronounced effect on the type and rate of
chemical reactions in the atmosphere.
Eg: Photochemical smog.

64
SECONDARY PARAMETERS:

4.VISIBILITY

65
METHODS TO MEASURE
METEOROLOGICAL VARIABLES

66
Wind direction recorder

• A patented instrument by NEERI for measuring wind

direction.
• It is automatic and operated mechanically without any
power supply.
• The instrument continuously records on an attached
chart the direction of the wind and time.

67
Wind Vane

68
Wind direction aloft.

Pilot ballons (Pibals)

A small balloon inflated with hydrogen or

helium is left aloft and the direction of
the wind aloft is determined by tracking
the balloon by means of a theodolite on
the ground.

Pilot balloon
69
Wind direction aloft.

Tetroons

It is a constant volume mylar

balloon in the shape of a
tetrahedron which is kept in a
zero lift condition and carried by
the wind in an almost horizontal
direction.

70
Tetroon
Kite balloon

An elongated balloon
with fins at one end.

It acts as an ordinary
spherical balloon in
light winds and as a
kite in strong winds.
Kite balloon

71
Radio and radar

In radio method, a radio transmitter is attached to

a free rising balloon and tracked.

In radar system, pulses of electrical energy emitted

by a radar are reflected back to it by a target
carried on the free balloon.

72
Smoke trails

Information on wind direction aloft may be obtained by

finding at intervals the position in space of smoke trails
release released by a rising rocket or airplane.

73
Wind speed recorder

Cup Anemometer

74
Sonic Anemometer
75
Wind speed recorder.

A patented instrument by NEERI for measuring wind

speed.

Consists of 4 cup rotor. The motion of the cup is

transferred after reducing its speed by a gear system, to a
pen which makes a continuous rise and fall impression on
the chart paper. The rate of rise and fall is directly
proportional to wind speed.

76
 Humidity Measurement
• Consists of two thermometers, one with a wet cloth
surrounding the bulb.
• It is swirled in the air.
• The temperature of both the thermometers is noted.
• From temperature difference from both the
thermometers, the relative humidity is found by
referring to the psychometric table.

77
 Temperature Measurement
Thermometer

Mercury thermometer works on thermal expansion.

Bimetallic thermometers are based on the expansion of

2 metals.

The electrical-resistant thermometer is based on the

variation in electrical resistance of a metallic wire with a
change in temperature.

Thermocouple is based on electrical current which

flows when two different conductors are made of two
different materials. 78
 Solar radiation measurement.

Instruments used to measure radiant energy from the sun

are:
Pyrheliometer, solarimeter and chemical actinometer.

79
PLUME
BEHAVIOUR

80
 PLUME

Plume refers to the path and

extent in the atmosphere of
gaseous effluent released from
a source, usually a stack

Emission and dispersion of

smoke or vapor from its
origin.
e.g., smoke from the
chimney stack.

81
I. Plume properties: 2. Environmental properties:

1. Exit velocity (momentum) 1. Wind Speed

2. Temperature of ambient 2. Turbulence
air and stack gas, 3. Atmospheric
3. emission rate, Stability
4. Height of release

82
• Because of the inertial force and buoyancy, the
plume released from a stack rises to a certain height
and then gets dispersed by the wind. This height is
called the plume rise (Δh).

• Plume rise increases the effective stack height by 2x

to 10x and can reduce the maximum ground-level
concentrations by a factor of 100.

83
1. LOOPING
• Plume has a wavy character.
• Occurs in a highly unstable atmosphere because of
rapid mixing.
• The high turbulence helps disperse the plume rapidly.
• Concentration may be higher near the source if the
plume touches the ground.
• Occurs daytime with a clear or partly clouded sky.

84
2. CONING
• Plume is shaped like a cone.
• Takes place in a neutral or stable environment when
wind velocity is greater than 32 kmph.
• The plume reaches the ground at later distances than
looping.
• Occurs at day or night in windy conditions.
• N – 1 to 1.4

85
3. FANNING
• Plume is shaped like a narrow fan.
• Occurs during extreme inversion conditions.
• The plume spreads horizontally, and very little
vertically.
• Therefore prediction of ground-level concentration is
difficult.
• Night or early morning, with light wind conditions.

