.

_-- - --- - ---

Waste Heat
Boiler Deskbook

"
.
Waste H eat
Boiler Deskbook
by V. Ganap athy
 Librar)' o f Congress Ca tllloging-ln- Publica tion Data

Ga nap athy, V.
Wast e hcat b o ilcr dcs kbook / by V. G a nap athy, Contents
p. cm.
Includes Index.
ISBN 0- 173-122-6
1. Wa ste heat boilcrs- Hand books, rnanuals, ct e. 1. Tille.

TJ3 19.G36 1991 621.1'83-- de2 0 90-85871

C IP Pr ef ace xi
lVasle He at Boiler Deskbook I By ¡--: Ganapathy.
© 1991 by The Fairmon t Press, ln e. AH rights reser vc d . No par! of this pu bli- Ackno w ledgements xi i i
cation may be reprodu eed or rran sm itté d in any Iorrn or by an v mcans, List of Frequ ently Used Abbr evia tions xv
elect ro nic or rnec hanical, includ ing ph ot oco py, récording, or any jnforrna-
non sto rage and retr icval systcrn, without per rmss io n m wntmg from the lntroduction xvii
publisher. "
Published by The Fairm oru Press, lnc. CHAPTER 1: Heat Recovery Systems 1
700 Indian Trail HRSGs for gas tur bines 5
l.ilburn, GA 30247
Na tura l versus forced circu lation boil ers 6
Printed in the Uni ted Stares of America Auxilia ry firing 9
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Comput ing fu el requirem ents 20
HRSG system efficien cy 30
Fresh a ir firin g 31
ISBN 0-88173-122-6 FP HRSG d esign features 33
ISBN 0-13-950890-2 PH Finned surfaces and design 33
Steaming econ omi zer s 34
Emissions of NO x and CO 35
While every effort is made ro provide dependable information, the publisher , authors, and Methods of reducing polIutants 37
editors cann ot be heId respon sible fo r any errors o r omissions.
Byp ass darn per s 41
Distributed by Prentiee-Hall, Ine. Recent trends 44
A Simon & Schuster Company
Englcwood aifCs , NJ 07632 STIG and Ch eng cycle systems 47
Prentíce-Hall lnternational (UK) Lirnited, Landon Enhanced oil recovery applications 51
Prentiee-Hall oC Australia Pty. Umited, Sydney Reciprocating engine heat recovery 52
Prentice-Hall Canada Inc., Toronto Hydrogen plant waste heat boilers 52
Prentice-Hall Hispanoamericana, SA., Mexico
Prentice-Hall oC India Prívate Um ited, New Delhi Boilers for suIfuric acid plant 57
Prentice-Hall oC Japan, Ine., Tolcyo lncineration and heat recovery 62
Simon & Schuster Asia Pte. LId., Singapore
Editora Prentice-Hall do Bras il, Lrda ., Rio de Janeiro Solid waste incineration 62
RDF firing 72
Fluid bed combustors for MSW 74
Hazardous waste incineration 76
High temperature corrosion 77

v
 Hca t rec o vcry boilers 80 Dcsi g n o f supcrhea tcrs 176
Inci neration o f wood wa stes, tires 84 Design procedurc 179
lnci neration o f liqu id s. fu m es, VOCs 87 Pe rfo rma nc e cal culation s 181
A ir heatin g ap p li ca tio ns ····················· 91 NTU m et ho d of performance calcula tion s 181
Rcfer ences 93 Met al tern pc rat u rc cal cula tions 182
Ex terna l ra d iat io n 1 6
Flo w in para llcl streams 189
C H APT ER 2: Firc T ube Boilc rs ···························· 97
M inimi zing tu be w a ll ternp cratures 190
C u idelincs Ior Iirc tu bc boi le rs ······ ······ ·· ··· ········· · 99
Ste a m temperat ure con tro l 191
Desi gn proced urc ·· ···· ····· 100
De tc rmí n a tion o f tu bo side coeHicien t. ··101 Design of eco nomizers · · ·· ···· ········ .196
Example o f d esign 103 Pe rfo rma nce of co mple te HRSG 197
Effect of tube size on d csign 108 Refe rences 201
Simplified approach lo desi g n 109 Nornenclature 201
P redicting boile r pe rformance ·.. 117
Simplified app roa ch to p redicting pe rformance 119 C H APTE R 4: Simulat ion o f
Checks for foulin g 120 HRSG Design a nd Per forman ce 205
Effect of scale o n boiler performance 121 lrnpor ta n ce o f HRS G s im u la ti on 205
Hydrogen plant boil crs ·..123 Design and p erformance ca Icu la tio ns 206
Design tempe rature profil e 20 7
Gas bypass flow ca lcu la tio ns 124
De termining h eat losses íro rn boil er. · 125 Guidelines for se lec ting pi nch and
approach po int s 209
References 126
Nomenclature 126 Example o f d esign 213
Performance ca lcul at io n p roced u re 216
CHAPTER 3: Water T ubc Boil ers · · · 131 Software for HRSG sim u la tio n - COGE! 228
Gu idelines for wate r tube boilers 133 Supplementary fir ing and HRSG eHi cien cy 231
Heat transfer calculations · · 135 Improvin g efficie ncy of H RSG .231
Convective h ea t transfer coeHicient 135 Dea erat ion s team calcul a tions 238
Determina tio n of tube side coefficient. 139 St eam turbi n e ca lcu la tio ns 241
N o n -Ium in o us h ea t tra nsjer coefficien t 140 Op timizing temperature p ro files using COGEN 245
G as pressure drop ca lcu lations 148 Usi ng field d at a to simula te HRSG p erformance .248
In-line versus staggercd arrangement 153 Multi-pressu re HRSG desig n a nd
D esign of e v a po ra to rs 155 pe rfo rma nce simula tion .250
Performance calculatio ns · ··· ·.. ·.. 162 Refere nces .254
Sel ecting designs with low pinch and Nomencla tu re .255
a p p ro ach points ·.. 165
Cornparison o f ba re versus fin n ed eva pora tor 167 CHAPTER 5: Specifying Waste Hea t Boilers .257
Radiant h eat tra nsfer 168 Application or system de sign .257
HRSG configuration and círculation 170 Space and lay ou t guidelines .259

vi vü
 Gas da ta 260 APPENDIX C: Hea t Transfer
Bo iler d uty 263 Equipment Vibration .327
Au xil ia ry fu el d at a · 264
Emissio n d at a 265 APPENDIX D: Ga s Turbinc Da ta 337
Feed wa te r analysis, blow down 265
Su r face a rca, fin confi gura tion 270 APPENDIX E: Ga s and Stearn Propertics .349
Co st da ta for Iu cl, elcc trici ty and stearn 271 Specific hea t, viscosity,
D rum s iz i ng ··· 271 thcrmal cond uc tivity of ga ses .349
Refcrcn ces 274 En th a lp y of gases .351
Es timati ng flue gas properties .351
Effect of pressur e on hea t tra nsfer .353
APPENDIX A: Finned Tubos 275 Co n ver ting % volurnc to % weighl... 355
Heat transfer ca lcula tio ns ···· ··..276 Proper ties of stearn a nd cornpressed wa ter 355
Fin e fficie ncy and cffcctiven ess 278
Gas p ressure d rop 278 A PPENDI X F: Tu be Thic kness Ca lcula tio ns 377
T ube wa ll a nd fin tip tem perature 280 Tubes and p ipes subjec t to inter nal pressure .377
Desi gn e xampl e 281 Designing vessels and
Compa rison of bare ve rs us finned eva po rato r. 286 tu bes s ubject to ex ternal pressure .381
Compa rison of in-line versu s
staggered a rr an gem ent 287 APPENDIX G: Con ve rsion Factor s 391
Fin configu rati on a nd performance 290
Importance of tube sidc coeffic ient 291 IN DEX 395
Effec t of fou lin g factors 292
Surfa ce a rea a nd du ty 300
Nomenclature .304
Refe re nces .306

AP PENDIX B: Low Temperature Corrosion 307

Causes and cures ······ ····· .307
Methods of avoiding cold end corrosion .312
Condensation o n surfaces .314
Corrosion is stacks, ducts .315
Heat loss calculations through
mul ti-Iayer in sulation .320
Hot casing design .322
Nomenclature 326
References 326

vili ix
Pref a ce

Du ri ng the pas t 20 yea rs I ha ve had the oppo rtu nit y of

ry
cngine ering a wide variety of industr ial boi lers an d Hea t Recove
rs al ASCO Indust ries in
Stearn gcncra tors. Du ring the past 7 yea
pa r ticula r I ha ve had the pleasu re of cus tom desig nin g ove r l \V O
each wi th
hundrc d fire tube and wat er tu be wast e hea t bo ilers,
USA
d iffere nt gas /stcam par am eters, wh ich are in ope ra tion in th e
and abroad : these un its we re built ío r d iverse hea t reco very
app licat ío ns such as gaseo us, liq u id, so lid was te an d ha za
rdous
waste incin er at ion sys terns. gas lurbine exha us t, ef flue n ts from
chernic al p lants such as sulfuric ac id a nd hyd rogen pl ants, petro-
che m ica l plants, ca l crac kers in ref in eries and for e fflue n ts from
1.5
clean as we ll as di rty p rocesses; the gas flow ranged from 2000 lo
mili ion pound s per hour, which impli es a wid e variet y of boiler
con figura lio ns and design features as yo u will see in the text.
Energ y man agem enl progr ams are vital lo the eco norni c life of
any indust ry and hea l recovery boiler s playa dom inanl ro le in those
project s which oth erwi se wast e energy from hot flue gases.
I decide d lo w rite thi s book af te r review ing hundre d s of
specifícatio ns for heat reco very boilers prepared by con sul tan
ts and
are
wo u ld be users of the equipm enl; unfortu nately several of them
and
poorl y written withou t empha sis on the process aspect s
operali ng cos ts, with a result tha t the
o p tirniza tion of installed plus
enl which pe rhaps meet s the
end us er or the owner ge ts an equipm
budget require menl but whic h could incur sign ificant operati ng costs
in the fonn of higher gas pressur e drop or fuel cons urnptio n o r lower
stearn p roduc tion yea r after year.
The book addres ses various aspects of heat recove ry boilers,
and
such as engi neering, specify ing, systern design, optimi zation
engine ers and manag ers involve d in
perform ance evaluat ion. Hence
ent includi ng pla nt opera tion
several d isciplin es of energy ma nagem
will fin d the book useful and infonna tive.
xí
 Th c book is d edicatcd to proíessionals inv olved in any wa y
w ith energy co nse rva tio n and heat rccovcry . As po int ed o u t by one,
th e cart h is not Ior ma n, but man is íor ca rth . Hen ce let us use the
lirnit ed na tu ra l energy reso u rces wise ly with the Iuture of mank ind Acknowlcdgements
a nd thc nex t ge ne ra tion in m ind .

V. Canapathy
I would like lo thank ABCO Ind ustries for their enco uragcmc n t an d
su p po r t in the preparation of this book and for the use o f se ve ra :
ABCO illu strati on s and ph ot ographs.

I would also like lo thank the foIlow ing publicati ons ior pe rm itting
me lo use my an id es, whi ch o riginally appcared in thern:

Power
Power Engin ecrin g
Chemical Engineering
Oil and Gas ]oumal
Hydrocarbon Processing
Heating, piping and Ai r-conditioning
Sci-Tec h Publica tions
Pen nw ell Books
Ma reel Dek ker Ine.

I would also like lo thank ESCOA Corp for pe rmitting me to us e

their correlations for extended surface heat tra nsfer cakulati ons.
Several readers from various continents have been wri ting lo me
regarding my pu blications during the past se ve ra l years, which has
been ind eed been motiva ting a nd J wo uld like to thank them for th eir
inter est .

V. Ganapathy

XlI xiü
List of
Frequently Used Abbrev iations

ABMA - American Boiler Manufactures Associatian

ASME - American Society of Mechanical Engin eers
ca -Carbon Mon oxide
EOR - Enhanced Oil recov ery
ITB - Fire tube boiler
GTE - Gas turbine exhaust
HRSG - Heat Recovery Steam Generator
MSW - Municipal Salid Waste
NIMBY - Not in my back yard
NOx - ilrogen oxides
NWL - No rmal water leve!
PPB - Parts pe r billion
PPM - Parts per million
RDF - Refuse Derived Fuel
SCR - Selective Catalyst Reduction Systern
STIG - Steam Injected Gas Turbine
TDS - Total dissolved solids
WHB - Waste Heat Boiler
WTB - Wat er tube boiler
VOC - Volatile Organic Compounds

xv
 Introd uct ion

Thc book is a ime d at enginccrs, co ns ulta n ts and manager s

in vo lved in spccifying . o pera ting, eng ineering, marke ting and
p roc uri ng was te hea t boi lers (WHBs) o r hea t re.::o ver y s tea m
gcnera to rs (HRSGs). It offers va luable infor m a tion on not onl y the
hea t reco ver y sy stcms in chernica l plants, ga s turbine cogcnerat ion
a nd co mbined cycle pl a nt s, so lid was te, liqu id s nd gaseo us
incine ra tion sys tems and fIue gas hea t reco ve ry in ge:-.t'ra l, bu t also
pro vides the characteri stics o f ea ch sys te m suc h as gas analysis,
fouli ng and slagg ing tende ncies, high and low tcmpera.ure co r ros ión
potential a nd the irnpac t of th ese on design a nd performa nce aspec ts
of HRSGs.
During the pa s t 15 yea rs and par ticu la rly d ur.:1g the las t 7
years at ABCO Ind ustri es I ha ve had the oppor tu nity ci enginee ring
a wide va rie ty of fire tu be an d wat er tube waste hea t bo ilers for
diffe ren t ty pes of applica tion s as menti on ed aboy e. Havíng d e sign ed
over two hundred boi lers w ith gas flow s va rying fro:n 2000 lo 1.5
million pounds per hour a nd stea m flows varying fro rn Z () to ?5Q,OOJ
pounds per hour, I feel that cu storn designing HRSGs is an ar t as well
as a scíence, as there are numerou s configurations po ssíole depending
on eco nomics, cleanl iness of ga s, ga s and steam parametsrs an d layout
co nsidera tions.
I ha ve had also th e o p portun íty of a u tho r ing four bo o ks and
over 175 articles on heat recovery boilers and steam plant systems in
journals such as Pouier, Power Engineering, Chemicsl Engineering,
Heating Piping Air-Conditioning, Gil and Gas [ournal, Hydroazrbon
Processing, Plant Engineering; th e feed back from the read ers has
been very encouraging, which prornpted me to bring ou t th is work.
Another reason was that in the course of revie wing sped ñcatíons on
HRSGs from various consultants and engineering org anízatio ns, 1 felt
that less emphasis was being pla ced on process and optírníza tion
aspects, which is very irnportant in the long run lo the owne:r o f the
plant. Due lo lack of knowledge on HRSGs and th eír performance
xvii
 or
do not Which is bcu er arrange ment for barc and finncd rubes, in -I ine
as pects. severa l o f the s p ecificat io ns are po o rly wri tten and
ginec r an econo rnica lly and stagger cd?
furn is h adequa r e info r m a tio n lo cn the
kn o wled g e o r do Ho w do boilers with finncd tubes compare wirh bare tube dcsign for
technic all y so u nd d esigno Many cn g inccr s a lso lack
sarne duty?
o p tio ns . Fo r exa rn p le if
no t kn ow how lo e val ua re alte rn a le d esign Ho w lo co m pute t he gas t c rn p cra t ur c at the SeR at o í f-c csign
sho w that with
yo u read Appen d ix A, scvcra l cxa rnplcs a re g iven lo conditions.
r m ore
fin ned t u bo s o nc can ha ve a lo wc r su rface a rca and s till transfe Ho w lo avoid high and low tempera ture corros ion problcrn s?
of
ene rgy b y p ro per ch oice o f fin co nfig u ra lio n. Se vc ra l cng incc
rs a nd Ho w lo use field data to pred ict off-design per formance or fou ling
tions
purcha se manag er s s till purcha sc HRS Gs for critical applica HRSGs ?
ba sed o n s u rface ar ca a nd are 01' thc vicw that more the surface arca With finncd tu bcs can you transfer more duty with lcss surface arca?
the bc uer a nd a d esign with a lo wcr su rface a rca would not pe rfo rm . What is thc effec t of fin configuralion?
and
Al so, l hav c co me a cr oss sev era ] specific a tio ns which d o not How lo size an d predicl off-design perform ance of fire t ube
life time of the bare/ finned water lube boilers, superhe aters, cconom izers?
place e m p hasis o n I-IRSG opc ra ting cos ts; during the
to high g as How to comput e tube wall a nd fin tip ternperat urcs?
HRSG , thc ca s i of mo vi ng thc g.lS lhrough the sys te rn due l
ra re a How lo com p ute thickness of tubes subjec t to in terna! or ex:erna
pre ssurc d ro p o r th e cos t of Iucl whi ch is req u ir ed to g ene pressur e?
ile the
d c si rcd q ua n tity o f s tca rn may be ve ry s ignifica n t. Wh How mu ch gas sho uld be bypassed for gas rcmpcraturc control?
in it ia l cos t al one, to the o w ne r o f the pl a nl
consul tanl look s a t the What is rhe effect of gas pressu re on heat transfcr ?
clcc tric ity for y ea rs lo co me, th e lífe
w ho ha s lo pay fo r th c fu el and How lo evaluare HRSGs for possible noise and vibration problems?
Hen ce addi tio n of seco ndary
cycl e co s t o f thc HR SC is im po rta n t.
m ay
hcat recove ry suríaccs such a s con de nsa le h.eat er o r econom izer Th e first ch ap ter d ea ls with heat reco very sys tem s. I-IIL~ s are
be slightly m ore.
ha ve to be look ed int o, tho ug h the ini tia l cos t may used in va rio us a p p lica tions such as ga s turb ine exhaust, inciner
a tion
cycle
A few exa rn p lcs on th e s ubjcct o f e va lua ling o pera ting and life sys tems, che rnic a l p lants and refineri es to m ention a few . In o rde r lo
costs a re discusscd in the book . cha rac teristics of th e ga s
d esign a H RSG for any app lica tion, the
n
T his boo k offcrs u se fu l info rma tio n o n desig n and off- desig s trea rn are irn porta nt . Fo r e xarnple, a uxi lia ry fir ing in ga s tu rb ine
y sys terns and co mpo ne n ts such as g fu el
pe rfo rma nce aspect s o f H eat rccover HR SGs is d iscusse d in d epth wi th exa mples o n co m p u tin
ted by
su per hea te rs, eva po ralo rs and cco no m izers, wh ich are e la bo ra req uirem enl s, oxyg en eo nsu m pl ion, impacl o n sy slem efficien
cy an d
find qu antitat ive
over 65 full y worked o u t exa m p les. You will e missio ns . Features o f boilers s uc h as natural or foreed ci rcula tio n,
bo ilers a nd
a ns we rs to co m mo nly a sk ed ques tio ns o n heat reco very s ing le or multip l e g as pass desig n, ins u la ted ca sing o r fu Ily wa ter
sys tems; so rne of them are: a re discu ssed, along with
cooJ ed membr ane walI constru ction
melhod s of minimi zing s lea mi ng con cems in cconom izers.
How can one improve lhe efficiency of a HRSG syslem? Variou s aspects of WHBs in Munici pal Solid Waste (M SW)
Whal is lhe effcel of auxi liary firing on syslem efficiency? applica tions, Refuse Derive d Fuel (RDF) fired un its and
other
for
How lo comput e lhe fuel rcqu ircmenls and oxygen co nsu mplion boilers ,
inciner ation system s are discuss ed with empha sis on type of
gas lurbine exhau sl bo ilcrs? tube, fouling and slaggin g concer ns and
gas whethe r fire tube or water
How lo seJcel pinch and app roach poinls? How do lhey vary wilh o n potent ia l. Metho ds o f
high and low temper ature co r rosi
inJet condilions? selecti on of
wall m inimizi ng these concern s throug h boiler design and
Whal is lhe cffec l of scaJe on bo iler perform ance and lube
lc:mperalures and heal flux? steam parame ters are addres sed.
ign
How lo compul e lhe d ew points of hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, . Th~ second and third chapter s deal with Design and off-des
perform ance calcula tion proced ures fo~ Eire tube and water
hydrobr omic acid, nilric acld? .c J L tube
I'¡ ;'
."

bo ilers with bare and eXlended su rfaces. Plant en gin eer s can use the
sim plified procedures describcd in the te xt for ínstance lo che ck for
fouling, es tima te byp ass flow for gas temperature cont rol or estimate
the gas temperaturc a l thc Selectivo Calalylic Redu ction systern
SCR) a t differenl load co nd itions. Effecl of tub e size and arrangemenl
wh cthcr in-lin o or sta ggcrcd on dcsign and performance is claborated
qu anlilatively. Exampl es are also giv en o n how lo compule th c tube
wall lemperatures, including thc effcct of sca le. Arrange men l of
head er s on flow mal-di stribu tion in s u perhe a te rs and the effect of
tube confi guration on dircct radiati on to tub os a re also discu ssed.
Cir culation aspects ar e also dis cussed a long wit h various configur-
ati on s ava ilable for superheatcrs, evaporators and economize rs.
Simulation of sin gle or multi-pressure u nfired o r íircd HRSGs
can be per formed using the me thodology described in chap ter 4.
Gu idelines on selecting pinch and app roac h poin ts are disc ussed . One
ca n predict the performance of complex unfi re d and fired mu lti-
pressu re HRSGs u nd c r different load co nditions wilhou t ac tually
d esigning the u nit. Such stud ies wou ld be helpful to co ns u lta n ts in
sim ulati ng thc cnt irc combined cycle or coge ne ra tion p lan t beh avior
and economics. Mcthods of imp roving the efficiency of HRSG sys tems
throu g h addi tio n of condensa te hea te r, deae ra to r coi l o r heat
oxchanger a re addressed . Examp les illus tra te ho w one can also
optimize the lemper at ur e profi les b;y rearranging the heating
surfaces. Me thods of computing deaer ati on stea m requirements and
power output from steam tu rbines are di scussed with examples . The
sof twa re COGEN wh ich is uscd in HRS G evalua tio ns is recorn-
me nd ed to th ose involve d in engi neering co mbine d cycl e a nd
cog ene ra tio n projects, as on can simu la te co m plex H RSG systems
w itho u t actually d esigning the plant,saving a lot of eng ineering time
Chapter 5 shows how one sho uld specify waste heat boil ers
from the process view poi nt. Adh er ing to the guide lines w il\ save a
lot of time for both the boiler desi gn er and the purchasing manager
responsibl e for evaluating alterna te bids.
Advantages of ex tended sur face over bar e tube is d iscussed in
de tail with examples in Appendix A. Effect of ar rangement of tu be s
i.e. in-Iine versu s staggered and the selec tio'n of fin configura tion are
elaborated. Examples also show how one can transfer more ,ene rgy
with less súrface area with (jnn ed tubes . The effect of tube side
.J
coe fficient and tube and gas sid e fouling factors on tu be wall and fin
tip temperatures are illu strated with oxarnp lcs.
Append ix B cites the causes of low tempcrature co rrosion and
suggcs ts m cth od s of minimi zin g the pr ob lerns. Dc w po int s of
hyd rochlori c, sulfuric and hydrobromic acid may be co rnputcd u sing
the cor rc la tions given. Heat losses th rou gh cas ing may be eva luatcd
using the pr ogram de scribed .
One can eva lua te an HRS G design for po ss ible noisc and
vibra tion du c lo vorl ex she d d ing u sin g th e meth od s discu sscd in
Append ix C.
Gas turbin e based HRSG s are widely uscd in coge ne ra tion and
combined cycle plan ts. Appendi x D giv es the exha us t ga s dat a for
sev eral wid ely used machi nes.
Ga s and steam properties ar e pr ovid ed in Appendix E with
correlations for saturated and superheated stearn. Example illus-
Ira les how one can compute gas mix lure proper ties. The effecl of ga s
pressure on heat tran sfer in side and ou tside tubes is also add ressed.
Appendix F shows the method of compu tation of thickness of
tubes subject lo internal and externa! press ures acco rdi ng to recen t
ASME code p rocedures .
In su rn, over sixty five examples fro m real life situations are
worked out covering desig n an d off-design per forman ce aspects of
variou s ty p es of waste hea t bo ilers and systems; in addition,
elabora te matter of fact d iscussio ns on systems and equipment should
make this book indispensable lo engi neers involved in variou s
di sciplines of heat recov er y.
This book in the au lho rs view woul d be an invalu able addition
to the lib ra ry of engi nee rs a nd co ns ulta nts involve d in opera tion,
maintenance, engi neeri ng, specifying or purcha sing waste heat
boilers. Since no single book can cover aH of the aspects of the subject,
the a u tho r suggests th at seri ou s profes sion als involved with heat
reco very syst ems and wast e heat boilers shou ld acqui re the o ther
books and th e so ft wa re COGEN wrillen by him; for m ore
informa tion, please contact th e author at : V. Ganapathy, P.O. Box
673, Abilene, Texas 79604, USA.
lI
vvi
I
I
I
I
Chapter 1
Waste Heat Boilers

Waste h eat boilers (WHBs) o r Hea t Recovery Stea m

Genera tors (H RSGs) as th ey are ofte n calle d are used to recove r
energy frorn was te gas streams such as those encountered in su lfuric
acid or hyd ro gen plant s, refine ries, so lid, liqu id an d gase ous
incine ra tion sys terns, power plant s and in cogeneration sys tems using
gas turbines an d recipr ocat ing eng ines. With rising fuel costs and
limit ed su p p ly of premium fuels, it is prudent to maxim ize the
energy recovered from waste gas streams wheneve r poss ible.
Basically HRSGs can be c1assified into two broad ca tegories:
1. Those whi ch are required to cool gas streams to a desired
tempe ra ture ran ge from p rocess consid erat ions; exa mples could be
found in hydrogen or sulfu ric acid p lants; in these p lants, the energy
recovery aspec t is of secondary importance; the exit gas tem peralure
Irorn the boiler has lo be contro lled within a narrow range of
lemperatures for furt her d ownstre am pro cess purpo ses and methods
such as gas bypassing would be used lo achieve this objective.
2. In the other category of wa ste heat boilers. th e objective is
to maximize energy recovery compatible with considerations of high
or low temperature corrosion and economics. Examples could be found
in ga s turbine based combined cycle or cogeneration systerns, incin-
eration plants and flue gas heat recovery in general.
There is no standard design methodology or procedure for
engineering of waste heat boilers, since one comes across a wide range
of gas ternperatures, gas analysis, pressures and st eam parameters
Table 1-1 shows sorne of the gas streams encountered in the industry.
If the gas pressure is high, a fire tube boiler is preferred, Figure 1-1.
 w astc Hea t Boi lers 3
Wasle Heat Boiler Doskbook
2

o
'"
(~

00
o
¿,
I
o .I
oU

o
U

.",
~
..
....--;;.~ Figure 1-1. Etevat ed drum fir e tu be boiler [courlesy ABCO Ir':-..Slries]
-" c..
>-
.!l~
"-o
~
e <
:~o
o-
E If the gas flow is largc and several levels of steam pressure are used,
o
u
o a wa ter tube boiler as shown in Figure 1-2 may be appropriat e. More
.!:' discu ssions on fire tube versus wa ter tube type could be fou nd in
Chapter s 2 and 3. Anoth er important aspect to the type of boiler is
o
o ;;¡; the c1eanliness of the gas stream; if clean, extended surfaces cou ld be
z
used and the boiler may be made compa ct as in gas turbine
Z
... applications; on the other hand if the gas stream is dirty as in
_ _ _ _ ll1
municipal solid waste systems, the tube surfaces shou ld be bare. with
provisions for c1eaning and ash removal. A large water coo led
membrane wall radiant section may be required to cool the gases
below the fusion points of eutectics before entering the con vection
section. Ample consideration should be given to high a nd low
tempera tu re corrosion aspects.
 Waste Hca t Boiler Dcskbook Waste Hea t Boilcrs
4

HRSGs FOR GAS TURBINE EXHAUST

Gas turbines are widely used p rime rnove rs in both the lo w (less
than 10 MW) and in the high end (150 MW) of the power spectrum.
They ha ve several advan tages such as high efficiency in simple
~
cycle mode, lo w installed cost per kilo w at t compa rcd to Iossil o r
.~ nu clear po wer plants, qu ick star tu p capabi lities, sma lle r s pace and
-i; low cooling wa ter req uirerncnts. Exhaust gases frorn gas turbines are
.s usually clean as they burn premium Iuels wit h high excess air. The
O
U
ea energy in the gas stream may be used for severa] applica tions such as
"'" heating of water or ai r or heat transfer fluids such as Therminol or
~ glycol and in mos t cases, for genera ting s tearn for process or power
~
"
o
using HRSGs.
ci
Co mb ine d with H RSGs, gas turbin es can opera re in co mb ined
:5 " cycle or cogene ra tion mod e, Figure 1-3 a nd 1-4, thereby improving the
2..
cfficiency of th e overall systern com pa red to the ope ratio n of the gas

; ..s
~
~
'"
::"
turbine alone. In combined cycle mode a large amount of power can be
ge ne ra ted if a fired HRSG is used . Several non-opera ti ng nuclear
po wer pl a nt s in th e USA a re bein g replaced wi th gas fir ed gas
~ turbine ba sed combined cycle sys tems. In cog eneration mode, gener-
O<:
I ally low pressure steam is ge nerated and used for proc ess heating or
"O
~ cooling applicati on s.
;;:
al
...e,
al

Fuel
'"'éo
"
"
.¡¡;
~
::
al
~

~
"3 Air
¿
:t
'".;:1..
~

Figure 1-3. Combined cycle plant.

 Wa sle Hea t Boiler Dcsk book Wast e Hcat Boilers 7
6

Oepartur e from ucleat e Boiling (O B) are set by thern. On e has to

be careful particul arly with evapora tor tubes with extende d su
rfaccs
as the heat flux inside the tube can be significantly larger compa red
lo the heat flux wh ile using barc tubes.

...0 1 , ..." ", ,

+-
'Uf'
na U le lIT

I UU.
f IUCU IC IIf

e...uIO ,"1["

' UH

Figure 1-4. Cogen erau on systerns. [Pennwc ll Books].

NATU RAL VERS US

FORC ED CIRCULATI ON BüILERS

Oue to the larg e ma ss flow associated with gas turbine s, water

tube boilers are genera lly used (or heat recovery . Fire tub e boilers
have been used occasionally with very small machines.
HRSGs for gas turbine s could be of natural or forced circulation
type, Figure 1-5 and 1-6. In natural circulation units, the boiler tubes
are vertica l and the therma l head differential betwee n water and
steam- water mixtur e is respon sible Ior the circula tion throug h the
system . The circula tion ratio is arri ved at by balanc ing the system
resi stance to flow and the available thermal head . It could fall
in
.the range of 6 to 30 d epending on the system used. The heat flux
inside the tu bes, steam pressur e and circula tion ratio are all im-
po rtant variabl es in any circulation system and the conditi ons for
Figure 1-5. Natural circulation bailer. [courtesy ABC O Ir.:1ustriesJ.
In forced circulation un íts, circulating pumps á rculate the steam
water mixtur e throug h the tu bes of the evapor ator to and fro m the
drum. Since a pump is used to achieve circula tion, one can size it
to
obta in an y circula tion ratio . It is typ ícally in the range of 4 to 10.
Cost of pump operation and economics plays a role in pump sizing.
In Eu rope, forced circula tion designs are common. Ad vantages
c\aim ed ar e smalle r floor space and quick startup capabiliti es.
However, natural circulation designs do not need circulating pumps
to
s Waste l Icat Boiler Deskbook Wa sle Heal Boilers 9

mai n tai n th e circu lat ion of s tea m water mi xt ure th rou gh th e

e vapo rator tu be s, thereby saving opcrating cos t and concerns abo u t
pump failure o r ma in tenan ce. The d iffere nce in cold sta r tup time
.... OUI peri ods is not la rgely due lo the simple fa ct th a t in the transient
I I
I hcat up p hase, th e bulk of the time is spent on heat ing the me ta l a nd
wat er of the cvaporator module, which is nearly the sarne w he the r
,.---. it is a na tura l o r a forced ci rcula tio n HRSG . The tube side he a t

f-
- r: :\
~~ Y
t ra ns fer coefficie n l does not irnpac t th e o ve ral l heat t ransf er
cocfficien t, w hic h is d ep end enl o n th e gas flo w and tcmperaturc
alone. [f th ere a re nu rner ou s hot rest art s, th ere is a sma ll red u ctio n in
I '"\. ( th e hot rest arl pe riod d ue lo th e circ u la tio n of hot wa ter in fo rced

.'~.
circu la tio n d csigns, b ut again, thi s is n ot a significant fa ct or to
"
lO

change thc d esign concept. In fa vor of natural circulation , one ca n say

~\lIO th at the co ncc r ns about high heat flu x a nd DNB a re less d uc lo th e
¡j verti cal o rie n ta tio n of eva pora tor tubes, w h ich pr o vid e a na t u ra l
path for th e s tea rn bubbles lo mov e; in a forced circulation d esign, th e
't' tu bes a re hori zontal an d the heat flu x for in cidence of DNB is much
lo wer . Sepa ra tio n o f s tea rn bubbles from th e mi xture can occu r d ue to
low lube s ide velocities, resulting in strati fica tio n and burno ut. T his
Á\ is mo re of a co nce rn if th e gas sid e flo w non-uniforrnity is hi gh,
w hich ca n result in va ria tio ns in heat flu x a cross th e width o f th e
IYArOllA U
't' H RSG. Fired HRSGs hav e lo be critically eva lua ted for DN B.
In s um ma ry both natural and forced circul at io n bo ilers a re
widely used in th e indus try: while the na tural circulatio n d es ig n has
, a n edge over th e for ced as d iscu ssed aboye, the final choice is u su ally
'Url~ .. AlU S IlAN
.--< <, OUI made by the end user based on his expe rience.
IA"LI ",AII

AUXILI A RY FI RIN G

Since the exhaust gases contain a lot of oxygen, in the 14 to 16%

'111M" ruwr
lO
CIIICUUlI., by volume range, (if there is no significant injection of steam in the
gas turbine, see Table 1-1) additional steam can be generated in the
boiler by increasing the ex haust gas te m p erat u re lo the HRSG
th ro ug h the addition of fuel alone. HRSGs for gas turbine can be
classified into three broad categories, depending upon the firing
ternperature.
Figure 1-6. Foreed drcuL1tlon bo íler . 1. Unfired 2. Supplementary fired 3. Fumace fired
 11
I
1,
Waste Hea t Boiler Deskbook \Vaste Heat Boilers 11
10

The ter m sup p lerne ntary firing is so me lim es refcrrcd lo as

au xiliary firing. When the hea t inp u l is sig nificanl a nd a rnernbra ne
wall furn ace is uscd , then thc I IRSG is referr ed lo as a furnacc fired
,.-, ,, = = < W I

un it. Note that e ne may use a membran e wa ll fum ace des ign cven for
a low firin g ternperature situation by choic e. Hence these tcrrns are
looscl y used in the indu str y and onc shou ld be aw ar e of the
impl icalions of the firin g tcrnpcratur e on the selection and dcsign of
il l I
,
I I
I

"U~"-f¡ t1! I
the furnace, firing du ct and thc HRSG.
Tabl e 1-2 belo w g ives a n id ea of the s tea rn ge ne ra lion
capabilities of each lype . Not e that no add itiona l ai r is needed for
combustion for a ny of the three ty pes as the oxygen in the gas strea rn
is generally adcqua te. If there is stearn injection in the gas tur bine,
add itiona l air, so metimes referr ed lo as au gm enling ai r, may be I
required. EXPA NS IOS
/OINTS

Ta b le 1-2
I nl el g as tem peralure a nd s tc a rn generali on f or ga s lurbin e H R S G s

Type ot Syslem Gas ¡nlel Tem p °F GasJSleam Ralio ........._ ...J..J..:=t"\ )-I=,.-- --n---
.
'"!
Unfired 800 - 1000 5.5 lo 7
isux
T R AVSI T ! QY
Supple. tired 1000 - 1700 2.5 lo 5.5
1.2 10 2.5 35 ' -0-
Furnace tired 1700 - 3200
vro- nss U'I Fl RED liP-Sfi.

UNFIRED HRSGs Figur e 1-7a. A two-pass u nfircd HRSG wilh superhcater, evapo rator and econo rnizcr.
[co urtesy A BCO Industries].

When the plant s team requ irements are such that the ene rgy in
th e exha ust gases is adequate, a n unfired HRSG is selected . Typical
ga s lemperalure entering the HRSG ranges from 800° lo lOS0°F,
d epending on the gas turbine used. Figure 1-7a shows a two-gas pa ss
design with a superheater, evaporator and economizer. This d esign
occupies a small floor space. The evaporator tube bundle is divided
into two portions by using a baffle plate. The gases flow across the
superheater and the bottom half of the evaporator, make a 180
degree tum and then flow across the top half of the evaporalor lub es
into an economizer. Various gas inlet and exit co nfigur alions are
possible; for instance the gas can enter at the top and flow down-
wards or exit at the side. Insulated downcomers are located at the
tuming sectíon.
The casing is internally insulated with 4 lo 5 inches of m ineral
fib~r or insulalion and is protected from the hot gas s tream by a
stainless steel or cort en or carbon steel liner, which is designed lo
mo ve.or. expan.d in the plane of the casing. Lower grade lin er
rnaterial IS used 111 low gas temperature regions.
The ec.o~o~izer can be located al the gas exit as shown, Designs
that help rrururruze sleaming concems are discu ssed later.
Figure 1-7c shows a single gas pass designoThe stack co u ld be
self standing or rnounted over the tuming section.
 12 Wasle Heal Bailer Dcs kbook Wast e Hea t Boil ers 13

gas du ring the cour se of time; hcnce the limit on supplementary firing
tempe ra tu re.
Ap pend ix B ca n be refcrred to for calc ulati ons of casin g tern-
pera lure and heat loses through rnu lti-layer in su lati on , Th e cas ing
design dc scribe d aboye is used for the du cl wo rk lcad ing lo the HRSG
from th e burne r and also in the H RSG p or lions havi ng a high gas
temper at ur e. Ca rbon stee l liners an d lesser insulation thickness may
be used in low tem per ature por tions of the H RSG and econ ornizer.
The firi ng transition is abo u t 10 lo 15 Iee t long, depend ing on the
boil er si ze and the tra nsition an gle be tw een the bu rn c r a nd the
HRSG.
The HRSG do es no t diff er m uc h in conc epl from th e unfi red
desig n, excep t for the sizing of drurn and o the r heal transfer surfaces
and compo nen ts lo hand le the high er s tea rn gen eralion . Th e HRSG
steam outpu t can be eas ily d oub led as see n from Table 1-2 by lhe
add itiona l fuel inp ut. Fig ure 1-7d shows a suppleme n ta ry fired
HRSG with a superh ea ler.

Figure 1-7b. A tw o-gas pass HRSG instal1ation . [courtesy ABCO Industries.]

AUXILIARY FIRED HRSGs

Supplementary firing of exha us t ga ses is d on e to rai se the

temperature of the gas stream entering the boiler to a ma ximum of
1700°F, so that additionaJ steam can be generated without major
lli OUTLET TRANSITION

I ! 'II II. .- m----il r-

i
i
¡- _._._.¡1r-'!'""':"111
I

1 i i
modifications to the unfired boiler designo The 17()()OF limit is set by I I
the design of the casing, which consists of several layers of high i...·...•...•...·...•... ·_·..il~~-i 11
i i
temperature insulation inside the casing, varying from 6 to 10 inches ! ¡
thick, which is protected from the hot gases by a suitable high
g rad e alloy liner material. The liner shou ld cover as much of the
insulation fiber as possible and yet be free to thermalIy expand in ECONQMIZEB EVAPORA TOe SCBEEN SUfERHEA TER
both the directions. Liner materials whatever their grade begin to Figure 1-7c. Single pass unfired HRSG wilh superhealer, screen, seR, evaporator and
warp above 17()()OF, resulting in the insulation being blown off by the CCOnomizer. [courlesy ABCO InduslrV-s.J
14 Wasle Hcat Boiler Des kbook wa ste Heat Boilers 15

Th e burner is located betwecn the superheater a nd ev aporator du e lo
design co nsiderations . Du e lo th e high firing tcrnperature, the
evaporato r ha s lo be d esigned with varying fin configuralion. Th e
first few rows are ba re, followed by tubes with increa sing fin d en sit y .
Thi s is done lo minimizc thc tu be wall and fin tcmperaturcs and h eal
flux inside the tu bes. Method s o f cvalu a ting the performance o f
unfired and fired HRSG s are di scussed in Chapters 3 and 4.
Ducl burncrs, Figure 1-8, are used lo raise exhau s t gas
romperatures lo abo u t 1700°F. These fire generally premium fuel s
such as natu ral gas or di st illat e oils and heavy oils. Une burners a re
similar in constru ction lo du ct burners but are loca ted or mounled o n
the fronl wall of a wa ter cooled fum ace. These are used lo rai se the
ga s temperatures lo nearly 2300°F. Due lo the high er g as tern-
perature an insulated casing d esign is not adequate.

~
• t

PILOT GAS _ _J

FUEL OIL J
ATOI.CLZING
AIR FUEL GAS

Figure 1-8. Duct bumer for gas/distilla te oil l uels. [adapttd from CaEN company
catalogl

The HRSG for such an application is usually of membrane wall

construction as shown in Figure 1-9. Since the enclosure is fully water
cooled, there is no Iimitation on the firing ternperature with these
designs.
The fumace length is determinee! by the f1ame length usually
on the order of 10 to 15 feet. The bumer supplier should be contactee!
Agure 1-7d HRSG lor Cheng cyde applícatíon, (courtesy ABCO Industries.1
in the case of special fuels. The fumace section is followed by the
 Was le He a t Boiler Deskbc ok w ast e Heal Boilers 17
16

convcctio n section, which as bcío rc consis ts of a co rnbina tion of barc
a nd finn ed tub es. The supcrhe.ucr, if used, co u ld be locat ed wit h in
thc co nvcc tio n ba nk.
i
Lin e burners a nd duct burn ers ty p ically ha ve a low gas p ressure
drop, on the order o f 0.3 in wc. If s tea rn is injec ted in to the gas turbine
eithc r Ior NO x co n trol o r for increasing th e p o wer ou tpu t as in the
Che ng cycle sys te m, the oxygen con ten t in th e gas s trea rn red uces.
This fac t a lo ng wit h hi g h wa te r vapor co n te n t in the gas s trea m
íorccs o ne to use a n augmen ling air sup ply to e ns ure flarne s tabili ty in

11 i
i
i
thc bu rner.
In furn ace fired HRSGs, regis ter bu r ne rs ar e used lo fire th e

(r=<L' i
i I
¡ I
exha us t gas s trearn to th e m áximum poss ible ex ten t, narnely
adiaba tic cornbus tion tcmpcrature, depending on the oxyge n content

I r,--
r- --L-L~
fu
f
in the ex haus t gas . The burner resernbles a co nventional bume r u sed in
fired b oil e rs, Figure 1-10 wi th wi ndbo x a n d thr oat for b u rne r
elernen ts. Th e gas prcssur e drop in the wi ndbox ca n be as h ig h as 4 to
5 in wc a nd he nce im po ses a pe nalty o n gas turbine powe r ou tp u t. It
may be no ted th al eac h 1 in wc reduces th e po wer o utp u t o f the
tur bin e by nearl y 0.25%. One of the ad vanta ges of fuma ce fired
d esigns is tha t it can even han dl e solid fu el s. The gas tur bine ac ts as
a fan su p p ly ing ho t co mb u s tion a ir to th e boiler. The boiler has a
fully wa te r cooled rad ian l sec tion of membrane wall des ign follo wed
by a convec tion bank and econorn izer.
SECT/ON H A-A H SIDE Yla Th e su pe rhe a ter, if u sed, can be buri ed w ithin the ba iler bank
as s ho w n. Wh en the capaci ty of th e H RSG is large, a s ho p
assernbled D-type boil er m a y not be ad eq ua te and a field as sernbl ed
H RSG resembling a fossil fu el fired utility or industrial bo iler may
be required . Th e cu t off s tea rn flow is appro ximately 150,000 pph .
Ano the r importa nt aspec t that sho u ld be consid ered in th e
desi gn o f th e firi ng sys tem is the maldis tri b u tio n or non- un ifo rrni ty
in the ve locity prof ile across the duc t cross section as the g ases exit
the gas turbine. Also due to th e size of the duct w ork between th e gas
turbine and th e boiler (nea rly 30 to 50 Ieet high and 10 to 15 fee t
wid e) and th e manner by which the gases exit from the turbine an d
ent er the HRSG systern, additional rnaldistribution can occur. One of
th e ways of dealing with this situation is to perform a rnodel study
and incorpora te turning or guide van es in the duct work ahead of the
HRSG and the burner: in addilion , the transition angle of the
ductwork connecting th e burner and HRSG must be carefuIly
reviewed. If it is too srna ll, it rnínimizes the maldistribution but
Figures 1-9a & 1-9b. Fumace flred HRSG [dra.wing and phDto courttsy ABCO adds to th e cast; so me suppliers use a distribution grid, which
Industries.1
 \\Iasle Hcat Boilcr Deskbook wasrc Heat Boilers 19
18

consists of a pe rforated pl a tc with approxima lely 50% opcning. This

me rcases the gas press u re drop by nearly 0.5 lo 1.00 in wc and
min irnizes the rnald ist ributio n lo sorne ex ten t d epc nd ing on the %
opening. A combinalion of both vanes and di str ibu tio n grid may be
¡O-'h _' ./1
0-./
rcqui red in so rne cases . Mod el analysis is importan t and could help
\ e~ e: ~ preven t se rious maldist ribution p rob lerns p artic ula rly in units with
bu rne rs and superheaters .

, n "~ FRE5H AIR FIRI NG

U: lJ

~-
C)
1

In a ll o f th ese firing sys terns, a trnos p he r ic fres h ai r can be

1 in tro d uced lo suppo r t co m bus lio n in case th e g as turbin e tr íps . In
o
I refineri es a nd in critica l a ppli cati o ns whe re s tearn p ro d u ct io n
[ ~j- ! = shou ld be mainlained in the even t of a gas lurb in e trip, th is addi tion
I
'-- V \:::: =J is sugges led . Figure 1-11 s ho ws the sc he rne. A d oubl e lo u vered
I I

'\
I 1 d amper w ith seal a ir fan preven ts hot gases fro rn goi ng lo th e fa n
wh en it is no t in operat ion and the gas tu rbi ne is run ning. A g uil lo tine
o~ d arn per p revení s a ir from leak in g in lo the ga s tur bine duc l wo rk
wh en the fan is running a nd the lurbine is o ff.
• 9-.9

1
[ ---
o
l.div e r t er
2.slide g c. te
3.firing duc t
4.burn e r
S.fo n
é .o o. n p er w/fo n
Figure 1-11. Scherne for fresh air firing.
20 Wast e Hea t Boiler Des kbook \'la ste Heat Boile rs 21

lt sho uld be no tcd that the b u rner du ty ínc rea se s sig nifica n tly whcn Supplem ent ary ruel pa ramere rs
it is on fres h ai r a s it has to be ra ised fro m ambien t tem perature lo
the firi ng tem pera turc. The sizi ng concep l for the fresh ai r fa n is c-, .,4l.ABTU ¡;:

d iscu ssed lat cr, as it affecls the systcm eff iciency . >JO
I
lOO
I ,
JOO , OO
I

O ne of thc concerns in sevc ral p lan ts is the lime for switching

ov cr fro m g as tu rb ine mod e lo Ircsh a ir firin g m ode, Thi s co u ld be on
the order of a ícw minutes. Ir is po ssible lo redu ce th e time durat ion
''i>
be tw een th e ga s tu rbi ne lr ip a nd s ta r t o f fresh a ir s u pply by u sin g a n
lo\>
ind uced dra ft fan behi nd the HR SG, wh ich opera tes a11 th e li m e
and handl e s parl o f the H RSG rcsi stance wh en the gas tu rb ine
opera tes a nd the co m p le te HRS G res íst ance w he n o n fre s h a iro The
fa n curve a nd th e H RSG performance mu st be stu d ied in d ep th be fo re
selecting th e syste m . t~
" ."'í '\ ~
, .P!
,~
, IP' 200
,~
COMPUTING FUEL REQUIREMENTS , ."~
, ":'"
,t<'l
Eng ineers have to frequ cntly co m p u te th e energ y required to , ,<"
,~ lS.!O'J
raise th e tempera tu re o f g as turbine ex haus t to a desir ed level; al so
th e conce rn so rne times is whether ther e is su fficien t o xygen in th e gas ¡ I ' I ¡ i ¡ I
1, 100 1.000 9O:l &00 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 1118
s trea m lo a chieve th e objective without additional combu sti ón a iro 0, . '.
Prese n ted bel ow is an analysis and a ch a r t th at may be used to
perform quick estimat es of oxygen d epl etion and fu el con su mption.
Supplementary firin g of ga s turbine ex hau st g ases u sing natural Figur e 1-12. Chart for supplerncntary fue! pa ramelers (Gil and Gas Journal.j
g as o r distillate s is frequently done to genera te add itional s te a m in
w ast e h ear boilers. With chart sh own h ere, it is p os sibl e to
e s tim a te : NOMENCLATURE
1. Energy that must be added in the burner system lo raise the
temperature of a given exhaust gas quantity W g from T1 to A Amount of combustion air in turbine exhaust,
T2· Ib/hr.
2. The quantity of fuel required to do this in scf/hr and in lb/hr. C = Constant for combusti ón, depends on type of
3. Maximum fuel input that is possible with a given oxygen fuel, Ib/MMBtu.
content of the exhaust gas (which usua11y varies from 15 to o Oxygen content in exhaust gas, vol %.
19 %). LHV and HHV lower and higher heating va lues of fu el s,
Btu/lb
Also, the chart may be used in reverse to determine the gas Qsand Qmax Supplementary fuel input and maximum fue!
temperature after the bumers if fuel input is known. input possible, MMBtu/hr
 Wasle Heat Iloile r Deskbo ok
22
W¡ Fu cl q u ant ity, Ib / hr for oi l fu els and scf/ h r for
natura l gas
Wg T u rbine exha u st gas qu a nt ity , Ib/hr
T] and T2 Exhau s t gas tc m p c rat u rc enle ring a nd lea v ing
bu rner sys tem, °F.
En th alpy of ga s en le ri ng and lea ving bu rn er ,
Blu/ lb .
Theory. T he en crgy rcqu ir ed lo ra isc Wg Ib/h r o f tu rb in c ex ha us t
fro rn T1 lo T2 is given by:
(1-1)
Wher e h ] and b z a re th e c n tha lpies of th e gas a l T1 an d T 2,
respecti vel y . With th e ch art, th er c is n o n eed lo look for h] a nd tn.
it is adequal e if T1 an d T2 a re kn own. W¡, th e fu el q u an tity required ,
is g iven by :
W¡= Qs/LH V (1- 2 )
LHV the lower healing valu e o f th e fu el, is 18,000 Blu/lb for
d istillate o ils and 1,000 Btu/ scf for natural g as . He nce Wg is in Ib/ h r
fo r oil s and in scf/ h r for g a s. Also , it is o ften d es ir a bl e to kno w the
ma ximum amount of fuel that ca n be fired for a g iven arn ount of
oxyge n in the gases, especi al1y when the tu rb in e exhau s t is used as
combustion ai r in convent íonal boilers.
This can be found as follow s. Let O be th e yol % o f oxygen in th e
exhaust gas. The tota l combusti ón. ai r available in Wg Ib/hr of ga s
may be shown to be :
A = 100 x Wg x Ox 32/(23 x 100 x 295) (1 -3 )
Molecular weig h t of exha us t ga se s was taken as 29.5, that of
oxygen, 32. One m illion Btu o f fuel fir ed requir es a nearly co ns tant
a mo unt o f airo Fo r oi ls, th is is 745 lb a nd for na tura l gas it is 730 lb . So
the amo u nt of fuel that can be fired with "A " lb of air will be :
Maxim um = 106 Af(C xHHV)
w ast e Heal Boilers 23
Wh ere C is th e cons tan t refe rred to ea r lie r. Con vert in g lo Iu el in p u t
in MMBt u/h r on an LHV basis, the m axim um ene rgy tha t ca n be
inpu t a s fu el is:
Qrnar = 106 xA x LH V/(C x HH V) (1 -4)
N o w LHV f(C x HH V) ca n be sho w n lo b e nearlv 0.00124 for
bo th o ils a nd natu ra l ga s . Usin g thi s:
Qrnax = 58 .4 x Wg x O x 10-6 . n -5)
Exam p le 1 : A wa st e heat boi lcr for lurbine e xh aust gases ha ndle s
530,00 0 Ib/hr of ga s a t 900°F. To o b ta in a d d itional s tea rn . it is
d esired to rai se the gas tem perature throu gh s u p p lcmentary firi n g lo
1,400 °F.
Determine :
1. Fu el ene rgy required lo rai se th e exha us t from 900 to l ,4 CO?F.
2. Fu el quant iti es requ ir ed lo do thi s in Ib / hr (oils) an d in
scf / h r (na tu ra l gas)
3. Ma ximum fu el in p u t p ossible if th e oxygen content in th e
ex ha us t as it lea ves th e gas tu rb ine is 15% by volurn e .
Solution. C o up fro m T1 =900 lo cu t T2 = 1,400 an d rnove right. Co nnec t
w ith Wg = 530,000 a nd extend lo cut Qs sca le al 76 MMBtu / h r . ( Use
a b o u t 80 for sizing th e burner sys te m .) If disti llat e is used, fuel
quant ity is rea d off th e same sca le as 4,300 Ib/h r. If na tura l gas is
u sed, it is 76,000 scf/hr.
Connect oxyg en = 15 with Wg = 530, 000 and ex tend to cu t Q rnar
sca le at 465 MMBtu/hr. By w orking in re verse, T2 can be ob tained if
Qs is known. The oxygen depletion is obtained by proportion. Fo r 76
MMBtu/h, th e oxygen depletion = 76 over 465 x 15 = 10.86%.
BASIC PROGRAM COMPUTES FUEL INPUT,
FIRING TEMPERATURE
For accura le computa tions one may use the program presented
below ,
Supplementary fuel firing of turbine exhaust ga ses is frequ ently
utilized in co mbined cycle and cogeneration projects (Figure 1-13) to
generate additional steam from heat recovery boilers.
 24 Wasle Heat Boiler Des kbook w as te Heat Boilers 25

4. Flue gas an alysis, m olecu lar weight.

5. Ma ximum Iucl inpu t possible to con sume a ll the oxy gen .

Flu~g..
W, T, hg,
Burn er (1'1, I W,J, T]
With th e BASIC prog ram p resen ted hcre onc ca n p erfor m all
A lr/luriJin<l
system hg] rhc ca lcu la tio ns with case. Th e prog ram runs o n IBM PCs a nd
uhlU.r
co m pa tib les.
Duct burner system
Figur e 1-14a. Prograrn for cornputing Iuel inpu t, com bustion tcrnpe ratur e.
[Power Enginu ring.)
FlNI gJl'
W" LHV 1 CLS:KH OF'
1 AE'-1 :AUTHO" V.GANA PATH\
~ 01'-1 C160- N.60 0 160 ' 1\/601GASSI16 .A;1E 51601
'
10 FOA r-z TO 3: STEP1
WasU I ~ AEAo C.T' 1I.1 1.NrTI 01Tl.S,1 ' :NEXT T
hear ze DATA19.6 f: : K E J O.9.1 1.5 75.2 1 ~~ . ~ ! ' 76 . 5 . ~ 4 . ~ . 1 1 4 . J .z 4 9 .7 . 1 J 6 ~ l a 6 6 9 .~ . 17E .5 .J4< .~ .
o b oiler 168.S.172.1 12e 5.2J l 4 4~ 0 : 2 ~2.J 221.E 1éi1 1 88.7 . ~ ~5 .8 .296 . 8 .272. E 20; 2
O
Turbin~ ~xhlJ(Jlf gu 15 DATA J: 7.9 E&-: .S J 51.J.32:.3 2:5.2 40S.E- 7E6 ~ 0 8 S .37 6 .8 .268.4 7 0 . 5 se: ; /.óé.3.429.9J3U
or (",sil .ir O 5JJ 1 .1011.2 52: .1 48J4 .372.1 59i.J .l m : ; 84 . 1 . ~ 371 .41 5 . 6 5 9 .5 . 12 5 9; .
O 30 DATA 6.1.1 : 591.2 456.9.722.3.1366.5 705 : i'-l5.1.498.1)6 4.J.15211.7 6U 696.9.536.3.8451 .
T, L - . L - - ' - - - - - - i 1657.' 6J i.7eU .577. \.904 E.1797.89U O' ; 6l4. ~ .962 . 1 . 19 401 .9 59 . 6 .m..5 ;.l 9.E
35 FOA1' 1 To 1:
~ O AEAo GASS .I·. NEXí I

Figure 1-\3. Burn cr ar ran gcm ent showing the ma ss and energy balanc e.
Typical turbine ex ha us t has 14-1 6% free oxygen bef or e e n teri ng
th e combustion sys tem . Part o r all of it ma y be utilized to increa se
th e final combu sti on tern p eraturc lo d esired levels. Du ct burners
typically raise th e exhau st ga s temperature to appro ximatel y
170ü°f maximum.
In furnace-fired heat recovcry boilers th e final cornbustion
temperature could be as hi gh as adi abatic combustion ternperature,
which is the temperature ob tained by consu ming a ll of the fr ee
oxyg en in the ex ha us t ga s. Natural gas is the most widely u sed fu e!.
In arder to analyze the performance of the burner system and
the boiler-and to calculate the cycle efficiency-the following
data are required:
1 . Fuel required to raise the tempera tu re of the incoming
turbine exhaust gas to a particular value. Sometimes fresh
air is used instead of turbine exhaust gas.
2. Given a particular fuel input, the combustion temperature
(reverse of case 1) that results.
3. Fuel data such as density and heating value in Btu/lb and
Btu/scf.
45 DAl/.¡ " metm ae '0,' rttu nt ,": crocunf ·": '1I 1."':lnp.. ": 'i10buU nf ·": 'penun t-'·: rs.o otna nr: ·... hrll nt-··.
.. h't'clt'D S'r n." · cub on mon Olicl,..·· · u rn a" EIlCtl u : ·: ·nn rogr n... ... wrtrr VIDe ':
46 DATA " hvllrQ )o!n w lfidr·"
46 CLS:PAINT' . FUE L GAS AN ALYS IS ·'W o L ":PAINr "
50 FOA1'1 t e 1: :PAINT I.GASS III:NEX T I
SS l OCArE 22.5:INP UT"wh'1 ¡, tnt muimurr; .u mbt r al gl s: ":MG
60 CLS:PAINT" FUEL ANA LYSIS·<" ol . .oAINT" ":FOA1- 1 r n '-1 G·oq IH I;GASSll!:
LOCArE 1- 21 0:INPUT AIII:H XT 1
65 LHVF · IAll , 09IJ .l - AI2, 01&-: I- AIJ" 136:- A': " Jl l J-A (5)' 3105-0A I6' 037C:- A,W 371&-AI6,
°4412-.0. 19'027:,- A11 O' · 321.6-A114" 596, 100
70 '-1W F· 1 1 6 . 0 ~ · All l - 30.067' A,2 r- AIJ ' o44.eh A141+ A(5l1' 56.2+IA/61+A '7 "¡Z .140A/81' 65.; 7-
2.0l ' AI9'- A 10" 25- A1111' 4.:- A1121 ' 2E- A 1J' 'IS+AI14)' 34.0611100:0 ¡ ~ Sro.001645"M1'f F
72 PAINT" ..
15INPUT"E XH: UST GAS FLoV;·LS·H.HM P·: · ";WAIA JAIR
60 PAIN T" ..
65 INPUT"E XHAUST GASANAL YS IS·o,;Vo L CF C02.H20.Nl.Ol · ";Col A.I\ AA N 2 A .ol A :PA I~ 1 " ..
90 INPU T "B UA~¡ R oUTY·BTU H FINAL TEyo ·FI'.ou ' u ro tor ,h.
unin"'" o";{l.FTEMP
951F O-OT H E ~ 0 · NAIA' .3 0IFTEMP·lA IAr AQ' .4· 0
100 LHVF""L HVF 'o EPiS F:N F' O'LHVFM :RQ• .400
105 '-1NA" "-" C01A"16-NAA- 2/-N2A- 32' olA " 100
110 C02AW 'C02 Ao.44 'MNA:II AI\·NAA' .1E'MWA :N2AW-NZA · .16IMWA:oZAl'I-02A · .31IM"":
110 COlP><W F' 16.0: ' A1" -2.7.1.1- 2.927' 30.: 7°A121" Z.994'44.09° A (3 1~8 . 1- IA I4 · -A 1511'3.02r
7 2 . 1 ~ - ' A 16- A.711 ' J.0;'66.1) - AI8" J.O;':"A110"1.571·16+A(11)'44 ·· .C1 lI:NF
130 H10P-WF' ,214S016 0: - A. l ·,,1.79/'30,(" All I<- 1.634·44.09·A (31-58.: ' .A': '''A I511'1.5;'
72.1e- I".. 5-A 7 ' °1 :96 -8 6.17°AI6'- 1 :;':- 6 .; 37· 2+A I9 1+A ( : ~ I+1!-JA .0 !OA I1W .529"
.011MlI'F
140 01T· 13.99' 15.04'A ,I '- 30.07- A'2,oJ.72:-<-: .09·A (31·3.629-56 .1· IA" --A.5 "J.57!HZ .U- 'A
161- A17" 0J ;":/ "6 6.17' A18' +J.525- 7.937°2 o A19'- A/141·1 .409·J4.075·· .C1'MNF :0 1R' czr OWF
150 NZP '16-"2°YiFI'-1W F:S0 2f G' NF·A IU °1.6S' .3407lMWF:WFMAX· II'AIP. '02AW /On :~AX'
WF'-1AX +LH\'F'-1
160 COZF G' CO2ANOW AlA-C02 P:H10 FG' H20 P-NAWOW AIA:olF G-02Al'I'OW AIR ·olR :N2FC'
N1P+N1AVi")'i AlA:NFG'I Co2FG- H10 FG- Ol FG-Nl FG-S01F G)
170 TEMP'T AIA :CO'COZAW :"'iAoWAW:NI' " ZAW:oX·olAW
160 GOSUB resc
190 HGA IA'HG
195 HFG.IO-HGAIA.....·AIAI'lV\·F..II·AIAI
 wa src Hcat Boilcr Desk boo k wa ste Hcat Boilers 27
26

hgl and hg2 are function s of the air/flue ga s analysis and

Figure 1-14a (con/'ti)
tc rnp e ra tu rc.
200 CO'C02f G"" G.", e .H20' G....FG Ox ' Cl; GWFG' NI' N2FG/VIF G.SO· S0 2f G,WFG
210 TEMP'HFt l Re ' .; · TE ~' ·
220 GOSUe lOS; Based on combus tión constants (Ref 1), thc oxygen req u ired ,
230 IF AeSIlHC H' CI H' G· 2999 993E·03 T· : ' ¡Se
240 R A · .: ·R~ H "'P 'TE "p SG ~ HG·HFG "' . nitr ogen, ca rbó n di oxide, sulfur dio xid c, and water vapo r prod uc ed
24S GOTO 220
2S0 IF FTE..... O T H E ~ 16\ ar e cornputed and the fIue gas anal ysis for any given fuel input is
255 IF ABS\IFH .... ·TE.......¡¡...P 3 0 0 000 1:~ j THEN 165 ob ta ined . A subroutine calculares th e enthalpy. Also , the hea tin g
260 RO' .5'RO Q · O · SG ~ , F TE "' . · H MPI' RC GOTO IDO
265 SUM ' ICO .~ '" ell E· Ox m' ~ 1 '26· SO,., '10 0 C0 2V· CO/SUM/.0DA-: :H20 V' WAISU M.'.0018: val ue o f th e fu el is comput ed ba sed o n th e anal ysis. Up to 14
o XYV'O X ; U ~I '.0032:NIV· NI'SU.....OOl! .s02V·SO!SUM/.0064
270 MWFG' IC01V'44 · H20V'1 E-O XY V' 31- , tV· 2S· S0 2V· 64, ·.01 cons tituen ts can be handled by thc program, as scen in Figure 1-14b .
275 ClS :PRINT' RESULTS OF COMS US TlO' CA LC ULATlONS··.PRINT" ..
2S0 PRINT"F UE oEN SITY·Le SCF' "; 0 ENS' ~ L HV·BTUISCF' '';L Hvr ~'l HV-llTUILB''';LHVFIol
2B5 PRINT" .. Figure 1-14b. Inputs and resu1ts for Example
290 PRINT"Alc. H MP 1 ~ , " ;TA tR ··FLOWH · ' .'t'IAIR;" MOL wr · " jolWA;"\,VOL·C01· ";C02 A;
" H20 .":v.·AA ''' 01,'';02A;'' N1' ";N2A
295 PRINT" .. FUEL ANALYSIS·%vol
300 PRINT" FLU! GAS FLO",·U H, ";WF G'''' '' 0 L·C02· ..;C 0 2 V ~· H20 · ..;H20 V;- 0 2· ..;0 XYV;
··N2... ; N I V~ 'S 0 1 . ..;S 0 2 V ~ ·M O L WT,""' l'l:G 1 m'lh.nl· ? 95 8 hu.n . · ?O
302 PRINT" .. 2 eth.n.· ? 2.5 9 hydro9.n . , O
305 PRINT" FINAL TEM... ..;TEM.'· OUTY ./oI IlI 5 TU /H · ";O ·10- · 6 ~ 'MAX FUL IN·BTU/H·";QM t.X: 3 prop.Jne· ?O 10 carbon monoxidr- ?a
PRINT" .. 4 buun.· ?O 11 <lIbon dio.,d.· ?O
315 PRINT" FUEt GAS ANALYSIS·I;VOL":PR"T" " 5 isobuu ne· ?o 12 nitrogen . ? 1.5
316 FOR 1'1 Te 7:PRINT I:GASS tl;;A1I 1
6 penune· ?o 13 wlter VApor· ?D
320 NEXT I
321 FOR 1' 8 TO 1: :l0 CATE 7-1.24 PRINT l ü ASSIll;A(I) 7 isupentane- 1O 14 hydro9.n ,ulf id.. 11
325 NEXT I EXHAUST GAS FLOW·l3.H .TEMP·F=113 5000.900
130 lOCA TE 22 18:ENO
1050 IF TEMP 200 THE N HG·ITEMP ·60I' 14 OOTO 1100 EXHAUST GAS ANALYSIS·W Ol OF C02 .H20 ,N2,0 2=14.5.3,75.5.15.2
1055 IF TEMP 3-W0 GOTO 1095 8UANEA OUTY·BTU/ H FINAL TEMP·Ffinpul ler O for tIl. unknown)-1 0.1600
1060 X , .0 " TEIol P :M · 2 ' I ~ Tl . 5' X i
1070 I'M ;GOSUe 2000:HGI' HG AESULTS OF COMBU.. ION CAl CUl ATlONS
lOBO 1-M' 2:GOSUB2000:HG2 ' HG
FUn OENSITY·LB/SCF- H30 501E·02 LHV·BTU/SCF· 914.43 l HV·BTU/ lB= 20539.4 3
1090 HG- .5· IX./oI ·· IHG2 HGII- HOI :GOTO : : ::
1095 HG-CO· !982.1- .27· ITEMP J.\0011.WA · :U01',7 42' lTEMP·34001l·NI' 1959..8 · .33·IT EIoI P· AlA TEMP IN- 900 FLOiH a/ H' 135000 MOLWT- 28.718 lIVOl ·C0 2- 4 H20- 5.1 02 = 152 N2- 75.5
341101ro Ox " B57.5-1 56' ITEM P340 01l-S: ' 1649.S· .16· ITEMP·34001l
HU E GAS FlOW·lB¡H= 136339.1l1 VOl ·C02 · 5.647 H20- 8.6157B6 02= 11.50723 N2- 74 21283
1100 RETURN
S02 ' 1.716053 E·02 MOL'NT- 28.50841
2000 HG'O IIl"OX-NII I' N1 +WII ' OY; A-CIII'CC-S IIJ' SO
2010 RETURN FINAL TEMP= 1599.112 JUT Y-M M BTU .H - 28.3 5 MAX FUL IN·BTU/ H-1.23360! H J8
FUEL GAS ANA LYSIS·WOl
1 m'lh.nl· 95 8 ho.. n.. O
Theory: The en thalpy of flu e gas after comb ustion is obtained fro m: 2 eth. nl· 2.5 9 hydr ogtn· O
3 prop. nl· O 10 cu bon mono_ideo O
4 buun .. O 11 urbon dio,id.. O
hgZ = (Wl hgl + W¡ x LHV)f( W¡ + Wl ) (1-6)
S i, obUlanl ' O 12 nitrogtn. 1.5
6 ponun.. O 13 wator Vlpor- O
1 i, opl nlJ nl' O 14 hydro9fn lulfido· 1
where:
Wl = flow rate of turbine exhaust gas or fresh air to bumer, Ib/h
hgl =enthalpy of incoming air or exhaust gas, Btu/lb
= fuel input, Ib/h = QJLHV If the fuel input to the burner in Btu/h is known, the fuel
W¡
Q =fuel input to bumer syst em, Btu/h (LHV ba sis) quantity is obtain ed and the flue gas analysis and quanti ty are
LHV = lower heating value of fuel in Btu/lb co m p u ted . The fina l enthalpy is ob tained and, thro ug h an iterative
hgZ = enthalpy of final products of combustion, ~tu/lb procesa, the corresponding temperature is found ,
 28 Wast e Hea t Boiler Deskbook
If the final d csired le m pe ra lu re is given, th c fu el in p u t is
assu rncd and iterat cd lo yic1d th e final e n thalpy, afte r compuling
thc flu e gas ana lysi s. Quick converging techniqu es are used .
T he prog ra m al so es tima tes the fu cl inpu t lo consume a ll o f th c
oxygen in the incoming ai r or turbine exh aust ga ses.
Calcu lation Examp lcs
Two cxamp les illustrate thc vc rs a tili ty o f the programo
Exarnp le 2: 135,000 lb /h o f turbinc cx ha us t g as at 900°F, havin g th e
a na lys is C02 = 4%, H 20 = 5.3%, N2 = 75.5 %, and 02 = 15.2% a ll by
volume, ent ers du ct burne r and has lo be raised lo 1600°F using natura l
g as having th e Io llowing ana lysi s: m ethane = 95 %, e tha ne = 2.5 %,
nitrogen = 1.5% and hydrogcn sulfide = 1.0%, all by volurne.
Determine:
1. Fuel heating valu é in Btu /Ib and in Btu/scf.
2. Fuel quantity req u ired in lb /h and in Btu / h.
3. Flu e g as analys ís and molecula r weight.
4. Fuel input to con sume aJl of the free oxygen.
Step-by-s tep in st ru cti ons for running the program:
1. Key in the program fro m s teps 1 lo 2010 as shown in Fig ure 1-14a.
2. Key the letter s R,U, N (RUN rnod e) and press the "en ter" key.
3. You w ill see th e 14 gases prinl ed o n th e sc recn, o ne bel o w the
other, s la rting from m e th a ne and ending at hydrogen sulfide (see
the o u tpu l in Figure 1-14 b for the va rio us gases, 14 in all),
4. Then the q ues tio n is asked a t th e bottom of the sc reen, "W ha t is
the maximum nu m ber o f gas?" By thi s is m ea nt the n u mber of the
co ns tit ue n t in th e fu el g as that has th e m a xim um nu mber (1 to
14). If for instance, we ha ve rnethane, propane, and nitrogen in
th e fu el, nitrog en has th e n umber 12 (see th e lis t of gases in th e
resul ts, Figure 1-14b) and is the largest. H ence o ne would en ter 12
in this case.
5. Once this number is e n tere d, the list of g ases up to th e maxim um
number appears on the screen, o ne by o ne . Enter th e vo lu me % of
each as shown in Figure 1-14b . If a particular gas is not present,
enter zero for its volume.
w asrc Hca t Boilers 29
6. Once th e g as data a re Ied in, th c next qu csti on askcd is "Exhaus t
gas flow and tcmp erature ." In pu t th e gas flow and the te m-
pc ra tu re, sepa ra tcd by a cornrna. a s seen in Figure 1-14b .
7. Nex t th e g as / a ir anal ysis is fed in . Volurnc % of C02, H20 , N2,
02, are inputtcd, cach sc pa ra ted by a comma, a s sec n in Figure 1-
14b .
8 . The next sc t o f d at a to be fed in a re : "d u ty, final tem perature ."
No w, input ze ro for thc unknown, and th e kn own valu e, each
se pa ratcd b y a cornma, as shown in Figure 1-14b. lf th e fin al
temperature is 1600 and the duty is to be cal cula ted, input 0,1600 . lf
the dut y is, say, 2,000,000 Blu /h and final te m pera tu re is to be found ,
inpu t 200000o,0.
Thi s end s th e dala inpulting . The re sults appear as s ho w n in
Figure 1-14b. G a s a na lys is and o the r data can be see n.
The fu el gas and flu e gas analysi s, final temperature, ma ximum
po ssible fuel input, and heating values of fu el are all prin ted ou t.
Th e fuel input is 28.35 MMBtu/h and maximum pos sible fu el
input is 123.3 MMBtu/h. Rue gas quantity is 136,339 Ib/h and 11.5 %
oxygen is still available in the exhaust gas. Lower hea ting valu e in
Btu/lb is 20,640 Btu /Ib,
Exam p le 3: 100,000 Ib /h of fresh air at SO°F e nters a burner and lOO
MMBtu/h of fuel is in p u tted . De te rmine the fin a l tem pe ra tu re. Fuel
has 95% rne thane, 3% et hane and 2% pro pa ne, a11 by volume.
Solution: A proced u re similar to Example 2 is fo llo w ed . The anaJysis
used for ai r is 79% nitrogen and 21% oxygen by vo lu me.
It is seen from th e printout that the fin al tempera tu re is 3150°F
and maxim u m possible fu el input is 126.1 MM Btu /h. See Figu re 1-14c.
Analysis of the flu e gas and o ther data may a lso be ob tained fro rn
the printo u t.
 30 Wast c Hc a t Boi ler Des kbo ok \'la st e Heat Boilers 31

Figur e 1·14c. In put and res ul ts for Exarnpl c Examp le 4: A sup pleme ntary Iired boiler g ene ra ting 200 psig s tca rn
ope ra tes as sho wn in Table 1-3. (the da ta ha ve been obtained from
FUEL ANALYS IS · ~,,,,, ' 1 nllth.no· ? 95
2 ,r h. n. · , 3
COGEN soft ware described in Chap ter 4.) Determine the sys tem
3 prop. n. · ?2 efficiency using ASME PTC 4.4.
EXHAUST GAS FLOW·L3. H.TEMP·F·? 100000.80
EXHAUST GAS ANALYS IS·"'v OL OF C02 .H20 ,N2.02· ? 0.0,79.21 Tab le 1-3 : Da ta fo r Supp lemen tary Fired Boil er
8URNER OUTY·8TU H F J.~AL TEMP.F,input '"'0 101 th . unknown/' ? 100000000 ~ 1. case 1 2 3
RESULTS OF COMBUS-: IO ,~ CALCULATlONS 2. gas llow, pph 150 ,000 150,000 150,0 00
FUEL OENSITY·LB/SCf· J.502269E·02 LHV·BTU,SCF· 964.375 LHV·BTU/LB· 21419.76 3. inlet gas temp, °F 900 900 900
AIR TEMP IN' 80 FLO,H 3/H ' 100000 ~OL WT ·18 .84 ",VOL·C0 2· O H20 · O02 · 21 ,~ 2 ' 79 4. liring temperatura 900 1290 171 5
FLUE GAS FLOW ·L8~ · 104668.4 !', VOL·C0 2· 7 .82~17 H20' 15.14370 2' J .J l :3 27 N2' 73.01206 5. burner duty, LHV MMBtulh O 17.3 0 3 7. 60
502 ' OMOL WT' 27 :lB 33
6. stoarn flow, pph 22 ,780 40,000 60 ,0 0 0
FINAL TEMP- 3149 .9~¡ ~UTY ·M M BTU .H· 100 MA X FUL IN·BTU/H- 1.26122H-·J8
7. staam pressure, psig 200 200 200
FUEL GAS ANALYSIS·',"'OL
1 methane- 95 8 hexan.. O
8. leed water temp, °F 240 240 24 0
2 fl h.no · 3 9 hydr09"n. O 9. exit gas temp, °F 327 315 31 0
3 propane - 2 10 carbon mono. id,.. O 10. steam duty, MMBtu/h 22.67 39 .90 59.90
4 hutan.. O 11 t ortlon dio, ido· O
12 0itr09"n· O
11 . system efficiency % 68 .7 79 .2 84 .90
5 ¡' Obuli o" O
6 pen tane- O 13 wnrr vapor· O
7 i' OpOOIl O.· O 14 hydroqoo IUllid.. O Note: gas analysis in :% vol C02 =3, H20 = 7, N2 = 75, 0 2 = 15
blow down =3%

SUPPLEMENTARY FIRING AND
SYSTEM EFFICIENCY
The efficiency of the HRSG system improves wi th firin g . This
ca n be seen fro m the exa m ple given belo w. The reason is that wi th
the sa rne oxygen content en tering the burner, more Iuel is being fired
thu s reducing the excess air leaving ·the stack; also, wi th an increase
in inl et gas temperature the exit gas tem perature from a HRSG with
an economizer usually decreases. This is due to the signi fica n tly
larger rati o al water to gas flow in the fired mode com pa red to the
ratio in the unfired mode. The gas flow rerna íns nearl y cons ta nt,
while the steam production a nd the water flowin g through the
economizer increases, depend ing on the extent of firin g. This fact is
partly re sponsible for the improv em ent in efficiency. Mor e
information on HRSG heat balances and temperature profiles and
the use of the software COGEN can be seen in Chapter 4.
Solu tio n: Using COGEN program and the method ology discussed in
Chap ter 4, the design and off-design pe rformance a t variou s loads
were obt ain ed; the results are shown in Table 1-3. Gas ent halpy a t
900 F = 220 Btu/lb (frorn Appendix E).
Efficiency = output/inpu t =39900000/(17300000 + 150000x 220)
= 79,20 % for case 2.
As see n from the aboye tab le, the efficiency increases with
ad di tional fuel inp u t. The ad di tiona l fuel in pu t ge ne ra tes nearl y 90
to 95% of its energy equivalent as stea m.
FRESH AIR FIRING AND EFFICIENCY
Fres h air firing is often used in gas turbine plan ts in case the gas
turbine fails or is shu t d own a nd stea m sho u ld stilJ be generated.
How do es one se lect the fresh ai r fan capacity?
The efficiency of the HRSG system increases with a decrease in
stack gas temperature and mass flow, as wiII be shown in Chapter 4.
 \'I as le I lea t Boilc r Dcskbook \'laste Hea t Boilers 33
32

Hc ncc a n o b vio us method of impro \'Í ng the sys tcrn e fficie ncy is lo
HRSG DE SIGN FEATUR ES
sc lcc t as low a mass flo w as possible íor th e fa n co mpa libl e wi th fir- Finned Surfaces and D es ign
in g lempe ra lure co ns id e ra lions. Thal is if the capa~i lY of the HR.SG
ca n be mai nl a in ed a t a lo wc r frcsh a ir Ia n flo w w i tho u t cxcced ing Finned s u rfa ces (solid a nd ser ra ted) a re c xt cn s ively u sed in
th e firing tem pera ture th a l ma y call for a different ty pc o f HR SG H RSGs for gas turb in c applica tions . T he ir u se m a kes the HRSG
(mcmb ra ne wall versu s insula tcd casing) th e n th a t is the best choice. compact an d w eigh less: th e gas pressure d rop, which is an opcra ting
In o rd e r to ill u strate th is, let u s sce how th e H RSG in Exa rn p le 4 pena lty, is a lso red u ccd with finn ed surface d es ign o Appe nd ix A
pc rforms wit h fresh ai r ían wh ilc ge ne ra ting 40,000 pph of s tea rn. d isc usses the m et hod of ca lcula tio n w ith Iinn ed tubes an d a lso co m-
pares a HR SG d es ign w ith a nd wi th o u t finn ed tu bes. When natu ra l
Exa m p le 5: Therc are t wo fan sclec tio ns-o ne with 130,000 p p h gas is fired in th e gas turbine o r bu rn er, the clean gases pc rmi t ene to
ca pac ity and an othe r w i th 150,000 pph. De te r mine the sys tcm u se as high a fin d ensity as 5 o r e ve n 6 fin s/ in for evapora tors o r
cffi cic ncy . w hcn 40,000 pph at 200 psig is genera ted, feed wa te r
eco no m ize rs . T ubes m a y be a rra nged in lin e or s taggered fa shi on .
With dis tilla te fuels, th e fin d ens ity sho uld be lo wer say 4.5 o r 5
tcrn pc rature is sa rnc as befor c.
fin s / in. Fin h ei ght rang es from .5 to .12 in. , d e pe nd ing o n fi n tip
S ol u tio n: Usin g COGE th e results a re ob ta ine d fo r both the cases, tem pcratu re ca lcu la tio ns . Hi g her the fin d en si ty o r rat io of externa l
to tu be int ern al a rea, h igh er w ill be th e hea t flux inside the tu be s,
see C ha p tc r 4.
tu be wal l a nd fin tip temperatures and th e gas p ressu re d ro p.
Ta b le 1-4: Fr esh Air Firin g Perfonnanc e Su pe rhe a ters o n the o th e r han d ha ve a lo w tu be s ide hea t tra n s fer
1. air f1ow , pph 130,000 150,000 coe ffíc íen t and he nce it is prud ent not to u se a hig h fin dens ity as
2. inlel lemp, °F 60 60 di scu ssed in A p pendix A; if so d one, th e tube wall and fin tip
3. firing l emp, °F 1424 1294 tem perature will be higher; the surface ar ea will appear to be hi gh
4. ex it gas te rnp, °F 308 314 wi th a high fin d e ns íty , bu t du e to th e lo w overall hea t tra nsfe r
5. stearn f1ow, pph 40,00 0 40,000
coe fficien t. the duty transferred could be the sa me or even less. H ence
6. burner duty, MMBlu/h 48.72 50 .32
7. efli ci ency, % 81 .8 79.25
o ne has to be ca refu l while eva lua tíng the perfo r mance of finned
su rfac es a nd no t g o by su rface area a lo ne, as it is mislead ing . The
The following poin ts m ay be secn : p ro d uc t of s u r face area and overall h eat transfer coeff ic ien t
1. As the capacity o f th e fa n reduces, the efficiency improves as d e ter mi nes th e duty and not the s urface a rea a lone . Mor e info rma tio n
the heat 1055 from th e sys tern 'is lower. on finned tubes and th eir o p tim iza tio n can be found in Appendix A.
2. The stack gas temperature is also reduced due to th e higher When the ga s turbin e burns a dirty fu el such as heavy o il, the
firing temperature with the lower air (J ow , adding to the fin density should be lower, say not more than 2 or 3, depending on
improvement in effi ciency. the presence of slagging constituents in !he fuel ash; more clea ra n ce
3. The cost of the fan wiII be lower as th e capacit y and hence the sh ould be allowed between tubes; inline arrangement is preferred as
S~o t blowers could be more effec tive. If th e fuel oil is extremely
gas pressure drop are lower.
4. The firing temperature is higher but if th e d esign can handle it dlTly, abare tube d esign, though expens ive, may be the only choice.
without a ma jar change, low er fresh air flow is preferred . W ith fir ed HRSGs the gas temperature along the gas flow
5. The bumer duty is natura))y more as the air is rai sed from the pa th w ill ch ange. H ence the evaporator sh ould ha ve combinations
ambient temperature to the firing temperature, compared to gas of bare and finned tubes of varying fin densities so as to minimize the
heat flux and tube wa)) and fin tip temperatures. Usually the tubes
turbine operation.
 Was le Hca t Boílcr Deskboo k Was le Heat Boilers 35

a t th e front c nd wo uld havc a low fin d en sity ío llo wc d by h igh fin as it result s In a sig ni fica nt 10 55 o f energy by vi rtue of the
dens ity scction. Th e thcrrnal design procedure sho uld acco un t for the eva po ra to r no t hand ling the cntirc gas s trea rn. .
differenl fin cornbina tions . If a supcrhca te r is u sed, it is prc ferabl c to 4. Byp ass a po r tion of the cco nornizer surface o n th e water side so
b ury it within the co n vecti on scction whcn th e firi ng tcrnpcr ature is th at th e su rface arca part icipa lin g in heat trans fer is redu ccd
very high . Thi s hclps lowcr thc m etal ternperaturcs a nd hen ce a nd hence th e duty o r e n tha lpy ris e d ecrea scs thus a vo iding
m erca se it s lifc. Mcr h od s o f mi n imizi ng s upe r hc a tc r m et al s lea m ing.
ternpcraturcs a re di scu sscd in Ch.iptcr 3.
Us uaJly HRSGs fo r s mal l gas turbines co me in p a ckag ed The author prefers th e d esign sho wn in Figure 1-15 as it do cs no!
d esigns, while for largo ma ch ines (gas flo w abo ve 250,000 p ph ) eac h result in 10 55 of energy in an y mod c of ope ra tio n.
su rface such as su pcrhca te r, cvapo ra to r o r econornizer is bui lt in a
se pa ra re m odule for sh ip p ing purposes.
rl-1
¡ ¡¡
ST EAMING ECO NOM IZERS
¡¡¡ .."'
As will be sc e n in Chapt er 4, onc of the p roblem s associ aled
HT DTurBS ".i : : lo

with low lo ad or low arnbient o pcration of a gas turbine is st eaming

l'
I
II
I 1 1
in the economize r. Forrnation o f stea m in the s team water mixture ««: -~._._._._-)-i-L.------_._-
, , ,
_+ _
obstructs the flow of the mixture whe n it flows in t he downwa rd I I I i wru: rJY 'iSTrI ON

direction and may resu lt in vibration o r wa ter harnmer concems. It is / 1CONr2Ji7ZlB

preferable lo have the tubcs which are sleaming to be oriented in

such a way as lo aid the flow of bubbles, narnely upwards. Figure 1- .......
--
15 shows a horizon tal tube econornizer design tha t has multi-streams
..,.
in which the w ater in the la st secti on flows frorn the bot torn to the
lop header. Steam bubbles if an y sh ould be easily re mo ved with this
~

--.... ,, ~
configuration. The ec onorni zer co uld also b e d esigned as a tw o gas -+ - +-t-l H-t I.m ....=-
pass unit as shown in Chapter 3 with the wate r in the exit section
havi ng an u pward flo w , The other optio ns a re :
."
1. Re verse the flow d irect ion of water u s in g va lves, w hich is
rr4r rRTUBI 8tluu
tOO-D-
I
z' - ,-
.~

cu mbe rso m e; in no n-s tea mi ng mode th e ec onomizer o pera tes in

co u n ter flow configuralion, w hile in stea m ing mod e, it opera res Figure 1·15 . Arrangemenl of HRSG with ho rizontal gas flow economizer. [courltsy
ABCO Jllduslri~s.1
in paraIlel flow configurali on.
2. The e xh a us t gas m ay be by-passed around th e ec o no mizer to
Emissions of NOx and CO
d ecrease its duty and thus prevent its s tea m ing. This is a 10 55 of
Firing of fu el in th e tu rbin e and auxiliary burner in trod uces
energy.
po ll utan ts s uch as Na x and ca into the exhausl g as s trea rn .
3. Sorne boilers are designed so that the gas flow lo th e boiler itself
Slringenl poIlution regulat íons dictare the a rno u n t of NO x a nd ca
is bypassed during sleaming conditions; this is not recornmended
that can Jeave the stack of present day boilers. Pollutants are often
 Wast e He at Boiler Dcs kbook
36
spcci fied in ppmvd (pa rts per milli on volurne dry) with reference to
15% oxygen in the gas for emiss ion monito ring ~nd ~ont~ol purposes,
while b u rn er su pplie rs o ften sugges t th eir co n tribu tions In r.na ss flo w
unit s. Th e p roccdure o u tlined bclo w ma y be u sed by c ng meers for
rclatin g the ma ss flow rat e of NO x and CO lo ppnwd an d vice versa.
Emissicn-Data Conversions
Monitoring co m b u s ti ón crrussion produ ct s-NO x and CO in
particular-is in cr ca singly important, due to lig hte ning regulalions.
G as turbine co gen era lion o r co mbine d -cycle plants, for cx a m p le,
produce both of thc se cmission s, and reg u lat io ns pe rlai ning to the rn
are ve ry s trict. . Ve [inppm(v)] =1.642Vn
Becaus e of th is s itu a tio n, it is des irable lo ha ve a quick and
ea sy wa y of converling cmission data from ma ss flowrates (lb/h) to
ppm/v), dry basi s, which is the usual way .tha t they a r~ repor ted to
re gulatory bodies. An oxygen concentrat íon of 15 % 15 th e usual
reference in industry.
With the enclosed chart it is possible to accomplish this
purpose. The charl provides a conversion facto r, F, which aIlows
both the Ib/h-to-ppm(v) con ver sion and the re ve rse.
Nomenclature
V volume or vo lumetric ra tio; Vn, volumetric rat io
of NOx (pp m ): Ve, volumetric ratio of CO (ppm)
w flowratc of a constituent gas in the exhaust stream, Ib/h
to tal exhaust st rearn f1 owrate, lb/ h
= convcrsio n facto r
molecul a r weig ht of exha us t strea m, lbs
percenl vo lume of wa ter in the wet exha us t s tream
= percent vo lu m e of oxygen in the exhaus t s tream
Unde.rlying Theory
If ui, in units of Ib/h, is the flowrate o f NO x (usualIy repor te d
as NOZ) in a tu r bin e ex ha ust s tream of W lb/h f1owra te, the
folIowing equation gives the volumetric ratio on a dry basis . (The
molecular weight of N02 is 46.) .
Wa s t ~ Hea t Boile rs 37
V = [(w /4 6)/(Wj1vl W ») x 100/ 0 00 -% H20 ) (1-7)
In thi s eq ua tio n. %H ZO is the vol u rnc o f water vapo r in the
exhaus t s tream, a nd M W is th e mo lec ula r weigh t of the gases . V n
rnus t fur the r be corrected for th e 15% oxygen, d ry ba sis, as Ioll o w s:
106 V (21 - 15)
Vn [in ppm(v)]
21 - [100/0 00 - %H20) x %02 (1 -S)
In thi s case, % 0 2 is the p ercent volume of oxygen in th e wct
cx ha us t gas. Similarly, th e CO ernission rate in pprn ív ), 15% 02 , dry
basis, is:
(1 -9)
Figure 1-16 sol ves for the concentrations of both NO x and CO;
th e con ve rs i ón factor, F, is obtained from it as a functio n of % H 20
and %02. A m olecula r weight of 28.2 was used for the con struction of
the cha r t. Then,
Vn [in ppm ívi] = (w n/W> x 106 x F
Ve [in ppm(v)] = 1.642 x (wclW> x 1()6 x F (1-10)
Sample Pro blem
Det ermine the NO x and CO concentrations, in ppm(v), 15%, dry
bas is, if 25 Ib/h of N Ox and 15 Ib/h of CO are present in 550,000 Ib /h
of turbine exhaus t gas. The percent volurne of H20 is 10, and th e
percent volume of Oz is 11 in th e wet exhaus t gas.
Solution: Fro m th e fig ure, F at 10% H20 a nd 11% Oz is 0.46. Th en. Vn
equals (25/550,000) x 106 x 0.4 6 = 21. Also, Ve equals 1.642 x
05/550,000) x 106 x 0.46 = 20.6.
Methods of Reducing PolIutants
Gas turbi ne combus tor modifications such as staged combusti ón,
prern íx bumin g and proper di stribution of a ir and fuel often refe rred
to as d ry NOx control m ethods are being done to reduce NOx a nd Ca.
Sieme ns, a Eu ropea n su pplier of gas turbines is introducin g a
 Was lc Hcat Boiler Desk book Was le Hcal Boilers 39
38

Figur e 1-16. Charl for convcrting NO• • ca cmissions. [Ch~m ical Enginu Ting.! machine gua ran leeing 9 ppmvd NO x with no steam or water injection
with CO a l less than 8 ppmvd. Sorne other suppliers hav e come out
with machines wi th ernission s less than 25 pprnvd N Ox . However
EM ISSIOH. DATA COHVER S IOH CHART
the popular method is steam or water injection in the gas turbinc .
Adding steam or water red uces the flarne tern pcr ature and suppresses
the format ion of NOx by up lo 70%.
However wat er injec tion can incrcase the CO and UHC
(unbu rned hydrocarb ons) especia lly at low load s, increas e the heat
rate nearl y 5% to ma ke u p for the heat of vaporization lost lo stack
and possibly shor ten the life of the turb ine component s, Stearn
injection d oes not exact as high a heat rate pen alt y as water injec tion
but the qu antity of steam injected is nearl y 50% more. However the
electrical power ou tpu t íncreases as the ma ss flow and the specific
heal of the ex ha us t gas increases. These method s typ ically redu ce
N O x to 40 lo 50 ppmvd ran ge. Note that the ad dition of wat er or
stea rn affec ts the exha us t gas analys is and hen ce the d ut y o f the
HRSG. Gas turbine suppliers ca n furnish more inforrna tion o n the
cha racteris tics of their machines with stea m or water injeclion.
Th e water used for injection sho u ld be of hig h q u al i ty,
prefe rably d ernineral ized . If s leam is used, it should ha ve a good
purity and as low lotal dissolved solids as po ssible. In the Cheng
cycle sys tern discussed later, a combin ation of dru m intemals p lus an
exte rna] stea m se pa ra tor was used to ach iev e the desi red s tearn
purity of less than 50 part s per billion of so lid s. If the steam or wa ter
is not of good puri ty, the solids can d ep osit on the turbine blades
result ing in poor per formance and even turbine failure.
With NO x requi rement s in the range of 6 to 10 ppm vd in several
locations, SCRs (Selective Catalytic Reduction Systems ) are seen as
the only p reven solution to meeting these level s of pollutants, even
though they a re expensive. Figure 1-17 shows an arrangement of a
HRSG with SCR for NO x reduction . The base metal catalyst
20 16 12 10 B 6 4 (vanad íu rn) is sandwiched between mod u les in an operating
H20 , vol. % ternpe rat u re regime of 600 to 750°F (for sorne catalysts). This may
require spli tti ng up of the evaporato r mod ule so as lo obtain the
window ot tem peratu re al different loads and gas flow conditions.
An example to compute the gas ternperature at th e SCR al
The InlersecUons 01 Ihe vertical 8nd diagonal Unes yleld co nve ralon laclora l or diffe ren t gas inlet condi tions is given in Chapter 3. Arnrnonia is
calculallng tne volumelrlc rallos (In ppm) 01 CO ~ NO,
injected upstrearn of the cata lyst and is rnixed with thegas stream
 wa src l Icat Boilers 41
Was le Heat Bo ilcr Des kboo k
40
co nd itio ns to ensure that the tem pc ra ture wi nd ow for prope r opera-
tion o f the ca ta lys t is rna int a incd . Typica lly catalys ts have 80 to
)
90% rc rn o val effi ciency. Cata lyst for CO re m o va l could be located in
a hig her tern perat ure zonc, oven ahcad of the s u pe rhca tc r. If there
is a bu rner, it is desi rable lo shield the ca talyst from thc ra d iati on
., by loca ling it d ownst rearn of a screen section o r supcrheat cr .
O ne su p plie r offers a p recio us m et al ca ta lys t located in a lo w
lem pera lure zo ne namely 430 to 530°F for re rno val of both NO x a nd
CO . T he adva n tage is tha t the ca ta ly s t ca n be loca ted bey on d t he
s evapora to r a nd a hea d o f thc cco nomi ze r and split tin g up o f th e
• b
ovapo ra to r \ S avoided. Th e ga s pressurc d rop can al so be lo wer d ue lo
2
th c use o f a s ing le ca ta lys l ve rs us tw o, It is al so c1 ai med tha t the
c xccss a rn rno n ia o r sli p rea ct s dircctl y wi th th c pr ecious m et al
ca ta ly st to form nit ro gen , wat er a nd nitrous ox ide, wh ich is n ol a
pol lu ta n t: howev er it is a g ree nho use gas.
An a d di tio na l gas p ressure drop of 2 lo 3 in we due lo the SeR
ha s lo be co n side red in th e overa ll eva lua tion of the sys te m
pe rfo rm a nce a s it a ffec ts the gas lurbine power o u tp ul. As mentioned
els.ewhe re, every 4 in wc red uces the gas turb in e o u tpu t by nea rly 1%.
Wllh machines rea ching the 150 MW ra nge, th e loss in power ca nno t
be igno red.
~ l-_ ' --'--~----- ~-'-
5

I.HR$ G COlt 2.Qlr 3 d r"'lncNO. t ::.n l.< ".c on troll E"r 5 ,~s tur bln(l'
BYPASS DAMPERS
é.auc t burr E"P'" 7.a n ""lo nIO , r d 8. s eR 0'- CO cnto. lyc;t 9 .s t o.::. k

1. HRSG co il 2. air 3. ammonia tank 4. co ntrollar 5. gas turbina 6. duct
burnar 7. ammon ia grid 8. SeR or cata lyst 9. stack ea
Figure 17-a &. b. Arrangernent of catalysts for NO x and CO reduclion.
before it reaches the catalyst, where the NO x is converted to N Z a n d
H ZO. The ex ces s of a m m o n ia called ammoni a s li p should be
minimized by proper controls. Base metal ca ta lys ts are suitable for
hi gher tempera tu re operation in exhaust gas s trea ms containing
higher levels of SOx . In oil fired HRSGs th e excess ammonia can
react with S03 to forro ammonium sulfate which can deposit on
surfaces at Iow temperatures and cause fouling and corrosion. One has
In r-heck the HRSG performance at different Ioads and ambient
One of t he majo r au xilia ries u sed in gas turbine pla nt s is t he
?ypass da rnper, Figu re 1-18. The obj ec tiv e o f u sing this is lo be able to
isola te the boiler from th e gas turbin e and al so modulat e the g as
fIo w durin g s ta r tu p o f the bo iler so th a t the s tea m pr essure in th e
boil ~r can be raised slo w ly . However there are se veral larg e gas
turbina HRSGs which are con nec ted d irectl y to th e turbine.
If seal air fans are not used, th ere is lik ely to be leakag e from
the g as side to the atmospher e, resulting in loss of energy; thí s could
~e 0.5 to 1.0 % of th e ene rgy in th e g as s trea m, which is n ot
ín signi ñcant .
. ~al.ing effidency o f a d amper co u ld be specified in two w ays
andoil IS irnportant to note th e difference. One way is spec ify on th e
basis of the area . If th e leakag e efficiency is 99.5 % on thi s ba s ís, it
 Was le l leat Boiler Deskbook waste Hcat Boiler s 43
42

rneans tha t .5% o f the a rca is not se aled and gases can leak thr ou gh
th is a rca.
Vg = CJ Y 2gB w p.. .
2P'b (1 ·11)
where
g as velocity through the lcaka ge arca, Ips
Oélmper él rrélngemenl diffcren tial press u re across th e darnper, in. WC
density of ga s an d wat er, Ib/ cu ft
accelera tion duc lo g ravi ly, ft/sec 2
Bypass cocfficient of di scharge, 0.61
slack
Thc ga s flo w W in lb/h may be ob tained frorn
L oamper lo
~~Ck
Gas Wasle he al
W =3600 p g A (lOO _ E) Vg
100 (1 · 1 2)
lurblne boller
Wh ere E is th e sea ling efficie ncy on a n a rea basis (%) . .\1051
da mpe rs ha ve a n E value of 95 lo 99%. This fig ur e is lo be provided
by dam per manu facturers. A is the du ct cross section, fi2 . Subs tituti ng
Figur e 1-18. Byp ass darnper sche me Ior gas lur binc HRSGs. for Cd = 0.61 for Pg = 40/ (460 + t) and simpli fy ing, we have

The amount of gas tha t can leak is a fun ction of the d ifferen tial
ac ro ss th e d arn per, thc area of da mpe r and the gas d ensity. If the W = 2484A(l00 - E) -J ~ 4óO + 1 (J -13)
leakage flow is say 1000 pph wh en the total flow is 100,000 pph, th e
sealing efficiency on flow basis is: where t is the gas or air tem peratu re, °F.

100 - (1000/ 10‫סס‬oo) x 100 =99% . Exam ple 6:

.. A dampe r used in a HRSG sys tern is cla ime d lo have a seali ng
A simplifi ed a p p roach to es tima ting the leakage ac ros s efficiency oí 99%. If the gas flowi ng in is 120,000 pph al l000 0 f and
dampers is given below. ~ he d iffer en tial be tween the gas and a trnosphe re a l the da mper is 7
Considering the flow situat ion similar to that of an o rifice we In toe, d eterm in e the leakag e flow a nd the lo ss in ene rgy. Ass u me
can obtain an expression for the ga s velocity for the leakage flow as that the d amper a rea is 10 sq ft.
follows:
Let us derive an expression for the leakage oí gas across a Solution:
damper, stating the assumptions made. Using Equa tion (1-13)
Most oí the dampers used for isolation of gas or ai r in ducts are
not 100% Ieakproof. They have a certain perc entage of leakage area,
w =2484 x 10 x (100 - 99) x Y7/1460 = 1720 pph
which causes there to be a flow oí gas across the area. Considering
the conditions lo be similar lo those oí flow across an orífice, we The seal ing efficiency on flow basís = lOO - (1720/12‫סס‬oo) x l OO
have =: 9856%. .
 44 Wa st e Heat Bo iler Dcskbook w a stc I leal Boil ers 45

T he loss in e ne rgy with refcr cncc to 60 0 r = 1720 x 260 = .45

MMBtu /h.

-Cml

Steem
RECENT TRENOS AND THEIR
IMPACT üN HRSG O ESIGNS , MuIr/p ie gas IUfbines
A SI)
Air Stesm
With impro vcrn cnt s in firing ternpera ture in th e gas turbine lo turb,n

2400-250 0°F rang e a nd h igh er pr essu re ra tio, the ex ha us t gas

tc rnp cra tu re is likely lo be hig hcr, on the orde r of 1050 to 11s 0°F. INTEGAATEO GASIFICATION/cOMBINEO CYCLE
T his may ncccssit at e a la rgor HRSG with ad di tiona l heat recov er y
s u rfa ces a nd poss ib lc rch cat ers, as in co nve n tio na l utility boi ler s, Stec).
w hich can irn prove the cornb incd cycle efficiency by 2 to 3%.
Ga s turbines are also being used w ith salid fuels su ch as coa l
Secood-stsqe coroostcc
and wood. Th e lo w Btu gas from the gasifier is fir ed in th e ga s
turb ine as s how n in Figu re 1-19 and 1-20 a fte r bci ng eleaned in a ho t •
Flfsl-slage
•
combustor
gas clea n u p sys tem . Pressuri sed flui d ised bed co mb us tio nl
gasifi cation sy st ern ma y a lso be coupled to gas turbine corn bined cyele
Aif -L-
d....:........----.:
sys terns, Figure 1-21.
In another conce pt, thc hot coal combustion products transfer
e ne rg y to a ir using a ce ramic hea t exc hanger. Th e hot a ir in turn
t
Coal
Compressoc

driv es th e gas turbi ne. Th c cera míe exc ha nger u nlike conven tio na l
m etal exch a ngers, ca n withstand 2000 degree C. The hot ai r ca n be OIAECT COAl·FUELEO TUABINE

raised to 1200 d egree e, typical in le t tem perature of a h ig h

efficiency gas turbine. The cxha ust gases transfer ene rgy to st eam via
a HRSG. The system is cxpected to be 50 % more efficient than
today's conventional stearn turbine plants.
Landfill gas from refu se sites is being widely us ed in
Pyro lyzer
cogeneration projects; reciprocating engines as well as gas turbines use
this fueI, which typicalIy ha s 40-50 % methane, 35-45% carbon
diox íde, some nitrogen and water vapor. Due to the Iower heating
value, their combustion temperature is Iower and hence genera te
lower NO x IeveIs. Sulfur compounds and chIorinated/fluorinated
hydrocarbons present in the gas can cause Iow temperature corros íon
in parts exposed to the gas. Figure 1-22 shows a typical sys tem for
~~nt !t:t::d1 t - - ....J

collecting and buming LFG gas in an engine.

Figure 1-19,1 -20, &. 1-21. Coal based combin ed eycle sys tems IPowu )
- . " _o.... .. r ' ~ ... : .:...~ ,~ . '~ ~ .I"~ ... , ," .~ r. :¡~. -- ; . .. . .- .r.;... . '. o:;' o ~: .. . ~' . .. : .. . --: .. . . . . .~...... I

. . -.

~6
Wa st c Hcat Hoiler Deskbook \Vaste l Ieat Boilc rs 47

HRSGS FOR STIG AND CHENG CYCLE SYSTEMS

--bk~Vf":711 ! .12
ü
Stcarn injec ted gas tu rbines (STIG) a re widely uscd lo irnprove
E the powe r production capabili tics of gas turbine sys tcrns . This
ou
CIl
rcquires modifications lo the gas turbine combu stion charnbcr. Unlike
ro
el stcarn injec tion fo r NO x red uction, STIG systcrns inject a significanl
""Oo arnount of stearn int o the ga s turb i ne, This alters the ma ss flow and
~ gas ana lysis signif icantly. One of the popu lar sys terns whic h is used
"O
~ lo balance the ther rnal load and elec trica l power is the Cheng cycle,
'O Figure 1-23. In this cogencra tion system, the sa tu ra ted stearn tha t is
CIl
¡¡; o gencra ted is cons umed for p roccss, w hile low press ure supcrhea ted
.¡;;
m i.
su ¡;;~ "e stea rn is injected int o the gas tu rbine lo íncrease the po wer o u tpu t;
ü
el
0"-
f
CJ variations in p rocess stea rn requi rernen ts are handled by varyin g th e
'O
- ID
c:
o.:Cñ 2 fue! input to the ducl burner loca ted betwecn the s upe rhea ter a nd
>o c:
", ID
..,
'" eva po ra tor. Th is sys te rn offe rs mor e adva n lages co rnpa re d lo a
eo
-"
.. c: cornbined cycle sys tem.
~ '"
¿, E
:oc:
,,-
-:" ID .!:.
ec
"
", CIl
>-
• CIl .S
ü r-'D'O-- PRDCESS STEAH
§é ~
"t> ID
e E eu
.!
-¡¡¡
u;
m
ID -
.E ItU ECTIDII STEAH
ji "
>oc:
1-
"
E
'" -5'"
<J">
N
<-:
/
CJ
:;
eo
ti:

GAS TUR BINE SUPERHEATER DUCT BURNER EVAPDRATOR

Figur e ¡-23a. Cheng cycle heat recovery sys tem.