86
4. LOFTING
• Loop or cone with a well-defined bottom.
• Strong lapse above rate above the surface inversion.
• Diffusion is rapid upwards, but no downward diffusion
as it cannot penetrate the inversion layer.
• In such conditions, the plume will not reach the ground
and therefore the most favorable plume.
• Upper layer unstable and lower layer stable.

87
5. FUMIGATION
• Fan or cone with well-defined top.
• Pollutants aloft in the air are brought rapidly to the
ground level when air destabilizes.
• Critical plume with respect to ground-level pollutant
concentration.
• Lower layer unstable and upper layer is stable.

88
6.TRAPPING
• Plume is caught in between inversions and can diffuse
within a limited vertical height.
• Critical plume with respect to ground-level pollutant
concentration.

89
90
91
 MINIMUM STACK HEIGHT

• Shorter stacks will lead to higher ground-level

concentrations of pollutants.

• If the physical height of the stack is more, the effective

height will also be more and hence better dispersion
is possible.

92
Minimum Values

• Industries in general (except thermal power plants) – 30m.

• Thermal power plants above 200MW and below 500MW

capacity – 220m.

• Thermal power plants having greater than 500MW

capacity -– 275m.

93
• According to the Bureau of Indian Standards
(Central Board for prevention and control of water
pollution, New Delhi):

1. For Chimney emitting particulate matter (PM)

𝒉 = 𝟕𝟒 𝑸𝒑 𝟎⋅𝟐𝟕
h = height of chimney in meters
𝑄𝑝 = particulate matter emission (tones/hr.)

2.

94
• Plume rise (Δℎ) is usually defined as the height above the
stack orifice that the plume centerline rises due to the
momentum and buoyancy of the stack gases.
• Effective height of emission is obtained by adding the
plume rise to the physical height of the stack:
HOLLAND EQUATION
𝑣𝑠 𝐷 −3 𝑇𝑠 −𝑇 𝑎
• Δℎ = 1 ⋅ 5 + 2 ⋅ 68 × 10 𝑃𝐷 ]
𝑢 𝑇𝑆

DAVIDSON AND BRYANT EQUATION

𝑣s 1⋅4 𝑇s −𝑇𝑎
• Δℎ = 𝐷 (1 + )
𝑢 𝑇𝑠

Where,
Δℎ = plume rise above stack(m)
𝑣𝑠 = plume exit velocity from stack(m/s)
𝐷 = inside exit stack diameter(m)
𝑢 = wind speed at top of stack(m/s)
𝑃 = atmospheric pressure(milli-bars)
𝑇𝑠 = stack gas temperature(K)
𝑇𝑎 = air temperature(K)
 WIND ROSE DIAGRAM

A wind rose is defined as “Any one of a class of

diagrams designed to show the distribution of wind
direction experienced at a given location, over a
considerable period of time”.

97
• The most common one
consists of a circle
from which 8 or 16
lines emerge, one for
each direction.

• The length of each line

proportional to the
frequency of wind from
that direction and the
frequency of calm
conditions are entered
in the center.
98
There are variations of the wind rose diagram.

Some depict wind speed from each direction, and some

relate wind direction with other meteorological
factors.

99
Wind rose can be constructed using data obtained over a
given time period such as a particular month, season or
year.

The wind rose diagram is prepared using an appropriate

scale to represent percentage frequencies of wind
directions and appropriate index shades, lines etc., to
represent various wind speed.

Special wind roses are constructed like:

1. Precipitation wind rose.
2. Smoke wind rose
3. Sulphur dioxide wind rose.
4. Hydrocarbon wind rose. 100
 AIR POLLUTION MODELLING

Air quality models (AQM) are tools to research the

relations between the emission of pollutants and/or
precursors and the ambient air concentration.

An ideal model should be physically realistic, accurate,

suitable for various meteorological and topographical
conditions, suitable for various emission sources, and
suitable for various air pollution species.