~c:: 1. Equ a l or sligh tly mo re electrical power output compared to a

'"
...J
combined cycle sys tem with the sa me gas turbine.
2. Absence of major aux ilia ries suc h as s tea m turbine a nd
condenser, which result s in less comp lexity and cos t.
3. Very little cool in g wa te r requirement s compared to a
COmbined cycle sys tem.
 waste Hea t Boiler Dcskbook wastc Hcat Boilers 49
48

r ·,.. ca
superhea led and injec ted int o the gas tu rb inc, th us increasing the
,
elecl rical power.
5. As a in cid ental advan tage, thc NO x ernission is signi ficanl ly
I
lowcr in the injec tion rnod e.
~ The o nly dra wback is thc large arnount o f go od quality Iced
:-- wa ter that is 10 51 lo th e a trnos phe re a lo ng w ith th e exhaus t gases in
the injec tion mod e.

~
W I
The s u pe rhea ter is d es igned so th at it can run d ry if requ ir ed ;
this mode wo u ld occur when maxim um process steam is requi red. Four
rnodes of operation a re po ssible with this sy st em. as secn in Figure 1-
24.
Q
.... 61c-- - - -- - - - - - - -..:b
- --
I

S ~zr!l.
:::-
. - - I SUPPLEHENTARY

~¡
l:
IIf:t,L&\IlE "1- l 1-" FIRING \11TH STEAH

- -&- ::J INJECTIDN

Q
a,
1-
l 18 I ~ ,, 'y ::J
03.5
-l
e
.>-... ! tul
I
. <t:
8 DERATING \11TH

~
ex SUPPLEHENTARY
i~ 1-
u FIRING
W

\ m /C! !l{!R:fi LY6f[EtJlE I ~ -l

W
; S1p[~';.Lm:R ...,. p:: ~
!~
-/ /
1- 1- 1-
'1 : [ij/lrCl
~ ¡

IMI
..

~ 1- 1-
a ..
L
,I

;'% ~ I
10.750
STEAH DUTPUT, KG/H
20.8 70

1-
f- ", '1 Figur e 1-24. Operating mod es Cor Ch en g cycle.
r 11
I
__ o
I
Figure 1-23b. HRSG Cor O1cng cycle system, [CourUSy ABCO l"dustr~sl 1. unfired, full injection; no process stearn: this mode is
atlractive for plants which have no requirernents for steam or have
little cooling water but which would Iike lo maximize the power
4. The flexibility of varying process sleam and power output ou tp u ] using a HRSG and gas turbine alone, Due lo the increased mass
withoul wasting energy. In a conventional gas turbine cogeneration Ilow and the higher gas specific heat, the gas turbine power output
plant, a di verter would have to be used to bypass gas if the stea~ is increased by more than 60%.
demand reduces, resulting a waste of energy. When less sleam 15 2. fired, full injection: maximum power and process steam are
required for process in Cheng cycle system, the excess sleam can be generated.
 51
Waste Hca l Boiler Dcsk book wa ste Heat Boilers
50
OTHER APPLICATIONS or
3. fir ed , no injeet io n; ma xirn urn am oun t of pr ocess stea m is
GAS TURBINE EXHAUST
ge ne ra ted. Th e superhea ter runs d ry.
4. u nfircd, no ínjcc tion: all the steam gocs for process.
Th ere a re severa l uscd to which the cxha ust frorn gas turbínes
The H RSG can operate not only in the above four extr eme points are put such as direct dryi ng of wood prod ucts or cemcn t. Thc oxhau st
may be used as combu stión ai r in fired hea tcr s. Cornprcsscd a ir or
bu t al so in between w ith an y combination of power and pro eess stca rn
hcat transfer f1uid s such as thcrrn inol, gly col may be heatcd by thc
by varyi ng thc injection s lcam. and the fue! inp u t to th~ HRSG.
exhausl gases. Recu perat or s o r air-hca ters rescmble HRSG mod u les
The clcct rica l po wer oll lpu t ba sed on a n Alliso n 501 KB5
exce p t for the faet th a t compressed air flows insid e the tubes. not
machine va ríes frorn 3.5 to 5.5 ~ l W , whil e the p rocess steam ca n vary
stea m / wa te r. Du c to the low tube side heat tra ns fer coefficient , a
Irorn nil to 50,000 pph as sho wn in Figure 1-24. The HRSG is d esign ed
low fin density is recommended as exp lained in Append ix A.
to h andl e thc s ig n ifiea n t var ia ti o ns in s tea rn loa d , fi ring
te m pera tu res, gas a na lysis .md exhaus t rnass flow; a íccd w a ter
excha nge r is locat ed be tw ccn the d eaera to r a nd eco no mizer to
preh eat th e mak e up wa ter ami hcnce improv e the sy stem efficicncy. ENHANCED üIL RECOVERY (EOR)
As mention ed carlier, the su perh ea ter is d esigned to ru n dry. In order
to m inimize co nce rns w ith exfolia tio n o f met al o xide s int o th e One of th e me thods of enha ncing the ou tpu t of oil is th rough
turbine du e to the va rying wet a nd d ry o pe ra tio n. the supe rh ea ter injec tio n of s te am into th e w ell s. This is ca lled seconda ry oil
tu bcs a re a lonized on thc ínsidc . Tab le 1-5 shows the gas d at a wi th reco ver y. Wet stearn of 80% qua lity at high pressures, on the ord er of
2500 psi, d epend in g on the depth of the well, is generated using gas
and wilhout in jection. This sys tem is in o pe ra tion in several plants
turbine exhau st in EOR (enha nce d oil recov ery) applicati o ns. The
which ha ve var yin g stea rn and e!ectrical load, Figure 1-7c.
wa ter available for th ese ap p lica tions co uld be of poor q ua lity
having on the ord er of 1000 to 5000 ppm total d issolved solids .
Tab le 1-5. HRS G Performance in Various Modes
Th e HRSG resernble s a n economizer modul e o r a forced
B C D circula tio n evaporator and is ge ne rally of th e once throu gh lyp e.
A
1031(555)
Drum type units ha ve not been used due to their stringen t w a ter
948 \~9) 948(509) 1031(555)
1. Gas lnletTarnp., F (C) qu ality requirements and also th e poor respon se lo load changes.
833(445) 1031(445) 1031(555)
833(H 5) Water enters the coils a t one end and come out as wet stea m at the
2. GasTemp. lo Burner, F (C)
1553(845) 1550(843) 1031(555)
3. Gas Temp. lO Evap., F(C) 833(445) other end. Wet stea m ensures that solids in the wat er, which may be
. 443(228) 430(221) 421(216) of poor quality, are not deposited inside the tubes but dissolved and
422(2171
4. Gas Temp. lOECll, F (C)
217(103) 198(92) 226(108) carried along with the wet steam.
269(1321
5. Slock Gas TampoF (C)
61000(27670) 46000(20870) 23700(10753) One has to be concerned with heat flux inside the tubes
21000(9528)
6. Tol Steam, pph (kl}'ll)
, .. . . ........ .. . . . ... .. . .. . 265(1 826). . .. . ... .. . .. . .. . ... .. . ..
particularly with fired units. Hence selectio n of fin configuration
7. Steam Press.• P5i;l (l<pag) along the gas flow path has to be made with gr eal care oThe tubes at
19!1OO(9029) 19800(8924)
8. Sl.\l8fllld. Sleam. pp/l (klthl the hot gas end are bare or have a lower ralio of external lo internal
855(457} 855(457) area and the fin density can be increased at th e lower ga s
9. Sleam Tamp.• F (C)
139(59) 124(51)
lO. Walfl(Tamp. lO ECll. F (C) 1 1 9(~ 146(63) temperature regions. With small capacities (on the order of 50 to
8.7(221) 6.3(160) 5.4(137.1) 100,000 pph), the design is of single stream; mulliple str ea m s o r
8.9(1 75.3)
11. Gas Pr. DrllP. n WC (mmwc)
paralle! passes are avoided so that concernS with two phase flow
CASE A: Uml9d. i'jeclion; B:FI19d. injection: C:r red. dty; D:Unfit9d. dry
 52 Wast e Heal Boiler Dcskbook
in stabiliti es a re minirnal . In la rgo unit s, method s to irnpro ve tw o
phase flow s ta bility , such as incrcasin g the inlet res tr ictio n by using
an o rí fice in each strcarn , are ornployed. Th e u nits cou ld be unfired o r
Iircd ,
Low tcrnperaturc sys tc ms su ch as Kalina cy cle, in wh ich the
rncd iurn in sid c the HR SG tubcs is a varying m ixture of ammonia and
water are being devclo pcd as also organic cycles.
RECIPROCATI N G ENG INE H EAT RECO VERY
Cencrall y the e xhau st irom rcciprocating en gines ha s a lo we r
te rnperat u rc and hence is uscd for hea ting ho t wa te r or for gen era ting
low pressure sa tu ra tc d stcarn. At full load a reciprocati ng engine
con ve rts ab out 33% o f thc ava ilabl e energy in to u seful work and the
re m a ining 67% is lo s t to jacke t water, to the exhaust gas and loss to
atrnosphcre. The effect of arnbien t temperature o n power ou tput is not
as significan t as wit h a gas tu rbine, w hose o ut p ut co u ld drop by
nearly 3% to 5% w ith a 10°F increase in ambien t tem pera ture. With
larg er gas turbin es evapora tive ccole rs a re used to a llevia te th is
conccrn, b u t this is a n a d d cd cost.
Reci p rocat in g e ngi nes also hav e a higher pa r t load effic iency
a nd requir e fue l gas a t a mu ch lo wer pressure. Tho ugh th ey a re m or e
expens ivc, they find a p pl ication s in sys tems requiring higher p o wer
to h eat rati os, hot wa te r or low press ure steam.
Figure 1-25 shows a system for genera ting low p ressure stea m on
th e order o f 10 to 15 psig, from jacket w at er and exh aust heal. In an
eb u llie n t cooled engine, water is allowed to boil under controlled
conditions inside th e e ng ine jacke t.Th e resulting st eam water mi xture
goes to an ex te rn a l s tea m se pa ra to r where the s tea m is separated
and water circulates back. The exhaust ga s heat recovery system
operates in parallel with engi ne jacket as shown.
WASTE HEAT BOILERS IN HYDROGEN PLANTS
In the process of manufacture of hydrogen through steam
reforrning of natural gas or naphtha several waste gas streams are
Wa sl e Heal BoiJer s 53
5 teom lJeoder
c: : ===.:: :;:::
Woste ñeat bofler Condenso/e r ecetver
Figure 1-25. Heal rccovery scherne wit h recipr ocatin g en gine .
generated. The s team reforming process converts a mix ture of
hydrogen, m ethane, carbon dioxid e, ca rbon monoxide and wate r
vapo r in the p resence of a catalyst. Sce Table 1-1 for the gas ana lysis
a nd te mpera ture ranges. Fig ure 1-26 shows the sc herne fo r
manufac ture of hydrogen o r a mmo nia. Refo rmi ng process req uires
that th e react io n p rod ucts a t a high pressure be ma int aine d at a
high tem per at ure in a reaction fumace heated by flue gases. The f1ue
gas exi ting th e fuma ce at ternpera tures of 1600 to 1800°F are u sed to
ge ne ra te high p ress ure s team in a was te heat b oil er.
Ma ximum heat reco ver y compa tib le w i th considera tio ns of
high a nd lo w temperature co rrosion is th e o bjec tive o f th e flu e gas
waste heat boil er. The react ion p rodu cts in th e fum a ce ca lled the
reformed gas, o n th e o ther hand, are cooled in a reformed gas boiler
from abo u t 1650°F to 650°f. The exit gas te m p e ra ture sho u ld be
con tro lle d withi n a narrow ran ge a t a ll loads so that th e gas s trea m
ca n be u sed for fur the r processing; thi s boiler is called the reformed
gas boiler; st eam gene ra tion is of seconda ry importance.
Figure 1-27 show s a boiler for thi s a p p lica tio n with in te rnal
g as bypass control At low gas flow conditions, th e e xit ga s
temperature reduces (see Ch apter 2 for m ethods of eva lua tio n and
method of computation of bypass flow). Hence a portian of the ga s
ha s to be bypassed and mi xed w ith th e cooler ga ses to ob tai n th e
d esired exi t gas temperature. Sin ce th e ga s pressure is h ígh, a fi re
tube boil er is appropriat e fo r th is serv ice. The materials of
construction ha ve to be ch osen consid ering th e hydrogen damage
possibility .
 W. ste Heat Bo ilcr Deskbook . IVaste He. t Boilers 55

Slea m
lurb ine
Figure 1-27. Fire tu lle boile r wil h in ternal gas byp ass for a hyd rogen plant. [courlt sy
ARCO. Industries.]

Wasle heal
Ferrul es are also used , Figure 1-30, to tran sfer th e hca t flux
-"=-....,l--<f- ulili sal ion away from the tube shee t region into the tubes, which are coóled by
_ --!..--- r-l
U rRe covery
H, thc circulating ste am-wa ter mixture. The front tub e shee t is also
protected by refractory. Th is reduces th e lemperature d iffer cnl ial
across the tube shee t. Design of refra ctory is critical at the front end .
This boiler opera tes by itse lf in a sma ll plant or could be connected to
a common steam drum ca tering to several other boilers as in a large
Figure 1-26. Schem e of a hydrogen plant.
hydrogcn or ammonia plant.
Flue gas boilers are generally of water tube de sign in large
Figure 1-28 shows the Nelsons chart which is used as a guid e lo
plant s gene rating high p ressure high temperature steam for s team
ma terial selec tion. The presence of hydrogen increases the tu be side
turbines and process us e; they are of fire tube design in smaller
heat transfercoefflcien t nearly 4 to 5 times that of a flue gas st ream
plants. In sorne plants the steam drum is mad e common to the flue gas
or air; refer to Chapter 2 for me thods of sizing boi lers . Due to the
and reformed gas boilers through a system of downcomers and risers.
high heat flux associated with the presence of hydrogen, on the
Figure 1-31 shows a boiler in a small hydrogen plant in wh ich
order of 80 to 120,000 Btu/se¡ ft h, an elevated drum fire tube boiler in
the flue gas stream is cool ed in a water tube boil er, whíle the
which the tube sheet can be kept cool with water-steam mixture is
rcformed gas and con vert ed gas strearns are cooled in fire tube boilers.
preferred over a single shell boiler which has an integral steam
The steam drum is common to all the boilers, A large hold up time of
space, Figure 1-29.
5 to 8 minutes from norrnal level to empty is used in these plants, so
 Wast e Hcat Boiler s 57
wast e Hcat Boilcr Deskbook
56

that in the event of íeed pump íailure therc is adequate time to shut
down thc sys tcrn or take correc tive mensu res .
··
:.

-'
~
~
w
w
I :; I -'
w
i
....
w
1 %.1 ~

-' 1:-' z
...w ,..1
'" I~
~
......
-'
..
i 1 .;/ .
~ S ...
,.
....
...ó
-;.
I
I
,
y :c
...
.,.:.
•
::>
~

"u
J;;

i~
~ d

a"
<>
I / '"
c:
..
N ..~ I1/, ......-'
~
•..
s:
Oi
Z
i< I L
::> a3
U/
~
c.
..
•u
11,
'" § ~
- oo
"!
~

....
w
o
11,
a:
Q
>-
:J
ea
¡¡: Figure 1-29. Single shell fire tube boiler for indneralion heat recovery. [courttsy
u
...., JI, S . :z:
ABCO Industries. )

..
::> 11,,~:;
11J1~t. ª
IIJ/ ~ci BOILERS Fü R SULFURI C ACID PLANTS
, JI ,
I IJ I ..
3
In th e manu facture of sulfuric acid thr ou gh contact proc ess
I 11 I sulfur gases resulting frorn the combustion of raw su lfur are cool ed
I 11 ,
from about 210ü°F to 750°F in a waste heat boiler before being sent to
.... 1 ,. ..... ! .. . ! ..... .....
8 3 8 ~ 3
a con verter. The exit gas temperature from th e boiler has to be
~
- = maintained within a narrow rang e of tempera tu re generaIly by usin g
a gas bypass system, which could be ex terna I o r int ernal to th e
. J ].n lY.~""~l boiler. The bypass duct is refractory lined. Figure 1-32 shows a water
tube boiler for a large 2000 tpd sulfuric acid pIant. Due to the size, an
external s tearn drurn with downcomers and risers wa s used.
The casing may be of membrane wall design which rnaintains
the cas ing at the saturation temperature and h ence alleviates the
need for a hot casing, which is generaIly used for this corrosive
 58 wa src Hcat Boiler Dcskboo k Waste Hcat Boil ers 59

,
b
io

O.:5' <1:J ~ ) HIN.

SA-5 16-7 0

S': .-310 o.7:5'Uljl"ll'\) NOM.

S A-J 8 7 ~lI e l 2

ItICCLOY 900
n:ROu.rs TUlES ARE ATTACHl: D I Y
LIGHT OCLLING. MlA.U-PASS
STRCNGTH 'JCLDfHCi "'N ~
or OCLLlNCi.

Figu re 1-30. Arra n g e m en t of Icr rulcs, inlet ves tibul e for

a p p licat io n . [courlesy ABCO Industries.1
high gas tcrnpera ture §
N

;..-.
-6
, ---- - r;:t;~ 1
;.

.'..

"9

Figure 1.31. Combin ation fire tube, water tube boiler for a
small hydroge n planto
[courlesy ABCO Industm s .J
 61
Waste He at Boile r Des kboo k wa st c Hcat Bo ilcrs
60

sc rvicc Mo re infonnal ion on hot casing desig n is given in Ap pcndi x B.

Extcnded sur faces a re uscd lo ma ke thc d esign com pac l. Duc lo the
h ig h gas in lct te rn pcrat u rc a nd result ing hea t flu x, the d esign
consis ts o f a íc w ro ws of ba re ru bos followed by tubcs with low fin b
dcns ity and th en rubos w ith high fin d en sit y. This varyin g fin ..
I

configu ra tio n a lso mini mizcs thc tube wa ll and fin tcm pcrat ur e.
The gas p rcssurc in sorne sulfuric acid pl ants a re h ig h, on the
o rde r of 3 to 5 p sig. whi ch calls for a heavily rein forced ca sing
d csig n; all cmat ively one cou ld locate thc heat transfcr surfaccs in a
pressu rc vcssel. If econo mize rs are used , the feed wat er tcm pera tu re
ha s to be vcr y hig h, o n the orde r of 350°F to min imi ze d ew poin t
co ncc rns. pa rticularly if su1fur trioxid e is pr esent. Ca rb ón stcel tub es
w ith extended surfaccs hav c bec n used suc ccssfully in severa! plants
in thc USA . Sorne pl an ts, particul arly th ose in Europc a nd Asia use
ca st ir on g illed surfa ccs. This d csign p robably offcrs m ore protection
from co rrosion du c to its heavy thickn ess.

SULFUR CONDEN5ERS

Su lfur co ndensers are waste heat boilers gene ra ting low pr essure
s tca m u sed for rccovcring cn ergy from the comb ustión of hyd rogen
sul fid e g as in a rca ctí on íu rna cc. In these boil ers. hi gh temperature ....
'TJ1 .,$.1. :.

ga scs with a typica l analysis as in Tabl e 1-1 en ter the boiler , usually ~o
.....
a fire tube lype a t vcry high temperalure, in th e ran g e o f 2300 lo ~.',
",12
260ü0F. A two pass des ign is used. The turn aro und sec tion is designed .....
11

for a gas lemperalurc o f about 900 lo 12oo °F and the exit ga s temper-
ature is about 600 °F. Sorne suIfur is removed as liquid at the end of
the first pass through drains, .w hich are kepl hot. The boiler is
sligh lly incIined lo facilitate draining. The boiler duty has sensible
as weIl as latent heat components due lo the condensalion of sulfur.
Due to the presence of sulfur, su\fur dioxide and water vapor
care is taken lo design the r éfractory al the inlet and exit end of rhe
boiler so as lo keep the casing al a high lemperalure lo avoid dew
point corrosion concems. External insulation lo form a hot casing (see
Appendix B) may also be needed.
Figure 1-33 shows a two pass eleva ted drum fire tube bo iler for J)-J,

this service. Several differenl gas streams may also enter and leave
a su\fur reclaimer.
 lVasle Hcat Boiler Deskbook
62
FLUIDISED I3 ED CA T C RA C KER HEAT RECOVERY
Hcat recovcr y boilers ar e uscd lo recovcr cn cr gy from was tc gas
s trcarns from fluidi scd bcd ca taly tic crac ke rs uscd in rcf incri cs. Sin ce
the gas s tre a rn ha s pa rticul.ucs. barc tubes are p refc r rcd for th c hcat
transfer s u ríaccs unless the parti culate concentralion is very low, Fig.
1-34 s ho w s a bo ilcr Ior th is <lpplic<ltion.The gas in le t tempcrature is
o n th c o rder o f 1400°F . Supc rhea ted stearn at 600 p sig . 750°F is
ge ne r<l led. As the gas inl ct comes fr orn a far aW<l Y loeation with se~­
eral turns, a flow m odcll in g s tu dy w a s done to c ns u re that a non -uru-
Iorrni ty in ga s vel ocit y prof ilc across th e eross scctio n w as minima!.
"
Figure 1-34. urge boiler wlth superheater, evaporator and economlzer for fluidi sed
bcd cal cracker application. [courUJy ASCO InduslM .J
INCINERATION AND HEAT RECOVERY
Solid Waste Incineration
Various types of wastes such as MSW (municipal solid wast e),
pathologieal wastes, liquid wastes and sewage slud g e are generated
by eommunities and organizations. It is estimated that eaeh
\\'avtc He a t Boilcrs 63
ind ividual wilI be gencrating a to n of wa st e per y ear, which ha s to
be dispose d o f. In add ition about 250 metri e tons of hazardou s w a ste
ar e ge ne ra ted ca ch year by ch ernical, el ectronic and m anufa ctu ring
ind ustri es. Sc ve ra l rneth od s ha ve bcc n used in th e past to handl e th e
wast c di sposal probl em :
a. landfills b. co rnposting c. recycl ing d . incineration
T he a g e o ld m et hod o f u s ing landfills for buryi ng the w a ste.
rhough in vogue, cannot handl e alI of th e volurne: du e lo vari o us
state and Joeal reguJation s and th e N IMBY sy nd ro me (no t in my b a ck
ya rd) , th e landfills have to be loca ted ve ry fa r away fr om
cornmu ni ties wi th th e res ult th at it is e xpe nsive to lra nsport the
wast e: ha uling and lip ping Iees a re o n the in cr ea se: Jand fill sites ere
bceoming sca rce; these as pc cts have forced several eiti es ro loo k : o r
other options to ge t rid of various wastes,
One of th e me thods is eomposting or size red u ct io n. This applies
to produc ts sueh as lea ves, g rass, tree trim m ing s, MSW an d sewa ge
sludge. Composting eon sists of three steps: m at e ri a l sepa ra tio n an d
sizi ng , ae robic decomposi tio n and cu ring. The recycla ble s e re
rem oved and the rernainder is sh redded, sc reened and al lo wec : 0
de cornpose in ai r-controlled envi ro nmen t at 150°F, susta ined for thr ee
da ys to d estro y pa thogens-fo llowed by severa ! weeks of euri ng.
Reeycling/mat eri als reco ve ry is eco no m ica lly feasible for mos t
commu ni ties a nd d ictat ed by market for the recovered pr od uet s. ñ-..e
mat eria ls a re target ed for remo val fr om the w ast e stream: pa ;:oer,
g lass, fe rrous m et al s, alumi n ium a nd plas t íc. But recycling can do
only so mueh and involves p ublic cooperation and support. Abo u t :35%
of the w as te probabl y ca n be rec ycled. Reeycling p rog ra ms are
p reva len t in severa l US ci ties ,
Incinera t ion is anot he r option widely u se d fo r d isposi ng of
seve ra l types o f wastes, An ad vantage of ineineration is tha t there is
a 70 to 90% reduction in volu m e of wast e whieh redu ces the cos e o f
tipping and landfill spac e requirements., In addition, ene rgy is
availa ble from th e produets o f combustion for genera ting hot w at er o r
steam for p o w er o r pr ocess, S te am may be u s e d for genera ting
electrical power via a steam turbine g enera toro Process stearn may be
used for heating or eooling applieations. Hot water ha s a few
 6-1 Wast c Hcat Boiler Deskbock wastc Heat Boiler s
65

adva n tages over s tea rn. It can be transpo rled over g rea te r d istan ces Ta ble ] -7 s ho ws the heating va lues of a fe w wa st es. Depending
and srna llc r p ip es can be used cornpa red lo s tea rn. H ospi tal s, upon the heat co n te n t of the wa st e s trea rn between 4 and 6 rnillio n
co rnmercial ins titu tio ns and residential use rs consume ho t wat er, Btu /ton can be reco vered as s team . Hea lth ca re industries genera te
Th e re are ho w ev er a Icw co nce rn s wi th incin e ra tio n. The ash is wast e that a re h ig h in hcat co n ten t co ns is ting of pl a st ics, paper,
co nsid ered by sorn e lo be toxic and conccrns o n ho w it is being d ísposed rubber.
of playa role in the location of the incinerat io n facili ties. The re ar e
e nvi ro nmcn ta l co ncerns rega rd ing the e rnissio ns bu t lech nology is Tabl e 1-7. H eat in g V alue s of I n d u strial \'la ste s V ary W i d ely .
a vailable lod ay lo redu ce the pollu tan ts lo acceptable le vels. Th e
decision whe the r lo locat e the inci ne rato r a t s ite o r far away is Solld.
Ave rege he . r
eontent, Bt w1b
tak en aft er di scu ssions with cornm uni ty g ro u ps. The re a re legal an d Bark 4500·5 200
so cia l issu es whic h have to be handled, m a king incine ra tion si ting a Bilumen wasle 16,5 70
Brown paper 7250
costly and long draw n affa ir.
Cardboard 681 0
T hu s a n int eg raled app roach consis ting of all of the op tio ns Corrugalad paper (Ioose) 7040
di scussed aboye inclu d ing incin eration is probably th e be st approach General wooo wasles 4500·6500
to the was te d is posa I problern. Ta ble 1-6 s hows ty pical composition Latex 10,000
Nylon 13.620
of M5W . lt may be shown that th e hea ting va lu e is sign ifica n t, 4500 Paraffin 18,621
Bru/Ib o n average o n as receiv ed ba sis, and hen ce a large a rno un t of Plaslic-eoaled paper 7340
energy can be reco vered frorn combustio n and flue gas hea t recovery . Polyelhylene film 19.78 0
Polypropylene 19,860
Polystyrene 17.700
Tab le 1-6 . A v era ge Composil i on ol MSW Nal i onwid e, 1981-1990.· Polyurelhane (108m) 17.580
Com position ("lo) Resin·bonded fiberglass 19,500
Sawdust and shavings 4500·7500
Type 01 Mal erial 1981 1985 1990 Tarpaper 11,500
Waxpa per 11,500
Wood 9000
G lass 9.7 9.5 9.3 Gue.
Mel al 8. 8 8.7 8.5 Blasl· furnace 1139
(Ierrous) (7.5) (7.1) (7.0) ca 575
Coke-oven 19,700
(aluminum ) (1.0) (1.2) (1.2)
Relinery 21.800
(other nonlerrous) (0.3) (004) (0.3 ) Uquld.
Paper and Paper Produets 3 1.9 31.7 31 .0 Black fiquer 3700-4200
Plastic 4.1 404 4.9 Dirty solvents 10,000-16,000
Industrial sludges 3700-4200
Rubber, Leal her, and Tex tiles 4.5 5.1 5.3 Oily waste, residue 18,000
Wood 3.9 3.7 3.7 Palnts and resins 6000,10,000
Organics (Food and yard waste) 35 .5 35 .1 35 .0 Spenllubricanls 10,000'14,000
M isc .llno rganics Sutfile liquor 4200
U ti U
100.0 100.0 100 .0

aSource : FrankJin, W. el al., "Municipal Waste Generalion and Composition lo 1990:

So/id Wasle Management and /he Paper /ndustly, Salid Waste Council 01 !he Paper
Industry, February 1979.
 67
waste Hcat Boilers
wa sre l lcat Boil er Deskbook
66

Not all n-atcrial s are ncccprable for u se a s was tc íuel s unless

th c Iacility is spccificaJly d esigned lo accept the rn. N o t a cceptablc
fo r examplc as MS\V Iecd ar e: 1) materi al s that may ca use a wast e
e ne rg y ía cility to vi ola le an air o r water quali ty e ffluc n l sl anda rd ;
2) pathologi cal and íní cc rio us wa st es. ra d io active was tes, poisons,
ac ids and ba ses, h u ma n rcrn a ins, paint s, rc írig crat ors. s toves, air-
condilioners, bat h tu bs, sinks, o il slud g es lo namc a fcw .
There is lechnol o g y ava ilabl e tod a y lo incineral e so lid , Iiquid
and g as CQ us wastcs in cluding municipal so lid wa st e , patho logi cal
wa st e from hospi tal s. scwag e slu dge, ha zard ou s wa st es in che rnical
plants, pctroleurn co kc in rcf in eri e s, wo od wastes and coal mining
wa s tcs. Techno log y is al so availabl e lo handl e the erni ssi on
p rob lems arising ou t of these faci li ties. T he various ty p es o f
inc inc ra to rs uscd are: ñ u id ise d bcd combusl ors, Figure 1-35, rotary
kiln s, Fig ure 1-36, fixed and multiple hearth furn accs and moving
g rales, Figure 1-37 . Infrared incinera tion tech no log y uses cl cc tricity
a s th c e ne rgy so u rc e and the heat generaled b y hi gh re si stance
infra red h ea ring elcmcnts is used to burn ha zardou s was tes; howevcr
thi s te ch nol ogy is still u nder d evc1o pment.
There a re t wo basic lec hnologies fo r di sposing of so lid waste,
narnel y m ass bu r ning and RDF (refuse derived fue ls). BasicaJly two
types of d es igns are uscd for the combus tion charnbers of mass burning
sys te ms; they a re wa te r wall and refracto ry lined incinerato rs; these
a re generaJly used for la rge plants in th e range of 400 to 2000 lpd
capaci ty . Modular incincr at or s a re u sed for small units, u p to 200 tpd .
The a d va n tage of th ese u n its is th e short lea d time for their
..r"
in stalla tion . r;-.
In mass burning systc ms, tb e waste is not proce ssed excep t for i
removal of bulky ilems such as mattresses, iron and st eel products.
I
Waterwal1 incinerators, Figure 1-37, us e a full y watercooled
membrane w all design as in a co nve n tio na l fossil fu el fired plant.
The refuse is transferred from the s to rage p it by an ove r head cra ne
'--
into th e hopper / chutes; th e waste slowly is fed b y rams into th e
stoker a ssembly . Th e s to ker p rovides the m echanism for tumbling
and mi xing o f refu se . Excess air of 100 to 120% is used . Abo u t 60 to 70% C()
..g
~ .~
o f th e a sh is collected in th e bottom and the rest goes with the flu e E'"
gas and is called fly ash. <3
 Wast e Hea t Boiler Des kbook Waste Hcat Boiler s 69
68

• Bvprod uct
Sieam

Raw
Rel use

•
F lue
Gas

Figur e 1-37. Largo wat er tubc boíler with moving gra te for M5W applicati
on.

The produc ts of combu stíon are cooled in the rad iant walerw all
section and then enter the convection section for further heal transfe
r
lo sa tura ted or superh eated steam, Due lo the presenc e of corrosi
ve
substan ces in the f1ue gas such as chlorid es and halides the stearn
pararne ters have lo be cho sen wilh careo High lemper ature corrosi
ón
is a major proble m in MSW plants, Superh eated stearn lemper ature
unlike utility boilers shou ld be much low er. 700 lo 750°F is
the
sugges ted upper lirnit. The su pe rhea ter also ha s lo be locat ed
in a
cooler zone so as lo limit the tube wall lemper alures. Higher stearn
ternp erature s if require d are better handled in an exlerna lly fired
stearn superh eater.
 Wa st e Hea t Boilcr Deskboo k Wast e Heat Boilc rs 71
70

In refracto ry lincd incinc rat ors, the w at crwall is rcpl accd by a

rc frac tory lined cha rnbc r in which combu sti ón takes place. Higher
cxc css air, on thc o rd cr of 2(){)%, is rcq u ircd so as lo reduce the ga s
tcm pcra ture enlering thc convcctio n scc tion or th c wa st c hcat boiler.
Ou t:' lo the nature of con struct ion th c re will be leak age o f gases
around openings and thc hcat loss will be high er th an a watcrwall
unit . Wa s te lo energy plants ge ne rally prefer w at erwall units.
Con trolled air m odular incin cr at ors are w id ely used for small
ca pacity MSW plants from 20 lo 200 tpd .
Th c m odular unit co nsis ts of a prima ry and a scco nda ry cha mber
co n ncc tcd to a w astc hcat boilc r, Fig u re 1-38. The charnbers a re
rcfrac to ry lin ed . Mi ni ma l f'i cld ins la lla tion is req u ir ed on these
u nit s, Scvera l mod ul es a re uscd in lar g er plan ts eac h wi th its own
wa ste heat boiler but with a co rnmon s tea m turb ine ge nera lor sys tern.

natural su ck
drafl
du mp
srack
t steam

Figure 1-38b. Arr angemenl of múltiple boilers behind modula r incinera lors. [ccurtesy
ABCO Indus tries.]
o Hydraul icall y o pe ra ted ram fee de rs tr ansfer th e refu se in to
feed water
o the co mbus tio n cha mber. A sma ll recip rocat ing g ra te or s toker mov es
the wast e through the charnber. Combu stion air usually mu ch below
C) s tochiome tric le vels is p rovided by a force d draft fa n; the ai r is
sccondary
co mbustio n
C) d irect ed below th e g ra to and comes in to contact w ith th e refuse. Th e
et amber SCC , ir soli d was te is pyrol yt ically deco m posed p roducing a reactive a nd
combus table gas .
The charge co ok s for seve ral hours. Finally the char is
introd uced tangentiall y or ot he r wise into th e seco nd a ry cha rnbe r,
PCC wh er e additio na l excess ai r and auxiliary fuel s uch as na tural ga s o r
overfíre
laluge oil are introduced . The combustible mixture is held in the chamber
for 1 lo 2 seconds to ensu re combus tio n. The flue gases ar e then drawn
into th e wa ste heat boiler using an induced draft fan. Typ ical gas
exit ternperature from th e incine ra to r is 1800 to 200ü °F.

Figure 1-38a. Arrangcmenl of modular incineralor for M5W applicalion .

 \\la st e Hca t Boiler Dcs kboo k IV,1Ste Hcat Boilers 73
72

Tab le 1-8.
R EFUS E D ERIVED FUELS (RD F) al
Analyse s of M SW a nd RDF Com pared lo Bilu m i no us Co
RDF and rnass bu rni ng are dis tinguis hed by the mod e of refuse Analyses, % (by weight)
d.
prcpa ra tion . In mass burning , the refuse is used as it is rcccive f

Large objcc ts non-combustibles a nd haza rdous mat er ials are re moved 8 itum inou s
ci the r ma nually from the tipp ing floor or rcmote ly by cra ne pr ior
buming.
to Constituent MSW RDF coal
I
In RDF burnin g the fuel is p reparcd fro m the refuse. lt is
proces sed by different means to yield a high quality shredd ed fuel
G
H2
O2
27. 9
3 .7
20 .7
36 .1
5 .1
31.6
72 .8
4.8
6.2
I
a nd othe r rcsala blc or rccycla ble pr odu cts. Ha zar d ou s and large N2 0.2 0.8 1.5
bu lky mat erials a nd non cornbus tables are remove d pri or to the pro- S 0 .1 0 .1 2.2
g
cess ing sys tem. The RDF is fired in a boiler furnace using a travelin GI2 0.1 0.1 O
I
s tor or othe r system s . Tab le 1-8 H20 31.3 20 .2 3 .5
g ra to, flui d ised bed, rotary combu

I
the 16.0 6.0 9.0
sho ws the analysis of typical MSW, RDF and coal along wil h Ash
5100 6200 13,000
s typ ically oper- HHV (wet), 8 1U/lb
heat losses and efficicncy. While mass fired fumace
of
a te at 80-100% excess ai r, RDF un its can, du e to the higher qu ality
fuel , opera te at 30 to 40% excess air, resultin g in a mo re efficien t unit.
Figure 1-39 sho ws a recov ery scherne and Figu re 1-40 an
MSW
Lo sses pe r fuel, %

RDF
8 ilumino us
coa l
I
a rrange ment of boilers for ge nera ting stea rn and power from refuse.
l.oss itarns

Due lo the elabo ra tc fuel prep aration systern, it is necessa ry for RDF Dry gas loss 10.1 6 .3 6.2
of
sys tems to be ve ry large in size to take adva ntage of eco nomies Moisture in fuel loss 14.5 11.0 4.2
sca lc, RDF sys tems may be used w hen rapid respon se to load and 0.2 0 .2 0.2
Moisl ure in air loss
hig her boiler efficie ncy is desired . Unburned combus t ib les 3 .3 2 .2 2.5
RDF may be co-fircd with other solid, liqui d or gaseous fuels, Radialion 0 .5 0 .5 0.3
1.5 1.5
their con tribu tion bein g up to 20 to 30% of the total energy inp u t. The Unaccou nled 1.5
Total tos ses 30.1 21 .7 14.9
air requ irements for transport ing the RDF along with the comb us tion Efficienc y 69.9 78.3 85.1
and
air requírernents hav e to be factored into the sizin g of the forced
be genera ted and the
induced draft fans. Creater ash quantit ies may
fly ash a nd bot .om ash handlin g sys tem may ha ve to be sized te
light enough to be carried into the refuse stream can melt on the g ra
may becom e
acco rd ing ly. ?ars and hinder their alignm ent. Glass and silt which
Capita l cost for RDF ded icated boil ers is higher th an boilers Impregn at ed in th e refu se during prepro cessing will also cause
l
used for co-firing RDF. Ho wever co-firin g ha s led to severa accelera ted gra te wea r. The firs t few genera tion plant s expe rie nced
proble ms in boilers in the past such as slaggin g in upper furnace wall,
problem s such as explosions, du st in process ing p lant and s to rage
d ecr eased efficie ncy of ele ctrosta tic precip ítator, bo iler tube problems.
corrosi on and bottom ash accumulation. RDF tend s to compress itself such tha t retrieval of the refuse at
Throug h the proc essing of MSW into RDF rernov es much of the the bottom of apile tends to be di fficult. Storing RDF for long period
s
s
unwan ted non-combustible materials, serious mainte nance problem of time caused the fuel to fermen t and spontan eously combus t.
is
have been caused particu larly with the stoker. Alumin ium which
 74 Wasle l leat Boilcr Deskbook Was le Heat Boilers

Glass& cens
Ccaun unüv (Food & /;eve/age) Io cutbside
Ptestks
PET & HOPE
(Soda & mdA¡ugs)
Househa/d Stab Receiving
ballelies &S lo rage Air

~b<k:=
Class iüer
Newso epers Placedin
&magazines bagO/ tied

TlDsh Placed in
flash recePfac l 7 IrH!mledaIe Alumonum Magnel Q Q Magnets Q

Elecl rical
po wer
pfOcessing ceaer
¡ s9
9oensilie r
Residue A luminum Hea vy Lighl

~--
Ferrou s Ferrous
Material Male<iaJ

j N~!-Ifl-um-----r---G-,aSS To Stack o
o
Boile r
Tin& News - Plaslics
~~~
!
baled SleeI 3 caots paper PET HOPE
baled baled baled
crur ed

+ + +
New New tin New New New
aluminum & Sleel glass paper plaslic
ñetuse lo energy planl products

Figure 1·39. Schcme of refuse recovery sys tern. Fig ure 1-40. Flow diagra m for an RDF based plant .

Both m ay be u sed lo burn RDF alone or in co rnbination with

FLUID BED COMBUSTORS FüR MSW
In co nve ntiona l mass-burn sys tems th e fuel or wast e is bumed on
the s u rfa ce o f the grate o r hearth near th e bottom of th e furn ace,
w h ile in RDF combu st or s the fu el is blown in over th e gra te and
burned abo ve it. In fluid bed combus tors (FBC) the MSW is bumed in
suspens i ón held well aboye the fumace floor by a s trong upward flow
of a ir o The fluid bed is a highly turbulent mi xture of intensely
heat ed inert bed materials such as sa nd, ash particles and lirnestone
mi xed with a relatively s ma ll amount of MSW . Th er e are tw o ty pe s
oí FBCs, the bubbling bed (BFB) and circulating bed (CFB). Figu re 1-
35.
othe r fue ls suc h a s woo d chi ps , se wage slu dge, coal or tir es. C FB
pr ovi des more flexibility in buming fuels sing ly or in combi na tio n
and has su perio r load-foll owing capabilities.
FBCs have se ve ral advantages:
1. High combustion efficiency on the order of 99% compa re d to
conven tional solid wa ste cornbustors, wh ich cIaim 97 to 98%.
2. Stabl e combustion due to the tremendous amount of h eat
absorbed and retained in the inventory of hot in ert particles--co ld
spors are minimized.
3. Lo wer combusti ón tem perature of 1500 to 1700°F and lo w e r
excess air of 30-90% result in the formation of lower NG z on the order
of lDo-200,ppm versus 150-300 ppm with mass bumed systems. Boiler
 76 \Va s le Hcat Boi ler Dcskbook
efficie ncy is a lso im p ro ved du e lo the lo we r excess a ir and be tte r
combustion.
4. Sulfur rem o val is acco mplis h ed easily by a dd itio n o f
limestone in thc bed .
The CFBs have addition al ad va n tages su ch as bc tter tu rn d own
rat ios a nd incrcased rcsi d cnce lim e in the co rnb us tor, res u lting in
higher efficie ncy of cornb ustion.
The limitations or co nee rns ínclud e th e following :
1. Requires pre p ar ed fuels s uc h as RDF , tho ug h in [ap an the
MSW ha s becn b u rn ed w ith ou t p repara tion exce pt for remova l o f
non -eom b us tibies.
2. P ro ble rns with mclting glass in th e bed .
3. Ero sion of bcd co ils or boil er parts du e to ca rryo ver of sa nd ,
a sh pa rt íclcs .
HAZARDOUS WASTE INCINERATION
Chemical plants genera te hazardous wa st es suc h as g ases,
o rga nic liquid s, so lids and sludges and refu se w hic h ha ve to be
oxi d ize d to ca rbo n di oxid e and water vapor at a d estructi on and
remo val efficiency of 99.99% at lea st for se lec ted principal orga nic
ha zardou s compon ents (POHCs). The combustion chamber for
hazardous wa stes must not on1y burn the combustible material but
al so e ns u re s pe cific resid en ce tim es a t hi gh en ough temperatures
(2000 to 2400 °F) to ensure therrnal decomposition of th e dangerous
components and to meet applicable environmental regulations.
The four cri teria relevant to successful operation are time,
temperature, turbulence and excess airo For example most chlorinated
hydrocarbons require temperatures of about 1000 to 1200°C for at
least 1 second at 100% excess air to ensure complete combustion.
Fluidised beds havo been widely used for incineration of
hazardous liquids, sludges or solid wastes. The multiple hearth
furnace is suitable for handling sludges, solids containing liquids and
granular solids up to 4 in. in size.
The rotary kiln, Figure 1-36, is the m ost ve rsa tile incin erator
presently available. The kiln is a refractory lined cylindrical
charnber about 4 to 15 feet in diameter and 40 to 100 feet long. In
\Vasle Heat Boile rs 77
addi tion to g ra nu lar soli ds and sludges the kiln can hand le irreg ul a r
so lids, hospita l w ast es, tires, pla s tics. Thc ro ta ry rnotion of thc kiln
crea tes a lum bling a c tion therc by m ixing th e w a st c s trea rn wi th th e
co-eu rrently flowing ho t com bu sti ón gases .
By fitting the kiln with liq u id an d gas burners, se veral types of
haza rdous wa st es ma y be trea ted . Th e com bus tio n gases are subjec ted
lo a m ini mum tem pcrat ure of 1100 to 1400°C for a resid ence time o f 1
lo 2 seco nds. Du c lo the larg e vo lu rne required , u sually kilns a re
Iitt ed with ex te rna l a fte r-co m b us tio n cha rnbers co nncc ted lo the kiln
ou tle !. Additiona l burner s a re fit ted in these cha rnbers lo ensu re
tem peratura le vel and d estru ction efficieney.
HIGH TEMPERATURE CORROSION
Gas s id e co r rosi on associa ted wi th h ig h ga s a nd m e ta l
te mperatures a re co m mo n in MSW a nd o the r ine ine ra tion
applica tio ns, Th ey could be broadl y classified int o three type s:
1. High tempcrature Iiquid phase eorrosion, cau sed by molten
al ka li metal sa lt s s uc h as m et al chlo rid es and their e u tee tie
mix tu res that ha ve lo w melti ng poi nts. Ta ble 1-9 shows the melti n g
po in ts of a few eu tec tics found in MSW ap p lica tio ns . By red ueing th e
gas temperature to co nvectio n sec tio ns bel o w th e melt ing te m -
pera tu res o f th ese salts one can minimize slagging concer ns, which
resu lts in build up of corros ive d eposits. Pr o per eleaning of boiler
tu bes eithe r throu g h ra p pi ng m ech a nism s, Figure 1-41, wh ic h
dislod ges the deposits as soon as they are forrned or through soot
blowing helps minimizo this corrosion problem.
A large radiant section helps cool the gases to temperatures
below slagging temperatures of sorne alkali metals but over a períod
of time the rad iant section also gets fouled and the gas temperature
to the convection keeps increasing thus resulting in slagging at the
front end . The remedy would be to shut down the boiler and clean it
thoroughly. Flue gas recirculation also minimizes the slaggíng
problems by reducing the gas temperature entering the convection
section.
2. Corrosion due to non-uniforrn fumace atmosphere; caused by
partíal oxidation, which results in a redudng environment in which
 7 \'las te Hcat Boilcr Dcskbooj, WJ sle Hea t lloilcrs 79

ca an d H 2S a re prod uced . Thc sc gases rcac t w it h the pr ot ectivo

lay cr of iron oxide Iormcd on thc tubes expo sing the rn lo a co rrosi vo
attack. Su lfid a tion at tack on stcels ca n rcsult al high ternper a tu res.
H igh nickel s tcc ls wh ich ha vc good corro sio n r es ist a nce ag ainsl
ch lorine at tack ma y get corrod ed in rcd u cing cnviro nmc n t. Hig h Rapper titive srutt
chromi um s tccl s rnay havc In be used for the bo iler tu be suppo rts. The
co rros ion con ce rn s can be all c via tcd lo so rne e xt cn t by proper
co rnbus tio n and di s tri b ut ion of air lo va rious par ts of the grale/bed so
tha t a flu ctu at ing oxídiztna / rcd ucing a trnosphe re is not crea ted.

Ta bl e 1-9
Melting Po inl s of Sorne Salts and Oxides Pre sent in Incinerators

Component,
Mole Fracton <C °F Remarl<s
P2Ü3 569 1) 1056
0.50NaCI . 0.26Na2S04 Lowe r wingwa ll
heacfer
. 0.24Na2C03 612 2) 1134 tertiary eutectic
0.65Na2S04 • 0.35NaCI 62 3 2) 1153 binary eutectic
Eveporst or feeder tie ea er
0.62Na2C03 · 0.38NaCI 63 3 2) 1172 binary eutectic
NaCI 801 3) 1474 Figure 1-41. Rapp ing Mech ani srn fo r O ean in g Boiler Tu bes,
Na2S04 884 3) 1623
Ca;P 1236 3) 2257 3. Co rrosio n due lo HcI a nd C12 gases. HcI is formed d ue lo the
Fe:P3 1462 3) 2664 oecornposilon cornbus tíon of p las tics in the wast e . It is ve ry co rros ive above 800°F,
Fe:P3 1560 4) 2840 oecomoosíton as see n in Figure 1-42. H cl is also responsible for low ternper atu re
corrosío n wh en il a ttac ks s teel surfaces below th e acid dew point as
1) Fabian, H.W., P. Reher and M. Schoen. "How Bayer Incinerates wastes, hyd rochloric acid; see Appendix B on low ternperature corrosion for
Hydrocarbon Processing, 185, April 1979. eSlima lio n of acid dew points of various gases; s up erhea ters if u sed
2) Bergnian, A.G ., and A.K. sementann. "The Tertiary Syslems Na, CI, 504, ca should be designed to minimize the tube wall ternperature and
and K/CI, 504, C04, Zhur NeorQ Khim, 3, (2), 388, 1958. located in a regi on su ch that th e gas an d metal ternperatures are n ot
3 ) Dean JA, edilor, "Langes Handbook 01 Chemistry: Ed 12 McGraw-Hill Book ce, h igh .
New York, NY, PP 4-48-113, 1979. Fouling is another serious problem particularly with solid
4) Kirk and Othme, "Encydo~ 01 Chemical Technology: Ed 2 Vol 12, P 19. Jorn waSle fuels. Depending on the type of incinerator and the velocity of
Wiley and Sons, New York. NY 11964. combuslion air in the combustion zo ne, ash particul ares can g e l
Source: Reference 26 carri ed away with th e fIue gas; this could be on the order of a 0.1 lo
several grains/ scf depending on th e process. When proper cleaning
l11ethods are not employed, the dry ash particulates can deposit on
 80 Was le J lea l Boilcr Deskbook Wast e I leat Boilers 81

thc tu be s u rfaccs and hind cr heat tra nsfer. Th e bo ile r e xi t gas ba re tube desig n with inline co nfig ura tio n . Severa I aspec ts w c re
tc rn p c rat u re wi ll kcep incr ea sin g w ith tim e an d w hc n it beco me s loo ked into befor e d eciding u pon the design o
un accep tabl e, a s h u t do w n clca n ing ma y be w ar ran ted . On- line
clea ni ng can help all e viat e thc si tua tio n a littl e.

ffi
RANGE f--- - - A B
ELECTR Ol YTI C

~
CORROSIqN iiiiiiii¡
CAS ¡HH¡iii
:.::
u
I I - INLET 1 -j!~I!::::!!!I~.!!t+f:Hl!tl·f+f-f+ft
« I 111111111
1= I 111111111
-c I
z
o
VI ,,-
o
cr: __ .....- <CORROS ION IN
cr:
o THE GAS PHASE
(J
END VIEff SIDE VIEl!'
o lOO I 200 300 400 500 600 700 BOO Oc
J2 212: 392 572 752 932 · 1112 1292 147~ Of
I TEMPERATURE Figure 1-43a. Boiler lor ~I SW Application wilh Burie d Supe rhea ter
CONDENSATlON (CQ"r!esy ABCO Industries]
POINT
A • RANGE OF CORROS ION DUE TO FERR ICCHlOR IOC OR
AlKAlI FERR IC SUlfATHORMATlON
B • RANGE OF CORROS ION DUE TO FERR IC CHLOR ID[ OR
ALKAlI FERR IC SUlfATE DECOMPOS ITION

Figure 1-42. High and Low Tcm pera tur e Co rro sion Due lo Hydrochloric Ad d .

HEAT RECOVER y BOILER5

Waste heat boilers for modular incineration heat recovery

systems ha ve to be designed with care considering the potential
problems of high and low temperature corrosion associated with the
products of incineration of salid, liquid or gaseous wastes. Figure 1-43
shows a boiler for a modular 100 tpd incinerator for municipal solid
waste. The unit generating 650 psig 6S0°F superheated steam has
been in successful operation for severa! yea rs,
This is a two drum boiler with refractory lined casing. The Figure 1-43b. Boiler for MSW Applicalion with Buried Superhealer
gases on leaving the bo íler enter an econornizer. AH surfaces are of (anmesy ABCO Indu stries)
 82 \\la ste Heat Boi lcr Desk book wa sic Heat Boilers 83

1. T hc s tca rn tcmperaturc wa s se lec tcd a s 65 0°F, thou g h a
highe r tc m pcrat urc wo uld ha ve bccn be ttc r for th e s tcam tur b ine.
Thc rc aso n is the h igh tc m pcrat urc co rros ion problcm associatcd
wi th H cI in th e íluo g¡¡SCS, wh ich w as d iscussed car licr . The
supcrhca tc r is locat cd bcy ond sevcra l rows o f co nvec tion and scrccn
tu bos so as lo lirnit th c g¡¡ S tcmper aturc a l th e superhea tc r lo abo u t
1000°F. In add iti on. a mixcd flow a rra ng c rnc n t wa s uscd for th e
su pcrhea te r with thc st carn ex it a l the cool c r g as e nd so as lo
m ini rnizc th e tu be wall rcm pc raturc. Al! th ese d esign feat u rcs resu lt
in lo w supc r heatc r tu be me tal tcm peratures. Thi s hel ps minirni zc
h igh tcmpcraturc co rrosio n with Hcl.
La rgo pl ants in wh ich high pressure high s tca rn tc m pcr ature is
nece ssary frorn an cconorni c co ns id e ra tion s hould use externally fir ed
su pcrhc a tc rs lo rai sc thc s tca rn tcmperature lo th e d esircd lcv el .
An othcr advantag c o f thi s d esign is tha t th e effect o f fouling
docs not ha ve a g rea l irnp act o n th e s tea rn te rn pe ra tu rc. If the
s upe rhca te r had bcen located al th e fronl end, the va ria tio ns in
stca rn tcrnpera ture w ith fouling would have been higher than with
a buried su pe rhea te r designo High particulate lo ad ings and sIagging
resu lt in heavy foul in g a t the fro n l end, which is carried d own lo the
end of convectio n scction if c1eaning is not p roper.
5. Wid e spaced c1eaning a nd ac cess la nes wer e p rovid ed with
soot blo we rs lo c1ea n the tubes s urfaces. Tube s hield s wcr e u scd lo
p revcn t erosion nea r soot blower regions.
6. Lar g e hoppers wcre pro vid ed lo co llec t as h. T he d esig n of
lar g o boil er s for RDF o r MSW also ha s lo lake into co ns idc ra tio n
high s tea m and me tal tcmpcrature al thc s u pc r hc a tc r lo minirni ze
co rros io n . In te rs lag e d csuperheatcrs u sin g d cmineral ized water a re
widel y used lo kecp m eta l tempcratures lo w . Ga s velociti es are kept
low lo minim ize e ros io n o Fu rnace re gi ons around th e g ra to o r
fluidised beds a re p rotec tcd w ith silicon carbid e coa li ng or line rs lo
mini rnize wear and co rrosio n fro m low melling e u tec tics suc h a s Zinc
chlo rid e and chl orin e a ttack. Tube thi ckness around thi s reg ion is
also increased lo lcng then life.
Fig u re 1-44 s ho ws a n A ty pe boil er for ha zard o u s w a st e
in cineration a p p lica tio n . It is of mernbranc wal! d esi gn, wh ich
a voids p roblems with refractory .

2. T he fron l e nd oí lh e boiler has severa l ro ws of wid e spaced

sla g screen lubes, which hel ps minimize b rid g ing of lu bes by mollen
slag; lhis is a co m bi na tio n of severa l salls o f so dium and po tassium
whic h ha ve lo w m elt ing points. Also, the wide s pace d s tag g e red
a rra ngemen t at lhe s lag scree n se ctio n helps ash p articles lo d ro p o u t
into lh e ash hopper below. lh e rest of the convecti on sec tio n ha s a n
inli ne arrangement.
3. Low gas velocities were us ed to minimize eros io n associa ted
w il h abrasi ve malerials in the wa st e; lypical gas veloci lies are 30
lo 40 fl/ S.
4. In order lo minimize slagging al lh e fro n l e nd wilh gas
temperalures aboul 1800"F and more, flue gas recirculalion w a s u sed
to lemper lhe hol gases with cooler gases al 400°F from lh e boiler
rea r o The gas lemperature al lh e boil er inl el w as reduced to a bou l
1600 0 f fro m 1850 o f , which helps reduce slagging.
Figure 1-44. A-Type Baller for Haza rdo us Was te Inc:inera tion Plan!.
[cour!Lsy ABCO Industriesl
 Wa ste Hcat Boilcr Dcskboo k Waste Hcat Boiler s 85

Sing le shcll or elcvated dru m fire tube boile rs have also bee n
used in MSW or pathological waste inciner ation heat recov cr y. Since
on-linc cleanin g is diffi cull with these boilcrs, thcy have to be shut
down a nd clcaned more oítcn than water tubo boil crs if the incomi
ng
gas has slaggin g tend encics. Someli mes au xiliary firin g is requirc
d to
contin úe gcnerat ing stcarn whcn wa ste gas s trca rn is ab scnt. A burner
as shown in Figure 1-45 may be addcd lo accomp lish this. In order
olirnina te problcm s with control s, it is su ggestcd that the wa
to
..,
se"
ste gas '"
strearn and the fired combu sti on p roduct s do not mix but have
:>
o 'e"
'0
al
separar e pa ths thr o ugh thc fire tube boi ler . .... '"
<) o .::
..," "o
..,-'''''"
'"
;;;
'" uw
<
:":
Gas elii ..
.... u

..
U "
Wastegas in Steam 4
I '"
.... '"
w -'
:>
~

- '" e,

~ _ nJ

Ieces ---...

(
lJ
~ i rs t pass
-
~ ~

-n- -'-'
Burner

Single-shell ñrstutie HASG wittl bumer.

Figure 1-45. Fire Tube Boiler with Burner for an lncinerat ion Plant

..,"- '
:>

INCIN ERAT lüN üF WOü D WAST ES

Figure 1-46 shows a boilcr for recover ing energy from products of
combu stion of wood waste and cardbo ard. It is an A type boiler,
with
a radiant section and hopper s. The gas enters at the bottorn , moves
throug h the radiant section and makes a turn to enter the convec
tion
bank. The pitch of the tubes in the convec tion section varies from
8 in.
at the gas inlet to 4 in. at thc exit to minimi ze pluggin g and fouling
concem s consid ering the uncerta in product mi x and the low
ash
d~formation and slaggin g temperatures . Cleani ng ais les and
so o t
blower s are provid ed.
 86 \'la ste Hca t Boilcr Deskbook
Fire tube bo ile rs may a b o be u sed for reco ver ing ene rgy fro m
pro du cís of co mb us ti ón o f wood was te o r solid fu els. The HRT boiler
as it is call ed is locatcd in .l rofractory lin ed cha rnbc r. Combu st ion
tak cs place bcl ow a s sho w n in fi gure 1-47 a nd th c product s o f
co mb us ti ón flow thro ugh th c tubos, whi ch a re large in sizc, o n the
o rde r o f 2.5 lo 3 in. lo mini mizc p lugging . Low pr essure sa turated
s tearn is gcnera tcd. Lo w tc m pc ra tur e su pe rhea tcd s tearn may a lso be
gcne ra ted, in which case the s upc rhea te r is locat ed be hind th e HR T.
An cco no rnize r may a lso be .idded lo im p ro ve the eff iciency of the
systern.
Figure 1-47. Fire Tube Bailer (or Wood Waste lncineralion Plant, (courüsy ABCO
Industriesl
ENERGY FROM TIRES
Automobile tires weigh about 20 pounds each with a fuel value
of 12000 to 16000 Btu/lb, higher than coal. Reciprocating stoker fire
boílers ha ve bee n u s ed lo burn them while generating steam for
power or process. Combuslion lemperature is in excess of 18oo°F. The
w asre Heat BoiJers
boil er consist s of a radi anl scc tio n Iol low ed by con vcc tion scc tion s
including superheater s as rcq uired. Flu e gas desulfur iza tion sys tern
and fabri c filters may be u scd lo remo ve acid gases and 99'70 o f th e
pa r ticu la res. T he bo ile r arra ng emenl is si m ila r lo ma ss burn M5 \','
sys terns.
INCINERATION OF LIQUIDS,
FUMES AND VOCs
Many proccs ses produ ce gaseo us di scharg es th at ca nno t be
dirccted int o the atrnospher e if th ey contain p ollutanls or acid gas .
On site incin eration ma y be uscd for s uc h s trearns . Th e composi tio n o í
th e strearn must b e known lo d etermine if it n eed s au xiliar y fu e ]
su p po r t o r excess ive airo For lean fu el mixtures th errnal oxida tio n o r
d irect (Jam e in cineration is used. Su ch was te gases gene rally are a
mi xture o f hydrocarbons and air and known as vo la tile o rg a ni c
co m pou nds (VOCs). Th ey ar e u suaIly fou nd in co nce n tra tions bclo:....·
the Lower Exp los ive Lírnit and hence need a uxilia ry fuell o bu m .
Combustible liquid s are generaled by variou s indu stries . In
orde r lo burn thern, th ey mu st be purnpable and capabl e of be in g
at ornized. The presence of chlorine, sulfur and inorganics influen ce
the design of the incinera tor. There wiII be damage lo refracto ry a t
hi gh ternperatures if the liquid contains alkali salts. The d esign o f
Ihe heat recovery boiler w ill al so be affected by th e pr esence o í
ch lo rine and alkali salts, as di scussed earlier.
Incineration of organic liquids, fumes and VOCs (vo la t í e
organic compounds) generaIly resu It in clean flue gases conlaini ng
C02, H20, N2, and 02; hence water tube boilers for this applicati o n
could have extended surfaces and the stearn pararneters can be based
on system requirements and not limited by high lemperature
corrosion considera tions, Figure 1-48 shows a large water tube boi er
for a fume incineration systern wi th superheater. Due lo the high gas
inlet tempera ture, a screen section was used lo shield the
superheater from radiant heat, The screen section is connected lo tñe
evaporator section through a systern of downcomers and risers .
 Was te Heat Boilcrs
Wast e Hca t Boiler Dcskbook
88

I
4---- 81-----<~
I

w
Figu re 1-48. La rge Water Tubc lloiler with Scree n, Superh eat er, Evaporat or and
eco no mizer fo r a VOC/Fume lndncration Planl. [courusy ABCO Industriesl

Fire tube boílers of single shell or elevated drum type have also
been used for heat recovery, figure 1-29 and Figure 1-49. Gas
temperatures of up to 2400°F may be handled in these boilers with
elevated drum designo The tube sheet has to be adequately protected
with refractory and propcr circulation has lo be ensured particular1y
at the front end . Gas recirculation is resorted to reduce the gas inlet
temperature jf the gas has particulates or salts with low melting
points.
Combustion of chlorinated plastics produces gas with Hcl and
Cl2, see Table 1-1 for gas analysis; Figure 1-50 shows the process. The
gas inlet temperature to the boiler is very high on the order of 2200
to 2400°F. Figure 1-49 shows a boiler for this service.
90 W.s lc Hca t, Boile r Dcskbook W' S1C Hcat Boilcrs 91

Chl ori ne is more co rros ivo than HcI on ca rbón s tee l a l lowe r
lem per al ur es of 4()() to 450°F; low tem peratu re co rrosion is also a
concern if the g ases co nta in s u lfu r ox ides . He nce boilers for th is
applica tion do not have su pe rhca tcrs or ccono mizcrs and thc stearn
pressure is cho sc n so that the tu be wa ll tcm perat ure is in the r¡¡nge of
350 lo 420°F. Hence low pressure s tearn ge ncra tion only is fcasible .
If chlorine is ab scn t then the stea rn pr essure co uld be hig he r. A
supe rheater o r econo rnize r co u ld be add ed be hind fire tu be boilers if
low tcmperature corrosio n is not a con cern .
:I:
E oei U
'"
'.ii
c-,
~l/l
~
'" ~.8 EM ISSIO NS FRüM INCI N ERATORS
"'.o
~
.o
E ::l
2 ;tu
l/)
u There a re basical ly fou r type s o f poll u ta n ts fro rn incinerat ors:
'"
e particula res, aci d gases, par ticu larI y Hcl; metals s uc h as cadmiu m ,
'"
;>
o chrorni u m, arscnic, mercu ry; toxic organics such as d ioxins and iurons.
u
~ '"
Oí Elec trosta tic p recipita tors ha ve been used fo r remo va l of
..,
CI
~
s: 'O pa rticu la tes; newe r p la nt s use fab ric filter s a n d ca n hand le t he
'"'"
e
.s u. crni ss íon lirnit o f .01 g ra ins /scf. The fabri c filt e rs ca n be Iai r lv
e
CI
c:
Oí
Il~
cficet ive in remo vin g a br oa d rang e of p a rt icul a te sizes w i t h
'o E x .. rela tively low gas pressure drop. The dra wback o f filters is tha t th e
~=S
ID
.s Il
:ID
o úí ¡
(
1
gas ternper ature rnu st be kep l be lo w S()()OF lo prevenl d arnage lo me
;:
-
u;>
CI
fabrie. Thus if there is aseve re fouling problem in the boiler w h ich
causes the exit ga s tem pe ra ture to increase, provisions such as sp ra y
~
¡;: quench mus t be mad e to reduce the gas ternperature.
u. 6 Yentur i sc rubbers ca n rem o ve both par ticulates and acid gases
i:
~~e •....
N

Ilií
o bu t require a higher ga s pressure drop and are les s effective on fine
part icu la te s. G ood fu rnace opera tio n an d di str ib ut ion of a i r
';'E ~ E;
::le minimizes formation of dioxi ns and furons.
~-s M u.¡:;
.=

AIR HEATI NG AP PLICATIONS

..• Tub ula r and regener at ive type air heat ers have been used in
el
i:
O E
.
E
fossi l p lant s fo r p reheating combus tion air before they ent er the
burners; recuperators pr eh ea t air to as high as 150ü°F; sorne of the
•E ::1 ti ::1

..••
u.
..
D u. ::i probl ems en countered by regene ralo rs are lea kage of gas or a ír,
'O
...
::1 E
..
.
s:
•
'O

~
e
>•
.>.
~
~
O
:i:
o
'O
:;
O'"
s:
o
b
e
o
ID
el
ií
Corrosion and ero sion o Leakage is no t a serious concern in tubular

•f? n ~ -¡ ~ 7'
 92 Wa sle Hc at Bo ílcr Desk book Wa sl e Hcat Boilers 93

hca tcr s, b u t thcy a re la rgc in size and hence heavy du c to the low
Hui p/pot' $f1QWf1 ,.... e l"SU l('(j 6 k) 1001'9 "('r'T1 , ......l.lortU' lo
ovcrall h ea t tr a n sfe r coeffi cicnt . Í'TV0V'Il 1ICb....., oJ WQ'1< • ....,n....-J. wI dl es ~ ... '~

Hcat pipes ha ve com e lo fill a nced for a u nit tha t is no t lar ge FIrww-d ~ Ntcj rn sp.1Of~ <Me baSflld en
~. l iO t5 Ai. oa '~ un h.J ~ () ~ f!ff'r"( sp.lCir'9
~ .,...J Ofl _

a nd can o pc rate wcll in cnvironrnents whe re corrosio n and fou ling are
prcscnt.
Figu re 1-51 sho ws the concept of hea t pipes. Thi s consist s of
scveral bund les of heat pipcs-cach filled w ith a liq u id s uch as
toulu ne, wa ter or naph tha lcne a nd sea led . Hcat fro m the flu e gas
evapora les the working fluid ccllcctcd in the lo wer end o f the
slig h tly inclincd pipe (6 ro 10 dcgrees ) and the vapor flows to thc
condensin g sccti on whcre it gives up heat to the incoming ai ro
Condcnscd flu id re turns to th e evapora tive scc tion by g ravi ty,
assist cd by a n in te rna] wick, whi ch is a po rau s su rface or
circ urnf cr en tially spi ra llcd groove of pr oprietary d esig no The pr ocess
co n tinue s as long as a tem peratura di ffer enti al exis ts be twee n the gas
s trea m and a iro Pipes milY be finn ed on air and gas sides to mercase
th e heat tran sfer. Sevc ra l adva n tages are claimed for hea t pi pe s:
1. Due to the isothcrrn al na ture o f the flu id th e ternperature
a lo ng th e length o f the pipe, th e gas s tea ms w ill see a nea rly
un iform surface tcm pcrature which can be high er th an the acid dew
po int o f the flu e gas . Thcrcíor e co nde nsa tio n of acid is avoided and
hen ce the corros ion p roblerns.
2. Sincc the heat transfer is between th e liquid (hav ing a high
heat transfer coeffic ien t du e to phase cha nge) and a gas stream,
ex te nded su rfaces may be used . Ex tended surfaces are not justi fied
when the hea t tran sfer codficie nt of the fluid in side and outside the
tubes are ne arl y cq ual as in tubular a ir -h eat er s: Append ix A
d iscu sses this in d epth: since extended surfaces are used for both gas Figur e 1-51. Arra ngemen l al Heat Pipes.
and air strea rns, th e size and herice weight of the unit is reduced.
Also, the gas and air pr cssure drops will be lower . REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READING
3. Since gas and air sides are independent, the configuration or
area of flow for gas and air sides could be different. If the gas side is 1. V. Ganapathy, "Ap p lied heat transfer," Pennwell boo ks ,
dirty, a lower fin density could be used for gas side alone, while the Tulsa, 1982
air sid e could take advantage of higher fin density. 2. V. Ganapathy, Ben Heil and jack Rentz, "He at reco ve ry
There are several other applications of heat recovery systems stea m genera to r for Ch en g cycle applicati on," ASM E Indus tria l
not discussed here due to lack of space, but an attempt has been rnade power con ference, 1988.
to discuss the important applications and types of waste heat 3. V. Ganapathy, "H RSG s Ior gas turbine applications,"
boilers, Hydrocarbon processing, Aug 1987
 94 Was tc l Iea t Boiler Deskbook
4 . V. C a na pa thy, "Prog ra m co mputes fu el inpu t, combustion
tc m pcra tu re ," Power Eng ineering, [u ly 1986
5. V. Canapat hy , "Eva lua ling wa s te hea t reco vcr y p rojccts."
Hydroca rbon p rocess íng, Aug 1982
6. V. C anapat hy, "Q u ick co n ve rs i ón o f NO;x and CO erni ssion
ratos." Chem ica l Enginccring, Dec. 1989
7. Ro bert Smock, "Gas tu rb ines d om ína te capaci ty ordcri ng,"
Power Eng ínee ri ng. Au gu SI1989
8 . Ja s an Ma kansi , "Gas T u rb ines," a special report, Power,
Ma rch 1988.
Y. [a son Ma kansi, "Co rnbine d cy cle powcr p lan ts," Powcr, [une
1990
10. St c ve Co llin s, "Fac to r 1O years of ex perie ncc in to ne w
landfill-g a s power pl a ni s." Power, Jul y 1990
11. A kbe r Pa sh a, "Gas turb ine Hea t Recovery Stea rn gene ra to rs
for co m b ined cyc les: natural o r forced ci rcu la tion consid era tio ns."
ASME paper 88-G T- 142, 1988
12. ASM E, PTC 4.4, "Ga s lurbin e H ea t reco very s tc a rn
ge nc ra to rs ." 1981
13. Po we r Enginc cring. "Ne w gas t u rb ine s s ho w hi g h
cf ficiency, lo w NO x emission," Aug 1990
14 . Power, "ID fa n ma inta in s H RSG o u tp u t sho u ld g as lurbine
fai l," Jan 1990, p 71
15. "H ig h tem perature turb in e Iavors IGCC," Mod ero Po we r
Sys terns , Aug 1990, p 19
16 . Power, "Energy from wast es," March 1987, special repo r t
17. Power, "Energy from wast e s," March 1988, special report
18 . Power, "Ene rgy from wast es," March 1989, special report
19 . Power, "Energy from wa stes," March 1990, speci a l report
20. Oouglas Srnith, "In teg ra ted waste m anagement sy s tems a re
Ihe only solution, Power Eng ineering, July 1990
21. Luis Fuica, "Boos t power output from MSW pl ants wilh
fired superheater," Feb 1990
22. David Hitchcock, "So lid -w a s te disposal : in cin eration,"
Chemical Engineering, May 21, 1979
23. Gershman, Brickner and Bratton, "Sm a ll scale Municipal
so lid waste Energy recovery systems," Von Nostrand Reinhold
Company, 1986
w ast e l Ieat Boile rs 95
24. Doug las Srnith, "Ca n recy cl ing sa ve was tc- to -cncrgy i. "
Powcr Enginecri ng , Sep 1988
25. H. H. K ra usc, "Chlorine co rros ion in was te incine rat ion."
paper 40 1, Co rrosi ón, Ma rch 1987
26. [o A rm E. Wa rd el al, "Waste in ci n er at io n a nd hea l
reco ve ry," e nv iro nmental progres s, vo l i . Feb 1982
27. S.F. C hou e l al, "Hig h tcmperat ur e co rro s ion of tu be suppo rt
and a ttac h rne n t ma ter ials for re fu se fired boi le rs ." ASME paper 85-
JI'GC- p w r-41
28. P. L .Da n ie l et a l, "Fire side co r ros íon in refu se fired
boilc rs," pa per 400, Co rrosion, Ma rch 1987
29. T homas Ell it l, "Sta n d a rd handbo ok o f Powe r plan t
Enginec ri ng." McG raw HiIl, 1989
30. Powe r, "A ttract ion gro ws for heat p ipe a ir hea ters in flue
gas strea ms ," Feb 1989
3 1. "H ea t re co ve ry a pp li ca tion ma n u a l," Max im b u lle tin
]43] 281
32. Roy Wood e l a l, "Ro ta ry ki ln inc i nera tors-th e r igh t
rcgirne," Mechanical Engineering , Sep 1989, P 78
33. Ca lvi n Bru n ner, "Inc inera tion," Chemical Engineering, Oct
12,1 987
34. Carol Zera, "Wa s te to Ene rgy-w ha t it takes to succeed ,"
Pow er Engineering, Nov 1988, p 49
35. Kimberly Roy, "Med ica l wa st e incinera tion ." H a z rna t
world, [u ne 1989, p 17
36. Zahid Kha n, "Co -in cine ra tio n of waste wat er sludge,"
Resou rce recovery, vol 3, 1987, p 51
37. Max Monheit, "H ea t pipe heat ex c ha nge rs in u ti lity
ap plica tion s," ASME paper 88-JPGC/ 34, 1988
38. V. Ganapathy, "C h a r t es tima tes suppl em entary fu e l
parameters," Oil and Gas joumal, June 25,1984.
Chapter 2
F ire Tube Boilers

Fire tube boi lers are widcly used in che rnica l plant s, refineries
and in incin era tion sys terns, Figure 2-1. In th is type of boile rs, th e
hot gas strcarn wh ich could be a t very high press ure flo ws inside the
tubes, wh ile lo w pressure sa tura ted stearn is ge ne ra ted outside th e
tubes.
They cou ld be of sing le or of mult i-gas pass designoIn single gas
pass desig n the hot gas s trearn enters al o ne end and lea ves a l the
othc r. If th e boil er len gt h is a conce rn d ue lo lack of space, the tu be
length could be red uced by going in for a two gas pass d esign, Figure 2-
2.

Figure 2-1. Elevated drum tire tube boiler. [CXlUTttsy ABCO Industriesl

97
 98 Wast e Heat Bollcr Deskbook
Figure 2-2. Two gas pass fire tube boiler design o(courtesyABCO Industriesl
Fire tube boilers are generally less expensive for low capacity,
low pressure steam systems compared to water tube boilers. The gas
pressure drop with fire robe boilers is usually higher compared to
water tube type for the same duty, which can be made compact with
extended surfaces.
Fire tube bo ilers may be of single shell design or of elevated
drum type. Single shell boilers are less expensive compared to
elevated drum boilers¡ if the heat flux at the front end is high due to
Firc Tube Boilers 99
cithcr a high gas inlct ternpcrature o r high hca t tra nsfer cocffic ient
(as in a rcforrncd gas boile r in hydrogen plants) or bo th, or if a high
pu rity s tea rn is d esi rcd, an cleva ted drurn boil cr with ext ern a]
do wncorners and risers is uscd , Figure 2-1.
A scpara tc s tcarn d rurn pe rm its onc to use dr urn internals as
requi red to achievc the desired stea rn pu rity . Single shcll boilers on
the o ther hand havo a srnall steam space and elabora te purifying
cq uip men t canno t be ins talled w ithin the space availabl e. Henc e
wet steam with a stca rn purity of 2 to 3 ppm may only be generated.
Cuid elin es for fire tube boilers:
1. Usually lim ited to lo w stearn prcssu res, saya maxirnurn of
1400 psi g. For the same p ressure th e thickness requ ired for tube s
subject to ex ternal press ure is mu ch high er ca mpa red to that for tubes
su bject to in terna l p ress ure. The th ickness of the tub e shee t a lso
increases wi th pressure, Thus the tube bu nd le we igh t a nd hence the
cos t increases s tecply a t hig her p ress u res ca mpa red to wat er tu be
designs.
2. Suitabl e for hi gh gas p ress u res . In hy drogen plants for
exarnplc one comes across gas steams at very high pressure on the
a rder of 300 to 600 psig; it is easy to hand le these strea rns in fire tube
boilers ca mpa red to wat er tube designs. The boiler su rfaces hav e to be
located in sid e lar ge pressure vessels if a water tube d esign is used ,
making it very expensive.
3. If th e gas stream is dirty and contains dust it is easier to
han d le th e gas strea rn in a fire tube boil er as onlv th e tu bes hav e to
be cleaned, whereas in a wat er tu be boil er the casin g as well as the
externa ] surface of th e tub es get dirty and are difficult to c1ean.
However if the gas strearn has slagging constituents as in municipal
sa lid waste incineration plants, c1eaning the boiler is easier with
water tube bo ílers with soot blowers or rapping mechanisms,
If the front end of the tube sheet and the tube inlet get plu gged
in a fire tube boiler, onl ine c1eaning is difficult. One way of handling
this situation is to use a multi-pass boiler. The first pass can be
designed with very large tubes and the subsequent passes can have
smaller tubes .
4. When a large duty has to be transferred with a low p ínch
point as in gas turbine exhaust boilers, the surface area and hence the
length required and the gas pressure drop become very large and
 100 Wast e Hca t Iloil er Deskboo k
hcncc un ccono rni ca l Io r such applica tions . W ith wa te r tu bc boile rs
one ca n u se fin ne d tu b os for clea n situat io n s an d hcnce m a ke the
boiler co rnpac t wilh conseq ucn t lo we r gas p ress ure drop and cost , For
compa ra b le vc locitics. thc hcat tra n sfc r coefficie n l inside th c tu be s
is lowcr co m pa red to th at o u tside ba re tu bos: hencc b are tu be wa ter
tubc bo ile rs a re so me timos p rc ícr red lo fir e tu be bo ilc rs.
5. Firc tu be bo ile rs ca n hand le h ig h gas te rn pcrnt urc o n the
ordc r of 2400 0 f if thc tube sh ee t is p roperly d esigned. The tube s hee t
is lined w ith refra ct ory a nd íerr u les are u sed lo lra n s fe r th e hea t
flux a l th e tu be s heet inlc t in to th e tubcs w here th e w at er st ea rn
mix tu re kce p s th ern cool. Figure 2-2 s ho ws the a rra ngcrne n t. Thc u se
o f rc fr acto ry m in irn izcs th e tcm p erature differential across th e tu be
shee t a nd hcncc is reco mmcndcd when g as tem pe ratu re exceed s say
isoo-r.
6 . Hi gh s tea rn p ur ity can be ob tai n ed by u sing a n ex te rna !
eleva te d s team drum wi th in tern als.
7. Econornize r a nd s u pc rhe a te r ca n be a d ded a s req uired . In a
wate r tu b e b oil er il is easy lo split up th e eva po ra to r a nd locat e the
su per h ea te r in a coole r temperature zone bey ond a scree n sectio n,
w h ile wi th a Iire tu be th c cho ice o f lo cation is either a t th e in le t or
exit o f th e b oil er. Alt ernati vely tw o fir e tu be boil ers co u ld be b ui lt
w ith a s u perhea ter in be twcen bu t this is an expens ívc p roposilion.
8 . Since the w at er vo lurne and w ei ght in a fir e tu be boi ler is
mo re com p a red to a w a ter tube boi ler, th e res ponse lo load cha ng es is
better wi th water tu be b oi lers, w hi le fire tu be b oil e rs a re sluggis h.
DESIGN PROCED URE
The basic informal ion ob lai ned lhrough d esign calcu la lio ns are
lhe s u r fa ce area, size, lube configuration and ga s pressure drop,
which is an operating cosl. These variables can then b e optimized to
achieve an overall low life cyde co sl. The tube size is usually as-
sumed to begin wilh; smaller tubes u sually result in a s ho r ter boiler;
larger tubes are used if the gas stream is dirty . Car;bon s tee l tu be s are
usually used as lh e tu be metal lem p er a ture is usually within 20 to
40°f of the saturated sleam lemperature; when th e gas stream
Fue Tube Iloile rs 101
conlai ns hydrogen, chrome rnoly s tee ls are prefe rr ed d e pe nd ing on
rhc pa rtial pressu re of hy d ro gen, as d iscu ssed in Chap ter 1.
Tube sizes vary from 1.5 in. to 3.0 in . ou te r diame ter.Larger si zc
is prefe rred if t he gas st rcam h a s particu la tes . The tu b e leng th
depends on the d uty. 28 lo 35 Icc t lon g boilers a re no t un common.
DESIGN CALCULATIüNS
The surface arca S is g iven by the eq ua tio n
5= Q/U L1 T (2-1a)
whe re Q = W¡Cp (T 1 - T2) h¡ = Ws L1 n, (2-1 bJ
J( th e overa ll heat transfer coefficie n t U is b ased on tu be inner
diarnc ter, th e s urface a rea is al so based o n tu be inner s urface. U co u ld
also be co n ve r te d to tube o u te r di arne ter ba si s, in wh ich case the
ou te r s u rfa ce a rea s h ou ld be u sed ; e ng ineers eva lua ting d iffere n t
op tio ns o r offering s sho u ld re rnernber th e ba sis u sed o r th e facl th a 1
5¡U¡ = SoUo.
The overa ll hea 1 tr ansfer coefficien t U¿ is ob tained from:
uu, = (do/h¡d¡) + 1/h o + (do/ 24K m ) in (do/d¡) + ff¡ (do/d¡) + ffo (2-2)
The b o iling h eat transf er coefficie n t h¿ o u ls id e lh e lubes wiII be
very high o n lh e ord er of 2000 Blu / sq ft h OF and hence th e sm a ller
lube sid e coefficie n t h¡ in flu en ces Uo'
DETERM IN ATIO N O F h¡
The lube side coefficient h¡ consists of two components namely the
COn ve cti ve h eat transfer co effi cient h c and the non-Iuminous , h n :
hence h¡ = hc + hn : u sua lly th e non-Iuminous co efficient h n is very
STna\l for flow in sid e lubes but may be computed by lh e method
shown in Chapter 3 using lube inner diameter as the beam length; h¡
 102 Wa sle Hcat Boiler ~k book Fire Tube Boilers 1m

is nearly equa l lo he, the con vcct iv e heat trans fcr coefficie n t if the
pa rti a l prcs su re of tria to m ic gases such as COz, HZO is sma ll.
The tu be sid c coe fficie nt is ob ta ined from th c basi c eq ua tio n of
Di ttu s- Boc ltc r:
Nu = .023 Re 0.81',0.4 (2· 3)
Examplc 1:
200 pph o f a ir a l atrnosphe r íc p ress u rc flows inside a tubc o f
inne r diarnc te r 1.7 in a t an a ve r¡¡ge gas tc m p e ra tu rc of 600 °F .
Dete rmine he. Tu be o u te r diarne ter is 2 in.
Solu tion :
Fl from abo ye tab le a t 600°F is 0.1810. Subs titu ting in (2 -7),

Nu ss clt Nurnbcr N u = h¡d¡/12k (2- 4) he = 2.44 x 200.8 x .1810/ 1.7 1.8 = 11.78 Btu /sq ft h F
gas vel ocity V = .05 urald¡ z (2-9 )
Reynol d s Nurn bc r Re = 15·2w /(¡.u!¡) (2-5)
dcnsity p = l / v = 492 x MWx Pg/( 3 59 x (4660 + Tg) x 14.7J.
Prand tls Nurn bcr P, =Ji Cl'/k (2-6) The gas p ressure d ecrea ses by nearl y 3.2% for cvery 1000 feet inc rease
in a ltitu de. MW is the g as m olecula r w ei ght.
The flu id pro p cr tics Ji , Cp,k are c va lu a ted a t the a verag e bu lk
tcmpera tu re o f thc g¡¡s. p = 28.90 x 492/ (460 + 600)/359 = .03728 1b / cu ft
Subs ti lu ling th c above in Eq ua tio n (2-3) and sim p lify ing we
h a ve : (e ffec t o f e le va tio n or ga s pressure w as ne gt ect ed in the a boye
comp u la tion o f d en sity .)
he = 2.44 w .8 Fl/d¡ 1.8 (2 -7) H en ce v = 26.82 cu fl/ lb and V = .05 x 200 x 26.2/1.7/1.7
= 92.8 Ips
wher e (2-8 )
T he effec l o f gas press ure o n h e is no t s ig n ifica n t a l lo w
Fac tor F¡ for ai r, fluc g¡¡ses are shown in Table 2-1. pressures say u p to 500 psig . See A ppendix E fo r m ore info rrnat ion o n
comp u ting he a l h igh p ressures.
Table 2-1: G as Data and F1 Factors for Air an d Flue Gas
A ir Au eGas
ternp, F Cl' Ji k Fl Cl' Ji k Fl A DESIGN EXAMPLE
200 .2439 .05369 .0 1878 ..1687 .25 70 .04 92.0 174 .170 2
400 .24 84 .0632 .022 11 .1756 .2647 .0587 .02 11 .1805 Example 2:
800 .2 5 87 .0809 .0287 .18 65 .2800 .07 63.0286 .199 1 Det ermine th e size of fir e tube boiler required to cool 100,DOO
1200 .2 696 .0968 .0350 .20 15 .2947 .0922' .0358 .2159 pph o f flue ga s from 13DOoF to 474° F; gas analysis is % volume COZ =
1600 .2800 .1109 .04 12 .213 8 .3080 .1063 .0429 .2314 12,HzO = 12, NZ = 70, Oz = 6 a nd gas pressure is atmospheric. Steam
2000 .2887 . 1232 .0473 .2235 .3190 . 1188 .0499 .2456 pr essure is 150 psig and feed water is at 220°F. Tube size used is 2 x
1.77 in. (d esign pressure = 200 psig) .
(fIue gas analysis used aboye: % vol COz = 12, HZO = 12, NZ = 70,02 . Assume th at th e foulin g fa ctors on g as si de = .002 a nd steam
.=6) side = .001 sq ft h F IB tu and the meta l cond uctivity = 25 Btu / ft h F.
A few examples wlll illustrate the use of the above table. Steam side boiling coefficient is assumed to b e 2000 Btu/sq ft h F.
Heat loss includ ing margins niay be assumed to be 2%.
 \'las te Hea t Boiler Deskbook Fire Tu be Boilcrs 105

Solution: Thc va riou s re sista nces (in sq ft h °F/ Blu ) are:

Frorn Table 2-1, the ga s s pc cific hca t a t the ave rage gas due lo gas sid e heat tra nsfc r = .101 7
ternpera tu re of .5 x (13lX) + 474) = 887°F is 0.283. ga s sid e fouling = .00226
N ot e tha t cornput.u ion of thc tu be thi ckness of tu be s subject to metal res is ta nce = .()()()4
cxternal pressu re is an involvcd p rocedure. A ppendix F deal s wi th outside Iouling = .001
thc subject. Le t us assu me thal the size 2 x 1.77 in . is adcq ua te for the ou tside hea t tra nsfer = .0005
design prcssurc of 200 psig. Hence U¿ = 9.45 Btu/sq (1 hOF
The duty = 100000 x .283 x .98 x 0300 - 474 ) = 22.9 1 MMB tu/ h;
stearn flow usin g 5% blow down is: In o rder lo co mputo U¡ ba sed on tu be inne r surface a rca , use th e
relation U¡ x d¡ = U¿ x do
w= 22.91 x 106 / 1( 1195.5-188) + .05 x (338 - 188)J =22570 p p h .
hen cc U¡ = 9.45 x 2/ 1.77 = 10.68 Btu/Sq (t h °F
En tha ipy o f sa t ur.i tcd s team, Iced w at er were o b ta ine d Irorn
s tcarn tabl es, Appc nd ix E. The log -m ean lem perature di ffercnce Ll T =
Let us co mpu te he: Iro rn Table 2-1, (act or Fl = .2027. 0300-474)/ ln {(BOO-366) (474-366») = 383°F
A s tar ting po int in the selcc tion o f tube co u n t N is the m ass flow (the sa tura tio n tern perature at 150 ps ig is 366 °F)
per tu be, whi ch rang cs fro m 120 to 200 pound s/hour for a 2 in. tube,
Le t us use 600 tu bos a nd p roceed w ith the d esigno The required Su rface a rca S¡ = 22.91 x 10 6/(383 x 10.68) =5560 sq ft =
3.14 x 1.77 x 600 x L/12: hen ce the Ieng th L = 20 ft
w = 100000/600 = 167. Using Eq ua tio ntz-Z),
In o rder lo evaluate th e gas pressur e drop, th e fo llo wi ng
he = 2.44 x 167.8 x .2027/ 1.77 1.8 = 10.62 Btu/sq ft h F express ion m ay be used .

Th e me thod desc ribcd in Cha p ter 3 may be used to compute h n , .1 Pi = 93 x l()-6 x f x (L + 5 di) x w2v/d¡5 (2- JOaJ
th e non-lurnin ou s cocfficient. It is sma ll for fir e tube boilers as th e
bea rn len g th is th e tu be inner diarne ter. Partial pressures o f COZ and The fact or 5d¡ is used to acco un t Ior the inle t and exi t losses; a
H20 are 0.12 each: th e bea rn length = 1. 77 in. = .1077 ft ; for the more accurate method wo u ld be to co mpu te the losses ba sed on inlet
average gas ternperaturc o f 887°F or 1347 R, from Equation(3-17), of a nd e xit ga s velocities.
Chapter 3, E g = .058. The m etal temperature may be assumed to be If ferrules are used al th e ga s inl et the gas velocity al th e
20°F higher than thc stcarn ternperature: this will be verified later ferrule will be very high and the inlet 10 55 is taken as .5 times the
but the effect of this is insignificant. velocity head; the exit loss frorn the tube is taken as 1 x velocitv
head, which is computed as follows . .
hn = .58 x 0.173 x .9 x 03.474 - 8.4 4)/0347 - 840) =.49 Btu/sq ft h °F
Velocity head VH =P V2 x 12/(62.4 x 2 x 32) O -JOb)
Hence h; = 10.62 + .49 = 11 .11 Btu sq ft h °F
The friction factor f in tubulent flow depends on tube inner
1/ U¿ = 2/0.77 x 11.11) + 002 x 2/1.77 + .001 + In (2/.1.77) x 2/(24 x 25) diameler, see Table 2-2 below.
+ .0005 =.1017 +.00226 + ,001 + .0004 + .0005 =.105865
 1 ' \',Iasle Heat Boiler Deskbook Firc Tube Boilcrs HTl

Tab le 2 - 2: Friction Factors Vers us Tu be Inner Diarn eter T hc aboye Iorrn u lae do not tak e int o a cco u n t the space requir ed
d i, in .5 .75 1.5 2 2 .5 3 4 5 fo r rcfr act ory or s tcarn sepa ra tio n. Depen d in g on thc th ickn c ss o f
rc fract o ry u sed , th c s hc ll d ia m c ter co u ld be a rrived al.
.028 .02 45 .023 .02 1 .0 195 .0 18 .0 175 .0165 .0 16 If a si ng le s he ll bo ilc r w c re u sed th e shc ll diarn et er is
dete rm ined by th e s tcarn space u sed . If a rnult i- pa ss d esign were
Dc nsi ty al th e a ve rage gas tern perature o f 887 °F and a l a trno sphc ric uscd, a tu be s hee t lay o ut ha s lo be d on e lo a r rive a l the shell
p rcssure is: diarne te r. Thc gas p ressure d ro p of rnulti-pass units wo u ld be hig her,
cons idering th e a d d itional turns a nd the bcnds the gas woul d ha ve to
p = 28.96 x 492/ 1359 x (887 + 460») = .0294 Ib/cu ft; v = 34.4 cu fl/ lb ta ke .
In order to comput e the tu be wa ll tcmpe ra turc, the hea t flu x
f = .02, w = 167, L = 20, di = 1.77; s ubs ti tu ting in (2 -10 ): rnu st be kn own. Again th is may be based on tube inner o r o u ter surface ,
As the s tea m wa te r m ixture is on th e o u tsid c and c riti ca] heat flu x o r
d Pi = 93 x 10-6 x (167)2 x .02 x (20 + 5 x 1.77) x 34.4/ 1.775 = 2.96 in wc hea t flu x lo a vo id DNB (de pa r tu re fro m n uc leat e boiling ) refer s to
thc stea rn sidc, let u s com pu te the h eat flu x o n ou te r su rface bas is, e ;..
Com p u ting th e losses u sing inl e t a n d exit vel oc íties , w e h a vc th e
fo llowi n g : (2 -13 )

Lo ss thro ug h the tube = (20/28.55) x 2.96 = 2.05 in w c
G a s d ensi ty at inlet = 28.96 x 492/ 059 x 1760) = .02255 Ib/cu ft
V = .05 x w/d 2 = .05 x 167/(.02255 x 1.77 x 1.77) = 104 .5 ft/ s
.5 VH = .5 x 104.5 x 104 .5 x . 02255 x 12/ (62 .4 x 64) =.37 in wc
T he gas d ens ity a l exi t = .0425 Lb/cu ft
Th e gas vel ocit y =62.7 ft/ s
VH = .5 in wc
To ta l los s throu gh th e tubes = 2.92 in wc
To thi s o ne m us l add th e turnin g lo ss due to in let o r exi t du ct w o rk
connec tio n.
Once th e tube count and -Ie ng th are d etermined, the shel!
d iarneter ma y be fou nd for e le va te d drum boiler s. Tubes may be in
lriangular or squa re pilch.
For triangular pitch it ca n be sh o w n that
One co u ld compute qo a long th e ga s pa th o r al th e gas in le r:
loca l U¿ a n d Tg ha ve lo be used in th ese calcu lation s .
Average qo = 9.45 x (887 - 366 ) = 4923 Btu / sq ft h
The tem perature drop s acr oss th e vari ous films ar e corn puted
base d o n th eir resistances: see th e cornputation of Uo:
across th e gas film = 4923 x .1017 = 500°F
across th e inside fouling = 4923 x .00226 = 11°F
across th e m etal wal! = 4923 x .0004 = 2°F
hence the tube outer wall ternperature = 887 - 500 - 11 - 1 = 374°F

n, = 1.1 6PtY1'r (2 -11> There is no need lo compute n« again as the effect of this wa11
lemperature is insignificant.
and for the square p ítch , The h ea t transfer coefficien t U o a t th e gas inlet would be
higher due to the higher temperatura, vel ocity and gas properties,
D. = 1.25P.Y1'r (2-12) Hence the heat flux would be higher. However considering the fact
 108 Wa sle Heat Boiler Deskbook Fue Tube Boilcrs 109

the heat flux lo av o id ONU is in cxcess of 100,000 Btu/ sq ít h, it is not Table 2-3: Effec t of Tube Size and Gas Velocity
a conccrn in th is d esig n oWilh high tube side coefficients as in hydro - 1. size 1.75 x 1.521 2.0 x 1.77 2.5 x 2.238
gen plants, it is pruden t lo compute Uo a nd qo at the tu bc she e t inl et. 2. vel,fps 98 123 163 98123 162 981231 62
On e of thc irnportant variab les in any d esígn is th e ope ra tin j; 3.tubes 1000 800 600 750 600 450 470 375 280
cos t a ssociated wit h moving the gas lhro ug h th e tu bos. Assuming 4. len, ft 15.7516.7518 18.75 20 2 1.5 24.75 26.0 28.50
that an induced draft fan is u sed at the boil er cxit , th e Ian p o wer 5. Si. Sq ft 6269 5333 4298 65 13 5558 4480 681 2 5710 4673
consurnption could be found as fo11ow s: 6. Ui 19.4 711.0813 .70 9.0710.6813.19 8.73 10.29 12.72
7. ti Pi,
P = 1.96 x 10- 6 x W¡.1 Pd(r¡ p ) (2-14 ) in wc 2.053.34 6.23 1.973.206.00 1.953.16 6.00
8. P, kW 15.6 25.4 47.4 15.0 24.4 45 .6 14.924 .045.6
where W¡ = 100,000, .1 Pi = 3.2 . The fan d rive efficiency 11 is a ssurned
lO be 0.60. The gas de nsity a l the exit is:
wh c n one wan ts lo fil a boi ler into a srnall space. By going in fo r
p = 28.96 x 492/[359 x (474 + 46O)J = .0425 lb/ cu ft smaller tubes (if the cleanliness perrnits), one cou ld probably Iit it in.
s ubs titu ting in (2-14), we ha ve: N ote th at the le ng th increa ses lo 26 ft from 16.75 ft for an
a pp rox irna te 3.3 in . wc pressu re drop when we inc rea se the lube size
P = 1.96 x .1 x 3.2/(.0425 x .6) = 24.6 kW from 1.75 in lo 2.5 in. Surface area for the srnaller tu be is 5333 sq ft
versus 5710 for the la rge r tube.
Using the operaling cost and the installed co st , which is 3.. Alternatively, higher the gas velocity res ults in a longer
irnpacted by the tube cou n l and length, one could evaluare the life boile r for the sarne size. The length increases from 18.75 to 21.5 for a 2
cycle cost: severa l alterna les could be s tudied by va rying the tube in. lube when the in le t gas ve locity cha nges from 98 lo 162 fps.
size o r velocity and o ne co uld a rrive a l va rio us co nfigura lions. Life Note tha t a srna ller shel l, lesser tu be co un t coul d mea n a less
cycle cos ting co uld be th en used lo arrive a t the optirnum desig no expensive boil er though th e len gth a nd the gas pressure drop could
be more. The opera ting cos t ha s to be con sid ered in making th e
decision as it increases significantly from 15 to 45 kW.
EFFECT OF TUBE SIZ E ü N DESIGN 4. In genera l it co uld be said tha t the % vari a tion in length has
more effect on the performance compa red to the sa me % change in
Example 3: tube eoun t.
Det ermine the effec t of varyi ng the flow pe r tube o r veloci ty
and th e tu be size for the same duty.
Solution: SIMPLIFIED APPROACH TO DESIGN
Usin g a computer program, severa l alternati ves were stud ied
a nd are presented in Table 2-3 bel ow . The gas inl et veloci ty was A simplified approach has been developed by th e author lo
varied from 98 to 162 fps . The following conclusions may be drawn: qui ckly arri ve at the d esign of fire tube boilers. A few equatio ns
1. As the gas ve locity increases the su rfa ce area reduces and gas have been d eveloped ba sed on the assu m p tio n that the tu be side
p ressure d ro p increases sign ifican tly. coefficient is equal to th e co nvective heat transfer coefficien t and
2. Smaller the tube, shorter the boiler and smaller the surface that the non-lurninous heat transfer is insignificant; the anaI ysis is
area for the same gas pressure drop, This conclusion is important adequate for engineering purposes.
 110 Wasle Heat Boile r Deskbook Fu e T ube Boilers 111

1. In a fire-tube boiler, g as flows in s id e o f th e tubes: stcarn- Eq u a tion (2- 18 ) re la tes the m a jor g eo m e tric pa rarn ct er s to
water mi xture flows on the outsid e . Thc gas h eat -transfer coe fficienl th e r rn al performance. Us ing thi s m et ho d , one nccd no t cvalua tc
is srna ll, a bo u t 10-20 Btu / (ft 2 ) (h ) (OF), compared to th e ou tside hca t-trans ícr coe ffic ien ts .
coefficien t o f 2,000-3,000 I3 tu/(f/2) (h) (OF).Th e m et al rc si st a nce is No w , con sid er press u re drop. The equa tion rh at re la tes the