101
Existing models
1. Eulerian grid model
2. Lagrangian trajectory model
3. Gaussian plume model.

102
BOX MODEL
• Simplest
• Assumes the airshed (i.e. a
given volume of
atmospheric air in a
geographical region) is in
the shape of a box.
• Assumes that the air
pollutants inside the box
are homogeneously
distributed
• Very limited – accurately
predict the dispersion of air 103
pollutants
LAGRANGIAN TRAJECTORY MODEL

Attaches its coordinate system to a fictitious vertical air column, which moves
horizontally with the advective wind.

Also called the moving cells/ordinate model.

Assumptions:
1. No vertical advection
2. Vertical variability of the horizontal wind is suppressed.
3. Horizontal diffusion term is highly parameterized or neglected.

Advantage:
1. Relatively inexpensive
2. Easy to keep track of pollutant mass balance
3. No artificial dispersion
4. Individual sources and receptors can be run separately.

Disadvantages:
1. Horizontal and vertical diffusions are neglected or highly parameterized
2. errors can be introduced in the interpolation of results. 104
EULERIAN GRID MODEL

• Employs a coordinate
system which is fixed
with respect to the
ground.

• The region of interest

is subdivided into 2 or
3D arrays of grid cells
and the polluted air is
simulated as it passes
from one cell to
another. 105
 GAUSSIAN PLUME MODEL

• Most common air pollution model for estimating

concentrations from point sources downwind.

• Employing a three-dimensional axis of downwind

(x), crosswind (y), and vertical (z) with the origin at
the effective height of emission

106
Assumptions of Gaussian model
1. The plume has Gaussian distribution in both horizontal
and vertical planes with σy and σz as the standard
deviations of the concentrations of the plume in
crosswind and vertical directions respectively.
2. u is the wind speed at the stack exit which uniform all
the time.
3. Uniform and continuous emission of Q (g/s) of pollutants
takes place.
4. Diffusion of pollutant in x direction is negligible
compared to diffusion in cross-wind direction. This is true
if emission continuous and if wind speed is more than
1m/s.
5. Parameters governing the diffusion of pollutants do not
change in space and time i.e., steady – state conditions
prevail.
6. The terrain underlying the plume is flat. 107
• Consider a point source somewhere in the air where a pollutant
is released at a constant rate Q (g/s).
• The wind is blowing continuously in a direction x with a speed u
(m/s).
• The plume spreads as it moves in the x direction such that the
local concentrations C(x,y,z) (g/m3 ) at any point in space form
distributions that have “Gaussian” or “normal” shape in planes
normal to the x direction.
• As it moves in the x direction, on the center line of the plume,
concentration will be maximum, and it decreases because of
lateral dispersion along y-axis and z-axis. This type of curve is
known as the Gaussian curve.
• The parameters σy and σz. (m) are the standard deviations of
these Gaussian distributions, which indicate the spread of the
plume in the y and z directions, respectively. They increase with
the distance x from the source.
• This distribution measures y and z normally from the x-axis. 108
109
 Gaussian model equation is given by

C= concentration
Q= emission rate
σy and σz = standard deviation of horizontal and vertical distribution of plume
concentration [L]
u= wind speed
x and y= downwind and crosswind distances
z= receptor height above ground
H= effective height of emission
110
1. If only concentrations at ground level are required (for example in assessing
the exposure of crops or humans to the pollutant) then we can simplify the
equation by setting z=0.This gives

C= concentration [M·L-3],
Q= emission rate [M·T-1]
σy and σz = standard deviation of the horizontal and
vertical distribution of plume concentration [L]
u= wind speed [L·T-1]
x and y= downwind and crosswind distances [L]
z= receptor height above ground [L]
H= effective height of emission [L]
111
2. If only concentrations at ground level on the center-line of the plume (along
the x-axis direction) are required then the equation is simplified further since
both z=0 and y=0.