a lso s ma ll and , hc ncc, the gas-si de coeffic ien t go ve rns th e overall ge ometry to tu besid e pressure d ro p in in. H20 is
coefficien t and thc sizc of the equ ipment.
Since th e in si de coofficicn t governs U, we ca n re w ri te Equa tion D.p¡ = 9.3 x 10....5 f ( Wi/N) 2 (L + 5di) v/di 5
(2- 2) as Iol lo w s (n eg 1l'cting lower-ord er re s ist ances. s uc h as ho , = 9.3 x lO--5(Wi /N) 2 K 2 v (2-19)
I
metal resista ncc, and fo u ling facto rs, w hic h co ntribute to abou t 5 % of
U): where K2 = j(L + 5 di)/di 5 (2-20) i
U = 0.95 h¡d¡ I do (2 -15)
Combining Equ at ions (2-18) - (2-20) a nd elimi na ting N:

Co m bi n ing Eq u a tio ns (2- 1) , (2-2) and (2-7) , w c ha ve, a fte r (2-21)

subs tit u ting S = 3.14d¡LN/ 12, and for flow per tube w = Wi/ N;
Q/(D. TFl IV i 0.8) =0.606 LN O.2/ d¡ 0.8
This simpl e cquati ori relates several important variabl es.
Given Q, D. T, W¡ and Fl , ' o ne can try combinations of L,di and N to
arrive at a suitable configuration. Also, for given thermal data,
(LN 0.2/di 0.8) is constant in Equation (2-16).
Fl is shown in Table 2-1 for fluegas and air. For other gases, Fl
ma y be com p u ted from Eq ua tio n (2-8) .
whe re K 1 = (L + 5 di)O.1 Lf ·l /di 1.3 (2-22)
(2- 16)
K 1 an d K 2 a p pea r in Tabl es 2-1 a nd 2-6, res p cct ive ly, as a
fu nc tio ri of tube I.D. and length. In the turbulent rang e, th e fric tion
factor for cold-drawn tubes is a fun ction of I.D.
Using Equation (2-22), on e can quickly figure th e tube d iarn et er
and length that lirnit tube pressure-drop to a d esired value. An y tw o
of the three variables N , L and di determine the rm a l performance,
as well as gas pressure drop. Let us discu ss the conventional d esign
procedure:

When a phase change occurs, as in a boiler, tJT is written as: 1. Assume ui, calcula te N.
2. Calcula te U, using Equations (2-15) and (2-8) .
LlT = [(TI - /s)- (T2 -/5»)/ In [(TI - /5) - (T 2 - ts») (2 -17)
3. Calculate L after obtaining S from Equation (2-1).
4. Calculate tlPi from Equation (2-10). If the geometry or pressure
drop obtained is unsuitable, repeat Steps 1-4. This procedure is
Combining Equations (2-1), (2-16) and (2-17), and simplifying lengthy.
we arrive at the foIlowing expression:
Sorne examples will iIIustrate the simplified approach. The
iact¡ - /s)f(T2 - /s)) = 0.606 (FI /CpJ N 0.2 L/Wi 0.2 di 0.8 (2
preceding equations are valid for single-pass design; however, with
rninor changes, one can derive the relationshíps for multipass units
Factor fz re, 15 givcn in Table 2-4. (e.g ., use length = L/2 for two-pass units).
 112 Wasle Heal Boiler Deskboo k Fire Tube Boilers 113

Ta b le 2-4 . Facto r Fl l Cp, F2/CP for Air and Pluegas Tablc 2-6.
A ir Val ucs of K2 as a Function of Tube O iarncter and Lcng th
d, Í1
Te rnpe raturc. Ff Fl/ CP F2/ CP
100 0.6660 0.3730 100 1.25 150 1.75 200 2.25 2.50 27 5 300
200 0.6870 0.3945
300 0.7068 0.4 140 02990 0.1027 0.0428 0.042 4 00109 0.0062 00037 0002 4 000 16
400 0.7225 0.4308 10 0.3450 0.1171 0.0484 0 0229 00121 00069 00041 00027 0 0018
600 0.7446 0.4591 12 03910 0.1315 0.0539 0.0252 0.0134 0 0075 0.0045 0.0029 00019
1,000 0.7680 0.4890 14 0.4370 0.1460 0.0595 0 0277 00 146 0.0082 0.0049 00031 0.0021
1,200 0.7760 0.5030 l. h 16 0 4830 0 1603 00650 0.0302 00158 0.0088 0.0053 0.0033 00022
20 0.5750 01 892 0.0760 00350 0.0183 0.0101 0.0060 00038 0 0025
Flu egas 22 06210 0 2036 00816 00375 0.0195 00108 0.0064 00040 0.0027
Tem p era turey ''F Fl /CP Fl/ C p 24 06670 0.2180 0.0870 00400 0.0207 0.0114 00067 0 0042 0.0028
200 0.6590 0.3698 26 07130 0.2320 00926 00 423 0.0219 0 0121 00071 0.0045 00030
300 0.6780 0.3890 28 07590 0.2 469 0.0982 0.0447 0023 1 0.0217 00075 0.0047 00031
400 0.69 20 0.4041
600 0.7 140 0.4300 Exam p le 4:
800 0. 730 0 0.4498 A fire tube waste-heat boiler w ilI cool 66,000 Ib /h of flu eg a s,
1,0 00 0.7 390 0.46 36 from 1,1 60 to 440 °F . Sa tu ration tem pe rature is 350 °F. Molecu lar
1,200 0.74 80 0.4773 weig h t is 28.5, and gas p ressure is a trnosp he ric. If L is to be limi ted to
20 fl due to lay out , d et er mine N and Óp¡ for tw o tu be sizes:
(R uegas is ass u me d to ha ve 12% w at er vapor by vo lu me) 1. 2 x 1.77 in. (2 in . 0.0. 1.77 in . I.D .) and (2.) 1.75 x 1.521 in .

Tablc 2-5. Solution :

Values of Kl as a Fu nc ti on of Tube D iam et er an d Length
Use Equation (2 -18Jto find N. Use 2 in. tu be s , (F¡/C p ) Fro m
d¡, in.
Table 2-4 is 0.73 fo r flu ega s a t t he average gas tem perat u re of 0.5
1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 . 2.00 22 .5 2.50 2.75 3.00
u.160 + 440) = 800°F.

8 7.09 5.33 4.22 3.46 2.92 2.52 2.20 1.95 1.75 In [1,160 - 350) / (440 - 350)] = 2.197
10 8 .99 6.75 5.34 4.38 3.70 3.17 2.78 2.46 2.2 1 2.197 =0.606 x 0.73 x N 0.2 X 20/(66,000 0.2 x 1.77 0.8) =
12 10. 92 8.20 6.48 5.3 1 4.48 3.85 3.36 2.98 2.6 7
14 12 .89 9.66 7.63 6.25 5.27 4.53 3.95 3.50 3.14 0.6089 N 0.2 , N = 611.
16 14 .88 11.14 8.80 7.21 6.07 5.21 4.55 4.02 3.61
L, ft 18 16 .89 12.65 9.98 8.17 6.88 5.91 5.15 4.56 4.10 Compute .1P¡ usin g Equa tion (2-19) . Fro m Tabl e 2-5, K2 is 0.035.
20 18 .92 14 .16 11.1 7 9.14 7.70 6.60 5.76 5.1 0 4.56
20 .98 15 .70 12.38 10 .12 8.52 7.31 6.37 5.64 5. 05 Com p ute the gas specific vol u me. De nsity (p) = 28.5 x 492/[359 x
22
24 23 .05 17.24 13.59 11.11 9.35 8.02 6.99 6.1 9 5.54 (460 + 8(0)] = 0.031 Ib/ft3 or v = 32 .25 f¡3/lb . Substi tuting in Eq uation
26 25.13 18 .80 14.81 12.11 10.19 8.74 7.61 6.74 6.03 (2-19 we h a ve:
28 27.24 20 .37 16.05 13 .11 11 .00 9.46 8.74 7.30 6.52
.1P¡ =9.3 x 10-5 x (66,000/ 611)2 x 0.035 x 32 .25 = 1.23 in . H20
 114 Wast e Heat Bciler Deskboolc Firc Tube Boile rs 115

Repca t th e excrc isc with 1.75-in . tu bes: lcn gth rern ain s a l 20 fl.
Frorn Eq u a tio n( 2-18) , we no te th at for the sarne therrnal pe rfo rm a nce
a nd gas flow, N 0.2 Lld¡ 0.8 = a co ns lan l. The abo ye co nce p l co mes in
handy w hen o ne w a nt s lo q uic k ly figure the effect of geo melry on
perfo rmance. Hen ce :
T hu s, seve ra l al terna tivc tu bc geometrie s can be a rrived a l for
the sa rne pe rfo rma nce, using the preced ing appr oach . One sa ves a 101
of tim e by no t ca lcula tin g h c at -tran sfcr coeffic ie n ts a nd g a s
prape r ties .

6110.2 x 20/1. nO ·8 =N 0..2 x 20/1,52 10.8 o r N =333.

With s m a lle r tu bes. one nced s fewer for thc sa me duty . This is
du e lo a higher hca t-t ransfcr coefficie nl; howe ver , the ga s pressure-
d ro p wo u ld be higher. Fro rn Tablc 2-5, K2 = 0.076 for 1.521-in. tub es.
From Eq u a tio n (2- 19):
tlP¡ = 9.3 x 10-5 x «(,(),OOO/ 333)2 x 0.076 x 32.25 = 8.95 in . H 20 .
LIFE-CYCLE COSTING
Such techn iq ues d et ermine the op tim um d es ig n, g iven several
altc rna tives. Here.the m a ja r opera ling cos t is fro m m o ving th e gas
thro ugh the sys tem, and the ins tall ed cost is that o f the equ ipment
and a u xilia ries, s uc h a s the fan . Th e Iife-cycle cos t is th e su rn of the
capita lize d cos t o f opcra ti ori an d the inst all ed cost.

Examplc 5: Lcc =C Co + Ic (2-23 )

Size h eat exchang er for 2.0 in . tu be s, with a pre ssure drop of 3.0 Th e ca pita lizcd cost of opera tio n:
in . H 20 . Fo r the sa rne thcrrnal performance, d et ermine th e geome lry.
. T.
CCo = CaY(I - y )1(1 - }) (2- 24)
Solulion:
Us ing the conventi onal approach w ould tak e severa l lrials lo whe re : y = (1 + e) l(I + i) (2-25)
arri ve al the righl combinalion. However, with Equation (2-21), one
can d et ermine the g eomet ry ra ther eas ily: Th e an nua l cos t o f operati ng the fa n is estima ted a s:

In(1, 160 -350>/ (440-350») = 2.197 = 0.24(Fl /Cp)K1 VO.1 / 6PP.1 Ca = 0.00 1 PHC. (2-26,

From Table 2-4, (F l!Cp) =0.73; 6 P¡ = 3, v = 32.25. Then: wher e th e fan power consu m pt ion in k W is:

In(1.160 - 350)/440 - 350» = 2.197 = 6

0.24Kl 32.250.1 x 0.73/3 0.1 = 0.222Kl , Kl =9.89.
From Table 2-5, we can obtain several combinations of tube
diarneter and length, that ha ve the same Kl value, and that would
yi eld the same therrnal performance and pressure drop. For the 1.77
in . LD. tube, L is 21.75 It. Use Equation (2-18) lo calculate the number
of tubes:
2.197 = 0.606 x 0.73 x 21.75 x NJ·2/(66,oooO·2 x 1.nO·8), or N = 4()2.
p = 1.9 X 10- W¡6 Pi I( pr¡ ) (2-27)
The abo ve procedure is used to evaluate L cc. The altemative
\\;th the lowest Lec is usually chosen if the geometry is acceptable.
EXaJnple 6:
Evaluate the three opti ons in Examples 4 and 5, and d et ermine
the best one. AH three provide the same thermal performance (gas
flows, and inlet and exit temperatures are the sarne). However, the
 Wa ste Hcat Boiler .Des kbook fiJ e Tub e Boilers 117
116

p ressure d rops and tu bc geometries are di ~feren t. Use the ~o ~lowi n.g PREDICfING THE PERFORMANCE
da ta : e = 0.06, i = 0.10, T = 10 yr. , Ce = 25 mI1ls/ kWh, fan efficiency 15 OF A GIVEN BüILER
0.60, and the system opera tes for 6,000 h / yr. The insta lled cos t of
each is sho w n in Table 2-7. Calculatc Lee for th e firs t case: O nce a boil er ha s becn desi gncd , its ge orn etry is Iixed . O ítcn a
pla nt opera tes u nder differen t load conditio ris w hich r esult s in
di = 1.77 in ., N =611, L = 20ft, Mi differ cnt gas flow, in lc t tcrnpera ture and ga s analysis or even stea rn
= 1.23 in. H20, v = 32.25 f¡3/ lb. pressure.
How does the given boi ler pe rfo rm under th ese con di tio ns?
P = 1.9 x 10-6 x 66,000 x 1.23 x 32.25/0.6 = 8.29 kW what is the new exi t ga s temperature o r duty o r s team production?
Thcre is ano ther importan t need to p redict the boi ler performance
Ca = 0.001 X 8.29 x 6,000 x 25 = $1,245/yr und cr diffe rcn t gas or stearn co ndi tio ns . Tha t is to check if ther e is
foul ing or acc umula tion of deposits on the outside or inside boiler
y = 1.06/ 1.1 = 0.9636 tubcs which ca n reduce the d u ty trans ferred.
If the exit gas temperature is high er than predi ct ed , the reaso n
Ce.= 1,245 x 0.9636 x (1 - 0.9636 10) /0.0364 = SlO,212. could be fou ling on th e gas or stearn side. The foll o wing example
illustratcs the procedure to pred ict th e p er forman ce of a g iven bo iler.
Hcn ce Lee = 10,212 + 75,000 = $85,212. Table 2-7 su mma rizes the
result s . Alte rnative 3 has the lo west Lee and he nce s ho u ld be Examp1e 7:
se lec ted, if th e geome try is acce p tab le.
The bo iler de signed in Exam p le 1 has to operate und er th e
following cond ition s:
Table 2-7.
Life-Cycle Costing Finds The Most Economical Alternative Gas flow = 75000 pph; inlet temper ature = 14oo°F;
Alternative Steam pressure = 175 psig; feed water ternperature = 220°F.
1 2 3
Tube size, in. 2 X 1.77 1.75 X 1.521 2 x 1.77 Determine the exit gas temperature, duty and steam production.
Number 01 tubes 611 333 402 Let us use the 2 x 1.77 tube size, 600 tubes 20 ft long design oAssume
Length, 11. 20 20 21.75 lhal the fouling factors and gas analysis are same as before,
Gas pressure drop, Strictly speaking, a trial and error procedure is required to
in. H;:O 1.23 8.95 3 .0 salve for the performance; it consists briefly of the following steps:
Power, kW 8.3 60 .3 20 1. Assume the exit ga s ternperature: calculate the assumed duty
Ca $/yr 1,245 9,045 3,000 QQ.
Ce. ,S. 10,212 84,410 24,609 2. Determine U at the average gas temperature.
lc.S 75,000 50 ,000 58,000 3. Det ermine th e log-mean temperature t!.. T.
i¿s 85,212 134,410 82,609 4. Compute the transferred duty Qt = USt!..T.
5. If Qa and Qt are equal the iteration stops else steps 1 to 5 are
repeated using a revised exit gas temperature based on Qt.
 W a sl e I-Ic al Bollcr Dcskbook Fue Tube Boilcrs 119
118

H o wc vcr an itcra tion ca n b e avoidcd as seen belo w : Tran sfe rre d duty = QI = 7.68 x 6280 x 358 = 17.27 MM Btu /h
It a p pea rs that the boil er can not transfer the assu mcd du ty but
(2-28) SOrl1 ct h in g less than th at . Ano th c r ite ra tion may be pe rfo rrncd w it h
.1 lo wer Qa'

(2 -29) Now let u s u se Equ ati on (2-30J a nd scc ho w itera tion is a vo id ed ,

but.1T = {( 1', - 1~)- (l2 - 1~))11 n { (I", -Ts) I ( Tr-Tsl}.....

III [(1400 - 378)/( T2 - 378) ] =7.68 x 6280/ (75000 x .2845 x .98)

co m bin ing (2-28) and (2-29) and simplifying, we ha ve :
=2.3065 o r (1400 - 378)/(T2 - 378) = exp (2.3065) = 10.04
lV¡X epX h; = Uo So I 1 n { ( 1', - Ir J I ( T2 - I sJJ
or 1n{ ( 1', -I s) I ( 1"2 -lsJI = u, So I lVjXCp X h¡ (2 -30)
In arde r to che ck this, co m p u te Qa and QI.

In th c aboy e cq ua tion T2 is th e unkn own; Ll¿ is co rn p u tcd Qa = 75,000 x 2854 x .98 x (1400 - 48Q) = 19.25 MM Btu /h
assumin g that th e average ga s temperature is sa rne a s befare and
th en co rrcc tcd : sin ce variations in average g as tern perature of up to t:.T = [(1400-378) - (480-378)l/ln (1022 / 102) =399
30 to 40°F d o not affect Uo sig n ifica n tly, a n itera tion can be avoided.
Qt = 399 x 6280 x 7.68 = 19.23 MMBtu/h and hence clase.
S o lu tion:
Sa tu ration tern perat u re a t 175 psig = 378 °F . Assurne that the The entha lpy additio n to stearn is:
exi t ga s rempera tu re is 45()OF. Fo r t h e a ve rage gas ternpera ture of (1197.6-188) + .05 x (351- 188) = 1017.75 Btu/ lb .
925 °F, F1 = .024, Cp = .2845; w =75000/600 = 125 lb/ h .
Hence the s tearn production = 19.23 x 10 6/10 17.75 = 18895 pph.
he = 2.44 x 125.8 x .204 / 1.771.8 = 8.48 Btu/sq ft h F
One can revi se the calculatio ns ba sed on th e new average g a s
Le t u s as surne that hn d oe s not change, which is reaso na ble . h n =.49. temperatu re bu t th e variation would be ma rginal.
He nce , 1/ Uo - (2/ (1.77 x 8.97) + .002226 + .(){)04 + .001 + .0005 = .13
U¿ = 7.68 Btu /sq ft hF (as othe r resis ta nces d o n ot cha ngo)
SIMPLIFIED APPROACH TO
T he ex terna l s urface arca So =3.14 x 2 x 600 x 20/ 12 =6280 sq ft PREDICTING PERFORMANCE

Log -m ean temperature d ifference = One ca n si m pli fy Equ ation (2 -3 0) fur ther and a rr ive a t the
folJowing eq ua tio n in a rder to p red ict th e performa nce of fire tu be
.1 T =[(1400 - 378) - (450 - 378)l/ ln[(1400 - 378)/ (450 - 378 ) =358°F bo iler s.
A few assumptions h ave to be m ade:
Ass umed d u ty 1. Th e fo u li ng factors and the non-luminous h eat tra ns fe r
coefficient are not high and that the o verall heat transfer
Qa = 75000.98 x .2845 x (14ü0-450) ='19.86 MMBtu/h coefficient is proportional to the convective co effici ent he..
 Waste Heat Boilcr Deskboolc Flre Tube Boi lcrs 121
120

2. Th e g as tcrnpcraturc pr ofile does not va ry sign ificanll y in One ha s a lend en cy to use poo r wat er chcrnistry in firc tube
th e bo ile r so that the cf fcct o f va ria tio n s in gas pro p er ties can be roile rs a s th ey are low pressure boil ers . 1f o ne an a ly zes Equati o n (2-
/J, one can see tha t foul ing fa ctors do influ ence thc overall hea t
ne gl cct cd .
The abo ye ass ump tions are fa irl y rea sonabl c . Lc t us apply tr;lI1sfer coe fficient and hen ce the pe rfo rma nce. Pe or wa ter chcm istrv
thern lo arrive al the following cxprcssio n. le.lds lo th e for ma lio n o f sca le a nd slud ge. -
Fro rn (2 -30 ) a ssurn in g th at U¿ is proporti ona l l o W¡ ·8 a nd Sca le is a relati vel y hard a nd adhercnt depo sit , while s ludge
lr ea ting a ll other terrns o n the righl hand sid e as a co ns ta n t for a is so ftc r and less adhercnt . The buildup of boiler scal c is m ost se ve re
g iven boiler, w e ha ve : in tho sc arca s in whi ch th e m áximum h eat transfer occu rs . Sca le
build u p is a sso ciatcd w ith compo unds whose solubi liti es d ccr ca se
-2 with inc reasing tern peraturcs. Co n versely sludges a re precipitat e d
/11 f ( T¡ - I s) 1 (T] -i. )¡ = u, So1(1\', x e, x lz/ ) = K IV¡ (2 -31)
dir cctly from th e bo iler wat er wh en th eir so Iu bilities are exceedcd .
Sca le and s ludge Increase th e resi st an ce lo h ca 1 transfer a nd
Examp lc 8: dccrca se the overall heat tra nsfer coefficien l and m osl irnport antly
Use Equation (2 -28 ) lo a rrive a l K fact o r from Examplc 1 and merca se the lube wall te rnpe rat ure .
predi ct the performance of the boil er fo r conditions in Example 5. The therrna l conducti vities of sorne scale ma terials are givcn in
Let us compute K factor. Table 2-8 below,
Us ing th e d esi gn dala of Exarnple 1: Ta b le 2-S
Thermal Cond uctivities of S ca le Materials

M ater ial Thermal Conductivity, Btu /sq ft h f/ in.

In [0 300 - 366) /(474-366) ) = In (8.64S) = 2.1573 =
K x 1 0‫סס‬oo -.02 o r K = 21.573 . Analcile 8.8
Calcium Phosohale 25
Let us u se the new condition s: Calcium Sulfaie 16
Magnesium Phosphate 15
W¡ = 75000; Tl = 1400°F, t s = 378 °F . Magnel ic Iron Oxide 20
Silicate scale (porous) .6
Boiler Steel 310
Us ing (31), In [(1400 - 37S) /(Tl - 378) ) =.21.573 x 75000 -.2 = 2.285 Firebrick 7
o r Tl = 482°F, which is close l o w ha t we ob tained ear lier . Insulating brick .7

Thus Equ ation (2-31) gives rea son ably good resu 1ts for p urposcs
of quick es ti mates. The p ressu re drop m ay be computed as before. EFFECT OF SCALE
ON BOILER PERFORMANCE
Checks for Fouling:
A boiler may deteriorate in performance due to acc um ula tion oí Example 9:
deposits inside or outsid e of tubes over a period of lime. Th is may be The boiler in Example 2 is ass u m ed to have a .03 in thi ck
due to the n ature o f the gas, w hich contains dusty or fou ling silicale scale. Determine the performance when 100,000 pph of gas at
co rnponents, which cannot be removed on line or due to the build up oí l 3OQ°F en ters th e boíler. Steam pressure as before is 150 psig and feed
sa1ts outside the tubes due to poor water chemistry . Water temperature is 220 °F. -
 122 Wasle Heat Boiler Ocskbook Are Tubo Boil crs
123

S olution: HYOROGEN PLANT BOILERS

T he ou tside fo ul ing factor ffo is o btained fi rst. ffo ::
thickness / co nd uctivit y = .03/.6 = .05 sq ft h F/Btu. Let us assume that
he,hn rern a in uncha nged, thoug h they wo ul d be slightly m ore due to
the highe r ave rage gas tcmpera tur e in th e boiler. Compu te U o us ing
the o the r resi stan ccs as bc fore. 1/ Uo = 2/ (11.11 x 1.77) + .05 + .00226 +
.0005 + .0004 = .1532; U¿ = 6.53.
Using Equa tio n (2 -30 ) :
ln[(] 300-366)/ (T2-366») = 6.53 x 6280/ (100000 x .2845 x .98) = 1.47 or
(1300-366 )/ 4.349 = (T2 - 3(6) o r T2 = 580°F.H en ce QI = 100000 x .2845 x
(1300-580) = 20 MMBlu/h . Av erage heat flu x qo = 6.53 x (940-366) ::
3748 Blu /sq It h. Drop ac ross ou ts íde heat transfer film = .0005 x 3748
= 2°F. Dro p across sca le = .05 x 3748 = 188°F. Hence ou te r tu be wall
te rn pcrature = 366 + 188 + 2 = 556°F.
T h is is sig ni fica n tly higher than bef ore . Fouling in side the
tubes o n the o the r hand will also result in lower Uo, lower dut y and
possibly in crease in ga s pressure drop, which can be monitored.
For example in th c ab oye example when th e ga s flow wa s 75000
pph and inl et temperature was 1400°F, jf th e e xit ga s ternperature
had becn mea sured lo be SOO°F versus th e 480°F co m p u ted , surely one
ha s lo analyze the performance clo sely and see if th e fouling is due
discu ssed in Appendi x E, lhe foll owing d at a were arri ved al:
As di scusscd in Chapter 1, fire tu be wa ste heat boilers a re u sed
in hydrogen plants lo cool refo r med gas a nd mainta ín a desired e xit
g.1S ternpcra turo a t a ll load s, g enera Ily lh roug h in te rn a l gas bypass,
Figu re 2-4. The high tu be sidc h eat tra nsfer coefficienl resu lts in a
hig h overa ll h eal lr ansfer coefficien l and hen ce hea t fl ux a l the
tu be sheet inlet. Th e foll owing exa mple illust ra tes th e Iact .
Exarn pIe 10:
In. a hyd.rogen p la nt , 50,0 00 pph of re form ed gas at 1650° F is
cooled In a boiler lo 650 °F. Ga s a na lysis is: % vo l C02 =5, H]O = 30,
ca = 10, H 2 = 52, CH4 = 3, N2 =. 1. Gas an d s tea rn pressures a re 235
psig and 635 psig resp ectively. De te rmi ne th e h eat flu x a nd boi !er
pe rfo rma nce w hen 190 ch ro me m o ly s tee l tu bos of size 13 x 1.14 in.
and :0 feellong a re used . Feed wat er is in a l 400°F. Fouling iaetors o n
gas side = .003 a nd s team side = .001.
/'
Solution:
II
Th e gas properti es rnu st be eva lua led. Us in g th e merboc oto cv

Table 2-9
o.

I
to the gas side or water s ide. A sh u l down c1eaning ma y be necessary. Data For Process Gas
Fouling is an operational cost and affects the dut y and steam
production and even the cost of moving the gas lhrough the boile r Temp, oF Cp J1 k
and rnust be attended lo.
One can also compute the fouling factor by using the foIlowing 1650 .7517 .089 .1315
proc edure. The expression for U may be written as : 1150 .7080 .0723 .103 1
650 .6640 .0535 .0751
1/ U= K/W¡-8+ A +ft
let us estimate he. W = 50000/190 = 263. Hence he = 2.44 ;( 263 3
Compute A,K and tf based on three sets of performance da ta ~.708/ .?723).4 x .1031.6/ 1.141.8 =
106 Btu/sq ft hF. h n may be shown
over a period of time. Keep recording data and continue to estimaleff +0.B8 usmg methods described earlier. i/u, = (1.5/1.14/106..88) + .001
over a penad of time using K,U and A. If it shows an incr easing trend, .003 x 1.5/1.14 + .0005 + .00069 = .0123 + .001 + .003947 + .0005 -r
there is fouling and a shut down deaning is warranted. ~9 .01845. (stearn side coefficient = 2000 Btu/sq ft h F and metal
=
feslstance = .00069). Hence Uo = 54.2 Btu/sq ft h F.
 i 24 Wa sl c Hc a t Boil cr Dcskboolc
S u bs tl tu ting in (2 · 30), /11 [(1 650-495)/(T2 _495)] = 54. 2 x
14921 (50000 x .99 x .7( 8 ) = 2307 (hca t 10 55 = 1 % and So = 3.14 x 15 x
190 y 20/1 2 = 1492 sq (1. Hc nce T 2 = 610°F; s ince the d esired exil
tcrnpera turc was 6500f , it a ppea rs tha t th e boil cr is ovcrsi zed and
hcn ce g as ha s lo be bypa ssed .
Th c ave rage h cat flu x is: U o x (tg-I s ) = 54.2 x (1150-495) =
355 00. As th c inlc t il can be sho w n tha t thc c1ean U o = 78 Blu/sq ft h
F, ne g lecling thc Ioul ing íac to rs. Hcnce the ma ximum heat flux a l
inl e t = 78 x (1650-4 95) = 90(){XJ Btu/ sq It h.
Hea t [lu xe s of up lo 100,000 to 150,000 Blu /sq ft h can be
p errni tred dcpcnding UP(1n th e s tea rn pressure and c1eanliness of
wa ter . It shou ld be notcd that the tube wall tem pera tu re will be
hi gher if scale forms o utside the tu bes.
The average tubc wall tcmpera turc is estima ted as fo llows:
Drop a cross the s tcam-w.uer mix tu re = 35500 x .0005 = 18°F. Drop
ac ro ss s tea rn sid e Io u ling laye r = 35500 x .001 = 36°F. Hence o u ter tube
wa ll te m pera tu re = 495 + 18 + 36 = 549°F. lf there is scal e formation,
the tube wa ll tcmpcra turc wil I be m u ch hi gher as sho wn in an
earl ier example.
GAS BYPASS CAL CULATIONS
In p ro cess boi le rs suc h as Ihose u sed in hydrogen o r sulfuric acid
planls, Ihe exi l gas le m pe ra lu re from Ihe boiler has to be mainla in e9'
wi lhin a rang e a t a ll load s. This is u sua lly a chieved by bypassing a
portion o f Ihe gas a ro u nd o r through th e bo iler.
When g as is inlernall y bypássed , it Iransfer s li!tle ene rg y lo
lh e s lea m water mi xture as lh e b ypa ss p ip e is u suall y prolected
ins ide by a lin er material. Hence Ihe by pa ss gas remains at a high
temperature cl ose lo lh e gas in le l temp er a ture; Ihe rest of the gas is
co o led through th e bo iler tubes a nd is al a low lemperature; the hol
bypass gas th en mixes w ilh Ihe coole r boil er gas and achieves the
d esired exil gas temperature . T he bypa ss fIow is d e cid ed by a
temperature co n tro ller a t bo iler exil. Fig ure 2-4 shows a lypical
arrangement. The exchanger di ameler in cr eases due to th e inclusion
of the bypass pipe wilh in lhe tube bundle. " . J
Fllc Tubc Uoil crs 125
Wh en an ext erna l by pas s is uscd, it works in thc sa rne w a v
with thc difference that the by pass p ipe is ex te rn a! to th e boil e ; ;
rhc exc ha ng e r d iarneter is s m a lle r; howe vcr th e by pa ss p i pe
opera tes a t a mu ch highor gas ternpcr ature an d ha s lo be prot ect e d
with refract ory, th e darnpo r is aIso e xpc nsive.
Exam p le 11 :
Det ermine th e arnount o f g as to be bypassed in Exam p le 10 ro
achi evc 650 °F e x ít g as tem perature .
Solution:
, t
Let the g a s flow th ro ug h boil e r = 4S,000 pph and 5000 PFn
throug h bypa ss. Est ímate T2 using (2 ·30 ): he = (45/SO).8 x 106 = 97.'; ;
h n = .88; U ¿ = 51 Blu /sq ft h F. /n [(16S 0-4 95)/ (T 2_49S)] = 5 1 /
1492/(45000 x .99 x .708 ) = 2.408. Henc e T2 = 599°F. The ap proxim a te
mixed te rnpe rat urc = (45000 x 599 + 5000 x 1650)/50000 = 7(WF; th is is
higher Iha n 650 °F requi red. (A more ac curate m ethod of es ti rna tinz
thc mixed tem p era lure is by usi ng the gas en thalpies: ho wever IY;
aboye is for illustration purposes on ly) .
Since Ihe exit gas ternpcrat ure is higher, mo re gas m us t t 'i:
cooled in the boi ler. T ry 48000 pph Ih ro ug h bo ile r and 2000 P¡;: I
throug h bypass . U¿ = 52.73; T2 = 606°F; mixed lempera ture = 648 c F.
This is a ccep ta b le. Hence the bypass flow is 2000 pph and has lo t o?
sized acco rding ly . O ne rnu st a!so check Ihe boiler p erfo rma nce a r
par! lo ad s and d el erm ine Ihe bypa ss flo \\' for each load and see :;
the con lrol mechanism can hand le lhe flo\\' based on Ihe resi slance e i
main and bypass pa lhs.
DETERMINING HEAT LOSSES FROM BOILER
We ha ve been a ssuming a heatloss on Ihe a rder of 1 lo 2% in the
boi ler. H owe ver lhe 10 55 co u ld be co mp uled m ore accu ralely a5
foll o w s.
Example 12:
A fire tube boiler is 6 ft in d iameler and 20 ft long and opera tes
al 150 psig. Estimate lhe heat lo ss from th e she l!. 3 in. of mineral
 Waslc Hea t Boil cr Deskbcok Fire Tube Boilers 127
126

Iibcr ín s u lation is uscd . Arnbic n t temperat ure is 70°F a nd w in d [ - Fr icti on fa ctor

vclocit y is 100 fpm . Casing crnissi vi ty is .9 . Boiler duty is 23 [ji, [[o - Fouling factors, inside a nd ou tsid c, sq fl h F/Btll
F] - Fact or dcf ined in Equation (2-S)
MMBtll/h .
H - Period of opcrat ion, h /yr

Sol u tio n:
sn s - Enthalpy ab sorbed by s tea m, Btu /lb
Using th c p rog ram descr ibed in Appendi x B, for a satura tio n he - Con vcctivc hcat lra n sfc r co c ffic icn t, Btu Zsq ft h F
le m pcratu re of 366°F it m.iybe s hown th at : heat 10 55 fro m casing =
h¡ - H ca t transfcr coefficie n l inside tu bcs, Btu / sq ft h F
29.6 Btu/s q ft h and thc casing tempe ra tu re is 86°F . See p rin tout h ll - Non -lurninous hea t tra nsfer coefficient, Btu /sq ft h F
h/ - H eal 1055 factor; 1% loss cqua ls ah/ o f .99
below. Fig u re 2-5.
Th e tota l loss from t hc cas ing := 3.14 x 6 x 20 x 29 .6 := 11155 ho - H cat tran sfer coc fficie n t o u ts ide tube s, Btu /sq ft h F
Btu/ h. The heat loss := (1 1155/23 x 10 6) x 100 = .05%. Jf rhc inlet a nd le - Install ed cost, S
cx i t vos t ibu lcs are co n s id c re d a lo ng w i th a n ex te rna ! dru m, - Int e res t ra te
downco mers , risers, th c hea t loss wi ll be m ore and ca n be co rnp u ted by Kl' K2 - Facto rs defin ed in Equation (2-22) and (2-2 0)
su rnming IIp the hcat loss in cach scc tion. T he total heat 10 55 u scd in k - Thcrmal condu ctivity of flu id, Blu /f t h F
th e calc u la lions m a y ncludc a m arg in d e p end in g u p on the
í
Km - The rrnal condu ctivity of metal, Blu /ft h F
perfo r ma nce guara n tees . L - Length of tube, fl
Lec - Lífe cycle cost, S
MW - Mol ecu lar weight of fluid
REF ERENCES N - To tal nurnber of tubos
Nu - Nusselt nu rnber
1. V Ca na pa thy. "Applic d h eat tra ns fe r", Pennwell Bc o ks, P - Electri cal fan power co ns u rnption, kW
T u lsa, 1982 . élP - Pressure d rop, in lIJe
2 . V Ca na pa thy, "Si mp li fie d ap p roa ch to d e si gning he at Pr - Pran dtl nurn ber
trans fer eq uipmcnt", C hcmic a l En gineering, April 13, 1990. q - Heat flu x; subsc rip ts i a nd o sta nd for ins ide and ou ts ide
3 . V. Ca napa thy. "Eva lua te th e p e rf ormance o f wa st e heat tu be s, Btu / sq ft h
bo ilers '', C hernica l Eng inccring. Novernber 16, 1981, Pg 291. J Q - Du ty, Blu / h; subscripts a a nd t sta n d fo r assumed a nd
4 . V. C ana pat hy, "Stea m pl ant ca lc u la tio ns m anual ", Marcel tr ansferred
Dek ker, NY, 1984. Re - Reynold s nu mber
S - Su rface ar ea, sq ft; su bscri p ts i and o s ta n d for inside and
ou tside tubes
NOMENCLATURE - Life of equipmenl, yr
- Gas lemperature in and o u t, F
Ca - Annua l co st of o pe ra tio n, $/yr - Log-mean lemperalure difference, F
Ce - Cost of electríc üy. mils/kWh - Average ga s ternperature, F
Cp - Specific heat of fluid, Blu/ lb F - Saturation temperature, F
C co - Capilali zed cos t of operation, $ - O verall heat tran sfer co effi cient, Blu / sq ft h F;
do,d i - Tube outer and inner diameter, in. subscripts j and o stand fo r insid e and outside
e - Escala tion rate v - Specific volume, cu ft/Lb
 Waste Heat Boilcr Desk book Firc Tube Boilcrs 129
128

w - Flow per tu be, Lb/h

W - Total mas s flow, Lb/h GAS I N
p - Gas density, Lb/cu (1 GAS OUT
p - Ga s viscosity, Lh/Tt h
11 - Efficiency of d rivc, írac tion BO ' LE R TUBES
\ I
\
,
-. .0---- --- D!\"1P ER
I

'\
e cono r-rz er-
BYPA SS PI PE
I I

r--:
<uper-he o t e r
- t-

r--l -
GAS OUT
GAS IN
f ire t ube b o ll e r b o il e r

- -e ¡
Figure 2-3. Fire tube boilcr with supe rhea ler and economizer. I
I I
bypo s s plp l' dOMper

Figure 2-4. Arrangem enl of internal and external gas by pa ss scheme.

130 \\l as te Heal Boiler Dcskbook

RESULTS- I/IS ULATIO II PERF ORMAN C¡';- flat Bur fa co

Cha pter 3
Pro j e c t : c X4mple

IIAHE THIC K-IN TEHP- F TEHP1 COI1D1 TEHP2 CON0 2

Water Tu be Boilers
Casing 0 . 00 85.6 ] 0. 00 0.00 0.00 0 .00
min fb 3.00 ]66 .00 200 .00 0. ] 0 4 0 0.00 0 . 42

HEAT LOSS -BTU! ft2h= 29 .5]12] Number o f 1ayero of l n o u 1 a t l o n= 1

Wat er tube boilers are more d ifficult lo d esign cornpa red to fire
/\HB TEHP= 70 WINO VEL- f pm- 10 0 EMISS = . 9 MAX LOSS -BTU!FT2H = 1170 . 6 64 tube boilers due lo the cornpl ex arran gement or di sposit ion oi heating
su rfaces such as superh eaters evapora tors and eco norni zer s. Figu re 3-
eeeeeeeccceeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeecnoeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeece 1 sho ws the vari ou s configura tion s th a t a re fea sible ior a sing le
pressure system .
Figu re 2-5. Printou t of casing heatloss. The superheater may be locat ed ahead of the evaporator o r a s
discu ssed in Chapter 1 wh en the gas inlet ternperature is very high,
it may be located between a screen section and an evaporator. Wh en
the d egree of supe rhea t is very small, it may be loca tcd even beh ind
the evapo ra to r. Also, the superheater could be in several s tagcs.
cac h with a difieren t fin configuration or mechanical arrangement to
ens u re appropria te tu be wall and fin tip ternperat u res and d egr ee of
su pe rhea t.
The evapo ra tor b un dle could have va ryi ng fin confígura tion s o r
tu be pi tch alo ng th e gas flow di rec tio n to ha nd le the gas
temperature or slagging con cerns . It could also be built in two parts
with a SCR (Selec tive Catalyst Reduction systern ) in between th em
as in the case of gas turbine applicatio ns. If we add to this a multi-
pressu re HRSG sit ua tio n or the presen ce of a radiant sec tion with
difie ren t operating parameters an d fuel firing, the d esign pr ocedure
wo uld be ind eed d ifficult witho u t a computer .
This cha p ter d iscusses the method ology of d esig n for various
types of heating su r faces suc h as su pe rhea ter, evaporator and
econornizer, wh ich are the bu ilding blocks of a complex wa ter tu be
HRSG; si m p lified procedures are a lso sugges ted, followed by
procedures for evaluati ng their performance under different gas inl et
condi tions.
 Waste Heat Boiler Deskbook Water Tube Boilers 133
132

G UID ELINES FOR WAT ER TUBE BO ILERS

~
1. They a re sui table for high stea rn pressure an d ternper at ure
appli calions a nd lar ge capaci ty uni ts, e ve n exceeding a miliio n
pound s per hour of stearn or gas flow ,
2. Extended sur faces can be used to rnak e the design compac t if
_r~~_L
(ni EVAP! Cilll EV AP I I ECO h!1
----.. ----- rhe gas s trearn is clea n. Compa red to a fire tu be boi ler, a water tu be
wit h exte nded surfaces is mu ch srnaller a nd wi ll weigh less.
particula rly if the gas flow is large, say exceedi ng 100,000 pph.
3. Vario us types of fue ls ca n be fired wit h ea se includi ng sa lid
¡
1

and dir ty fuels . The wa ter cooled mernbrane wall enclosu re, Figure 3- I
(2) I EVAP I []E] IEVAP I 2, rnakes an excellent furnace a nd can be sized to mat ch any firin g o r
ash disposal equ ipme nt. , I
(3) Cill lEV AP I IECON I 4. lf the gas strea m is di rty, pro visions can be mad e for cleaning
the tubes by us ing ra pp ing mechani srns or soo t blow ers. Access la nes
1

(4) IEV AP I Cill IECD~~ I as required ma y be easily pro vid ed . \Vide spaci ng may be pro vid ed
at the front end of the boiler, whe re there is more chance for sIagg ing
(5) []E] IEV AP I or fouling, follo wed by sec tions wi th smal!er spacing at the coo le r
end.
(6)1 EVAPI []E] In a fire tube boiler, it is very expen sive o r not feasible to build
the boiler in two part s or use di ffer ent tube sizes to accommod a te
(7) I EV AP I l ECo!'J I sIagging or tem perature concerns. The best that ca n be done is to use a
mult i-pass d esign with differ ent tu be sizes in eac h pass. On-Ioad
c1eaning is difficuIt in fire tube boilers.
(8) I EV AP I 5. The su pe rhea ter, if used, ma y be loca ted in an op timum gas
(9 ) ¡ ECON I tempera ture region as discussed in Chapter 1 to min imize corrosion
concerns or to reduce the metal temperature. In a fire tube boiler, the
only locations for the superheater are at the front or rear end,
(10)
mak ing the design less flexible.
6.Due to the lower volume of wa ter hold up compared to a fire
(11 ) I ECON I tube boil er, the start up periods and the drum response to load
changes can be quicker in a watertube boiler.
Ke y EVAP = Evaporator 7. lf the gas pressure is higher, say 5 to 30 psig, then the water
[CON = Econonrz er- tube boiler may be located inside a shell. However the cast increases
SH = S up e r hea t e r significantIy if the gas pressure and size increase. A fire tube boíler
may be better suited.
Figure 3-1. Possible Con ñguratíons for a Walertube HR5G. 8. A water tube boiler is less forgiving to poor water chemistry
and tube failures can occur faster compared to fire tube type. One has
13-1 Wa ste Hcat Boilcr Dcskbook W. lcr Tube Boilcrs 135

al so to be wa ry of water tubc boile rs w ith ex tended su rfa ccs, which Heat Tra ns fer Ca lcu la tions
o pc ra tc a l a mu c h highcr heat flu x and tu be wall tc rnp craturo Th e basic equa tion for en ergy lransfer for any surfa ce is gi ven
co m pa red lo ba re lube designs o r fire tube boi lcrs. by :
9. Due lo th c hig hcr hcat transf'e r coefficicnts associated wit h
gas Ilow over the tu bos. water tube boilers require less su rface arca Q = US !:JT = 11'0 x Cpx (TI -1"]) X hl= II',!:J lis (]-1)
and hence t hc ga s p ressure drop can be lower th an in a Iire tubo
bo ilcr .

I
Thc o ve ra ll heat lransfer coeffi cient for finn ed tubes may be
10. A w at er tubo boilcr will be more expen sive in the smaller cstirn at ed by th e method s di scu ssed in Append ix A. Th e o ve ra ll
gas flow ra ng e say 50,000 pph o r less cornpared to fire tube type bUI heat tran sfer coeff icient U o for ba re tubes is given by :
less ex pcns ive for larger mass flows. For sorne situations su ch as gas
turbine ex haust whe rc thc ra tio of gas to stearn Ilow is h ig h and the l /U o = Ilh¿ + (7/h¡)d o/d¡ + II¡ (do/d¡) +
I
pi nc h poin t is lo w, wate r tu be bo ile rs w ith ex tended surfa ce may be 110 + (d/24K m ) 11l(d o/d¡) (]-2) II
thc o nly cho ice as th e íirc tu be equi va len : will ha ve a ve ry high ga s
pressu re dro p and wi ll be exlremcly lar ge . The tube side coefficien l h¡ may be estirnated using t hc
I
I

correla tio n given in Chapter 2 fo r single phase f1u id s su ch as s team

or water. For two-phase fluids such as mix ture of wat e r and stearn,
corre la tio ns cited in Reference 1 may be used . Since boiling heat
lran sfer coefficien t in side tubes is very high on the o rd er of 2000 to
3000 Blu/sq ft h F, even a 20% er ro r in this ass urnp tion will no t affect
U much as th e gas side coefficient governs U.

The gas side coefficien t h¿ = he + h n (] -] )

The non -Iumino us coefficie n t h n ca n be ob tai ne d by th e

met hod s discussed la te r. There a re several co r relari ons for
dete rmining th e convec tive heat tr ansfer coefficient he , see
Refe rence 1. Th is ch a pt er wil l address tw o of th e well kn ow n
corre la tio ns,

Conv ectiv e Heat Transfer Coefficient

Th e C rirn son's Equ at ion is w id ely us ed fo r d etermin ing he.

Nu = B ReN (] -4)

Coefficients B and N for bare tu bes in inline or stagge red

Figure 3-2. Water-Cooled Membrane Wal! D Type Boiler Burn ing Waste Fuels.
fCourlcsy ABCO Industries).
arrangements is given in Ta ble 3-1. The ga s properti es are ev aluated
a t the gas film temperature, which may be taken as the average of
the gas and fluid temperatures. The maximum gas velocity is to be
 136 Was le Heat Boile r Ocskbook \\'JI "r Tube Boilcrs 137

u sc d whi le dc tc rrnining the Rcynold's n u m ber. Fig ure 3-3 sho w s Tab lc 3-2. F Fac to r fr om Fis h en de n and Sa un d ers.
inline and staggercd configurations. It m a y be not ed that in th e ca se
of s tag g e rcd tube bundl cs the maxi m u m veloci ty may occur in the In-Líne Bonks Sraggered Banks
di a gona l or tra ns ve rso pla no depe n d ing o n t h e tr ans ve rso a nd Sl/d 1.25 1.5 2.0 3.0 1.25 1.5 2o a.r
lo n g it udin al pitch.
Re
For th e m a x imu m ve loc ity lo occ u r in the di ag onal pl an o, the s, ld 2.000 1.06 1.06 1.07 1.0 1.21 1.16 1.06 0 . ~ .6
d iag onal pit ch x need be o n ly h al f o f the tr an sverso p itch. I ~5 8.000 1.0.; 1.05 1.03 0.98 1.11 0.99 0.92 0.<:5

(S, - d) L = 2 ( x-d) L or x= (S, + d)f2

20.000
2.000
8.000
1.0
0.95
0.96
1.0
0.95
1.0
1.03
0.95
1.03
1.06
1.17
1.05
1.15
1.02
1.08
0."3
1.(¡2 I
I

fro m th e r ig h t ang led tr iangl e ABe.

15
20.000 0.95
0.96
0.95
1.01
1.0
1.01
0.98
1.10
1.0.;
1.06
1.02
1.00
0.98
0.96
O .~l ; I
1
2.000 0.73 0.73 0.98 1.08 1.22 1.18 1.12 1.')8
: O 8.000
20.000
0.83
0.90
0.83
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.02
1.0
1.12
1.09
1.10
1.07
1.0.;
1.01
1.02
o.·n
I
2.000 0.66 0.66 0.95 1.0
1f S, = 4 in, d = 2 in, th en 51 sho u ld be le s s th an 2.3 in , for this to occu r. JO 8,000 0.81 0.81 1.02 1.02
1.26
1.16
1.26
1.15
1.16
1.11
i .: 3
1.06
I
S, is u sually on the o rdcr of 3 in , o r more a nd h en ce th e má xi m um

I
20.000 0.91 0.91 1.01 1.0 1.14 1.13 1.10 1.02
v e lo city o cc u rs in th e tr ansvcr se sec tion .

- I
Reyn old s N u m ber R.: = Gd/1 2j.l (J -Sa )
Another w id el y used Eq ua tio n is th at o f Fish cnden and Sa unde rs .
Nu s selt Number NII = he do /12k (3-Sb)
(j- ó )
w her e G = \VO x 12l [ Nw(Srd )L] (3-6)
where p ra nd ll nu mber Pr = j.lCplk (3 -7 )

Table 3-1. Grimson's Values of B and N Fac to r F co r rec ti ng for inline and 5taggered arrang ements is
giv en in Table 3-2. It will be seen later that with bare tubes, inline
STld 1.25 1.5 2 3 arrang ement is preferred a s the incrernent in heat transfer coefficient
SLld B N B N B N B N with s tag g e red arrangement is not that significant compared to the
Staggered
increase in gas pressure drop.
1.25 0.518 0.556 0.505 0.554 0.519 0.556 0.522
1.50 0,451 0.568 0,460 0.562 0.452 0.568 0.488 Example 1:
2.0 0,404 0.572 0.416 0.568 0.482 0.556 0.449
3.0 0.310 0.592 0.356 0.580 0.44 0.562 0,421
150,000 pph of f1ue gases having an analysis of % COz= 12,
ln-line
1.25 0.348 0.592 0.275 0.608 0.100 0.704 0.0633
H20= 12, N2 = 70 and Oz = 6 by volurne flow over a bank of boiler
1.50 0.367 0.586 0.250 0.620 0.101 0.702 0.0678 tu bes of s ize 2 in ., outer diameter with a tran sverse and lo ng it u di nal
2.0 0,418 0.570 0.299 0.602 0.229 0.632 0.198 pilch of 4 in., and arranged in inline fashion. Tubes/row = 18, length
3.0 0.290 0.601 0.357 0.584 0.374 0.581 0.286
:: 10 ft; assume that number of tubes deep exceed 10.
13S Wasle Hcat Bollc r Dcskboo k Waler Tube Boilcrs 139

If thc sat u ra tion tcrnper a ture inside thc tu bcs is 353°F a nd

th e
av crage ga s ternpcr atu re is 700°F dete rmine th e convec tive
heat
transfe r eoeffieien t usi ng bo th the co r rclatio ns .

-~ H -~-- Solu tion:

-+ . $-
From Append ix E on gas proper tics, a t the film tcmpe ra turc
of
.5(353 + 700) = 526 °F, C" = .2695, u = .0642 a nd k = .02344, G = 150000
x
12/[ 18 x lO x (4-2) ] = 5000 lb sq ft h, Re = 5000 x 2/12/ .0642 = 12980.
Frorn Table 3-1, B = .229 an d N = .632, Nu = .229 x 12980.632 =
91 o r he
w x 2/(12 x .02344) = 91. Hence he = 12.80 Btu/Sq fl h F.
Let us now determ i ne he using Equatio n (3-6) . From Table 3-2,
F

'.L-H-l-(-H-{ "H-H
= 1. Pr = .0642 x .2695/ .02344 = .738, Nu =.35 x 12980 .6 x
.738. 3 = 93.85
or he = 13.2 Bru/' sq ft h F. We will see the e ffec t o f tube piteh
and
1---- configu ra lion o n h cat transfer lat er.

Determ ination oí Tube Side Coeffic ienl h¡

Th e tub e side coeffieien t for the flow of s tea m, water o r boiling

stca rn-w a te r mi xtu re p lays a rol e in th e es ti rna tio n of overall
heat
tra nsfer eoeffici en l ll, as seen from Equation (3-2) . The basic equat
ion
fo r ob ta in ing h¡ for si ng le phase fluid s is th at o f Dittus-Boelt
er. see
referenc e 1.
NU = .023 Re Ji Pr ·4 (3-8)
The abo ve eq ua tio n m ay be sim p lified as sho w n in ch apter 2
and h¡
may be written as:
w
h¡= 2.44 W 8 CId/ Ji (3 ..9 )

Facto r e is given Ior stearn in Table 3-3. For wa te r flowing thro u g h

tubes at a ternper ature T in Degree 'F,

e = 10 [-1·318 + .2141 n rrn (3 ..10 )

Examp le 2:

Determ ine h¡ when 5000 pph of superh eated s tearn flows inside
Figure 3-3. In-Une and Stagger~ Tube.Bundles. a lube oí inner dia meter 1.78 in . in a superh eater. The s tea rn pressu
re
 140 \'Vaslc Ilcal Boilcr Desk bo o k Waler Tubo Iloilcrs 141

is 1000 p sia a nd thc a ver age tc rnpe ratu re is 800 °F . Wha l is h¡ whc n
thc stea m is in sa tu ra tcd co nd ilion?
Sol u tion:
Fro m Ta blc 3-3, (= .345. Hen ce h¡ = 2.44 x 5000.8 x .345/ 1.78 1.8 =
271 Bm /sq ft h F. 1f th e s tea rn is satura ted, the n C = .49 from Table 3-
3. Hence h¡ = 385 Btu Zsq ft h F. The ma ss vclocity ins id e the tu bes G¡
= 5000 x 144 x 4 / 3.14 x 1.78 2 = 289480 Lb / Sq ft h . Mass velocity of
steam ins ide superhea ter tu bos is dependen t o n p ressure, tcm pc ra tu re
and s tca rn p ressure d ro p lO c nsu rc uni fo rm flow through parall cl
ci rcuits, lt cou ld vary fr orn 250 lo 600 Lb/ sq ft h.
In th e case o f tw o -p ha sc flow o r boil in g insid c tu bes a va lue of
2000 lo 3000 Blu/ sq ft h F ma y be u sed for h¡. lis e ffec t o n U as
exp la ine d abo ye is not sig nifican!.
Example 3:
De te r mi ne h¡ w hen 10,000 pph of 500 psia w a ter a l a n ave rage
re rnp cr ature o f 400°F flo ws in a n eco no rnizer tu be of inner d ia rnc rcr
1.738 in.
The va riab les that inílucncc th e no n-lu mino us hcat tra nsfcr
coe fficien t a re:
1. Part ia l pressure o f (02, H20 , 502, 503.
2.Be am lengt h L, whi c h is d epend ent on th e pi tch a n d
a rra ngc rnc n t of the tube b u ndle.
3. Tcrnpcra ture of the gas s trea rn and the s urface te m pe ra tu rc of
thc bu ndle.
A nurnber of Iac tors enter in to thc calcula tion of non-lurnino us
radia tion heat-t ransf er coefficients be tween ho t gases and tube
bundles, N et interchange o f radiation between gases and tu be bundl es
is given by the basic equation.
(3- 11)
Fo r q uick pra ct ical es tim a te s, a good ass u mp tion th a t
sim p lifies the abo ye equa tio n is E g= a g. Then
(3 -12)

Fr orn th is, the no n-lu rni no us heat-tran sfer coeffic ien l hN ma y

Solulion:
be ob tai ned a s foll ows:
Frorn ( Hl) , ( = 10 [-1 ·318 + ·214In(400)] = .921; h¡ = 2.44 x 10000.8 x
.921/ 1.7381.8= 1316 Btu / sq ft h F. N ot e that typical wa te r vclocity in Q
eco no m izer tubes rang es frorn 2 lo 6 fl/ s. From s tea rn tables, Appendi x (3- 13)
E, th e specific volume o f cornp ressed wa ter a l 400°F = .01185 cu fl/ Lb;
; wate r ve loci ty = .05 x Wv/d2 = .05 x 10000 x .01855 / 1.738 2 = 3.07 Where Eg = Ec + T)E w - L1 E (3-14)
ft/s .
T he e m issivi ty of ho t fl u e gases is d epen d e nt upon the
emissi vity of carbon d ioxid e, E e, e m iss ivi ty due to w ater vapo r, E w
N üN-LUM IN üU5 and co rrec tion terrns 1] and i.\E .
HEA T TRAN5FER COEFFICIENT These values ma y be obta ined fr om the well k nown Hottels
cha r ts, Figures 5a, 5b , 5c, Sd, o nc e the partial pressures of carbon
Due to the partial pressures of triatomic g ases present in th e d io xide and water vapor, th e b eam length of the h eat rece iving
flue g as es s uch as carbon di o xide, sulfur diox id e and water va po r, sllrface and th e gas tempera tu re are known.
sig n ifica n t amounts of energy can be transferred between th e gas Th e beam length, L of a tube bundle is given by:
s trea m and th e boil er su rface d ue lo no n -lurnino us rad iati o n heat
transf er, particularly if there is a large amount of st eam injec ted in to (3-15)
the exhaust gas stream.
 Waste Heat Boiler Dcskbook wat er Tub e Boiler s 143
142

Figure 3-4b gives L if ST,SL and d are known. Hence it may be noted Solu tion:
tha t an est íma te o f hN requ ire s information on part ial pressures of In Figure 3-4b, connect SL = 3.5 with ST = 5 and ex tend to cut linc
caZ and HZO in flue ga s, which in tur n implies availability of l . Co n nect with d = 2 and ex te nd to cu t L scalc at 7.8 in.
r es u lt s of combu stion calculations of Iuel s. Thi s is a lengthy In Figu re 3-4a go up from 's = 16S0°F to cu t lo = 400°F and rn o ve
proccd ure. right to cu t K scale at 26 . Extend th e vertical from 's = 1650 to cut L =
Ho wcver, a si mpl ified pro ccd u re ha s been dcvelopcd based on 7.8 and move left to cu t the reference lin e. Connect with poi n t 3 (N o . 2
de tailcd calcu lations wi th va rious fu els . Eq ua tion (3 -15) is re w ritten oil ) and ex te nd to cu t Eg sca le al 0 .105 . H en ce hN = 0.105 (26) = 2.74
as : Btu /ft 2h oF.
(3 -16)
f ...... E.c..u . ...'
&l~gg"a¡. 2'0
E g is calcul ated ío r vari ous fuel s at no rrnall y u sed exces s ai r I
..... ""~~ . 10 'O
No _10ll la
facto rs and p resen ted in Figure 3-4a along wi th K. The accuracy of • Ho .OOl 10
& ....c.... ne.u QU 10
thi s figure ha s bce n chccked through d ct a iled calcu la tio ns a nd a &u! fI.oI .-.c. gl ' JO
Ho2oJ 20
ma xirnu rn e rro r of 5 perccnt was observed. Hc nce for quick engineering
estima tes of hN, Figures 3-4a and 3-4b may be u sed . The advantages ,,
,,
are:
,, 20
.0

Detailed co mbusti ón calculations for fu els need no t be ca rried out , ' ,7

I·'~X·
-o
a nd thus a lot of time is saved (sorne times even the fuel analysis ." 12

i
may n ot be rea d ily a vail ab le ). 2 '. '

' " ,, j
"
'O
Referen ce to Hottcls' charts is n ot n ecessary , agai n saving tim e.
'\
20
• Q uic k co mparisons of E g as a func tio n of fu el u sed may be
"
m ade .This is a n impo r tan t fa ct or as fu maces of boilers, fired
h eat ers e tc., h a ve to fire diffe rent fuels d u ring th e ir o pera tion, "
a nd performance with a!te mative fu els must be kno wn.

~. ~ ~ 1* I~ ,~ I~ I I~ ~o
An e xarnpl e is worked o u t' to ilIustrate th e ve rsa tili ty of the T. ..

ch ar ts .
Figure 3-4a. Nomograph for Determining hN
Example 4:
A boiler is fired with N o . 2 oil at 10 p ercent excess ai ro
Determine the non-lurninous radiation heat transf er co efficient ov er
a tube bank when the average flu e gas temperature is 1650 °F and tube
wall tempera tu re is 400°F,

ST= 5.0 in., SL =3.5 and d = 2.0 in .

 Water Tube Boilc rs 1~ 5
Waste Hcat Boile r Desk book
144

~ -- R -~-¡ -~--

ABSOLUI E IE"PERA IURErR 1

Figure 3-5a. Emissivit y of Wal er Vapor. [Penwell Book s]

,-, ¡

'I~ f-;.:::-
I-t' -- '
....
ut

...•••
He
M'

u,
u MI
,
Figuarc 3-~b. Cha rt helps evalúa te bearn len gt h . \lI '-
MI
.. U

......
H"
The abo ve charts, Figure 3-4a and 3-4b are suitable when the HII
HII
H.
gas analys is are not known and the flue gases are produc ts of
combu stion of fossil fuels. In case the gas analysi s is known , it
is
...,
H"

prefcra blc to use the Houel s' charts, Figures 3-Sa, 3-Sb, 3-Sc and 3-Sd Mn
... uoe

-
10M 1, " ,... JI~ )\00 &.oCIO Utl soat
to estima te the gas ernissivit y, see reference 1. A good estima te of ABSOLUIE TEWPERATURE (T'RI
th e gas emissi vity may also be obtain ed from the fol1owing
Figure 3-5b. Emíss ívity of Carbon Dioxide. (Permwell Booksl
equa tions.
 Wa s le Hcat Bo iler Des kbook \'Ial er Tub e Boilc rs 147
146

1.8 .-
E s = 0.9( 1 - e' KL ) (3 -17 )
K = (0.8 + 1.6pw) (1- 0.387'gI 1000)
I.S '/rpc + p..) L (3 -1 ~)

\.l.
Tg is in K. L is the bca rn lcngth in rnct ers and Pe a nd p:;,. are th c
pa rtia l prcssure s of ca rbon diox ide and w at er v a por in alm o L, th e
1.2
bearn length, m ay be es timated for a tube bundle by Eq ua tion (3-151.

r 1.0 -
Th e beam len gth for abare tubc bundle is given by th e a bo ve
0.8 .. oqua rion. However fo r a fin ned bundl e or a cavi ty, it may be
cstirna ted as : L = 3.4 volu me/s u rface. Due to th e rn uc h larger su rfa ce.
the be a rn length is sma ller w ith finn ed bundl es a nd h en ce hr: w ill oe
0.6 -
lowe r.
U I, -
Exarnple 5:
0.2 In a b oil er supe rheate r with bare tube s, t h e a verag e gas
tcm pcrature is 1600°F a nd the tube m etal temperature is 700' F. Tube
size is 2.0 in ., and transv er se pitch SI = longitudinal piteh = 511= '; .0
0.0 -
0.0 0.2 0.1, 0.6 o.a 10 u in. Par tia l pressure of water va por Pw = 0.12, of carbon dioxid e = 0 .16
= Pe Determine the non-lurninou s h eat transfer coefficient.

Solution:
Figure 3-Sc. Co rr ections Factor Ior Emissivi ty of Waler Vapor. [Pe nwe ll B ooks] Frorn Equation (3-15) th e bea rn length Lis calcu lated .

001
L = 1.08 x4 x4 - 0.785 x2 x2 = 6.9 in. = 0.176m
o o, 2
f\;l
o os -
Using Equation (3-18) with Tg = (1600 - 32)11 .8 + 273 = 1114 K. we
00<
obratn
FactorK = (0.8 + 1.6 >ciJ.12) x ( 1 - 0.38 x 1.]]4) ><028 =0.721
001 Y0.28 ><0.176
0 01
Frorn Eq uation (3-17): Eg = 0.9 xi l - exp(--(}.721 >ciJ.176)] = O.lm
0' DI H 10
-!>L-
Pe· P..
Then, frorn Equation (3-13):
Figure 3-5d. Correction Term Due lo
4-1160 4
Presence of Water Vapor and Carbon Díoxíde.If'enwell B ooks]
hN = 0.173 ><0.107 x10-<J 2,060 = 333 B culf t 2 hrF
1600 - 700
148 Wa s te Heat Bo ílcr Dcskbooj, w arcr Tube Boilc rs

Table 3-3. Factor e for Steam. d. in.

1.25
G. 1b.'l1·h
16.000 ...
0.025
14.000
Pres su re ' 0 .03
(p si a) : 100 500 10 00 2000 12.000
150
Re
10.000 ·0.04
Sal. : 0 .2 4 4 0 . 4 17 0 . 490 0 .900 9.000
1.75 t. ' F
8 .000 0 ,05
300
T'ernp , 7. 400
(F) 20 500 006
6.000
400 0 .271
988 00,

500
fiOO
0 .273
0 . 28 1
0 .3fiO
0 . 3 22 0 . 413
2.25

2.5
5.000
4.500
4.000
10.000
9.000
1.1
1.200
0.0 8
009
0.10
700 0 . 29 1 0 . 3 16 0.3 5 8 0 . 520 6 ,000
3 ,500 7,000
0 . 3 20 0 .34 5 0 . 420 275
800 0 .3 0 5 6.000 0. 12
3.000
900 0. 3 1 7 0 .3 2 7 0 .347 0.394 3.0 5.000 ' 0.14
1 0 00 0 . 325 0.3 40 0 . 35 3 0 .38 6 2.50 0 0 16
4,000
3.5 0.18
2.000 3.000 020
1.800
4.0 1.600
2000 0.25
GAS PRESSURE OR OP IN TUBE BA N KS

Figu re 3-7. To Find Reyn olds Number.(Oil and Gas [ournal]

I ¡ W,
- s,
.... Tub e bundles used in boiler supe rhea ters, econo mize rs . fired
I ., ~ r Ubo diamet af

J~
r-
.i -r o o o
S
l l - " - -O o o oo -.J
d hcaters, or pr ocess heaters offer resistance lo the flow of flue gases o r
10 0 0 0 0 ¡
l-w • air ílo wing ov er thern . Depending on the tube geo me try, pi tch
o o o I
1o o arrangeme nt, ternperature, and gas veloci ty used , the gas pressure
r- L Staggered arrangement drop will vary.Gas pressure drop can be costly in the long run as fan
Tube bundle power con sumption converted over the life of the equipment can be
I Sr I Tubo diametet Subslan lial. For exa rnp le. if the additional fan power is 10 k w
Nw nurnbef" 01 ll.e- wide
Se-.- 0 O O O O I d because of usin g high ga s velocities, the capitalized cost could be
~~~~~ I
u

abo ut $20,000, depending on cost of electricity, escalation, and

No.. ~ number 01 llmes deep interes t rates,
1 0 0 0 0 0
L ~ leng1ll 01 libe Several correla tions are available in the literature to predict
In-lIne arrangement
w - wldth 01 tulle bundle the gas pr essure drop . Each organization develops its own dala based
on síte operation and experience, w hich should be used lo give
accurate results. In the absence of such data, the gas pressure drop
Figure 3-6. Typical Tube Bundle Over a bundle of plain tubes may be predicted as follows for
CStimation purposes.
 \'la s te Hcat Boile r Dcskbook Waler Tub e Bail ers 151
150

Exam p le 6:
Plain Tubes
Flu e gases flo w o vcr a tube bu ndl e w ith a gas mass velocity o f
7,000 Ib/ ft 2h. Tube d iameter is 2.0 in., a nd gas tc rnpc ra ture is 800 °F.
(3-19)
Estim a te the Rey nold s u rnber.

Wh e re th e fri ct io n fac to r, is. is given fo r 2000 <Re <40,000 by

Soluti on :
the following corrcla tion s- For a n in -Iin e a rr angeme nt: Conn ec t d = 2.0 with G = 7,000 and extend to cu t lin e l . Connec t
wi th t = 800 to cu t Re sca le al 16,000. Fig ures 3-8 a nd 3-9 gi ve th e
fg = Re...{)·15 frictio n factor, lg, for staggc red and in-lin o ar rangcment s.

0.044 + 0.08 (STiJ) ] Exarn p le 7:

[ (STiJ _ 1)'0 '3 ' U3 JS¡) (3-20a) lf the ra tio or = (ST/d) = 2.2 and al = Sud = 2.0, est íma te the
fricti on fact or in s taggered an d in-Ii ne tu be b u nd les o f a bo ile r
For a s taggered arran gemen t: eva po ra to r.

(g =Re-0.110.25 + O.n 75 So lu tion :

1IY3]
l (S Ttd- l) (3-20b) For s taggered tu be bundles, in Fig ure 3-8, go u p from or = 2.2 to
cu t Re = 16,000 (an error of 10% in Re hard ly rna t ters ), and mo ve left
to cu t Ig scal e a t 0.074 . Th is is th e fric tio n fa ctor fo r s tagge re d
Re =.flL
Re, the gas Reyn olds Number is given by : 12j1 (J-Sa) arra ngeme n t; at: is not used.
In Figure 3-9, for in-line bund les, go up fro m a r = 2.2 to cu t a ~ =
Whe re G is th e ga s rnass ve loci ty, The m a ximum va lue of Gi s to 2.0. Move left to cu t referen ce lineo Connec t wi th Re = 16,000 a nd
be u sed in th e abo ye equa tio ns. Thi s maximum occurs in th e pl an e ex tend to cut I g sca le a t 0.043.
transverse to th e ga s flo w . Figure 3-10 g ives th e gas press ure d rop per ro w o f tubes if G, t,
and f g are kno w n based on Equation (3-19). Also the vel ocity, Vg, is
G= 12Wg ob tai ne d based on:
L[w - Nw(Sr - d)¡ (3 -6)
Vg = ---.S1-
Figure 3-6 is a typi cal arrángement of tubes. Th ro ug h th e 3600 pg (3 -2 1)
eq ua tio ns are not particulariy d iff icult, more time is spent on
ob ta inin g the viscosity and d ensity of flue g ases in order to estima te Th ere is no need to calculate th e gas d en sity Pg.
the Reynolds Number and pr essure drop.
Figure (3-7) has been d eveloped to give Re if gas mass velo city Example 8:
G, tube diameter d, and flue gas or air temperature are known. One In a boiler econornizer, flue gas es at 800°F a verag e tempera tu re
ne ed not look up g as propcrty tables for viscosity. Also.if viscosity is flo w over 16 rows of a tube bundle with a gas mass velocity of 7,OCO
known, Re may be found . Th e cha rt is reasonably accurate for air as Ib/ ft 2h . Friction factor found using Fig ure 3-8 for th e tu be geometry is
well as flue gases . 0.085. Estimate the gas velocity and the gas pressure d rop.
 \'last e Hcat Boiler Deskboo k wa ter Tu bc Boilers 153
152

Solu tion:
In Figure 3-10, connect I = 800 with G = 7,000 lo cut line ] al A.
0.15 Al so, read off V g = 63 ft/ sec as gas vclocity. Conn ect point A with fg
0.14 · = 0.085 lo cut (L1 pglNJI) scale al 0.]2 in., w c, Hence, total gas pressure
0 .13 drop = 16 x 0.12 = 1.92 in., wc ,
0.12
0 .11
0.10
" Re
009 · 2,000 P, v,. n/sec G o1PINH ¡

0.08 5,000 0.10

0.09 l. ·F.
5
1.
0.00 1
0.03
II
0.07 10,000 6
0.06 -
0.05
3.5
20,000
4.0 a, - 5,id
o.os 60
0.07 100
0.06
8
9
10
7 2.000

2.500
0.04

0 .05
II
0 .01 1
0.05

Figure 3-8. Friction Factor for Staggered Arrangement. 0.04

0.03
0.12
II '
0.14
0.02 0.16
0.18
0.01 0.20

002 250 12.000

300
14,000
0.03 0.01 400

~M
16.000
, ..
0.04
'" ~~.~--+----~..,."
0 .05 ,o''/...J"¿p Figure 3-10. Gas Veloci ty, Pressure Orop .

0.06
IN-UNE VERSUS STAGGERED ARRANGEMENT
0 .07

0.08 Inline arrangement is genera lly preferred wi th ba re tubes as

4.0
the ga in in he a t tr an sfer with staggered configuration is not
0.09 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5
CJ'T - 5,id
significant compa red to the increase in gas pressu re drop. The choice
of tube spaci ngs is based on conside ra tions of slagging or brid ging,
Figure 3-9. Frictlon Factor for In-Une Arrangement. distribution of exte rna l rad ia tion fro m flam e or cavities, gas pr essu re
 \'las te Hea t Boil er Dcskbook wat er Tube Boilcrs
155

dro p, h eat tra nsfer a nd fina lly thc rnec han ical Iigamen t efñci ency
in ca se of con vect ion scc tions using bo iler dru ms .
As th e lo ng it ud in a l pi te h inc rc ases, so will th e gas p ressure
d ro p a nd the length of the sectio n. The lo ng itu d ina l p itch sho uld be
lo w e no ug h to resul t in a lo w gas pr essure drop but la rge eno u g h to
y ic ld a good ligarn ent e ffi cicncy. The Io llowing exarnple co mpa res
inlin e versu s s tagg c r c o a rr<l ngl'me n t and a na lys es th e e ffec t o f
longitu d in al p i tch ,
Exam p le 9:
150,000 p p h o f flu e ga ses <11 900°F a re coo led to 500°F in a boil er
ge nera ling 12 5 psig s tearn . Ncg lc c ting th e effec t of non-lumino us
coeffi cient , study the effcc t of usin g lon gitud in al pit eh es of 3, 4 and 6
in . Tube diarnct er is 2 in ., a nd tran sver sc piteh is 4 in. Boile r duty is
16 MMBtu /h.
Thc foll owing points m <l y be no ted :
1. T ~e s tagge red a rrange me n l d ocs not h a ve a signifiean t
ínc rc a se m he o ver th e inline w he n the long itud inal p it ch to
diarnc te r rat io cxcceds 2. lt appea rs attractive belo w 1.5. Howe ve r
this rat io is no t wid cly used in ind us try d ue to th e fa et th at th e
lig<l me nt efficic nry is affected if a d r u m is used. A lso one ha s l o lo o k
a l the brid g ing o f tu bos by a sh par ticles o r s lag and c1e<ln i ng
consi d era tions if tu bos a re so closc.
2. Th e gas prcssu re dro p is mu eh hig he r for t he s tagge red
arrang em e nt. T here m al' be a tr a d e off if SI/ d is l ess th an 1.5 bU I
abo ye th is ratio , t he hea t tran sfc r coefficie n ts a re n ea rly the sa rne
for bo th in line a nd s tagge re d bu t th e gas p re s su r e d ro p wi th
stagge re d a rra nge me n t is m uc h hi g he r, resulting in a n cper a tin g
pena lty. ,
Th ere is so rne in crease in be arn Iength wit h a la rger Sl/d rat io

Solution:
Usi ng the p roced u re give n in exa rnp le 3, he wa s eo m p u ted for
th e variou s eonfiguralion . Non-lum inous radiation w a s n ot con-
side re d . The nurnber of rows dcep was estimated assuming that the
b ~ t the o ve rall benefit s are minima!. Henee an in line eo nf ig ur atio n
with a Stld a nd 51/d ra tio o f 2 is ge n erally used unl ess th er e a re
othe r reaso ns s ue h as externa l rad ia tion o r bridgi n g o f tubes w i th
molt en particles fro rn ash , whi ch m a l' req u ire a lar g e SI and Sto
I
o th e r resístances were negli gible. Th e g a s pressure drop was corn -
puted for ea eh case u sing th e eq uati on s given abo ye. The results ar e DESIGN OF EVAPORATORS
sh o w n in Table 3-4.
The s tar ting point in the d esig n of an eva po ra to r bundl e, Figu re
3- 11, is th e estirnatio n of overa ll h eat tr ansfer eoeffieie nt. Th e cross
Table 3-40 sectional da ta sueh a s the number o f tubes wid e, spaeing and leng th
Study of In-line Versus Staggered Arrangements of tubes are assumed. Based on th e m a ss vel ocit y, U is estimated . The
sUrface area is th en d et ermined foll o wed by the number of rows deep.
51/d 1.5 o 2.0 3.0 The gas pressure drop is then eva lua te d .
In -line Stagg ln -l ine Sta gg In-line Stagg This is only a fea sible designo Several options are po ssible
depending on th e size and ope ra ting cost, whieh is influeneed bv th e
he, Grimson 10.96 13 .79 12.81 13.13 12.91 12.69 gas pressure drop. Optimization is then resorted to, preferably using
he, Fishenden 11090 14.35 13.20 13056 13.30 13.20 a computer programo Th e following example iIIustrates the d esign
Friction Factor .0396 .0807 .04928 .0807 .0686 .0807 approaeh.
he, Average 11.50 14.07 13 13.35 13.10 12095
No.ofRows 49 40 43 42 43 43 Example 10:
¡jPo, in wc 1.32 2012 1.44 2.29 2.00 2.33_
. 150,000 pph of flue gas is reguired to be eooled .f ro m 900 lo 52O"F
In an evaporator generating saturated steam at 125 psig with 230"F
 156 Waste He a t Boiler Deskbook Water Tube Boilcrs
157

íecd w at er. Blow d own is 5%. Gas anal y sis is as íollo ws: % v~l
ume Lct us compu te the gas pressur e d rop . Ga s dens ity = (MW/3 59)
x
CO'> = 12, !-bO = ! 2, N2: 70 and 0 2 = 6. Hea t 10 55 from the cas
mg : 492/ (460 + T g ) : 29 x 492/ (359 x 1170) = .034 Lb/cu ft;! : 12920- 15
1.0%. Fouling Iactor s on stc.im and gas s ide = .001 sq ft h F/B tu. .
I.O·t4+ .OS x 2J = .0493. t1Po = 9.3 x 10- 10 x 5000 2 x 40 x .0493/.0
34 =
1.35 in ¡ve. The averag e hcat flux q (based on in ner d ia rnet e r )
So lu tion : = Ux
. . (Tg- ts) = 13.1 x (710-353) x 2/ 1.77: 5285 Btu/ sq ft h.
Le t u s ass u rne th e followi ng : Tu be s ize = 2 x .105 m . (inne
r The tern p cra turc drop across th e vari ou s res ista nces a re
d iarnet cr = 1.77 in.): nu m bcr w ide = 18; tu bc leng th = 10
feet; comput cd as in C hap te r 2. Orop across insi de film = 5285/20 00 =
tr a ns ve rse and lo ng itud ina l pi tch a re 4 in. , eac h. A verage 2.7 F.
gas Drop across inside fo uling =5285 x .001 = 5.3 F. D ro p ac ross tu be
temper ature = .s x (900 + 520) = 710°F = 650 K. Fluid ternpcr wall
a tu re = (.0004 x 1.77/2) x 5285 = 1.9 F. H cnce the o u ter w all tc m pe ratu re :
in side tu be s = 353°F. Hcncc film temper ature = .s x (353 +
710) : 353 + 2.7 + 5.3 + 1.9 =363 F.
53 10F. The gas p roperti es írorn Appen dix E a re:
C p= .270, J1 = .0645 ami k= .02345. Th e gas specific heat a t the No te tha t this is only a n averag e o u te r w al l tern pc ra tu re. The
hcat flux a nd the tu be wall tcmpe ra ture sho u ld be eva luated
avera ge gas te rn pc ra ture : .277. Ou tY = Q= 150,000 x .99 x .277x( at th e
90o- gas in le t, co ns ideri ng the no n-unifo rmity in gas flo w a nd ternpe
520) = 15.60 MMB tu/h . The stcam en tha lpy cha nge = 0 193-1 98) rat u re
+ .05 profile ac ross the boiler cross-s ecti on, No te al so that the hea
x (32 5-198) = 1001.4 Btu/Lb Henc e s tea m ge ne ra tio n = 15.60 t flux
x with ba re tubes is lo w cornpa red to th at w ith finned tu bes as w
106/ 1001.4 = 15, 580 Lb/h. ill be
show n la te r.
G = 150000 x12 / [18 x 10 x (4-2)J = 5000 Lb/sq ft h . Re =5000 x2/
Also, a n eva pora to r sec tio n may have seve ral co rnbina tio ns
(12 x .064 5) = 12920. Usin g Grimso ns Equa tio n, for a spacing of
of 4 in. tubc spaci ngs a nd fin con fig ura tio ns. Thi s d esi g n w ould
in line, Nu = .229 x 12920.632 =90.8 = he x 2/ (12 x .02345 ). He nce be us ed in
he: clea n gas applicati ons when th e inl et gas temp era ture is very
12.78 Btu / sq ft h F. h ig h
. . . where d u e to heat flu x a nd tub e wall o r fin tip tempera tu re concer
Let us co m pu te thc non-lurnin ou s coef ficient: partia l p ressur es of ns .
a few ba re tu bes wou ld be used followed by tube s wit h increas
C 0 2 and H20 = .12, Bearn len gth L = 1.08x (4 x 4 - .785 x 4)/2 in g fin
: 6:95 de ns ity . A lso in di rt y gas a pplicat ions, th e tu be s pacing wo u
in . = .176 m, K = (.8 + 1.6 x .12) 0 - .38 x .650) x .24/ (.24 x .176)':> ld be
: widc a l th e gas inl et due to slaggin g o r bridgin g concem s.
.872, Eg = .9 x (1-e - .872 x .176 ) = .128 . Assum e that th e surface In these
cases, an a nal y sis of eac h so rt o f a rra ngeme n l fo r heat trans fer
temperat ur e is 400°F. A reaso nable assu mp tion is 30 to 40°F abo and
ye the pressu re d ro p may be wa rra n led.
averag e flu id temperature. hn : .173 x.9 x .128 x [11.7 4-8.6 4]/
(1170 -
860) = .85. (An additio nal facto r of .9 w as u sed to accoun t
for the
em iss ivity of th e su rface'> .
Using a h¡ value of 2000 Btu / sq ft h F a nd foul ing factors of .001
for both inside and outside the tubes and a tube metal conductIvl . 't of
y SIMPLIFIED APPR OACH Tü DESIG N
25 Btu/ ft h F, 1/ U = 1/ (.85 + 12.78) + .001 + .001 x 2/1.77 + 0 /
2000) x
2/1.77 + 1 x In (2/1.77 )/ (24 x 25) = .07326 + .001 + .0011 + .000565
+ Whe neve r gas flows ou tside a lube bund le-as in water- tube
.0004 =.07633. Hence U : 13.1 Btu/ sq ft h F.
In boilers, econom izers a nd heat ex cha ng ers with hi gh heat-tra
ns fe r
Log-m ean temper ature d ifferenc e = [(900-3 53 ) - (520-35 3)]/ _
coeff icienl s o n the lu besid e- the overaIJ coe fficie n t is govem
(547/ 167) =320°F. Requ ired surface area = S = 156000 00/(320 x ed by
13,-t>- lhe gas-s ide res isl ance. Assu ming lh at th e o the r resis ta
3721 sq ft =3.14 x (2/12) x 18 x 10 x Nd ; o r Nd =395 use 40. Provlde n ces
d Contribu te ab out 5 % to th e tOlal, and neglect ing the effect of
surface area = 3768 sq ft. no n-
lumino us transfe r coeffici ents, one may write the express ion for
U as:
 \vas te Heat Boil cr Desk book \Valer Tubc Boilers
ISS 159

9 ' -{f "-11' Eq ua tio n (3-6) is va lid for both inline (sq uare or recta ng ula r

T~~I Q
pitch ) and stagge red (triang ular pitch ) arran g ements. Fo r bare tu bos,
\..
..
I

f- - - _ _
the d iffer en cc in ha bet wecn inl ine and stagge red a rra ng em en ts a t
Rey nold s number s and pitches found in practico is 3- 5%. Subst ituting
Equa tio ns (3-5) , (3-7) in Equa tion (3-6) and simp lify ing :
L.rn-------------,J Ij-

il["--- ]l
I

., '1' , Izo =0.945Co óF2kJ:·4

"::: ~", ,: : i (3· 23)
"'~'.-t
111 " " "
:::iiiii':I'I:,ITíi ¡i1:: ¡¡ ,
I
I
,
U = 0.9 C OóF21¿ ·4 (J -24)

111 " " " 1111"111

,,"ilUm' :,:¡I¡ jii:::
111:::: :, , ,:::::11 1
:::11111 P":II " 111 :::
111"" " "": U!
:::¡iiiiJf¡¡¡in:::
I
I I
1 ,
Table 3.
, I
I , Factors F2 and F3 For Air and Flue gas

i" I I 1! Tempera tur e/ oF F2

Air
F2/ Cp F3
111" ," ,
" 111 " " , , 111
jl :::iiiiii:,:!i!iii::: I II I 1'
1-'l~flH
-1" " 1"''''111
111 1 11
I'
I
100
200
0.0897 0.3730 0.5920
, 0.0952
~
...
lIJT
1II
III
"
1'

1
,','1
i i 300 0.1006
0.3945
0.4140
0.6146
0.6350
400 0.1056 0.4308 0.6528
b I -- --f'llr -r---------------j-
l _ 600 0.1150 0.4591 0.6810
I 800 O.]22 0 0.4750 0.6930
~ L-_ _ I4-t- - t- ---rl
]/0 00 0.13]8 0.4890 0.7030
],200 0.1353 0.5030 0.7 ]50

Flue g as
Temperature/ oF F2 F2/ C p F3

200 0.0954 0.3698 0.585 1

END YlE W 300 0.10]5 0.3890 0.6059
Figu re 3-11. Milti-gas Pass Evaporator Bundle [ABCO Indust ries) 400 0.1071 0.404] 0.6208
600 0.1170 0.4300 0.6457
800 0.] 264 0.4498 0.6632
u =0.95 1k, (3-22) ],000 0.]340 0.4636 0.6735
] /200 0.]413 0.4773 0.6849
wh ere the outside coefficient, h o, is obtained from
n, = 035 R.0.6P,OJ (Aue gas is assumed to have 12% water vapor by volume)
160
Wast c Heat Boilcr Des kboo k Wa ler Tu be Boilers 161
I I

(3 -25)
w h c rc :

· g lve
F2 IS . n In
. Tablee 3 -5, Cas-
, . trans
, . ¡>ort pro rperties a re compu ted at the
> Su bs titu ti ng for / in Equa tio n (3-30) and co mbining w it h
film tem pera tu re. Equa tion 3-29) we ca n relate ¡jPo to pe rform an ce in a single Equa tion :

(3 -26)
(3-3 4)

Com bining the ab o vc with Equa tio n (3 -1) a nd si mplifying :

(3 -35 )

QI¡jT: US : 0.9G 0 6F~d.JV..NdU(12¿ 4)
: 0.235F1G06N••NJÚi~ 6
S ub s ti tu ting for C fro rn Eq ua tio n (3-6)
F3 is given in Table 3-5. W ith the a bo ve cq ua tion , one ca n
(3 -27) casily calcula te th e geo metry for a given tube ban k so as to limit the
p ress u re dro p to a d esi red value . Two exa m ples w ill illustrat e th e
vc rsa tili ty of the techniqu e.

QMT: 1.036F1 W~·6N~ 4L 04Ndl (Srldo _1/"6 (3 -28)

The abo ve Equation relat es ther ma l per formance .to g~o.me~ ry .
Wh en th ere is phase ch an gc, as in boil er s, furth er sim plifica tion
lead s to:
If th e tube diameter and pit ch ar e kn own, one ca n es tima te N d or G
for a d esired therma l per forman ce. Let us now accou n t for g~s pressurc
drop. Th e Equation that relat es the ga s pr essure drop to G IS:
For inl ine arrangements, the friction factor is obtained frorn :
(0.43 + J.l3ddS')j
wh ere: X : [0 .044 + (O.08S¡/do)I(S,ldo - 1)
Exam p le 11:
In a wa te r- tu bo boi ler, 66,000 Ib/h of flu e ga s ar e cooled fro rn
1,160 to 440°F. Saturat ion temperature is 350 cF. Tu be 0 .0 . is 2 in. ,
and a n inline a rra ngem en t is used with S I : Sil: 4 in . Determi n e a
(3 -29) suitable co nfig uration to limi t the ga s pressure to 3 in., H20 .
Let us use Equ at ion (3-34) . Film temperature is O.5(Soo + 350) :
575°F. Int er po lat ing from Table 3-5 at 575°F, F3 : 0.643. Gas d en sity
at Soo°F is 0.031 lb / fP .
LlPO : 4,7S x 10-10 C 2.25 x (4 - 2 )In [(1,160 - 350) / (440 - 350»)[0.044 +
(3-30)
O.OS x 21/[2 0.75 x 0.643 x 0.031] : 128 x 10-10 G 2.25: 3. Hen ce, C :
5,200 lb/(ft 2 )(h ). From Equation (3- 6) one can choose d ifferen t
combinations of N w and L: NwL: 66,000 x 12/(2 x 5,200) : 76. If N w :
S, then L : 9.5ft. Calculate Nd from Equation (3- 29) .
(3-31)
In/(1160-350)1(440- 350)] : 2.197 : 2.82 (F1ICp )N" l Go.4(Sldo -1J<t·4 j •
(3-32)
or 2.197 : 2.82 x 0.426 N<t/(5.2000A x 1 ><2 0.4), or Nd = 74.

Another forrn of Equation (3-30) is: Thus, the en tire geometry has been arrived at.

w aste Hca t Boiler Deskbook
162
Examp le 12:
lf in the p re viou s case , Nd is tu be a maximum of 60 d uc to space
lirnita tion s. d etermine rhc geometry a nd pr ess ure d rop. Thc rrnal
pe rfo rman ce is unchan ged .
So lu tion:
Using Eq u a tion (3-29), lct us calcula te G:
2.197 = 2.82 x 0.426 x 60/(G DA x 1 x 20.4), o r G = 3,080. Fro rn Equation
(3-6): 3.080 = 66,000 x 12/1 N w L<4 - 2»), or N wL = 128.5. If we choose
N = 12, th en L = 10.7 ít. Co mp u te the ga s p re ss ure d rop, using
w 3
Equa tion (3-34). F3 = 0.643; X = 0.204; P= 0.031 Ib /ft .
0.75
LlP = 4.78 x 10-10 x 3,0802 .25 x 2 x 2.197 x 0.204/ 10.643 x 2
O
x 0.0311
= 0.91 in . H 2 0 . Once G or LlPo is fixed , the en tire configur a tion is
fixed. Of co u rse, adjus tm ents can be mad e to N w and L to ob tai n a
suitable geome try.
PERFORMANCE CALCULATIONS
Let li S see how the a bo ve boi le r behaves wh en th e gas inlet
temperature and flo w cha nge , whi le th e stea m parameters rernain
un chan ged .
Example 13:
Predict th e performance of the boiler in example 10 wh en the
gas flow = 130,000 pph and inlet ga s temperature = 1500°F. Gas
analysis is unchanged .
Solution:
Performance calculati on s are more in volved than design
ealculations, as we ha ve a given su rfaee area and the heat balance
has to be arrived at through a trial and error procedure.
The basic steps are:
1. Assume the exit gas temperature.
2. Calcula te U.
w ater Tube Boile rs 163
3. Com pute Qa, the assu med d uty = W o x Cp x( T l - T2) x h¡..
4. Calcul a te L1T, the log-rncan tem pe ra tu re d iffcrence.
5. Compu te Qt , thc tra nsfcrred d u ty = U xS x LlT.
If Qa a nd Q t do not agr ee, go back to step 1 and try a no ther cxi t g a s
tempe ra ture.
Fo ~ e va po ra to rs thi s is not a tcd ic us ca lcula tio n, bu t for
cco no rruze rs o r su pe rhe a tcrs, pa r ticularl y when thc re is more th an
o ne s tag e. the cal cul at ion s a re time con suming. Let the exit gas
tern pera ture = 700°F. The ave rage film ternperature = [.5 x (1500 +
700) + 3531 = 725°F. Gas proper ties a t 725°F from Appcnd ix E are: e =
.277, J1 = .07256 an d k = .027. P
G = 130000 x 12/ [18 x 10 x (4-2) = 43331b/ sq ft h.
Re = 4333 x 2/ (12 x .07256) = 9954
N u = .229 x 9954.632 = 77 = he x 2/(12 x .027); Hen ce he = 12.47
avera ge ga s tern peratu re = .5 x (1500 + 7(0) = ll 00°F = 866 K..
K = (.8 + 1.6 x .12) (1 - .38 x 866) / x (.24 x .176).5 = .782.
Eg =.9 x (1 - e- ·782 x .176) = .1286.
h n = .173 x .9 x .1286 x [15.44 - 8.6411(1540-860) = 1.49.
l / U = 1/(12.47 + 1.49) + 1/ (2000) x 2/ 1.77 + .001 x 2/1.77 + 2
ln(2/1.77)/24/25 = .0747; U = 13.38.
The assurned du ty = 130000 x .99 x (1500 - 7(0) = 29.8 MMBtu /h
(~p a t average ga s temper ature = .289) . Log-mean temperat u re
diffe rence = [(1500 - 353) - ( 700 - 353) lf ln [(1147/ 347) 1= 669°F.
:rransferred duty Qt = 3768 x 13.38 x 669 = 33.72 MMBtu /h. Since
the d iscrepan cy is larg e, and th e tran sferr ed du ty is highe r than the
ass umed d ut y, a no ther trial is required. Try 650°F as exit ga s
t e~p erature. There is no need to compute U again as the d ifferen ce
wJ11 be marginal.
Assumed duty Qa = 130000 x .99 x .289 x (1500 - 650) = 31.61
MMBtu/h. L1T = 629; U = 13.38; S = 3768.
. Transferred duty Qt = 629 x 13.38 x 3768 = 31.71 MMBtu/h. This
IS close en~ugh. Hence the new duty is 31.71 MMBtu/h and the
correspondmg steam flow = (31.71/15.60) x 15,580 = 31670 Lb/h.
Gas pressure drop is eomputed as before. Average ga s
te~pera~~~e = 1075°F = 1535 R; P = 29 x 492/ 359/1535 = .0259 Lb/ cu ft;
f - 9954· x (.044 + .08 x 2) = .0512. L1Po = 9.3 x 10- 10 x 43332 x 40 x
.0512/ .0259 = 1.39 in we. Tube wall temperature and heat flux may be
computed as befo re.
 16-\ \Vas te H cat Boilcr Des kboo k
A SIMPLIFIEO APPROACH
TO PR EOI crI NG EVAPORATOR PERFORM ANCE:
Usi ng the app roach disc usscd in Cha p ter 2, Equ at ions (3-25) lo
(3 -27), wc ha ve:
(3 -3 6)
Subs ti tu ting th e va lu cs, we ha ve :
/11 {(1500 - 353)/(T2 - 353)J = 13.38 x 3768 / (1 3‫סס‬oo x .289 x .99) =
1.355. H ence T 2 = 649°F .
If th c e ffcct s o f no n-lu rniu ou s hea t trans fer a nd fo u ling a re no t
sig nifica n l a n d the gas ana lysis or ternpera turc do not c~a nge mu ch
lo warranl changes in ga s specific heat a nd othe r pro perties, one can
sirn pliíy th e abovc eq uati on fur thcr . U is proportional lo Wo ·6 and S
is a consta nt for a given boiler.
(3-3iJ
T h e aboye eq u a tio n m ay be used to predict eva po ra t~ r
performa nc e kee pin g in m ind the assurnptio ns m ad e . Co nsta nt y IS
firs t es tima ted based o n des ig n co ndi tions, Then for any o the r case of
ga s flo w or inl et tcm pera turc. the exit gas te~perat~re a nd duty can
be p redic ted. This proced ure is useful Ior qui ck es tim a tes and w hen
one d c es not ha ve th e tim e lo co m pu te U. It ma y al so be used to
predict the performance of a given bo iler a t an oth er condition, based
o n field data for a particular condition .
In the case of Example 13, there cou ld be sorne errors in us ing the
aboye equation, as the gas temperature is significantly different
fro m the design case. However the method may be used for
estimation purposes as illustrated below.
Example 14:
A boiler operates with a SCR. As discussed in Chapter 1, the
gas temperature at the SCR should be within a bandwidth of
Wat er Tu be Iloile rs
165
tem perat urcs lo ob tain the d esired performan ce of the catalyst . The
SCR ~'as _bee n d es ig ned for a gas tcrnpe rat u ro of 650°F when the gas
flow 15 5:>0,000 pph and gas inle t tcmpcraturo lo the boiler is 11200F.
Stearn p ress u re is 300 psig.
De term ine the gas tern perat ur e a t the SCR wh en the g as flow is
518,000 pph a nd thc gas inl e t lem per a ture lo th e eva p o ra to r is
1240°F. Ass u m e th a t the gas a na lys is and cx te n t of fou ling h a vo not
cha nged m ucho
I
Soluti on:
I
¡
The sa tu rat ion tem per atura is 422°F. Usi ng Eq ua tio n (3-37), In
II
{(l120 - 422)/ (650 - 422)J = Y/55‫סס‬OO.4 . Hen ce Y = 221.27; For the new
cond itio ns, In r(1240 - 422)/ (T2 - 422)] = 221.27/ 518000.4 or T2 = 6820F.
¡
Th is is a good es tima te for eng inee ri ng purpo ses. If this is I
wi th in the reco m me nd ed ba ndwid lh of te m pe ral u res, the orig ina l I
I
design is ac ceptable.
SELEqING OESIGNS WITH
LOW PINCH ANO APPROACH POINTS:
The evapo ra to r gene ra tes m ore s team if th e p in ch and
approach poi n ts are lower as d iscu ssed in Chapter 4. Ho we ver lo wer
these va lúes, more will be th e su rface ar ea requ ired a nd higher wi ll
be t.he gas press~re d ro p . Th e optirnum choice is based on a n an alysis
of. flx~ a nd vanable costs. Sho wn below is a study for an e va po ra to r
with fmned tubes for ga s turbine HRSG . For ealcu lations with finned
tubes and methods of determining overall heat transfer coeffieient
and pressure drop, see Appendix A.
. By seleeting designs which have a low pinch and approach
pornr, one can maximize th e e ne rgy rec overy a nd g enera te m or e
steam. However a few aspects should be eonsidered.
. a. The surface area of the evaporator gets larger as the pinch
pomt decreases and reaches a point where it beco mes eounter
produetive in terms of cost and size. Typical unfired pinch point
ranges from 15 to 30°F for evapora tor with ext ended surfaees. On ce
the nf ed . h . . I
u Ir pinc pomt IS se ected, the performance at other ambient
COnditions as well as in fired modes can be evaluated, as seen in
 Waste Heat Boiler Dcs k boo j; Wal er Tu be Boi lers 167
166

Ch a pter 4. As the ga s inlet tcmpcr ature increas es, the pin ch

point Based o n thc d iffer ent ial cost, o ne can compu te the paybac k.
nA
in crca ses and vice ver sa . Gene ra lly the payb ack ranges from 8 to 20 months, Sclecling desig
vo bee n a po or decisio n . Simila r
b. Th e ga s pressur e drop al so in creas es as the pinch point bas ed on first cost a lone woul d ha
and app roa ch
dccrca ses resultin g in an opcrati ng penalty . Approx irna tely
an a n~ lysis may be rn ad e lo a rrive al the op tim um pin ch
drop results in a 1% drop in po m ts for an y evapora tor.
additio nal 4 in. WC gas pr cssurc
electríca l power ou tput of thc ga s tu rbine.
Table 3-6.
c. The approa ch po in t is initially selecte d based on unfired cold
arnbi cnt conditi ons. Steami ng is a concer n at low arnbien t
conditi ons Perfonn ance of AIterna te Desig ns
whcn the ga s inlet tcmpcr ature is low as in g as turbine applica tions.
Pr oblern s a ssociat ed with steamin g and m ethod s of avoidin g
sa rne in the econom izer a re discusscd in Chapte r 1.
the Design A
Unfire d Fin, 1
Design B
Unfire d Fire d
i
I
I
Table 3-6 shows two designs for two differe nt values of pinch
a re 1. Gas flow, pph 150,000
poin ts . T he gas in le t co nd itio ns a re th e sarne. The H RSGs f
and 22°F and a 15°F 2. Gas temp to evap, F 900 1086 900 1062
d esi gned ba sed on unfired pin ch points of 41 I
fired 3. Temp to eco, F 407 419 I
approa ch point and then their perfo rmance is evaluat ed in th e 388 393

I
of stea m. 4. Stack tern p, F 332 329 309 302
conditi on wh en they are requi red to genera te 30,000 pph
the 5. Gas dp, in WC 4.20 4.60 5.40
Note tha t in gas turbine exhau st boilers , the oxygen con ten t in 5.80
to16% by vo lu me typicall y if stearn is not 6. Steam (150 psig sat ) 22107 30000 22985 30000
exhaus t gas ranges from 14
mor e 7. Feed wa ter ternp, F <- - - 230
in jec ted a nd hence additio nal fue l can be fired to genera te >
es a re di scussed lat er in 8. Temp to evap, F 351 337 352 340
stea m Th e per forman ce ca lculation pr ocedur
this cha p te r and also in Chap ter 4.
H RSG A is d esign ed with a pinch poi n t of 41°F, while B w ith
22°F. The stearn produc tion and gas pressu re drop a re hig her
d es ig n B. In the fired rnode, whi le makin g 30,000 pph stearn,
tiona l íuel, whi le B only 6.9 MMBtu
with

/h
A
9. Bumer duty, MMBtl l/h
10. Gas tur bine output, kW
(Nomi nal)
11. Su rface area-ev ap, Sq ft
- Eco, sq ft
O 8.10
< - - - 4500
O

<-- 13227 - -> <-- 16534- - >

<-- 5948 --> < --892 2-- >
6.90
>
I
req uires 8 .1 MMBtu / h addi
unit 12. Pinch point, F 41 53 22 27
(o n lower heat ing value LHV ba s is). Assum ing that the
fired mod es, the followi ng 13. Approa ch point, F 15 29 14 26
operat ed 50% of th e time in unfi rcd a nd
a na lysis can be mad e to evalúa te each alt erna tive.
Let the fuel cost = 2.7 $/MMB tu (LHV ), cost of s tea m = 3$/100 0
pound s and electric ity = 5 c/kWh . The im proveme n t of design B
ov er COMP ARIS ON OF BARE
A in dalla r terms is as follows: VERS US FINN ED EVAP ORAT ORS
due to extra steam in unfircd mode =878 x 3 x 4000/10 00 =$ 10536
due to added fuel in fired rnode = 1.2 x 4000 x 2.7 = $ 12960 Appen di x A compa res the desig n o f an eva po ra tor bundl e for
• due lo loss in electrical power output = (using the approx imation
The
the same gas parame ter s with and withou t finn ed tu bes.
t, has fewer row s
lhat4 in . p ressure d rop is equival ent lo 1% less gas turbine power eonclusions are that a finned bundle is mo re compae
of ~ubes resulting in lower gas p ress ure opera ting eost and
ou tput) = - 1.2 x 4500 x .05 x 8000/4 00 = $5400. Hence d esign B d ro p and
offers $ 18096 00536 + 12960 - 5400) in va lue ov er design A per welghs less. Ho wever the heat flu x is rnuch higher with finned tubes
not
y ear. and care sh ould be tak en to en sure that DNB conditi ons ar e
 168 was te Heat Boiler Desk book \Valer Tube Boiler s
169

rca chc d Thi s can be han dled by Le t ave rag e surf a ce tem per atu
des ig n ing a few ro ws at th e re of rad iant sec tio n :: 400 °F.
ga s tc m pcra ture por tion s with hi gh
a low cr fin d cns ity and in crea Sllr fa ce ar ca fo r h c a t tra ns íc
sing the r :: (8 + 10) x 2 x 25 :: 900
fin d ensi ty as the ga s gets coolcr. Tran sfcr rcd c nc rg y :: Q t :: .173 sq ft.
. .9 x .29 x (20.6 4 - 8.6 4 ) x 900
No te al so that as di scu sscd in
App cnd ix A, the eff ect of foul MM Btll /h . Rcq ui red dut y :: = 7.1
on tu be sid e is mag nifi ed se vera ing 150 ,000 x .99 x .308 x 200 ::
! fold with a finn ed bun dle com 9.15
par ed :-"lM Btu /h.
to a bar e tube bun dle. Since th ere is a larg e di scre pan
cy and th e requ ircd dutv is m ore
a. l a~~er surf a ce area is requ ired ,
. As th c fu rna ce leng th ' doe s
51gm fIca n tly ch a nge th e bcar n n o!
leng th and hen ce th e gas e rnis
wc ca n a ssur ne that th e tran sivi ty,
sf erre d dut y is p rop orti on al
RA DIA NT H EA T TR AN SF ER su rfac e arca . Hcn ce th e requ ired to th e
SU RF AC ES furn ace len gth = (9. 15/ 7.1) x 25
ft.
= 32
Rad ian t sect i ons u sin g p arti
ally or fu lly wat e r co ol ed
mem bra ne wall d esig ns a re
use d to coo l ga s s trca rns a t h ig
tem pe ra tu res, Figu re 3-12 . The h gas
y gen e ra te sa tu ra ted stea m a n
o p e ra te in pa ralle l with con vec d may
tive e va por a to rs if any . The
pro ced ure is sim ple and may desi gn
ín vo lve an iter a tion or tw o . The d ru :'1
th e pa rtia l p ress high er GAS
u res of triat o m ic gas es, the h ig her will be th e non
- IN
lum inou s rad ia tio n and hence
th e dut y.
lf a b u rne r is use d as in th e ra
d iant sectio n of a furn ace fired
HRS G, the e mis sivi ty of the
f1 ame h a s a lso to b e con side
e xp la in ed in Cha pter 1, rad iant red . As
gas es to b el ow th e so fte ni ng
avo id brid g in g o r slag ging a t
sectio ns a re ne ce ssa ry to coo
p o ints o f eu tect ics if pre se nt
th e con vec tion sec tio n . The y
so
l the
as to
r-o.d tc rrt
s ec t ro n i I
requ ired to coo \ gas es to a reas
if it is use d .
ona ble tem pcra ture at th e sup erh
a re also
eater I
o ow nc ome r'
Exa mpl e 15:
150 ,000 pph of flu e gase s at 17o
o°F has to be coo led to 15oo °F
a ra di ant se ctio n of cros s sec tio in
n 8 Ieet x 10 feet . Sa tu ra ted stea GAS
150 p sig is gen erat ed b y th rn at
e gas es. Det erm ine the leng
a naly sis is: % volu me o f C0:2 :: th . Gas OU T
12, H20 :: 12, N 2 =70 and 0 2 =
6.

Sol utio n:
Let the leng th = 25 ft. Bea
m len gth (see abo ye ) = 3.4
vo lu me /su rface = 3.4 x 8 x 10 x X
25/ (8 x 25 x 2 + 10 x 25 x 2+2 x
6.4 ft = 2 m . Ave rage gas tem pera 10 x 8):::
ture = 160 0 F = 1144 K. Usi ng (18)
= (.8 + 1.6 x .12 ) (1-.38 x 1.144 ) x ,K
.24/ (.24 x 2).5 = .194;
E g = .9 x (l-e - .194 x 2) =
.29. Figur e 3-12. Radi ant Section
 170 \'laste He a l Boile r Deskbook Wa le r Tube BoiJers

HR SG Configurations and Circula tion

VI
Fig u res 3-13a-i shows vario u s ty pe s of eva po ra tors and the L
QJ
co nfig u ra tio ns th ey can ass u me d e pcnd in g o n a vailability of space, E: V1
lay o u t co ns idc ra tio ns, gas and s tca rn pararnet er s and cost.
o L
u QJ
c E:
Fig ure 3-13a s hows a two ga s-p ass d esig n oIn th is ty pe o f d esign, ):
o
th e gas makes a 180 d cgrec turn afte r pa ss ing throug h the firs t pass. "U
The bo tto m and top hal f of th e cvapo ra to r tu be s are sepa ra tcd by a
baffl e pla te . T his d es ign o ffe rs a lo t o f flexib il ity in terrns of gas
inl c t and ex it loca tions. T he gas inlet ca n be fram th e bo tto rn o r side
o r cven fra m thc to p and th c o utlc t ca n be a l the top o r side and
bott o rn . This des ig n occupies a sma ll f1 0 0r s pa ce. Whe n the gas u
te rnpcra ture is hig h as in fired gas turbin e ex ha us t a ppl ication s. the ".
firs t half can co ns is t o f ba re o r lo w-finned tu be s, while the to p half E
..,
ca n ha ve tu bes wit h a high er (in d e nsity . T h e cconomi ze r is locat ed V1
t.
e
..,o-
al thc gas ex it sec tion . Th e s u pe r hea ter ca n be loca ted at the gas c.: tt
t:
in lelo o .E
L:
e
The un h eat cd (ins u lated) d o wnco rners are lo ca ted a t the gas
lum ing se ctio n. Th ese pipes ca rry the wa te r lo the rn ud drum and ar e
~
O .g'"
"O g
respo nsible for the cireu la tion . ~
Fig ure 3- 13b is a si ng le gas pass eross flo w d esi gnoThe height 5
U
ha s no Iimitati on s but thc wid th d epend s o n sh ip p ing clea ra nces. CJ

The do w n co rne rs are loeat ed o n c ither side of th e ca sing ex te rna ! lo .§"

..,
I
¡
th e gas pa th . Th e boi ler tu bes aet a s ri sers. In larger u n its th e stearn >
d r urn can be ext erna! to th e h ea d ers a nd ex te r na l d owncorners an d 1rz i
risers sho u ld be used to prorn ot e circ u latio n .
M

<,",
I

I
Fig u re 3-13 e is a w id e ly uscd d esig n, par tieu larly in O o r A or O E
type boilers or evaporators for d irt y g as applicat íons, wher e a lar ge &
ü:
nurnber o f bare tubes are require d. The la st few rows of th e
evaporator aet as downcorners and the rest as risers. No ext ernal
eir eulation systern is required unl ess this module is in p arallel w ith
VI
another sec tio n . L
In Figure 3-13d se ve ra ] c va pora to r modules are eo nneeted in ,~
parallel throu gh a system o f downcorners and risers to th e stea m
~----,.--~ B "U
'-- c
drum. This design is used when a screen section is needed as diseussed
in Chapter 1. A su p erhea te r may be sandwiehed between the two
'"
o
"U

evaporator modul es. Also, jf a large number of evaporator rows are

needed and eaeh module can be built with only sa y 22 to 24 rows
deep, multiple modules may be rcquired.
 Wa stc Il cal Boilcr Dcskboo k Watc"r Tubc Boilcrs
172 173

1
I

i
.J .:'--- -

Figure 3-13g. Single Gas Pass Evapora lor (ABCO Indu stries) Figure 3-13h. Two Gas Pass Evapora tor [ABeO Industrie s)
174 Wasle Hea l Boiler Ocskbook Waler Tube lloile rs
175

· ·... circ u la, tio n d es ig n wit h c xte rna l

Fi u rc 3- 13e s h 0 \.... 5 a forcco head ava ila b lo to move the s tea rn wa te r mi xt ur e thro llg h the syst e m
g c rs and n.scrs an d C1rCII.
d owncorn ci la tion pumps to cnsu re flow o f stez m is ba la nccd aga inst thc var io us losses s uc h as :
w ater mi xture throu g h th e ovapo ra to r tu be s.
Figure 3-13f show s a rae1ian " t sec tion w ith exte rn a l d o wncomers l . Friction lo sscs in d own co me r pipes.
a nd r íscrs. 2. Fri ction losscs in riscr pipes a nd boil er sys te m.
3. C ra vity losscs in boilcr and riser sys tcm.
4. Accelera tio n losses due to p ha se change.
5. Losses in drurn int ernals .