C= concentration [M·L-3],
Q= emission rate [M·T-1]
σy and σz = standard deviation of horizontal and
vertical distribution of plume concentration [L]
u= wind speed [L·T-1]
x and y= downwind and crosswind distances [L]
z= receptor height above ground [L]
H= effective height of emission [L]
112
Limitations
1. It does not consider the various stability layers at
different heights in the atmosphere.
2. It does not consider the change in stability with time.
3. It does not consider the terrain characteristics such
as terrain roughness, existence of mountains, valleys,
distribution of lands and water masses.
4. It does not consider the strong wind shears like the
change of wind directions and wind speed.
5. It can be applied only for shorter distances and for
shorter travel time.

113
EFFECT OF TOPOGRAPHY
ON POLLUTION DISPERSION.

114
1. Effect of water bodies on pollutant dispersion.

• During day time the land gets heated up by solar rays

very easily.

• Temperature over water rises slowly since water does

not reradiate solar energy quickly and also because
heat energy penetrates to a greater depth.

• Therefore during the daytime, the warm air over the

earth rises upwards and this zone is replaced by colder
air over the water bodies.

• This is represented by the “sea breeze condition”.

115
116
• This is an example of inversion as temperature
increases with elevation.

• The effect is maximum during monsoons and

summer.

• The reverse condition may also occur during winter

nights but the intensity is very less.

117
2. EFFECT OF RIDGES/ BUILDINGS ON PLUME
DISPERSION.

• When hills surround a coastal region forming a basin,

an intense pollution problem is created.

• The cool air moving blows inland pushing the air

pollutants towards the mountains where they are
trapped because the cool air moving over the
polluted air acts like a lid that prevents dispersion
and dilution.

118
• Similarly taller buildings also interfere with the
dispersion of air pollutants.

• If the height of the chimney is less than about 2.5x the

height of the buildings, eddy currents are set up by the
wind while blowing past the building and this may
engulf the flue gases bringing them quickly to ground
level.

119
120
Solutions to the effect of ridges/buildings on plume
dispersion.

1. Increase stack height by 50% or more may be

necessary.

2. Process reduction during unfavorable wind

conditions.

3. Permanent stack cleaning devices.

121
3. EFFECT OF VALLEYS ON POLLUTANT
DISPERSION.

• A valley tends to channel wind flow along the

axis.

• During the daytime, the ground gets heated up

and warmer air starts to rise both up the valley
and along the slopes.

• Thus the plume formed is forced to fan out.

122
123
• During night time, the air flows into the valley
bringing and depositing the pollutants in the valley
leading to high ground level concentrations.

• When winds are light, the air gets stagnant and this
problem occurs mostly during winter.

124
4. EFFECT OF TERRAIN ROUGHNESS ON
DISPERSION.

• Pollutant dispersion is a function of wind speed which

in turn is a function of friction forces that depend on
terrain roughness.

• Wind speed is zero at the earth’s surface and rises to a

gradient value at a height of a few hundred meters.

• If terrain roughness is more as in the case of the urban

and industrialized areas due to high-rise buildings, the
wind profile is steeper and reaches deeper into the
atmosphere.
125
• If terrain roughness is less as is in rural areas the depth
of the affected layer is lesser.

• Thus dispersion of pollutants is better in rural areas,

where maximum wind speed is attained at lesser
heights.

126
 EFFECT OF AIR POLLUTANTS ON METEOROLOGY
1. Reduced visibility
• Visibility is the measure of the transparency of the
atmosphere.
• Reduced visibility is a safety hazard as well as
aesthetically displeasing. Particulates of size 0.38 – 0.76
μm and gas molecules, like Sulphur dioxide, greatly
reduce visibility.
• These pollutants absorb and scatter light.
• Scattering reduces visibility by decreasing the contrast
between an object and the background.
• Scattering of light by small particles is responsible for
reddish haze during sunsets. 127
2. Increase in Precipitation

Small particulates act as nuclei, inducing the formation of

raindrops from condensation.

Due to the massive emission rate of particles into the

atmosphere, it is foggier and rainier than its rural
surrounding.

The occurrence of fog in cities is double than compared

to that in rural areas.

Higher concentration of SOx and NOx increase the

formation of fog and photochemical smog and are linked
to acid rain. 128
3. Urban heat island effect

129
HEAT ISLAND EFFECT

130
 HEAT ISLAND EFFECT

An urban heat island (UHI) is

an urban or metropolitan area that is significantly
warmer than its surrounding rural areas due to human
activities.

The temperature difference between urban areas and the

surrounding suburban or rural areas can be as much as 5
°C.

131
132
133
1. The main cause of the UHI effect is the
modification of land surfaces.

A study has shown that heat islands can be affected by

proximity to different types of land cover, so proximity
to barren land causes urban land to become hotter and
proximity to vegetation makes it cooler by
evapotranspiration.

There are several causes of an urban heat island (UHI);

for example, dark surfaces absorb significantly
more solar radiation, which causes urban
concentrations of roads and buildings to heat more
than suburban and rural areas during the day.
134
2. Waste heat generated by energy usage is a
secondary contributor.

Sources of waste heat include all manner of human

activities, natural systems, and all organisms, for
example, heat that is produced by
a machine, incandescent light bulbs get hot, a refrigerator
warms the room air, a building gets hot during peak
hours, an internal combustion engine generates high-
temperature exhaust gases, and electronic components
get warm when in operation.

135
3. Other causes of a UHI are due to geometric
effects. The tall buildings within many urban areas
provide multiple surfaces for the reflection and
absorption of sunlight, increasing the efficiency with
which urban areas are heated.

Another effect of buildings is the blocking of wind,

which also inhibits cooling by convection and prevents
pollutants from dissipating.

136
EFFECT OF HEAT ISLAND
ON THE ENVIRONMENT.

137
1. Increased Energy Consumption
Increased temperatures during exacerbated periods of
urban heat islands, resulting in demand for air
conditioning.

2. Elevated Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Air Pollution

As explained earlier, urban heat island (UHI) raises
electricity demand. As a result, power plants have to
supply the needed extra energy, and since they rely
on fossil fuels for energy production, there is an increase
in greenhouse gas emissions and air pollutants.

138
3. Poses Danger to Aquatic Systems
• High temperatures within the urban areas mean
elevated temperatures for pavements and rooftops.
Accordingly, these surface temperatures can heat
stormwater runoff. This heated stormwater raises
water temperatures as it enters into ponds, streams,
rivers, lakes, and oceans, resulting in thermal
pollution.

• As a result, the increased water temperature affects

the aquatic system, especially the reproduction and
metabolism of aquatic species and can be even fatal
to aquatic life.
139
4. Health of humans.
• Reduced nighttime cooling and increased
temperatures can adversely affect human health.

• Human health is negatively impacted because of

increased general discomfort, exhaustion, heat
stroke, and heat cramps.

• UHI can also worsen the impacts of heatwaves, and

abnormal weather periods can arise, which can
seriously affect the health of sensitive and
vulnerable populations such as older adults,
children, and those with weather-responsive health
conditions. 140
5. Secondary Impacts on Weather and Climate

• The unusual heat caused by can stimulate

thunderstorms and precipitation activity.

• Changes in local wind patterns, the formation of fog

and clouds, precipitation rates, and humidity is
observed.

141
6. Impacts on Animals

• When there is the existence of high temperatures

due to urban heat island (UHI), harsh and cruel
ecological surrounding is created which limits the
essential activities of the organisms such as
metabolism, breeding, and reproduction.

• Adverse heat can also significantly reduce the

availability of water for animals.

142
MITIGATION / REDUCTION OF THE
URBAN HEAT ISLAND EFFECT

143
1. Use of Light - colored
Concrete and White Roofs.
• The use of light-colored
concrete and white roofs
has been found to be
effective in reflecting up
to 50% more light and in
cutting down the
ambient temperature.

144
2. Green Roofs and Vegetation Cover
Green roofing is the practice of planting vegetation on a
roof, just like they are planted in a garden.

Roof garden (China)

Green roof of Chicago City Hall
145
3. Planting Trees in Cities
The practice of tree planting within and around cities is an
incredible way of reflecting solar radiation while at the same
time decreasing the urban heat island effect.

146
4. Green Parking Lots
• It reduces the elevation of pavement temperatures
which can considerably reduce and prevent thermal
pollution resulting from stormwater runoff.

The parking lot at the

University of
Copenhagen, Denmark.

147
- END -

148