To s ta r t wi th, a c irculatio n rati o (CR) is assumed and t h e

Figure 3-13 i. Hori zontal Gas Flow Evaporator (ABCO Industries]
CIRCULATION CALC ULATIONS
The abjective of circulation calculations is to ensure that ~he
heated riser tubes are adequately cooled and whet~e~ th: heat n ~
inside the tu bes is low enough to prevent condition now rhe
O rture from Nucleate Boiling (ONB). Reference 3-1 s~~ws
ca~~;lation procedure to evaluare circulation and ~NB con~itio~:,
an
1 arder to perform circulation calculatio ns, which 1
íte ra tiv e process for natural circulation boilers, the sta tic therm a
va rio us losses a re det errn in cd and balanced agai nst th e th e rrn a l
hcad a va i la b le. If they d o ri ' t ba lance, a n ot h e r i tera tio n is
wa rra n ted .
O n ce th e CR is d et er m ined , th e hea t flu x a nd th e vapo r q ua li ty
or d ry ne ss fra cti on in the riscr tu bes a re d eterrni n ed a lo ng its le ngt h
and a t cri tica l po ints a nd co mpa re d w ith all owable dryness fract io n
for th e heat flu x in q ues tion . Alte rna tiv ely th e a llowabl e hea t flu x
may be comp uted a nd compa re d wit h actual he at flux a t va riou s
locati o ns.
The sys te rn is sa fe as long as th e actua l heat flu x is lower th a n
the all owabl e, CR in n atura l circu la tio n bo ile rs rang es fro m 5 to 30
depend ing o n the pressure and layo u t. A sys tem n eed not be d esig ned
Ior a particular CR a s lon g as the a ctual heat flu x is Iower th an th e
allo wa b le for th e ex is ting s tea rn co n d itíons ,
In for ced circulal ion un it s, th e syst ern can be desi gn ed for a
particular CR say 4 lo 10 as th e lo sses in the ev a pora to r tubes are
usu all y larg e co m pa re d lo natural circulati on units and th e th errnal
head is inadequate to handl e th e lo ss es .
The circulation pump can be selected to handle the additional
losses. The allowable heat flux ins id e horizontal evaporator tu bes is
much lower than that inside vertical tubes. Hence one has to be
careful in selecting the fin configuration in fired HRSCs. The tube
side velocities should also be such that the vapor does not separa te
from the bulk water-stearn mixture. These factors and the tube
Configuration eventually determine the CR and pump sizing in forced
circulation HRSGs.
 Was te Heat Boilcr Deskbook wat er Tube Boiler s li7
176

D ESIG N OF SUPERH EAT ERS
Su p erhea ter s are u scd in wa stc hea l boil er s lo su perhea t the
s tea rn tha t is ge ne ra ted in th c was te h eat boil e r: so m e timos addi-
tional s tea rn from o the r boilcrs may al so be su pe rhe a ted. Satu ra ted
s tea rn may oftcn be tak cn of f for process from the wast e heat
boi ler evapora to r drum and the bal ance cou ld be superheared.
These si tua tions a rise in chemical pl ants a nd refine ries . Hen ce one
ha s lo unde rs tand the proccss requ ir eme nl s before d es ig ning the
equipmenl.
Unlike ut ilit v boilers. thc stca rn lemperature a nd pressure are
gene ra lly low, varying from 600 to 1500 p sig and 600°F lo 900°F. If
s tea m is used for injection int o a gas turbine o r for use in steam turbine,
high purity s tearn is rcqu ired , on the o rde r o f 50 lo 200 p pb so lids in
s tea m. H ence good stea rn purifying equip me n t may be req u ired .
De pe nd ing on th e type of was te heat boil er used and th e spa ce
o r layo u t considerati ons. se veral ty p es of s uperheater d esi gns are
fea sible . Figure 3-14a-f shows a Iew ty pes.
radia nt energy if necessary. The unil is drai nable; th c gas flo ·...-s
,Jlon g thc hcader direc tion ,
. Figure 3-14e co u ld be used in an y situa tic n: this des ign ha s
horizonta l tu bos bu t ve r tical gas flo w direct ion .
Fig ure 3-14f sho ws a sup erhea ter for tall, less wi d e uni ts, as in
gas turbine applica tio ns. The tu be s a re ver tical and drainable us in ez
hcad crs a l th e b otto rn of eac h tu be . By splilting the head er,
múltiple st rearns cou ld be arranged. The gas flow is horizontal.
In addition, these desi gns could be a rranged in parallel, counter
or mi xed flow configurali on. The unil co uld be split up int o two ot
more mod ules for s tearn tcmperature co ntro l pu rposes and could ha ve
sing le or multipl c s trea rn depending o n s team side pressure drop a nc
tube wa ll tern pera tu re. Also, the uni ts cou ld be of ba re lube des ig n o r
rn ad e co rnpact by usin g fin ned tube s, d epend ing on th e c1eanliness o :
the ga s st rea rn: soo t blowers as req u ired may be u sed wit hin th e
superhea ter bund le or ah ead of o r be y ond il.
lo 000

~O O~
Figure 3-14a sho w s a su pc rhea te r wi th vertical header s and
horizo n ta l tu bes, wi th the gas flow d irect ion be ing ho rizon tal. This
d esign fits we ll in a sho rt bu t ve ry wide boi ler, such as the two-
g a s p as s d esign sho wn in Fig . 3-13a . The headers a re drain able.
Baffles co u ld be used in the head ers lo m at ch th e nu mber of par allel
C OOOO
O
0000
"'O O O O
000 0
0000
00 0 0
l o 0 10 O
[] l=r
s t rea rns . o. e d
b
Fig u re 3-14b s ho w s a un it which has horizon tal tu bes with
horizontal h eaders and is d esig ned fo r horizontal gas flow . The
heade rs a re baffled to accounl for the strea m requ irement; the unit is
d rai nable a nd finds applica tion in s ho r t boilers which h a ve layout
o
limitations.

fL
Figure 3-14c shows a drainabl e inverted loop su pe rhea ter; this
is used for small d egr ee of superheat in units where space is a concern-
Th e unit could be buried within a convectio n bundle or space.
Figure 3-14d shows a design that may be used within a
convect íon bundle. Th e advanlage is tha t it could be located in a e f
convenient gas temperature zone so as to obtain a bandwidth of s team Figu re 3-14a-l. Various Confi gurations lar Superh ea ters
temperature w ith out the need for control; an example would be a
fired D-type or Ostype boiler. One can also a void incidence of
 Wa st e !-Ieat Boiler Deskbook Water Tube Boilers 179
178

T he s u pe r hca tc rs could be locat ed wi thin a re fra cto ry (Ir

insu laled d uct o r in sid e a rne rnbrane wall cnclosu re. Depend ing on
thci r loca tio n. supe rhcatcrs cou ld be classificd a s ra d iant, semi-
radi ant o r convec tive . In gene ra l, if the s tearn te m p c ra tu re is no l
high, say be low 90ü°F, s upcrhea ters a re d esigned as convective units .

DESIGN PROCEDURE
Rgure 3-14g .
A Drainable Su pe rhea ter
[ABCO Industries) A s u pc r heatc r rcceives e nerg y fro rn th ree so u rccs, nam e ly
cxte rna l radiat io n, co nvec tion a nd non-lurninous radiat io n.

(3-3 ~ )

Ex te rna! rad iation Q, may be due lo presence o f a flarn e in the

íurnace o r due lo a cavi ty . Later we s ha ll see ho w lo estimare t he
con trib u lion fro rn thi s so u rce and th e effe ct of tube pit ch o n ene rgy
abso rbe d by eac h ro w .
.Qc a nd Qn a re co rnpu ted as s ho w n ea rlie r by es tim a tíng th e
convec tive and no n-Iu rninou s heat trans fer coefficients. Th e su rface
arca req uired is th en obtained fro m:

Qt - Qr = Qc + Qn = US L'1T (3-39 )

U is co m p u ted as shown ea rlier af te r co rnp u ting h¿ h n and h¡.

The s tea rn side pr essure drop is ob tained fro m:

(3- 40)

An exa m ple illu strates the d esign procedure.

Figure ~ 14h . A Large
Superheater Under Example 16:
Erection A su pe r hea te r has lo be designed to superhe at 30,000 p ph o f
[ABCO Industries]
saturated s tea rn at 635 psia to 782°F using 150,000 pph of flue ga ses a t
l OOO°F. Gas an aly sis is: % vol ume C02 = 12, H20 = 12, N2 =70, 02 =
6. Tube size is 2 x .120 a nd tubes are of ca rbo n and low alloy stee l, SA
192 A and SA 213 TI1 materials. Tube pitch is 4 in., square. Assume
foul ing factors of .001 sq ft h F/ S tu on ea ch side and a 1 % hea t 1055.
 lSO Was tc I Icat Boiler Dcskbook
Ass ume a Iso tha t the su perhea ter is of co nvectivc ty pe and the
configuration is co unter fl o w.
So lu tion:
The cnthalpy of s tearn at exi t fro m s tea m ta b les = 1397.5
Btu/Lb a nd that a t inlet is 1202.6. Hcnce thc du ty = 30000 x (1397.5 -
1202.6) = 5847000 Btu/h. The gas tc m perature d ro p =5847ooo/(] 50000
x .99 x .2851) = 138°F. Hc nce the exi t gas tcrnpcrat ure = 862 °F. Thc
average gas te m p er at ure = 931°F; the a ve rage s tea m te m pera tur e is
637 °F; hence th e gas film tc m pera tu rc = 784°F. No te that the s tcarn
inle t tempera tu re is 492°F. From Appendi x E, the ga s properties a l
784°F a re : Cp = .2795, J1 = .07566, k = .02826.
Ass u mc that there a re 18 tubcs / ro w, an d th e eff ecti ve len gt h is
9ft. Use 9 s trea rns fo r stea m flo w . Hen cc w = 3333 Ib/h, G = 150000 x
12/[ 18 x 10 x (4 - 2) =5000; Re =5000 x 2/ 12/.07566 =11015.
Us ing G rimsons co rre la tio n, Nu = .229 x 11015 .632 = 82.1 = he x
2/(12 X .02826) ; H en ce, he = 13.90. h n using the eq ua tio ns (3-17) and
(3-18) can be s how n to be 1.5. h¡ using a C factor of ·335 = 2.44 x 3333'8
x ·33 5/ 1. 738 1.8 = 198. l /U = 1/(1 3.9 + 1.5) + .001 x 2/1.738 + 2 In
(2/ 1.738)/ 24/ 20 + .001 + 2/ (1.738 x 198) = .074; hence U = 13.5 Btu/sq
ft h F.
Log- mea n te m pera ture di fference for co u n ter flow a rra ng emc nl
is: (1000 - 783) - (862 - 492) / In (370/2 17) = 287°F. Hence surface arca
S req ui red = 584 7000 /(13.5 x 287) = 1509 sq ft = 3.14 x 2 x 18 x 10 x
Nd/ 12; hence Nd = 16 ro ws,
In order to compute the pressurc drop in side th e tu bes, the
effec tive length should be known. Since there are 9 s trea ms and.la
sec tio ns and 16 rows, Le = 10 x 2 x 16 x 32 x 2.5 x 1.738 = 459 ft, using
2.5xd¡ for the effecti ve length of each tube bend . Using Equation(3-
40), L1P¡ = 3.36 x.02 x459 x 333 2 x .935/1.7385 = 20.3 psi where .935 ís
the specific voIume of steam at the average temperature. . NTU METHOD OF
Gas pressure drop may be obtained frorn the charts or by usmg
Equations (3-19) to (3-21). Ga s d ensity al the averag e temperature of
931°F, P= .0285 Lb/cu ft; f = 11015-. 15 x (.044 + .08 x 2) =.05. L1Po 9.3 =
x 10-10 X 50002 x 16 x .05/.0285 =.66 in. we. I or economizers is by us ing the NTU (Number of Transfer Units)
Waler Tube Boilers
I Bl
PERFO RMAN CE CALCULATIONS
The proced u re for evaluating the p erformance invol ve s triar
and e r ror as discu ssed in Chapter 4 and is illust rated bv the
following cxarnple. .
Exam p le 17:
Determine the perfo rmance of the superhea ter des igned above
wh en the ga s flow is 125,000 pph and inle t te m p erature is 9500F.
25,000 pph of sat u rated st eam at 635 °F enters the superhcater. Gas
analysis is the sa rne as before .
Solution:
Th e procedure in vol ves tr ia! a nd erro r. Th e s teps are:
1. Assume a n exi t temper ature fo r s team; comp u te ass um ed du ty
Qa a nd exi t gas tempera ture.
2. Compute U a nd tran sferr ed duty QI = U »s XL1T.
3. If Qa a nd QI a re close, the iteration s tops o r a no the r tria l is
wa rra n te d .
. Le t the exi t s tea m temper at ure = 750°F; the en lha lpy of stearn
IS1378.5. Assumed du ty = Qa = 25000 x (1378.5 - 1202.6) = 4397500
Btu/ h.
The gas te m pera ture d rop = 4397500 / 125000/·99 / ,283 = 125 ~F.
He nce the exi t g as te m p erature = 825°F. Log-mean tem p era tu ra
d iffer ence L1T = 261°F. he = (125000/1 5000 0)·632 x 13.92 = 12.4; h =
n
1.3; hence U = 12.12. Tra ns fer red duty QI = 1507 x 261 x 12.12 =
4770000 Btu /h.
Since th e transferred duty is hig her th an th at assumed, the
steam ex it temperature will be higher. It can be shown that the d uty
ba.lances at 4570000 Btu /h; th e exi t s tea m temperature = 761°F and
eXI! gas lea ve s at 820°F. Th e gas a nd s tea m pressure drops may be
Obtained as be fo re.
PERFORMANCE CALCULATIONS
Another m ethod of predicting th e performance of superheat ers
-

\'la st e Heat Boi ler Dcskboolc wat er Tu bc Boilcr s

182 183

mcthod . This p ro eedure av o id s ileralio n in the se nse that once of th c tube and is used in ASME ce de calcul ati on s lo d etermin
U is e th e
delerm ined, th c duty ca n be a rrivcd al withou t a ssum ing rubc thicknc ss a s di scu sscd in Appcnd i x F.
the exi t
tcrnpcr aturc of eithcr flui d . 11 sho uld be no tcd howcvc r that in Th e outcr wall tcm pc ra tu re determ ines the material ro be u sed
oro. >
lo eslima le U, on c sho u ld h.iv c a íccl for th e gas /s lea m tcmpe fro m ox id a tio n co ns idc ra tions. Table 3-7 sh ows the ma ximum
rature o uter
profi le s. \\'.111 tcrnpcr atures acccpta ble ío r so rne eommo nly us ed su pe
r hcatc r '
mat en al s. Tabl e 3-8 (p g l S·!) g ives th c therrn al conduc tivitv dat
a lo
Thc duty Q t = Cmín (Ti - lsi ) (J -41) be u scd in compu ling thc wall tem pc ra tu res.
.

T abl e 3-7. Ferrous Tube M a ter ial Specifi ea tio n and

E = 1 - exp /-NTU (1 - C)j Maxim um Allow ab le Metal Ternpe ra tu res
whcrc 1 - C expl - N I"U ( 1 - C)/ (3 -42)
,\l o\im um Allol\'ob l"
.\t ol e rí ol , A S"' !:: Specificn lion Tempero tu re.Y f
fo r countc r flow arran gemen t is given by:
SA · 192 9 50
SA ·2 1lJgr A l 950
NTU = U S/ClIliTl (3-43) S A·21ll gr e 850
S A· 178 gr A 900
(3- 44) S A· 178 grC 950
and C = (WCp) miTlf(W CP)lIlax S A·2 09 gr TI a 9 75
S A-2 1:1 gr T2 1.02 5
S A- 2 13 gr Tll
Examp le 18: 1.0 50
SA ·2 1J gr T 22 1,1 25
Sa lve exampl e 6 using thc NTU me tho d.
SA ·21J gr T 9 1.20 0
SA ·2I J gr TP J04 H 1,400
Solutio n: S A-2 I J gr T P J2 1 H 1.400
(WC P)miTl = 25000 x
.68 = 17000. (The speci fie hea 1 of stea rn in
the lem p e ra lure band is e slimale d as .68 Bru/Lb F). Let us
assu rne
that U h a s been eompu led ; U = 12.12 Blu/sq ft h F. NT U = There a re severa l aspect s to be looked in to befo re p er fo rm ing
12.12 x the m~ lal tern perat ure calcula tions. Wh ile the overa ll heat lransfe
1507/ 17000 = 1.0M. C = 17000/3 5071 = .485. r
coefficie n t determ ined earlier is used fo r ob taini ng th e s urfaee
a rea
E =[l_e _I.D64X(I - .4S5)/I/l_ Ce -I .06.J >fI-AS5J/ =586 the ma te ria l se lection is based o n loca l tu be wall ternper atures
and
~Ie at transfer co e fficien l, wh ieh va ry a long the leng t h of
the tube:
hence Qt = .586 x 17000 x (950 - 491) = 4570000 Btu/h. The gas so due lo the arrang ement of headers, Figure 3-15, m al-distri bution
and can occu r In . 1h e f low throu g h each s trea rn of a multi
s tea rn exit temper atures ma y be compu ted as before. -pa ss su p er-
heal er .
. . 11. can be seen th at a central inlet and outlet arrang ement
META L T EMPE RATU RE CALCULATI O NS :lnlmlZ eS the non-un iformity in flow, while an end inlet and
exit
~I ~ maxim ize flow non-un iformit y . Mu ltipl e en try and exit
help
Metal temper alure cal cul ations are import anl for superh ea hl1nImize flo w n on-uni formity. A low pressur e drop throug
h th e
S~per.h eat er is a lso not preferr ed as a t Io w loa ds,
a s th ey form the ba sis for sel ect ion of materia l s and thickne the rnald is-
SS InbullOn can be Slgm ' 'f'ícant. Also, depend ing on the effective length
rubes. The allowa ble stress is compu ted at the mid-wa ll tem peratu rt
 z:

Table 3-8. Thermal Cond uctivity of Metal s

---
UTl lil " x il ' l('F lflJ

Maler la l Tem p - F 200 3lJO 4lJtl !lOO (iOO ; 00 IIlJlJ ~lJlJ rnnn 11lJlJ 12tllJ 1.1011 H aO I S0tl

Carbon S leel 30 29 2 11 27 2r. 25 24 2:1

"
Ca rbo n Mol~' ( Vl~1 S ree l 2'1 26 27 2li 25 2~ 24 2:1

Ouome Moly Steels

1% c-, '11'% Mo 27 27 2r. 25 24 H 2J 21 21

2V.% Cr . 1% Mo 25 2·1 2J 23 22 22 21 21 20 211

5%Cr.','¡% Mo 21 21 21 211 20 2Il 20 19 19 I ~J

12% Cr 14 15 15 IS I r. I r. I r. I r. 17 17 17 18
.<.
Austenil ic S la i n less S Iee I. '"
;;
¡;-
18% Cr . 8% Ni 9 3 9 .8 1Il 11 11 12 12 13 13 H H H 15 15
~
<;C
25% o . 20% NI 7 .8 11 .4 119 95 10 11 11 12 12 13 H H 15 15 !:l.
Ad m lr aHy Melal 70 75 79 R4 89
:f
,~.,.
8
l'<'"

..
<
~
....:¡
e
a'
"
c :l
!:l.
:f
'"

~ ~
dffiIrr
l(J in
W"¡"

urt'l ~
tTliiJJJIIj -- ttIJIlJIíJi- I
1I1 ÍÍ-ffi~18nt
-- ~~ ~
o 111 111111 11111 1117

(a)
O o •.. . O
COI I II I II" 111I 1i
oy-o o'~ ~ '<QJJV" (j o

(b) re) (d )

Figu re 3-15. Stati c prcssu rc dí s tribu tion along the len gt h of a head er d epenc!ing on the rncth od of
sup plv and di scha rgo of a sí nglc-pha sc Ilow.

el

---- -- --- ~- --_ . _- -- ..-

 186 Wa st e l lcat Doil er Ot.'skboo lt
o f cac h strcarn, the flow ca n vary. like th e cu r rent flowing thro ug h
scvc ra l differ ent rcsi stancc s arran ged in para llcl .
Jn additi on, onc h a s lo be ca refu l about the n on-uniforrn íjv in
gas flo w across thc s upe rhca tc r. If the bundle is locat ed in a t'¡rni ng
sec tio n o r a bcnd th cr e is lik cly lo b e a la rg e v ar iati on 1. the
veloci ty profile acro ss th c du cl cros s-sec tio n, re sulting in high loca l
hcat flu xe s in so rne porti ons.
In a rder lo co m p u te rh c tube wall te m p e ra tu re . th o loc al
m áximum h cat flu x al th c ga s tcrnperaturc zo n e d esircd s ho u ld be
o b ta ine d.
qnuu = 12QrF/fNwdl) + (/ "x-tsJl{l/(h:+ h") + ffi(do/d¡
+ !fo + d.Jdith; + (lo In(elo/d¡)/24K",1 (3 -45)
The second tcrrn is obviou s: it is th e p roduct of overall hea t
tr ansfe r coeffi cien l and the di ífc rcnce between th e g as nd s tea rn
ternpera ture. In th is calcu la tion, the lo cal m áximum convec tive and
non-lurninous coefficients s hould be u sed . While estima ting hi, the
ac tual flow th rou g h th c tu bc in ques tion s hould be u sed af ter
accoun ting for mal-di strib u tion due to h ead e r arrang ement an d
differe n t tube lengt h s of a para llel m u ti-s trearn assernb ly .
T he firs t terrn in vol vc s ex terna l direcl rad iat ion Qr, whi ch can
be due to p resen ce o f (Jame in th e fu mace o r ra d ia tion frorn a cavi ty
u p s tream o f lhe superhea le r. The fac to r F acco unts for th e effec l of
lube pi lch a nd lhe fracho n absorbed by each ro w of tubes in a bundle.
EXTERNAL RADIATIüN Qr
If th e su pe rhe a te r is loc al ed a t lhe exit o f a fumace or a ca vil)'
and is capabI e o f recei ving radiation from th e (James o r hot gases, Or
may be estimaled as follows .
Q, = .173xlO- 8xE
gx.9x/(T, + 460/ -{ts + 460/1 xA (3-46)
Egis d et ermined a s di seussed earlier; th e beamlength use<!
wo u ld be that o f the cavity o r s pace ahead o f th e s u p erhea ter
bundle. A is th e opening to the tube bundle in sq ft.
Waler Tub e Boilers
187
The Ira ctio n F abso rbed by each row depend s on the s hicJd ing
d(ec l o f the tubo rows a n d is nffcc ted by th e pitch a nd di a rno tor o f
thc Ill~S . The first row faein g th e radi ati on woul d nalurall y rcceivc
rhc m áxim u m e ne rgy; th e (actor F d ecrca scs as wc cross tube rows,
DISTRIBUTION O F RADIATION TOTUBES
External radiation ma y be cs tirna ted by the (oll owing fo rm u la :
'H '
11 = el/2s t -dts[sin -' (ellst ) + ((srld/ - l) ,5 - sJd]
(3 -47)
(the term sin- 1 (d/st ) is in radians .)
The sec ond ro w wou ld ab sorb aU -a) of the en ergy and the lhird
1-{1I+(1- a)aJ and so on .
It ca~ be see.n that significant arn ount of cx tcrnal rad iati on ge ts
absorbed 111 thc first fcw ro ws pa r ticu la rly if th e s¡fd ratio is s rn a ll.
A~ s ~ i.t can be seen that th e radia ti on lo the first row can be
nunimizcd by u sing a large s¡fd rat io . Thi s is one of th e reaso ns for
LJsi ng a wid e pitch in radian t secti ons. The energy ge ts d ístributed in
a more 'even manner if s¡/d is large.
Exam p le 18:
. A supe rheater is loca ted beyond a cavity of dimens íons 3 ft
wld e, 10 ft high and S fl d eep, wi th th e openi ng of SO sq fl lo lhe
SLJ pe rhea ler. Gas lempera ture is 1600°F a nd % vo lume C02 and H 20
:: 12 ~a ch . If th e averag e surface tem p e ra lu re of the superh ea ter
tllbes 15 700°F, delermi ne lhe ex terna l rad ial ion to lh e bund le.
/{ lh e tu be size is 2 in. OD and lhe p itch is 8 in. w ide inline
dI' , ,
e er m ll1~ the e ne rgy to eaeh row if th ere a re 6 rows d eep. Wha t
happe ns lf lh e trans verse pileh is 12 in ?
Solution:
. We have to o b ta in Eg a nd Q r fir st. The beam leng th o f th e
~vgy ~ 3.4 x vo lu me/s u rface = 1.7/ (1/ 10 + 1/ 3 + l/S) = 2.68 ft = .817
::. a r~¡a l p ressu res of C0 2 and H20 = .12. A verage gas temperat ure
1 60~/ = 1144 K. K = (.8 + 1.6 x .12) (1-.38 x 1.144) x .24/(.24 x
.817) =.303. E g = .9 x (1-e - .303 x. B17)=.1 98.Q,= .1173 x .9 x .198
X (20.64 - 11.64) x SO = 250,000 Btu/h.
 188 Wast e Hcat Boilcr lA-skbool
Usin g a pir ch .o f 8 in ., St/e1 = 4; su bst itu ti ng in (3·46) a =3.14/ 2/ 4
- .25 x [sin - 1(.25) + 15.5 --41 = .361.
row 2 would rccci ve: (1-.361) x .36 1 = .23 1
row 3 = 1 - IJ-{ .361 + .231) x .361J = .147
row 4 = 1 - 1J-{.361 + .23 1 + .147) x .361) = .094
H cncc thc íirs t ro w rcceivcs 25‫סס‬oo x .361 = 90250 Btu Zh a nd so
o n. if s¡fd = 6, a = .248, row 2 = .186, row 3 = .140, ro w 4 = .106 and so
o n. J o le th at the fir st row rccc ives less e nergy no w a nd he nce the
hcat flu x will be lowe r. It ca n a lso be secn that a subs ta ntial am ount
o f e ne rg y gc ts abso rbed by a ícwe r ro ws if stld is s rn a ll. As a result,
the hca t flu x wi ll be h ighcr wh en the stld rati o is s rnal le r.
Hcat flu x du e lo ex tc rna l radiati on in row 1 with stld = 4 will
be, assuming a hcight of 10 ít and 7 tub es/row. q =90250 x 12/ (2 x 7 x
10) = 7735 Blu / sq ft h.
To th is mu st be ad d cd th c heat flu x du c lo con vccti c I an d non-
luminou s cocfficicnts in order to arrive a t the to ta l heat lux , which
will be u sed in the es tirnation o f tube wall tern pc ra tu res. üma x is
cornp u ted by using the local ma ximum co nvective and non -Iuminous
h cat transfer coeff ic ie n ts . Thcn, th e te m p era ture drop acro ss cach
resistance is estima ted in order to o bta in the tube wall ternperaturc.
Fo r ex arnpl e in o rd e r lo co m p u te th e maximum outer wall
tcrnpera tu re in ex a rn p le 6, the gas inlet conelitions sh ou lel be used
wilh the ga s tem pera ture of 1000°F and steam temperalure of 783°F.
Exam p le 20:
De te r m in e th e m a xim um oll le r wa ll te m p e ra tu re for the
su per he a ter in d esign case. Neg lecl ex tern a l rad iat ion.
Solution:
At th e gas inle t zo ne the gás tempera tu re = lOoo °F an d stcam
te m p erature = 783 °F. he = 14.11 a nd h n = 1.935 . Using a 20% non-
uniformity in he, th e local U m ay be co mp u ted. he = 1.2 x 14.11 =
16. 95 .
l /U = 1/ (16.95 + 1.935) + .00 1 x 2 /1.738 + .00 1 + .000585 +
2/ 1.738 / 198. Hen ce U = 16.24; q = 16. 24 x (1000-783) = 35 24 Btu/sq tt
h. Temperature drop across gas film = 3524/ (16 .95 + 1.935) = 187"F¡
drop across the fouling layer = 3524 x .001 = 3.soF. Hence th e OUI~
wall = 1000-187-3.5 = 810°F; since lhe drop across lh e lube wal! 15
Water Tu bc Boilcrs
189
hardl y 2°F, (3524 x .000585 ), th e abo ye va lu c m ay be u sed for
ma te ria l se lcc tio n.
Note that if extcrnal radiati on had bec n prescnt, the tu be wal!
rcm pcra turc will in crease.
Th e abo ye ca!culati on has lo be pcrformed a long th e len g th of
rhc s u perhca tc r tube and ba sed on thc tube wall tem pc rat ures,
d iffe re n t thickness a nd mat cr ials may be chosen .
FLO W IN PARALLEL STR EAMS
In o rd e r lo d et ermine the tub e wall ternperaturos, the act ual
stca rn flow lhro ug h ca ch tube and no t th e average sho uld be used . If
I
1
the effec tivc leng lh of each s trca rn or parall cl p ass is th c sa rne, then
I
J
the flow lh rou gh each tube will be th e sa rne: ho we ver d ue to the 1
type o f con struction and config u ra lio n uscd, the parall el passes ma y i
ha ve differen l e ffe c tive len gths, which can result in diffc re n t fla w
lhrou gh th e pa rallel pa sses. Th e tubes with the lowest flow s hou ld
i
be look ed al carefully wh ile d etermining th e wall tern per atures.
Examp le 21:
I
I
A supe rhea ter has lwo pa ral lel passes each with 30 sectíons .
The effec tive len g lh of o ne is 50 ft an d the o ther, 60 El. If th e total
Oow in the superhealer is 300,000 pph, de termi ne lhe ilow in ea ch
pass. AII lhe lu bes a re of sa me size .
Soluti on:
There ar e a tol a l of 60 pa ra lle l tu bes handling 300,000 pph of
sleam; for the es tim a lio n of h¡, a val ue of 300,000/60 = 5000 pph
wauld ha ve been used. H owe ver far me tal tem perat ure estimation,
lhe f]ow in each pa ss is required. Let us ass u me that th e non-
uniformity is due to th e d iffer en ce in the effective length of the
passes. Let us assume that 30 tubes ha ve Le = 50 and the o lher 30
have Le = 60 ft.
2 5ince th e ~ressure d rop be tween the head ers is th e same, ¡jP =
Iw Le, wher e J ISa constant. Let Wa and Wb be th e f]ow in the pass
Wi~h a n effective length of 50 and 60 ft respe ctively . Then, wi x 50 =
wb x 60 or Wa = 1.095 Wb. Also, 30 x (wa + Wb) = 300000 ar (wa+ Wb)
 Wasle Heal Iloiler IX'Skboo lc
190
= 10,000. Hcn ce wb = 4722 pph and Wa = 5278 p ph. Thu s the lubes
with an cffectivc lengt h of 60 ft have a Ilow oí 4722 pph thr ou gh
thern, while 5278 p ph flows thr oug h th e shor tcr tu bos.
The cffcc t of variations in specific volurne was ncglect-d in the
aboye analys is: a nothe r itcration could be rnadc by compu . 'ng the
p ress u re drops using thc ac tual condi tions in each pass.
MINIMIZING SUPERHEATER WALL
TEMPERATURES
Su pcr hca tc r t u bc wa ll te rn pcra tu rcs could be red uced by
locating th ern in a coo lcr gas zo ne: ho wc ver thi s wou ld redu ce the
lo g -m e an lem p erature a n d t hu s in cr e a sc th e s urfa ce arca
requ irements. Parall cl flow a r rangeme n t co uld be uscd v rsus cou nter
flo w . T he high s tea rn lemperalure sectio n wil l then be 31 the coo ler
gas reg ion, resulting in lo w er wall tem pera tu res.
The tu be síde coefficie n l co ul d be inc reased by usin g a high er
flow per tube: thi s incr ea se s th e s tea rn pressure dro p and also
imp roves thc flow di stribution at low load s, alt ho ug h thi s ma y incu r
an o pe ra ling pe nalty in th e form of addili ona l pump power
co ns u m p lio n; sm a lle r diarnet er tu bes minimize th e non-uniformily
a ro u nd th e tube periphery a nd he nce reduce the wall temper atures-
Wherever ra dia nt su perhea ters a re used, il may he lp lo use a
few rows o n conveclion sc ree n ahead of lhem lo absorb lh e direct
radian l energy from cavily o r fum ace. H ead er arrangem enls should
be s uc h lh at lhe m a l-d is lrib u lion is m inim ized . A cenlral inlel and
exit is p re ferrcd lo end connecli ons . Multiple inl el s a nd ex ils also
mi nimize lhe mal-dislribution, Whenever th e sl eam tempera lu re
has to be controllcd, il is desirable lo splil up th e superhea ler inlO
two segmenls and use a desuperhealer spray or some olher co nlrol
mechanism between lhe stages. This ensures thal the tubes are nol
o ve r hea led. One has lo be more careful wilh finned superhea lers as
lhe tu be wall a nd fin lip tem p era lures can inc rease significan tly ir a
high fin dens ily is uscd . The p rocedure for compu lalion of wa ll and
fin tip te m peratu res for fin ned tubes is outlined in Appendix A.
Steam pu nty is particularly important. If the drum interna ls
are not properly d es igned , wel steam can be generated and soli ds can
IV.Ier Tube Boiler s 191
ge l dcposi ted insid e the tubos: as d iscu sscd in cha prer 2, th e tu be
"
\\'all tcmperature can in crca se as a result of any d cp osit o r sc a le
fo r m a lio n. H e nce good dr um intcrnals are rc q u irc d if stea m
rempcrature is high o r if the supcrheatc r is loca ted in a h ig h gas
ternp cra ture zone. Cood steam pu rity a lso m inimizcs d e p os it
fom1alion in s tearn or gas tur binc blad es.
STEAM TEMPERATURE CO NTROL
As in u tility or induslrial boilcrs, th e stcarn ternpcra turc may
hav e lo be cont ro lled in was te hea t boi le rs , Several op tion s a re
available for d o ing thi s suc h as th e coo ling o f a co n tro lled a rnoun t o f
stea rn in th e d rurn , by p a s sin g so rne s tcarn flo w a ro u n d the
~ uperhea le r so that its du ty is redu ced a nd the use of spray wa te r for
m tcrs tage d esuperheal ing . i
Spray attcmpera tion o r desuperhcati ng is w idely used in wa ste
~~al boi J?rs. O ne has lo ensure ho wever that the wa ter that is being
I
injec ted mi o th e s tearn has a good pu rity. Demi neralizcd wa te r o r I
condens a te is pref errcd . A rul e of thurnb is tha t th e tot al so lids in I
I
the Iced water used for injec tion s ho u ld be nearly the sa me as th e
tot al di ssolved so lids ex pec ted in th e s tea rn.
Co mp u ta tio n of sp ray wat er is imporlant from hea l and mass
balance co ns idera tions. The flow th rough th e su pe rhea te r a head o f
the a ltem pera lo r will be lower by lh e amount of sp ray quantitv as
I
also lh e (Jow in th e eco nomizer and hen ce affecls lhe ga s and st~a m 1
temperature profiles. Presenled bel ow is the melhod of com p Ula lio n
of s p ray quanti ly and a BASIC progra m lh at permi ls rapid
eva lua lion of lh e same.
DET ERMINE SPRA Y WA TE R
TO DESUPERHEAT STEAM
In sleam plan ls, s lea m is oflen desuperheated in spray type
allemperalors lo conlrol the final s tea m co nd itio ns Figure 3-16. \'Vilh
~he help of this program wrilten BASIC, one can d elermine severa !
Irnportanl variables such as;
 Was te Heat Boile r Dcsk book Wal er Tube Boilers 193
192

Sp ra y wat er rcquired lo red uce th e s lea m tcrnperat u re to a

d esi red valu e.
{\j
Stea m tern pc ra tu rc obtai ne d by sp raying a gi ven quan tily of
f--
water int o s tearn (re verse of first case) .
Maxi m u m a mou n t of wa ter tha t may be s p rayed lo satura re the
stea m.
lni tia l a nd final en thalpies of s tea m and water an d sa tu ra tio n
e tem per a tures,
8
u
The eq ua tion for energy balance around a d esuperheater is:

lV, f1¡ + \VIIII = (IV, + H'¡)//z (3 -48)

From th e abo ye equati on ; on e ca n solve Ior H2, the fina l s tea m

en tha lpy , a nd h ence the s tea rn tc rnp er ature . Civen W¡ o r by
ob ta in ing W¡ a nd g ive n the final s tea rn te rnp era tu re, one can
de termine the e n tha lpy.

Exam p le 22:
100,000 lb pc r hr of su perh ea ted s tearn at 1500 psia and 900 c F is
~

o ::,
.. to bereduced to 775°F in a sp ray ty pe a ttem pe ra tor, Determin e the
eu ~
M sp ray wat er req u ired at a tem perature of 300°F.
E ::;
~ .S

:>
4-
ru ru {\j . . . /'>.
e I
~
-c
.. Solution
+ t- Q.. I ~ --------, .o Use the program lisl ing thal appea rs in Fig ure 3-17. In th e
..
.;j RUN mod e, th e sc reen asks for s tea m pressure (1500), tem pera ture
-:J' '" (900), s team flo w (100,000), an d spra y water tern per at ure (30 0 ),
which ar e inputted as sho wn in Figure 3-17.
Th e computer p rin ts out th e sa tura tion temperature (597°F at
1500 psi a pressure) and the ma ximum quantity of spray water to
saturate th e st eam (28,899 lb per hr ). This inforrnation is helpful
sinee stearn temperalure ea n no t get lower than the saturation
temperature in normal spray operatio ns . Do not injeet more than th e
maximum spray water quantity, which is 28,889 lb per hr.

~V1 ~ 0...- ::C -'O--------J The screen ask s for th e sp ray water flow or the final s tea m
temperature, which is inputted as shown. The final results are
printed out. For g ive n cond itions, sp ray water required is 7743 lb per
hr. Enthalp ies of s tea m and wa ter ar e also show n in Figure 3-17.
 194 Was le 'Hcat Boiler Dcskbook IVJl"r Tu be Iloilers
195

Figure 3-17. Prograrn Lisling with Results [Htating, Piping, Air-CanditioningJ 1 CLS: KE't orr
"EH : PROGRAH RELATE S OESU PERHEATI NC PARAH ETERS
:. P[ M : AOTHOR-V . C ANAP THY
2 0 0 0 T -273.1 , (.-32)/I .8 :P-P /I< .69 6
ro P I H P (3 0 ), HGS(30),Hf' ( 8,28)
2 0 10 1< 4-8 0 8 1 0 I l . IT: LI·I O· . . ' (-2641 _62 IT) : HI - 1 . 89 ' L I : NI - n i ' P ' P I TI T
: 0 f OR 1-1 TO 15
2020 01 -2 ' (J ' ''20 I /T I T': 1-0 1 ' Ll: RI-1 • 89+Ql: UI- ( • 21828 ' T- 1 2 6 97 0 I IT' : v4-2 ' Ul ' RI - (
J O REAll PP ), HGS(I)
Ml/TJ -1264 6 0 1 .: ~ N[ XT 1
20 30 WI- 8 2 . 54 -162460 'IT . y 1 -2 ' wI' R I - ( ni IT) ' 1 6 2 4 6 0 I
10 OATA 2 0 0,11 98 .3, 4 0 0 ,12 04 .6,60 0 , 12 0J . 1 ,8 0 0,11 9 9 . 4,10 0 0,11 92. 9,12 0 0,11 84 .4,14 0 0
2 04 0 %-7 7 5 . 6 - . 6329 6 -T -l . 62 4 6 7r':-0 4 +1'+1'- 2 0 . 5 6 9 7 +LCG( T )
,1115. 3 , 1600, 11 64. 5 , 1800 , 1 1 5 2. 3, 2000 , llJ8. 3, 2200, 1122 .2,24 0 0 , 1103 .1 ,2 6 0 0,1 0 82 ,2 8
2 05 0 z- z• . 0 43 551 · (Rl + p • . S - NI - ( YI +H1 - ( ....1 .V 4 - N I ) ) )
00 , 10 5 5 . 8 , 3 0 0 0 , 1 0 2 0 . 3
20 60 P -I 4. 6 9 6 ' P: T - (T - 21 3 . 15) - r , 8 ' 32
2 070 RETURN
60 fO R n-I ro 5
¡
DATA
70 f OR P-O ro 2 5 STEP S
so REAll Hf' (n,p)
90 "E XT P
I
5T EAH PRE s s-r SIA,TEKP.f LOW. SPRAY WATER TEMP-1

SAT T EH P - 59 6 .9 012 KA.X WATER r LOW- 28889.8 4

1 500 , 9 00, 100000 , 3 0 0
100 NEXT TF

110 OATA 68,6 9 .36 ,10 .68,12, 1 J . 1 3 , 14 .61,168,169 .2 ,110.32 ,111. 46, 112 . 6 , 113.15, 210,
21 0.5 3 , 2 1 1 _46, 212.36,213.33,214.28 ,314.8 ,315 . 4,316 ,316 .6,311 .2,311. 8, 4 8 8, 4 8 1 , 4B1
i
I
.s, 4B 1. 4 r
120 OATA 4 8 1 . 3, 4 8 1 . 3
SPRAY WAT ER FLOW,FI NAL 5TEAH T EKP ( I NPUT ZERO FOR U N JU'~ OWN )·1 0, 7 7 5
125 PRI NT - DAT A " : PRI Nr " ..
I

STH f' LOW I N-

RESULTS

1 00 000 ST H TEHP IN- 900 STH TEHP OUT- 715 SAT TE HP- 596 .9012
130 INPUT - STEAM PRESS-PSI A,TEHP , FLOW ,SPRAY WATER 1'EHP. " ¡P ,1' l, WS l ,TF
IJ 5 PRI NT " ,
150 COS UB 1000
160 TSAT- 1 1 6 - P "' . 2 2 4 : I F P<2 0 0 THEN HGS-IIOO +18 .9S -LOG(P):G01'O 19 0
[
SPRAY WATER FWW" 77 43.298 WAT ER TE HP- 3 0 0
1 70 X-P/200:l' -INT(X) +1
l BO HGS- HGS ( l')- (Y -X ) ' (HGS ( Y )-HGS (l'-l) )
19 0 T-Tl . cosos 2000
ENTHALP IES:STH IN- 14 2 9 . 19 8 STH OUT- 13 46 .058 WATER IN- 212.36 SA ST H- 1169. 9
l OO HI-Z :WHAX-(HI- HGS) - WS l 1 (HGS -Hf')
STH P RESSURE-PSI A- 1500 ' 05 PRIN1' - 5 A1' TEXP· - ¡ 1'SA1'¡ - KAX "'''»'TER FLOW- -¡WKAX:PRINT - ..
' 10 INPUT -SPRAY WATER P'LOW, F I NAL STEAl1 TEMP(INPUT tERO FOR UNKNO\ot'"N). - ¡ W,T2
21 5 rr T2 - 0 GOTa 24 0
KAX WATER FLOW Te SATURATE STEAH- 28889 .84
22 0 T- n . GOSU8 2000
2 J O H2-Z :W_ (HI-H2) ·WSl 1 ( H2 - Hf' ) : GOTO 320
24 0 H2- ( WSl 'Hl +W'H f' ) 1 ( W+WSl)
ok
2 50 IF WKAX<W T HE N AS- ·F IN AL S TEA."1 I S WET:CHECK SPRAY WAT ER QUA.-r:"ITY - :001'0 310
260 T2-. S - (1'1 +T5 A1') : RA- T2-TSAT
21 0 T-T2 : GOSU8 2000
280 Hl - Z: WC- ( HI - H2 ) ' WS l / ( H2 - Hf' )
DATA 29 0 rr ASS( (W- WC)/WC)<.005 TREN 3 2 0
295 r r M <2 TREN M -.3 ' (Tl-TSAT )
STEAH PRES S-P5 IA , TEKP ,FLOW,5 PRAY WATER TEHP- l 800 ,7 50 , 5 0000 ,250
JOO AA-. S -RA:T2 - T2+SCN( WC_ W) - AA: I F T2 <1'SAT TKEN 1'2 - 1'SA1': Z- HGS :CO'TO 28 0
JOO AA-. S -RA :1'2-T2 +SCN(WC-W) -RA: IF 1'2 <1'5>'1' THEN T2 - 1'SA1': Z-HC S :GOTO 280
SAT TEHP- 5 18 .5016 KAJC WATE R f'LOW - 86 6 9 .253 JOs GOTO 2 1 0
110 PRINT " " : PRI NT AS : P RINl'" " : GOTO 370
SPRAY WATE R FLOW,F INAL S TEAl1 T&HP ( I NPUT ZERO FOR ONXNOWN)-1 2 0 0 0 ,0
320 PRIN"I' - - : PRINT - RESO'L1'S - : PRINT-
330 PRI NT- STM FLOW IN - - ;WS l ¡ - STM TEKP I N. -; Tl ¡" STM TEMP OU1'- - ¡T2 ¡ -SAT TEJo(P - - ¡TS A
RESl1I.TS . : PRI NT " "
340 PRI NT - S PRAY WATER FLOW--¡ W¡ -WATER TEMP. - ¡T F : PRI NT. _
ST H FLOW IN- 5 00 0 0 STH T ~P I N- 150 STll TEKP OUT- 678 .3 801 SAT TEKP - 5 1 8.5 0 16
ISO PRI NT" ENTIIALPIES : " ; "STH IN - ";H l ; "STH OUT-"; H2; "WATER IN -" ; Hf' ;"SAT S TH-" ; HGS
r s s PRIN T" "
SP RAY WATER f'LOW- 200 0 WATER nMP- 2 50 36 0 PRI Hl' "S TH PRE SSURE - PSIA _" ; P
365 PRIHT " -
EHTHALP IES :STll IN- 1 369 .1 3 STH OUT- 13 24 .S16 WATER I N- 2 20.48 SAl' STH- 1199.4
37 0 PRINT-KA.X WATER n.ow ro SATURAn STEAH-- ¡ WKA.X : PR I NT - _
18 0 LocATE 21,1 0 :EHD
5 TH PRESSURE-P5 IA- 800 100 0 T- .OI-TF:P- .Ol.P
10 10 U - I HT( T): S8 - IHT(P/ 5 ).5
HAX WATER FI.lYoI ro SATOAATE ST!: AK- 8669 .253
10 20 M-HF (U, 88) + ( T -U ) ·(HF ( U+ l,88 ) -H F ( U , B8 ) ) :CC- Hf'(U, 8S + 5 ) + ( T- U ) o ( HF ( JOt+ l ,
88. 5)-HF(U,88+5) )
10 30 HF -. 2 0( P- S8) .(CC-M)+M:P_ 100 .P
10 40 RETUIUI
 I
196 Wa st c Hca t Boil er Deskbook Waler Tube Boiler s If
197

Exam p !e 23: In Fig u re 3- 18c th e econo mizer is in th e hori zontal gas pass,
50,000 lb per h r of stca rn a t 800 psia a nd 750°F is to be spraycd with thc last fe w rows of th e tu bos aiding upwa rd flow of w a ter,
wi th 2000 lb per h r of feed wa tcr a t 250°F. De termine thc final stearn thus m in imizing s tea ming co ncerns. This configu rati on results in a
condi tio ns , compac t arrangemen t. The s tack co uld be self-s ta ndi ng.

So lu tion
Key in the d a ta list cd in Figu re 3-17. Final s tca rn tern pe r, ~u re
is 678°F. Th e maxi mum sp ray wa ter lo sa tura re thc s team is 8669 lb
o o o i
pe r hr. Inpu l da la and resu lts a re s how n in Figure 3-17.
o o o
2 ( n I
I
DESIGN OF ECONOMIZERS
I
-- ~ f
r
I

The d esign p roced u re for econo mi ze rs is s im ila r lo that for Q

(
b
1)
0 0 00
0 0 o o
[
s uperhea te rs a nd hence w ill not be elabo ra ted . Th e a rra ngem ent can

I
be as in Fig u re 3-14. Stea mi ng a t part load s is a con cern in gas turbine
applica tio ns. Method s o f overco m ing this con cern are ou tined in
2 J
Ch ap ter 1. Th e tu bes can be ba re or finn ed . Low ternperature c .rrosíon
o o o o l.e vnporc. tor 2 .pc onoMlzer
is a conce m a nd Append ix B d iscusses th is topic in d etail.

I
o o o o
O ne ma l' use a h eat exc ha nger to preh eat th e feed water in case 2

th e wall ternperature is low enoug h lo cause conden sation of acid "

vapo rs o n th e tubes . It sho u ld be borne in mind th at th e metal e

temper ature is d ecid ed by th e Ieed wa ter tem peratu re and no t by thc
gas tem perature as th e tu be side coefficient is sev era! tim es higher
th an th e g as s ide coefficient. Typical water vel ocit y is 2 to 6 ft/s.
Tube sizes ran ge from 1.5 lo 3.5 in.
Dependi ng on th e typ e of ex it duct work, th e eco nom ize r could
be arranged in several wa ys. Figure 3-18 sho ws a few poss íbilities. In
Figure 3-18a, the economizer sits on top of the evaporator. The w~ter
flows downward . One has to make sure that economizer s tea mmg
does not arise under aIl operating conditions. The stack can be
rnounted on top of the economizer if it is not too laIl or th e wind
velocity is not seve re.
In Figure 3-18b the economizer is arranged in two gas passes
with the hotter water having an upflow direction, which helps as
far as steaming is concemed, as the bubbles of steam take a natural
path upwards . The gas exit is at the same level as the boiler.
1
'/
Figure 3-18a-e. Arrangemen l of Eeonomi zers (a-e)
PERFORMANCE OF COMPLETE HRSG
The performance of the complete HRSG unit with superheater,
evaporator and econornizer requires several iterations as discussed in
Chapter 4. The caIculations are made more complex if there is
~xternal radiation and the superheater is several stages with
Interstage spray attemperation. Without a computer program the
problem would be enormous.
Presented below is the printout fram a program developed by
the author, Figure 3-19. It shows an HRSG with a radiant section
lTlulti-state superheater with attemperator, a n eva po ra to r wi th
several types of fin arrangement and an econornizer. The program
 Waste l leat Boiler Ocskbook Wal er Tubc Boil ers 199
198

{
,

I
Figures 3-18 e &. f. Fínned Tube Economizer and Boi!er With Vertical Gas Flow
Figure 3-18d. A large Economlzer Coi! [ABeO Ind ustries) Economizer [ABeO Industries)
 200 \Va5le Hea t Boiler Deskbook w ater Tube Boilers 201

Fig ur e 3· 19. Prin tou t 01 Resu lts Fro m H RSG Program J uto m a tica lly arrives a l the fir ing tcrnpcrat ur o requ ired to gene ra te
WH n PERFOR.HA.NCE •. V . C AN AP~THY ---PROJECT . • SAH PLE
thc desire d final s tca rn qua n tity if the fu el ana lysis is specified.
T he m ccha n ical config uralion is in p ut ted a long wi th ga s in let
CAS F LOW- P PU .. 4 0 0 0 0 0 CAS TEMP IN -f -1 5 0 0 GAS HW -28 .2 4 GAS PRES -P S IA - 14.5
DRUH PRES- PSIA .. 655 SAT T EH P - F • 4 9 6 DLOW ON . . . 040 r;.l' TE HP-P' - 2 5 0 condi tio ns enteri ng thc bu rne r sys tem (if used ). Th e s tea rn a nd gas
EXT OUTY - HH8/ H " 9 .00 HE AT LO SS- \ - 2.00 FOUL FTR I N-. OOI O PR OS STM- P PH -
sidc pres sure d rops, tu bc wa ll tcmpe ra tures, sp ray w at er, firing
c02 H20 N2 02 S 02 HCL H 2S H2 CO CH4 S0 3 rcm pcraturc, gas an al y s is an d p ro pe r ties are all nu to ma tirall y ,
6.00 12 .00 7 0 . 00 12 . 0 0 0 . 00 0. 0 0 0 .00 0 .00 0.00 0 .00 . 00
I
cornp u ted in seconds; p rov is íon cxists lo supcrhea t s tearn fro m o ther
DO
2 .000
DI
1. 738
EVAPORATOR
rc iTC 2 cre
1500 1356 0 .3 0 01
OUT'!
1 6. 9 5
u
19. 34
SUR FP
9 42
OELT DELPG IWCVL
930 0.75 11 0. 8
boi lers o r to wi thdraw a ce r tai n qua ntity of sa tu ra ted stea m fro m the
waste heat boiler for process pu rposes a nd s uper he a t th e ba lance I
NW
40
NO
5
L
9.00
N
0.0 0
ti
0. 0 0 0 0 .00 0 " WS
0 .000
ST
3 .750

0 . 74 9
SL
4 . 000
Tr IN
546
n/Al.
5 46 qua n ti ty o f s tearn. Fo uling facto rs o r tu be co nfig u ra tions su ch as
pit ch , size could be vari cd fo r eac h sec tion lo simu la te o pera ting
¡ I
ARRCT-!tl FOUL nR -0 .001 OUT Y - 16 .945 GAS OP -
cond itio ns. f
TGl TG2 CPC
SUPERHEATER
DUTY U S URFP OELT OELPC HAXVL
i
1356
12 6 4

NW
24
1 2 64
11 5 0

NO
6
0.2963
0 .29 2 9

L
12 .50
N
0 .00
1 0. 64
13.02

ti
16.71
1 6. 24

B
0.000 0 .000 0.000 0
WS
9 42
1256
6 76
638

ST
4. 50 0
0 . 46
0.58

SL
4. 0 0 0
8 6 .2
81. 9

PRDP STRK.S
11. 41 2<
REFERENCE5

1. V. Ganapa thy, "App licd Hea t Tra ns fc r," Pe n n wc ll Books.

I
I

24 B 12 . 50 0 .00 0 .000 0 .000 0. 0 0 0 0 4. 5 0 0 4 . 000 1 2 .5 B 24

Tulsa, 1982
CONF 00 10 OUTY 5TH IN 5TH OUT STK HTe n/Al. TFIN
CF 2 .000 1. 73B 1 0 . 64 566 70 1 2BO 774 77 4
2. V. Gana pa thy , "Cha r ts ca n help g ive qu ick eng inee ring
CF 2 . 000 1 . 7 38 13.02 49 6 6 41 29 1 706 706 estima res of gas pressure d rop in tube banks," Oil a nd Gas ]ournal,
FOUL FT R - . 001 S TH PRE S -PS I A- 62 5 ARGT-IN STH no - 1 23 2 27 S PRAY- 5665
March 1, 1982

EVA PORATOR
3. v. Canapa thy, "Cha r ts simplify est imati on of non-Ium ínou s
DO DI rc i TC 2 c re oun u S URFP DELT OELPC KAXVL hea t transfer coeffi cient s," Hydrocarbon pr ocessin g
2 . 000 1. 7 3 B 1150 1104 0 .2 9 0 3 5 .20 14 .62 563 63 1 0.12 60 .9
2 .000 1. 73 8 11 04 928 0.2865 1 9. 8 1 10 . 7 6 3573 5 15 0 . 71 93.9 4. V. Ganapathy, "Basic program s fo r st eam plant eng inee rs ,"
2.000 1. 73B 92B 563 0 . 2 77 1 39 . 5 0 7 . 76 25 9 B7 19 6 2 . SI 77 . S Marce l Dekker, Ne w York, 1984
NW NO L N H 8 WS ST SL TFIN n/AL
40 2 13 . 45 0.00 0.0 00 0 .00 0 0. 000 3 .75 0 4 . 0 00 5 21 5 21 5 . V Ganapathy, "Sim p lified approach to d esigning h eat
40 2 11 .50 3 .00 0.7 50 0.102 0 .000 3.7 50 4 . 00 0 B41 61 9
40 12 11 .00 4 . 00 0 . 7 500 .0 50 0 . 0 00 3 . 750 4 . 000 7 59 576 tran sfor equipmen t," Ch emical Engineering, April13, 1987
ARRGT-IN FOUL FTR - 0.001 DUTY- 64.50 B GAS OP - 3 . 3 39
6. V Ga na pa thy, "Deter m ine spray wat er to d esuperheat
stearn," Heating, Piping, Air-condi tioning, December 1987
ECONOHIZER
7. V. Ganapa thy, "Stea m Plant calcu!ations ma nual," Marce !
DO DI Tel TC 2 CPa OtITY U 5URFP DE LT OELPC llAXVL Dekke r, New York, 1984
2.000 1. 7 3 8 5 63 31 2 0. 2 6 6 6 26 .30 7.05 4 4 7 9 1 83 1.99 44 .7
NW lID L N ti 8 W5 5T SL WATOP S'I1U'CS
40 20 12 . 0 0 4. 0 0 0.7500 . 050 0 .157 4.000 4. 0 0 0 16 . 77 10

WAT TEHP IN- 250 OO'T. 454 WAT HTC- 1 4 5 1 WAT n.ow. 122264 NO M EN C LAT UR E
ECO FOUL FTR- .00 1 ARRGT-IN ' 5TH - O 5TH 5URF- O SPRY TEHP - 25 0

BOl LER 0 0Tl'- 131. 413 TOT GAS P HDP- 7.11 STEAH GEN- 123228 TOT BLR OOTY- 140.411 C - fac tor used in Equation (3-9) and (3-44)
111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111 Cp - gas specific heat, Btu/lb F
d - tube diarne ter, in -subscript i and o refer to insid e and ou tside
f - frictio n factor for p ressu re drop; subscrip t g stands for gas.
 Waste Heat Boile r Dcskboolr. WalN Tu be Boile rs
2Cf.! 2m

ii- foulin g facto r, sq ít h FIBlu - su bscrip ts i a nd o refer lo insido and E g - gas emissivity
o utsid c tubes . p- gas dcns íty, Ib/cu ft
F - fra ction of e ne rgy abso rbed by di rec t rad ia tion a - Steffan Boltzrnan cons tan t
F} ,F2" F3 - Iacto rs u sed in cquations (3-25), (3-35) y - factor d cfincd in Equation (3-37)
e- gas ma ss vc loci ty , Lb/sq fl}¡
}-{ - cnt halpy, Btu/ lb L\ denot es diffe rencc in entha lpy . Sub cr ipt s
stands for st eam
}¡ - heat trans íc r cocffici cnt, Btu / sq ft h F; subscripls c-co nvec tivo, i-
in sidc IIlOCS, 11- non -lurninou s, o-ou tsidc
hl h eat 10 55 fact or; 1 % hcat 10 55 rneans hl =.99
k - g a s thcrmal condu cti vity. Btu/ft h F
K - fa cto r u scd in cquati ons (3-16) , (3- 18)
Km - tu b e me tal th c rrnal co ndu ctiv ity, Btu / fl h F
L - lcng th , fl or 111 ; s ubscrip t e s ta nd s for e ffec tive le ngth, ft.
N d, N}I - nu m be r of tu be ro ws d ecp
N w _ nurnbcr of ro ws wide
NTU - Iurnbe r of Trans ícr Uni ts
Nu - Nusselt Nurnber
Pe, Pw - partial prcssu re of ca rbón d ioxi de a nd w at er vapo r
Pr - P ra nd tl Number
6P - pressure drop: subscripts o o r g s tand for gas, in wc and s ubsc ript i
for tu be side, ps i
q - h cat flu x, Btu z'sq ft h; s ubsc r ip ts i a nd o stand fo r in sid e a nd
ou tside
Q - duty, Btu/h; su bs crip ts a and I stand for assumed and transferred:
e, n a nd r for con vectí vc, non-lurninous and radiant
Re - Reyno ld s N u rnber
5- s u rface a rea, sq flsl, s.longi tudinal a nd tra ns verse p itch, in
.1 T - log-mean tem perature d iffer en ce, F
TI ' T2 - ternperature entering and leaving, for gas
T g - a verage ga s tempcraturc. F or K
15 - s a tu ra tio n s te a rn temperature, F
U - overall heat transfer coeffici enl, Btu/sq ft h F; subscripts
i and o - s ta nd for insid e and o u tside tubes.
v, V - specific volume, cu ft/Lb and velocity, ftl s
W o, Wg - gas flow, pph
W¡, Ws, W¡ - Flo w inside tu bes, pph, insid e, s tea rn a nd feed water
E - effectiveness of exchanger, Equation (3-42)
..

Chapter 4
HRSG Des ign and
Performance Simulat ion

lMPO RTAN CE or HRSG SIMU LATIO N

Wa ter tu be HRSGs (Hea t Recove ry Steam C en era to rs ) o r

\\'H Bs (Wa ste Hea t Boilers ) a s they are sorneti rnes ca llc d
are
widc ly used in va rio us a pplica tions as d iscu ssed ea rlier in Chaptc
1 and 3. Me thods of perform ing th eir d esig n and pe rforma
rs I
calc ulatio ns w ere e la bo ra ted in Chapter 3. T he mecha
nce ¡
configur a tion of the WHB had to be kn own in these calcula tions
ni cal ¡
and
thc heat tran sfer coe fficie nt U was eva lua ted in eac h case in o rder
predict the duty and heat balance .
to I .:
Ho wever when co ns u lta nts a nd sys tem engine ers are in the
early s tages o f develop ing a p rojec t they need so rne basic inform
at io n
I
I
about HRSG perform a nce and ca pabilities at differ ent p la nt loa I
ds
and o pe ra ting p oints. For examp le in a gas turbine coge nera
tio n
planr, if th e HR SG perform ance ca n be si rnu la te d at di ffe rent
arnbien t conditi ons and loads, they can s tudy the co m p lete sys
te m
pe rfo rm a nce knowi ng th e steam genera tion, a u xilia ry
fu e l
consum ption, system efficiency etc., and use the inform ation to selec
t
plant auxilia ries such as stearn turbine , conden ser and deaera tor
or
cvaluat e the overall plant econom ics.
They may obtain this in fo r ma tio n from HRSG suppli ers;
howeve r, during the ea rly stages of a project, a lot of tim e ca
n be
wasted by consul tants if they depend on HRSG s u p p lie rs for
th is
inform a tio n fo r the sim p le rea son that too many alt ernativ es o
r gas
turbines may be involve d and HRSG sup pliers may tak e a lon g
time
to design a HRSG for each alterna tive and then provid e
the

205
 206 Wa st e Hc a t Bo iler Dt.-skbook
pe rformance dala for diffcrcnl opc ra ling condilio.ns; also, th?y may
n ot rcs p ond as quickly as thc co ris u lta n ts would like to, part icularly
if it is a s tud y and thc gas inlct co nd itions are not firm o
Also it would be in thc int e rests of co ns u lta nts to be ablc lo
si rnu la tc the HRSG thc rrnal pcrfo rmancc and not be ticd to any
particul ar HRSG design o r s up plier. Sin ce they are only ínt er -s ted in
the ther rna l performance, thc mechaní cal d eta ils are not im portan¡
a t thi s s tagc. On ce th c s tudy is completed and a particul ar gas
tur bine o r hea t so u rce is sc lcc ted , then th e con sultant s can approach
diffc rc n t HR SG s u pp licrs for p ro posals, kn owing what kind of
per forman ce and s tea m producti on thc y can cxpect for their sys tem;
thi s al so makcs them knowlcdgeabl e and the pr occss o f cvaluation
of HRSG bids can be qui ckened .
Anoth c r rea son for co nsultan ts to pcrform thi s sirnu lation
th cm sclves is tha t thcy can optimize th e stearn sys tem (wh ether lo
ma ximi z e HP or IP stearn, where lo ta ke off the st earn for
d eaera tion, how rnuch LP st earn should be generatcd etc ,) as they
are more familiar with cosl of steam, fuel and the utiliti s and the
s tcarn needs of the cu stomer,
15 there a me thod of evalua ting HRSG performance withou l
kn owing the mechanical design details such as tube size, length, .fin
densi ty etc? Can one obtain info rma tion on steam gene ra l.lOn
ca pabili ties and tern peratu rc profiles witho ut doing a mechan ícal
design? Th e answer is YES and lh is chap le r wil l elabora te lhe
me thod, w hic h ca n be e ffec tive ly u s ed b y pl ant e ng ineers,
consultan ts and even HRSG designers to simula te and op tim ize a
HRSG, be il a single p ressure sys tem o r a complex mu lti-pressure unit
and in teg rate it in to the stea m pIa n t.
DESIGN ANO
PERFORMANCE CALCULATIONS
There are tw o basic lypes of caIcuIations per formed while
sel ecting a HRSG ; one is the "desig n" caIcuIat ion ; in this mod e, the
basic configuration or the disposition of various su rfaces is arrived ,al
in cluding the gas and steam temperature profil es and th e steam
production. Once a unit is designed, it means that th e surface areas~~
HRSG Dcsig n and Perform an ce Sirnula tion 2(11
the vari ous compon ents suc h as the su pe rhcatcr, cvapora to r a nd
ccono rnize r and the co nfigu ra tion ar e frozen .
Tw o irnportant vari abl es narn oly th c P INC H po in l an d
APPROA CH point d e te rmine th c compl et e d esi gn, the desi gn
tempera turc p rofiles and thc s tearn produ ction , as cxpl ained below.
Th e "perfor ma nce calcul ati on " telIs th c user ho w the HRSG
tha t ha s been d esigned p er forms al differ ent o the r gas flows, in let
temperatures, or s tea rn pararnet er s, Thi s is a co m p lex iterati ve
procedure and will be discu ssed lat er. The re is only one d esign poin t ,
but there a re several o ff-desig n performan ce points.
II
I
DESIG N CALCULATIONS
AN O O ESIGN TEMPERATUR E PROFILE
I
Figure 4-1 sh ow s the temperature profile for a sim p le HRSG for
a sing le pressure case with a superheater, evaporator a nd econo -
mizer . The desired superheat ed stearn pressure and temper ature are
I
kno w,n as .a ~ so the íeed water temperature and blow down . The ga s
inlet cond itions such as the ga s flow, inlet tem pera tu re and the ga s
analysis are also kno wn. It is desired to obtain the gas and stea m
I
tcmpe raturo profiJes and the s tearn flow in the design rnod e,
Once the pi nch a nd approach point s, wh ich are defin cd in th e
diag ram, are chose n, the co mple te gas a nd s team tem pe ratu re
I
profiles and the steam flo w falJ in p lace . In other wo rds, if the pinch
and approach points are selected the design may be sa id to be
complete as s hown below.
The satu ra tion temperature /5 is known or may be obtained from I
the s tea m tables as the evapora to r pressure is kn ow n. (lt can be
assu~ed to be a few psi abOYe the superhea ted steam p ressure). Since
the pmch and app roach point s are ass u med, T g3 and /w2 can be
comput ed . (Tg3 = /5 + pinch point and /w2 = /5 -approach poi nO.
I
Q12 = du /y o[ superhea/er plus evapora/or = Wsd x {(h s2- h w2) +
bdx(hf- hw1)) = Wg x Cp x(Tg 1- Tg3) x h1f (4 -1)
From the aboye, Q12 can be compu ted as Tg1, Tg3 and W a re
kno wn. Cp is obtained from the gas a naIysis. h1f is the heatg¡oss
 • !

200 Wast e Hca t Ho íl cr Ocs k book fl RSC Dcsign a nd Perf orm ance Simulatio n
200

fac lo r - Iypi ca lly ran g ing frorn .98 lo .99 d epc ndi ng o n the size GUIO ELINE S FOR SELE CfING
o f the
H RS G an d insulat io n o r ca si ng d esi g n oExam pl e 8 of C ha p te PINCH ANO APPR OACJ -I POIN TS
r 2 s ho ws
how o ne can co m p u te th is 10 55.
W sd, thc d es ign stc arn [low rate m ay be so lvc d fo
r; sa tu ra ted A lot o f con fu sion ex is ts ¡¡mo ng cng inccrs reg ¡¡rding the a bo
s ica m cnthalp y h ve
sl, Sll pcrhe <l ted s team cnthalpy Irs2 a nd c n tha lp v t\\'O im po r ta n : var ia b les. Th c rc a re se vc ra l irnport ant Ia
o f íc c d w ater h 2 a re o b t.iinc d from st eam ta bles. T he s u pcrhca ct s t ha t
w te r sho u ld be kcpt in rnind befo rc sc lcc ting thcrn.
1. Pinch and App roa ch poi n ts can no t be a rb itra rily sc lcc rcd
du ty = Ql =w sd x (hs2 - hsl ) = Wg x C p x (T,,? 1 - T g2) xlIII (4-2) don e so, a tcrnpcr aturc cross situ a tio n can ari sc as d íscu sscd bclow
. If

H cnce T 2 ma y be o b ta ine d . Si ncc Q I2 = Ql + Q2, Q 2

g the (4-5 )
evapo ra lo r du ty m¡¡y be o b tai ned: al so ,
Q2 = Wg xC p x (T g2 - T g3) x hIf (4- 3 ) (4 -6)

The eco no mize r du ty is th en = Q3 = Wsd x (1 + bd) x In th e a bo ye eq ua tio ns, blo w dow n a nd heatl oss w ere negl ecl
(h w2 - h w l ) = ed .
Wg x C x (T g3 - T g4 ) x }¡l f (4 -4) Neg lec ling varia tio n s in C wc have, d iv id in g (4-5) by (4-6):
P'
"
He n ce o ne can so lvc for T 4 fr om th e above cqu a tio n. T h us
g the (T g l- T g3 )f(TgI - Tg4 ) = (}¡s2 - }¡w2)f(}¡s2 - }¡wI) = X
( 4 -i)
co m p le te gas and s tea rn tornperature pro files and the s tea rn wh cre X is a co ns ta n t for the s tea rn p ara rn et ers in co ns ide ra tio
flow are n . T wo
a r rived al. (hf is th e enthalp y of sa tu ra te d w ater .) ,.
co nd itions rnust be m et for stearn ge ne ra tio n to occ u r:

T g3 > /5 and Tg4 > /w l (4-8 )

Tgl Tg2 If th e pinch p oint o r app roa c h is se lec te d arbitra ril y , it

is
likely th at T g4 ca n be lo we r tha n /wl, ca u sin g a tem p er a tu
Tg3 re c ro ss
situ ati on . Substit uting /5 for T 3 and /wl for T
Tg4 g g4 , we ca n obtain a I ,
152 cri tica l inl et temper a t u re T gl e, abov e whi ch th e feed
- Pin ch Po inl = Tg3 w at er
• ts
ternpe ra tu re govern s th e tempe ra tu re profil e a nd bel ow which
15 . the
pin ch point go ve rns th e ternper ature profile.
Iw2
From (4-7) , ( Tg IC /s)/(Tg l r /w l )= X (4-9)

Evapora tor Econom izer

(4-10)

Examp le
S u perheale r

Figure 4-1. HRSG Tempera ture ProfiJes
Let steam pressur e = 585 p sig, st eam temper ature = 700 °F, Feed
Water temper ature = 250°F. Le t approa ch p oint = 20 °F. t
s = 48 8 °F;
hence /w2 =468°F. From steam tables, ba = 1351.8, h
wl = 219.5, h w2 =
 210 Wa sl e Hca t Boile r Dcskbook
450.7. thcn X = .796. Frorn (4- 10) Tg1c = (488-.796 x 250)/(1 - .796)
1416°F.
A bove 1416°F, the Iced wat er tem pe ra tu re govcrns th e p rof ile.
To illu stra te th is, let u s a ssumc th at w e selec ted a p inc h poin t of
30°F wh e n T g 1 = 160{JOF. Th e 7:'{3 = 488 + 30 = 518°F. T he n fro rn (4-7),
(1 600-5 18)/ (1600-Tg4 ) = .796 or Tg4 = 240°F, which is be lo w 250°F,
resulting in a tern perat urc cross si tu a tio n, whi ch is not prac tica ).
Lel u s say we sc lcctcd 2S0°F fo r Tg4, then : (1 600-Tg3) /(1 600-
280) = .796 o r Tg3 = 550°F, a pi nch poin l o f 62°F. T his is a Ie asible
va lu e . Wi t h a higher appro a ch po i n t, T 1gc in cr e as es ¡ nd th e pinch
po int w ou ld no t be gove rni ng the tem pcra ture p rof ik . Le t us se lect
/w 2 = 400°F in the abo ye casco Th cn X = .862. H en ce T g 1c = 1974°F.
Since Tgl = 1600°F, th e pinch po in t can now be lower. Try 30°F. Th en
(1600-5 18)/(1 600-Tg 4 ) = .862 or Tg 4 = 345°F, wh ich is h igher than
T w 1 and he nce thermod y na m ica lly íeas ible.
H o we vc r w het her it is íc as ib le fr om a m echa nica l si zc
co nsid e ra tio n has lo b e sc cn , T h us ternperature cross si tu a tio ns can
eas i ly be handled by in cr ea sin g the pinch o r a p proach points or
b oth . H o w e ver th e p oinl th at ha s been brought ou t is th at they
ca n no l be a rbit ra rily sc lec ted, and the inle t gas ternperat ure pl ays a
rol e.
H ence one ha s to be ca rofu l in selecting pinch and approach
p o ints in the case of fired u nits o r in HRSGs where th e g as inlet
ternpcrature is high aboye lOOO°F. It is su ggcsle d th at p inch and
a p proac h p oints not be se lec ted in the fired m od e (in th e case of gas
turb ine HRSGs) for th e abo ye reason , N o te th at the gas flow d oes not
m all er o
2. Pinc h point has lo be se lec ted s u ch th al th e HRSG
ev aporalo r is of rea sonabl e size o r one lhat ca n be built and shipped .
lf a very low valu e is sel ecl ed, lhen lhe surface area required may be
loo much and lh e HRSG will be cosl prohibilive. If a very high
value is used, lhen one may nol be able lo recover adequale energy
from lhe gas slream.
See Chapler 3 for an example on optimum pinch point selection.
Choice of Pinch and approach points are also affected by the type ol
surface used. whether bare or finn ed . Wilh bare tubes, il is
impractical tc.loblain a pinch poinl of less th an 100 to lS QoF. The
number of tube rows would be loo many and hence the gas pressure
f-!f{SG Design and Perform ance Simula lion
2 JJ
= drop wo u ld be v ery high . Ap p c ndi x A com pa res tw o d es ig ns w i th
ba rc and fin ned tu bes for the sarnc pi nch a nd ap p ro ach poin ts.
T he foll o wing table may be used as a guid e for se lcc ting p inch
and appro a ch p oin ts . Th e a u tho r sugges ts t hat fo r gas turbi n e
IIRSGs, these valu es be sclected in the un fired rnod e e ve n thou g h th e
UIlI l m ay be opera ting in the fired m od e.
T a ble 4-1.
Su gg ested Pin ch an d Approach Points
Pinch Poin!, F Appro ach Point,F
a. Evap type bare fin ned
b. Inlel gas lemp, F
120 0 -1 800 13 0-1 5 0 3 0 - 60 4 0- 70
750-1 2 00 80- 130 10-3 0 10- 40
Fo r a ga s turbin e a p p hca tío n . pi nch an d a ppro ach poí nt s of 15
lo 2? OF. are rea s o na blo in th e u n fi red mode . Fo r a di rt y ga s
a p p lica tio n s uch a s MSW, wit h a g a s in le t temp erature of 1500 lo
180QoF, a p inch poin t of 130 to 15QoF a nd approach o f 40 to 7QoF m av
be rea sona ble, '
3. Pinch and Appra ach po in ts s hould be se Jected in the un fir ed
rnod e for gas tu rbin e a p p lica tio ns , even though the uni t may be
ope ra ting in th e fir ed m od e a l! th e tim e. The folJ owing a re th e
reason s:
a. A ternperature cross situa tio n can resu lt as d iscu ssed abo ve.
Co n s u lt a n ts w ho are no t familiar with HRSG performance
so rneti rnes ca l! o u t the d esig n pinch p oint or approach p oinl without
reaIi zing lh e implical ion s of lh e gas inlel temperalure or the
practicality of the valu e chosen.
b. For exa m p le if a pinch poinl of 20°F is selected with a firing
temperature o f 1600°F, the ba iler size would be hu ge and the cos t and
gas pressure drap would be unrea sonabl e. It is difficult to visualize a
HRSG s ize in the fired m ode; ha ving designed several units,the
~ u t ho r rec ommends that th e pinch and approach points be selected
In the unfired mode and the p erformance evaluated in the fired
m~de. Through ex perience, it can be said that pinch and approach
pollltS of 10 to 20°F are fea sible for unfired gas turbine units. .
 212 Wasl e !lea l Boilcr Dcs kboo.
c. Stea ming in rhe econ orn izer is a concern wi th g as turbi ne
un its. Th is occu rs d urin g co ld arnbient u nfirod condition s w hcn the gas
flo w is h ig her a nd the inlct gilS ternper at u rc lo wc r tha n no rmal
co nd itic ns . The rca so n fo r th is w ill be g ive n lat e r wi th a n cxa rn plo,
H cncc if one se lec ts the p in ch a nd appro ach to a void s teaming at the
u n firc d co ld a mbi en t co nd itions . s team ing can be avoid ed a t any
o thc r opcrat ing co n d itio n. N o te th a t a s the ga s inl e t tcrn p cra tu ro
increa scs, the pi nch and ap proa ch p oi n ts w ill in cr cas e a nd vice
v er sa .
d . ]( the selec tion o f s tca m lem pe rat ure is d on e in the fired
modo, it wi ll not be ac hie vcd in the u n fired m od o du c to th e lower
g as in let tc rnpc rat u re . In u n il s w here th e stea m tempcr it u rc has to
be co n tro lle d over a w id e lo ad rilng e, th e s tea rn tem per .tu re has to
be ac hie ved in th e unfi red a s wc ll as in th e fircd m od es . Th e cxc ess
s u r face a rca o f th e s u p e r hc a te r o r th e a rn o u n t o f spray w at er
rcqu ir ed for s tea rn tern pcrat urc co n tro l can n o t be vi suali zed if the
tem perature profiles are selcc tcd in th e fire d rnod e. A lso, several
perfo rma nce checks ha ve to be rnad e to ensu re that th e desi red s tearn
tem perature rang e is being achi eved a t d iffer ent unfir ed a nd fired
cond itio ns .
On th e o ther hand if th e s tea m ternper aturc is se lec ted in the
un fired rnod e, it can be ce r tnin ly a chi ev ed in th e fir ed m od c and
throu gh so me s tea m ternperature control m eth od s, wc ca n ob ta in the
d esired va lue a t any o the r hi gher g as inIet tempera ture .
4 . Once th e pinch and approach p oints are selec te d and the
desi gn tem perature profile is arrived a t, th e d e si gn is n early
co m ple te. If th e HR SG opera tes und er a diffe re n t mass flow, inle t
temperature, ga s analysis or steam pressure, th e HRSG performance
o r the temperature profile and the steam flow w ould change.
This information is obtained through "p er fo nna nce " calcula·
tions, which is discussed la ter. The pinch and approach points would
ch ange with different case of inlet conditions. Th ey falI in place and
have to be evaluated using complex iterat ive proc edure. The
important thing to keep in mind is that pinch and approach r<:>ints
are not constants but vary with vari.ltion s in gas flow, mIel
tempera tu re, ga s analysis, steam pressure ...ld feed water tempera·
ture . Hence consultants and eng ineers should n ot u se these term5
loosely but associate them with a particular gas inlet condition and
I IRse Design and Perf orma nce Simulalion
213
s tca m pa ra rne tcrs . We w ill now illu s tr a tc th e desi g n a nd p cr-
fo rrna nce cal cu lati on p rocedurc w ith cxa rnp les .
DESIGN TEMI J E R A T U R E
PROFIL E AND CALCULATIONS
T he s upc r hca te r a nd eco no mi ze r a re ass u rne d lo b e in
cou n tcrflo w a rra ngcmen t, wh ich is th e w id cly used con figu ra tion .
Exam p le 1.
A g as turbi n e H RSG is to be d esig n ed fo r th e pa rame te rs s ho w n
in Tablo 4-2. De te r mi ne th e gas/s tea m p ro files and th e s team flow .
Let the g as pr essu re drop = 6.0 in. Wc. Let su pe rhe a te r pressure d rop
= 7 p si. T he d ru rn prcssure = 450 + 7 = 457 p sig . The sa tu ra tion
tem pera ture is 460°F. Gas te m pe ra ture lea ving th e eva po ra to r = 460
+ 20 = 480°F.
Co mp u te th e g as p roperti e s for th e g iven a na lys is . Th e da ta
are s ho w n in Tabl e 4-3. Usin g a n in s ta n taneo us specific heat o f 0.267
fo r th e ran g e 900 to 480°F a nd a heat 10 55 fac to r o f 0.99, th e du ty in jI ,
the su pcrhea te r and evapo ra tor is: Q 1 + Q2 = 150,00 0 (0.267 ) <0:99) ¡
(900-480) = 16.65 x 10 6 Btu / h = W sd [(1, 330.8-43 1.2) + 0.02(442.3-
431.2)J = 899.8 Wsd· Wher e 1,330.8 = e n tha lpy of s u perhe a ted s tea m
a t 450 p sig, 650° F, 442.3 = e n th a Ipy of sat u ra te d water a t d ru m
pr essu re, 431.2 = en tha lpy of w at er entering th e e va p ora to r at 4500F.
0.02 is th e blo w d own factor.
Fro m th e aboye, W sd = 18,510 pph. Superheater duty, Q1 =
18,510(1,330.8-1 ,204.4) = 2.34 x 106 Btu/h, where 1,204.4 is the
enthalpy o f saturated steam . Gas temperature drop in th e
sUperh ea te r = 2.34 x 10 6/(15 0,00 0) (0 .273) (0.99 ) = 58°F H ence, g as
temperature to evaporator = 900-58 = 842°F. Q2 = Evaporator duty =
16.65-2 .34 = 14.31 106 Btu/h. Economizer duty = 18,510 (1.02) (431.2-
6
209.6) = 4.19 x 10 Btu/h, wher e 209.6 is th e enthalpy of feed water
at 240 °F.
 wastc Hcat Boiler o..",l:book HRSC Dcsign and Performance Simulation 215
21 4

Ta bl e 4-2.
Data for "Des ign" and "Perfo rm an ce" Calcu lati ons Part b-G as Proper tics- Fir cd Case

Design Pe rf Perf Perf (% vol C02 =3.45, H20 = 7.87, N2 = 74.65, 02 = 14.01)
1 2 3 4 Temp., °F Cp J1 k
1. Ca s e no .
150,000 165,000 165,000 165,000 1,050 0.2800 0.0887 0.0330
2. G a s flow, pph
900 840 840 840 700 0.268 9 0.0743 0.0267
3. Exhaust ternp., °F
4. % vo l C02 3 3 3 3 35 0 0.2583 0.058 6 0 .0208

H20 7 7 7 7
75 75 75 75 Units: Cp-B lu/lboF, Jl-Ib/ft h, k-Bt u/ft hOF
N2
15 15 15 15 (In te rp ola te for ga s properties al interrnedia te ternpera tu res)
02
5. Staarn pres s .. ps ig 450 450 450 300
650 ? ? 650 Gas tem per a tu re drop in the cconornizcr = 4.19 x 106/050,000>
6. Stearn lemp., °F
240 240 240 ~40 (0.26) = 109°F. The gas spec ific heat a l the ave rage g as te rnper a tu re
7. Fe ed wat er tarnp., °F
2 2 2 2 in th c cco norn ize r, o b ta ined Irorn Ta ble 4-3 by inter po la tion , is 0.26.
8. Blow down, %
2,500 Hcnce, the exi t gas te m pera ture = 480-109 = 37 1°F. The ternpcr ature
9. Proces s stearn, pph
1 profile is shown in Figure 4-2. Using a s imi lar approac h, the ternper-
10 . Heat 1055 + marg in, % 1
? ? ature profiles for any o the r pinch or a pproach poin ts ca n be ob tai ned .
11. SH pre s s . drop, psi 7 ?
12 . P inch po int, °F 20 ? ? ?
13 . Approach point, °F lO? ? ?
14 . S tea m flow, pp h ? ? 26,000 26,000
15 . Amb ienl le mp.• °F 80 50 50 50
N at u ral gas used : % vo l Cl =96, C2 = 2, C3 = 2.
N o te tha t steam is req u ircd at a cont rollcd tem perat ur e of 650°F in
case 4. In cases 2 and 3 it is u nco ntroll ed. Also, in case 4, 2,500 pph 01
sa tu ra tc d ste am is taken off the d ru m and the balance oE 26,000 pp h is
10 be su per hea ted 10 650°F. Thc srcarn exit pr essu re is 300 psig in case 4. 11
will be see n la ter th at cases 3 and 4 are fircd an d cases 1 an d 2 are un fired.

SH EVAP ECO

Table 4-3. Rnub-oe~ cue-untw'lld

_.
Amb . Iemp. - "F -110. Rol. hum . - .. _ O. H_ ' " - .. _ l .
Part a-Gas Properties-Unfired Gas a..lemp . 10 HRSG - -F • 900
Gu I'oow-i>l>ft - 150.000 . .. ..,. . ce, - 3, H,O • 7. N, • 75, o, - 15. so, • o

(% vol C02
Temp., °F
=3, H20
e,
= 7, N2 =75, 02 = 15)
J1 k
G&alemp.
....... - "F
WaI.1slm .
In-ouI - ·F
Duoy
UUb/h poog
Aow
ppIl ..
PItm. P lnch
"F
Aw<t;h .
"F

SH IlOO ll50 2.35 4SO ' 8.8' 0 100.0

EVAP 843 4ll' 14 .38 457 18,8'0 100.0 20 10
eco 4ll, 451 <22 4117 ' U 82 0.0
900 0.2736 0.083 0.0304
650 0.2658 0.0 724 0.0261
0.021 8 Figure 4-2. Des ign Case 1 Resu!ts (Hydrocarbon Proassingl
400 0.2584 0.0612
 216 Wa s te Hcat Boiler IX-skboo k
To proceed w it h the pe r formance calculations for case 2 s ho wn
in Tablc 4-2, a few pa rarnctcrs sh ould íirst be cornputcd . a s d iscu ssed
in i n se r t B. T hcsc pa rarnct crs hclp relate th c hea t lrans fer
cocffic ic n ts in th e "d es ig n" m odc lo th ose in "per fo rmance. "
Fo r thc su p crhca tc r: K¡ = Ql /(tJT1 ) ( W gO .65) Fg ) tuhere L1T ¡ =
la g-mea n tempe ra turc diffcrcn cc = [(842--46 0 H 900-ó5 0>l/ II[ (8-l2-
460 )/ (9 00-650 )J = 311 °F, F", = C,P.3\O .67/ p O.32 = 0.135, usin g a C" =
aO.273, k = O.029 ,and JI = 0.08 26 . Hcncc K ¡ = 2,34 0 ,0 00/
150,00 0°. 65/3 11/0.135 = 24.10. Sim ila rly for thc c va po ra to r K2 = 387.6
an d K3 = 21 .4 fo r thc cco no m izcr . Kl, K2 and K3 will be uscd lo
comp u te ( L/S )", th c produ cl of U and S in thc pe rformance m od es as
dis cu ssed in inscrt B.
PERFORMANCE CALCULATIONS
Let u s sec h ow th e unit pe r fo rms w hc n the cond itions a re as
s ho wn in ca se 2, Table 4-2 . T he gas flo w is 165,000 p p h a t 840°F. The
ga s a nal y si s, fccd w ater tc m perat ure a n d s team p ressure rerna in the
sa me a s earlier. The p erforman ce of th e H RSG is a rrivcd a t th rou gh
an it erati ve proce ss descr ibcd in ln serts A and B.
TriaI 1. A s a firsl appro x irnat ion, ass u me th at the s tearn flow is
p ropo r t io nal to th e gas flow and te rnperat u re drop . Ws = 18,5 10
065,000/ 150,000) (84 0-371) /(900-3 71) = 18,050 p p h.
Superheater Performance.
Let 152, th e stearn e xit tcm perature = 640°F. T hen, from s tea m
tabl e s , the enthalpy = 1,325 Btu/lb. The a ssumed dut y = 18,OSO
0 ,325-1,204.4) = 2.177 x 106 Btu/h . Gas temperatur e drop ::
2,177,000/065,000) (0 .99 ) (O.271) = 49 °F. Hence.ga s temperature
leaving the superheater = 840--49 = 791°F. Compute th e transferred
duty. Q1f, using Equation (4-12) in insert B. Fg = 0.135, Wg = 165,000,
Kl = 24.1, W5d = 18,510, W s = 18,050. Hence (L/S)p ::
165,0000.65(0.135) (24.1) 08,050/18,510)0.15 = 7,974.
tJT = lag-mean tcmpcrature difference = [(840-6-,'0)-(791-
460»)/ln[(840-640)/(791-460») = 260°F. Hence, Q1I = 7,974 (260)::
2,074,000 Btu/h. This is clase to the assumed value. If it were not, we
HR5G Dcsign and Pe rforman ce Simulati on 217
wo u ld ha ve to assum e ano thor s tea rn tc rn pcrat u rc and rc p e a t thc
steps. Le t u s con tin uo.
Evapor a tor Perform an ce.
Compute Fg at the avera ge g a s te rn pc ra tu rc in th e cvaporat or.
Fg = 0.129, K2 = 387. 6. Then, (LI S )" = 165,0000.65 (0 .129) (3 7.6) =
123,123. Using Eq u a t io n ( 4- 18) , [ ( 79 1- 460 ) / ( T g 3 - 460 )! =
,,11 23,123/1 65 ,0 00/ 0.9 9 / 0.266 ) = 17 .00 . H cncc T g 3 = 480°F; Q 2 =
165,000(0.99 ) (0.266) (791--4 80 ) = 13.522 x 106 Btu/h . No te tha t the
gas p rope r ties ha ve to be inte rpolatcd for the va lues a l the av erage
gas tcrnpera tu rc in th e se ction.
Economizer Perfonnance.
Let th e w a te r tem p eratura lea ving th e econo rnizo r be 4500F.
h,V2 = 431. 2 fr om s te a rn tabl es . A ssumed d u ty Q3a = 1.02 0 8,050)
(43 1.2- 209.6 ) = 4. 08 x 106 Btu /h . T he gas temperature drop =
4,080,000 /1 65,000 /0.99/ 0.26 = 96°F, exi t gas tcrnperat ure = 480-96 =
384°F. Fg = .120, K3 = 218.4, H en ce (LIS) p = 218.4 065,000° .65) (0.120)
= 64,535. T ra ns fe rred duty = Q3t = 64,535(72.7) = 4.69 x 106 Btu Zh,
whe re 72.7 is th e log-rnea n ternperat ure d ifference .
Since the transferred dut y is m ore th a n the assu rned, le t u s
rcpe at th e ca lc u la tio ns w ith s ay t W2 = 45 7°F. Q3a = 18,050 0 .02)
(: 39-209.6 ) = 4,23 0,000 Btu Zh. The exi t gas te mperature = 381. tJT =
6:>. Then Q3a, = 64,5 35 (65) = 4,1 90,000 Btu/h. 5i nce this is closer to
Q3t , let u s continue. Th e tot al tran s ferred duty = Q1I + Q2t + Q3t =
2.07 + 13.52 +4.]9 = 19.78 MMB tu/ h . T he co rrec ted s tea rn flow, W =
sc
19.~8 x 1? 6/[ 1,3:5-:209 .6 + 0.02(442-209 .6») = ]7,660 pph, per Equa tion
(4- _4) . Since thi s \ 5 not clase to th e a ssumed value o f 18 OSO p ph
ano the r trial is warranted. Try Ws = 17,770 pph. ' ,
Tria) 2.
Let the revised steam flow 17,700 pph . Follow a s i m ila r
procedure as befare.
Superheater Performance.
Let /52 = 640 °F. Qla = 17,700 0,325-1,204.0) = 2. 134 MMBtu/h.
~as temperature drop = 2,134 ,000/065,000) (0.99) (0.271) = 48°F . T g2
- 840-48 = 792 °F. tJT = 260°F. F g = 0.135. Kl = 24.1. Then, (LIS)p =
 Was te Hea t Boile r Dcskboe !IRSG Desi gn and Perf orma nce Sim ulal ion
218 219

165 ,0000.65 (0.135) (24.1) (17,700 /1

8,510l0.15 = 7,957. Q lt = 7957(260
2.07 MM Bt u/ h. Sin ceQ l l is lcss ) ..
tha n Qla , try a low er s tea rn temo
per alur e, say 635 °F. T hcn Qla
= 17,700(1 ,332 -1,20 4.4) = 2.08
MM Btu /h . Gas Tcm pera ture dro 1
p = 47°F . Tg2 = 840 -47 = 793°F. tJT
264 0F. Hcn cc . Qll = 7,957(264 ) ..
= 2.1 MM Blu /h. Thi s is close
cnc ugh,
Con tinu e.

Eva por ator Perf orm an ce. R.suf t.-perf 'orm.l nce case-u
nfit'lK f
Solv e for T 3 as befo re. \(793--4 60l Nnb lemp. _ - F .. 50 , RIM . hum
- % .. 60 . HN' k:Je.s - ~ .. 1
g / (T g3-4 60l ) = 17.00; hen ce TgJ Gas lemp lO HASG - -F .. 840
=480 0F. Q2 = 165 ,000 (0.99) (0.266) (793-480) = 13.6 •
MMBtu / h. (The
Gul\ow -9l>h _ ' 65.000 . " "" CO,
- 3, H,o - 7 N, - 75 0, . ' 5 so, - O
factor 17 com pu led [rorn Trial 4-1
is un cha nge d .l Gule mp
in-oul - -F
Wal.ll tm
in-ou! - - F
Oufy Pt$U
.... bIh poog
FIow

""" .
Pstm . Plnc h
°F
App«n
°F

Eco nom izer Perf orm ance .

Let tW2 = 455; hW2 = 436 .8; Q3a
MMB lu/ h. Gas tem pera tu re dro
=17,700(1.02) (436 .8-209 .6) = 4.1
p = 96°F . Tg4 = 480 -96 = 384°F. tJ
SH
EVAP
ECO : 1 ~' I ~ 793
(8()

38'
(58
240
~,

¿58
2.08
13.&1
• '9
' SO
~
(66
17.822
17.822
18.179
' 00.0
100.0
0.0
'9 3

680F. Usi ng the same ( US) " T ..

as befo re, Q 31 = 64,535(68 ) = Figu re -1-3. Perfo rman ce Case 2 Resu
l ts
MM Btu /h . Sin ce thc va ría ríon be 4.36
twe en Q3a and Q31 is larg e, try tW2
= 4580F. The n, Q3a = 4.14 MM Blu
/h. Tg4 = 383° F. óT = 64.6°F. Hen
Q31 = 64 .6(64 ,535 ) = 4.16 MM Blu ce,
/h. Thi s is qui te clos e . Th e tota
tran sfer red dut y = 2.1 + 13.6 + 4.16 l
= 19.86 MM Blu /h. Th e corr e<:led
s tea rn flow , W = 19.86/\( 1 ,322
sc -20 9.6) + 0.02(442 -209 .6» ) = 17,7
pph .5in ce this is clos e to th e assu 70
med value o f 17,700, let us stop
her e. The fin al tem pera ture p rofi
lc is sho w n in Fig ure 4-3. The gas
pres s
ur e dro p, usin g Equ atio n (4-25) = 6(165,000/ 150,000 )2\0.5(840 +
383) + 460 1/ (0.5(900 + 371) + '160
)) = 7.1 in. Wc.
240
Per form anc e Che ck- Fire d Case. RewJt.-~ case -firod
Let us che ck the per form an\e ArnI:J. temp - ·F • SO. Re( hum
for case 3 sho wn in Tab le 4-2, - % • 50. Heat aa - % • 1

_ .
Gas 18mp lO HRSG - ·F • 640
whe re it is des ired lo mak e
tem per atur e is unc ontrolle d.
26,000 pph of stea rn - The sle
am
Gas fIow.f'Il/> • 165 ,000 ...... .. ce,
- 3. H,o - 7 No· 75 0,"5 so, - O

""'" .
Gasto mp. WolJw n. Ouly P,.. Pinc:ll ÑOl"d ',
It is obv iou s that wit h sam e in-out - ·F in-out - ·F "I.l~
earl ier case , we nee d add itio nal
inle t gas con diti ons as in the
BURN 8010
P"'Il
""" °F °F

fuel inp ut to the HRSG to gen era lt o

1.035 O O 929 43' O
SH 1.035 ~ (Q m 3.llll 450 2S,1le3 1000
26,000 pph . The pro ced ure is
sim ila r to the earl ier one . How ver,
EVM' 9501 .90 (:le (e2 20.!>2 (601 2S.1le3 '00.0 27 28
add itio nal step s are n ece ssar y
to iter a te for the firin g tem pera
e ECO .90 362 2-0 (:le 5."5 ." 28.482 0.0
Gas _ ah ... HRSG • 165.43 ', ..
as disc uss ed in lnse rt A. The met
hod of com puti ng tbe fuel inpU
ture o, - " .01. so,. 0 .00
,.,., ce,. 3."5, H,Q • 7,1fT
65 PI,."
• . •
firin g tem per atur e and gas ana t. F.... _ gas: anaIyI la - .. _ . 1 moIha na - 96. 2 .."." . • 2.
3 ~ • 2.
lysi s is disc usse d el! ewh ere. Let _ h. 957 • ..,.Blu llb - 21.3ll8 , aug
only che ck the final resu lts whi oS . aK.pp II· O

ch are sho wn in Figu re 4-4.

Figu re 4-4. Performan ce Case 3 Resu
lts
 220 Wasll! He. 1 Bo iler Deskboo HRSG Des ign a nd Performa nce Sirnul a tion 221

Su perh cat er Perf orman ce. co nsum ing . Fig ur e 4-5 sho ws the result s o f case 4 wh erc s tca m
Tabl c 4-3b sho ws the gas pr opert ies for thc gas an alysis alter tcmpera tu rc con trol and fuel firin g ar e invo lved .
combus ti ón. Fro rn thc prin tout, Figu re 4-4, it is see n thal the HRSG
gas inl ct tcmpcratu re is 1,034°F a nd the bu rner fue] input is 9.29
MMBtu/h (LHV basis).
Wg = 165,430; W5 = 26,000; 152 = 677°F. Fg a t the a verave gas
tc m pcra tu re is 0.142. The satu ra rio n tcrnpcrature is 462°F, lt the
co rrccted dr urn pressure of 463 psig . Q 3a = 26,0000 ,346.0-1 ,204.3) =
458
3.69 MM Blu/h . Gas tern pcr aturc d rop = 3,690,000/ 065,430) (0.99)
(0.278) = 81°F. Exil gas tem pcraturc, Tg2 = 1,034- 81 = 953°F; L1T =
420°F. x¡ = 24.1. (LlS)p = 165,4300.65(0.142) (24.1) (26,000/ 18,510)°·15
= 8,840. Then, Q1I = 420<8,840) = 3.71 MMBlu /h . 405

SH 1 SH 2 EVAP ECO
Evaporalor Performance. Aesulta-performance tase - fired
Fg = 0.135; K2 = 387.6; hcn cc (U S)p =165,4300.65(0.135) (387.6) = Amb lem p - · F - SO. R., hum - ~ _ 60 . Hea l 50s! _ % _ 1
Ga! temp lOHRSG - ·F • &40
129,4 37. Us ing Eg u a tio n (4 - 18 ), [ (953-462 )/ (T g3- 462)] Gas 1Iow-pph - 165 000 .. "'" Ce, - 3 H,o . 7 N, . 75 o, . 15 so, .
e12 9 ,4 3 7 /1 6 5 ,43 0 / 0 .99/0 .27 ) = 18.67. Henc e, T g3 = 489°F. Q 2 =
165,430(0.99) (0.27) (955-489) = 20.52 MMBtu/ h.
Gas teenp.
In-ovI - ·F
W. tJltm .
¡~ - · F
Outy
MM 0Ih
Press. FJow
pSi¡¡ pph .
PSlrn. Plnch
°F
Al>P<"cIl.
°F
BUA N 840 1,067 O O 10.82 O 506 O
SH 1.067 979 '27
OeSH 1.032 1.032 SIl7
650 ' .05 300 25._ 100.0
Economizer Performance. EVAP 979 <58 <os
5<2 0 .00 309 608 O
<27 23 .03 3 18 28._ 100.0 31 22
1W2 = 435; h W2 =414.45; Q 3a = 26,0000.02) (414.45- 209.6) = 5.43 eco <58 343 2<0 <os '90 328 28.8 10 0 .0
MMBtu/h. Gas ternperat ure drop = 128°F; Tg4 = 489- 128 = 361°F. L1T= Gas no. afler HASG • 165.506. % ~. CO, . 3.52. H~ _ 8.0 1,
N, - 7' .60. o, - 138< . so, • 0.00
83°F. K3 = 218.4; Fg = 0.120; ( U S)p = 165,430° ·65 (218.4) (0.120) = Fue' - ga.: anatysis - ~ vcMume . 1 methane _ 96 . 2 etna ne _ 2. 3 propane _ 2
Ihv·8 1u1cu tl • 957 . Ihv-Btultb . 2 1.398 . lug. IlJt-pph _ o .
65,000. Hen ce Q 3t = 83(65,000) = 5.4 MM Btu /h. Total energy
tran sferred = 3.71 + 20.52 +5.4 = 29.63 MMBtu /h . W sc = 29.63 x
10 6 /[0,34 6.7-209.6) + 0.02 (442.6-209.6» ) = 25,970 p ph . The gas Figur e 4-5. Performa nce Case 4 Resul ts
p ressure d rop could be corrected as befo re.
This g ive s a n id ea of the co m p lexi ty o f p erformance
calcu la tions if fue l firing is In volved . Severa l i te rations of Note th.at gas inlet temperature is I,067°F. The sp ray quantity
performance calcuJations would be required before the correet firing ~as been arrived at based on a split in the ra tio of 6:4 in design U
temperalure is arrived al. Also, if the stearn ternp erature has to be tim es S va lues betw een th e first a nd s econd s tages o f th e
controlled , the superheater has lo be split up into two stages with a Superheater. This ra tio is built in to the p rog ramo Sligh t chan ges in
spray d esuperheater in between. The method of computing the spray t~e temper at ur e pro file and spray qu antity ca n result du e to a
wa ter for steam temperatu re control is discussed in Chapter 3. dlfferent split .in the surfaces between .the two stages of th e
In such an HRSG, more iterations are in volved before the sp ray supe rhea ter whil e act ually bu ilding the HRSG.
wa te r flo w an d th e fin al temperature profiles are a rri ved at. Also, note the hig her steam pressure drop in the superhea te r
Without a computer it would be extremely tedious and lime d ue to the lower steam pr essure. The economizer flow ineludes the
2,500 pph sat ura ted steam laken off the drum.
 222 Wast e Hcat Boiler [A,,;kboolc HR5G Dcsig n and Performan ce Sim ulation 223

A note of ca u t ion on U, S and U tim es S val ues . No te that US

val ucs cou ld be co m p u tcd fo r ea ch surface fro m its Q and st dala . For
Procesa stoam
in st ance in the "d es ig n" cas e, for the su perhca tc r, US =23 4,QOO/311 =
7,5 24. T he se would na tu ra lly cha nge depend in g upon th e gas flow, Oesupertleat er I
, -- - ' - - --1
Ñ>ed wator

anal ys is and tc rn pc rat u re profil e . H ence, th ese va lu cs sho uld be

in tcrpret ed wi th ca u tio n .
After a rriv ing a t th e LIS val u cs. so rne c ngi nee rs Iry lo ~ , lit up
the U a n S valu es a n d comp.1re a lte rn a le d esigns ba sed on S valucs Gas

al o ne . This can lead lo very mi sl ea ding concl usions and th e au tho r

s tro ng ly reco rnm en d s aga in sl it. particula rly if ex tended surfaces are SH ECO
EVAP
used . a . SH + EVA P + ECO (module 1) b . SH + EV A P (module 2)
Wi th fin ned tu be s, the gas sid e heat tra ns fer coeffi cien l and fin
Stoam
efficie ncy a re affec te d by va r ia b les s u c h as fin d en sity, hc ight,
thi ck n ess a n d fin o r t u be m at eria l. By u s ing lu bes wi t i. h ig h fin
d en sity, say six, o ne cou ld sho w m ore su rfac e in the H RSC , bu t du e lo
the lo w er U a ssocia ted wi th it, it does not m ean th at th e ene rgy
trans fe rred is m o re co mpa re d lo a d esi gn w hich ha s a lower fin
d e nsi ty, say two lo four, and hen ce, lower S.
Lo we r fin densi ty s ho u ld be used when ever possi b le lo increase
U a n d m in im iz e g as prc ss u r e drop a nd fi n a nd tu be wall c . EVAP (module 3J d . EVAP + ECO (module 4)

te rn p eratures . Thi s is m o re impo r tant in surfaces w ith lo w tu be side

heat tra nsfer coeffi cien ts s uc h as superhea te rs, O n e could sho w that ~.m*_ m
S ca n be 100 lo 200% m o re by usin g six fins/ in .,com pa red lo tw o, but
du e lo th e h ig her U, th e duty ca n be the same o r ev e n m o re.
The au th or has per formed stud ies o n optirni zation o f finned
tubes a nd advi ses engi n ec rs agains t co m pa ring a nd se lec ting HRSGs o. SH (modu le 6] t. ECO (modu le 51
s im p ly becau se the su rface a rca, S, is m ore compared lo ano the r
d esi gn which used lower fin d en s ity . Unless the engineer is familiar . Figu re 4·6. Various modules can be co mbincd to rep resen1
with all aspects of heat transfer with extended surfaces and the m úl tiple pressure and complex HRSC confi gura lion s. (Hydrocarbon ProCtssingl

impact of each variable on U, comparisons of S alone can be

misleading and should be avo ided.
Limitations and Software.
Th e approach d iscussed has a limitation. It cannot be used in
HRSCs which have a radiant sec tio n, However, th e au tho r is of the
vie w that 80 to 90% of HRSCs Iall u nder th e categ o ry d iscussed in
Figure 4-6, a n d hen ce the met ho dology discussed can be appl ied to a
wide va riety of HRSGs used in th e industry.
W hi le th e me thod of p redicting performance u sing U va lues
based o n ac tual tu be geo metry, fin config u ra tion, e tc., gi ves ac cu ra te
results, thi ~ m et h odol ogy has been checke d ag a in st several d esigns
and o pera t1l1g results. For the purposes of en gineering analysis, tr end
pro je ct ions, eva lua tio n o f a lterna te designs and for s tudying th e
eff ec t o f d iff ere nt gas/ s te a m parameters o n performance, thi s
ap proach is very effective and he nce a powerful too l.

224 Was le Hcat Boiler Dcskbook
Co ns ide ring th e co rn p lcx ity o f th e calcu la tions and iter at ivo
nat u rc o f th e p rocc d urc, pa r tic u la r ly if rnu ltip rcssurc HR SGs are
in vol vcd, program COG EN ha s bc cn d c vcl opcd by thc au th or for
HR SG design a n d performan ce c va lua tion. Por m ore in forma tion on
th e so ft w a re and its avo il abil it y . con tact thc auth o r al r .o. 50 x
673, Abi lc ne, Texa s 796().l , USA .
INS ERT A
Performance ca lcu la tio n proccdure
T he pro ccdurc is di scu sscd for a sing le pr essure H RSc.. Figure 4-
6 s ho ws th c variou s configurations of HRSGs co ns ide re d. Th e first
case is quite in vol v ed . T hc m ethod ol og y for th is case will be
di scu s sed. The ga s flo w , gas in lc t tcmper ature an d ana lys is, s tca rn
pressure and feed w ater tcrnpcrature are a ssurned to be known. The
d es ign calculations, which are th e ba si s o f estab lishi ng an in itial
d es ig n, a re assumed to be d on e a nd th e results avai lable, al on g with
K 1, K2 , K3 fac to rs.
1. Assume the stearn flow. A g ood estímate is ob ta ine d by using a
ra tio of th e "performan ce " to "des ig n" g as flows and temperatu rc
drop.
2. So lve th e supe rheatc r pe rfo rmance . Th is is a n it crative
process. See inse rt B, see Equations (4-11 Jto (4-15). If the transferred
and a ss urned dut y are not cq ua l, repe at wi th a no the r steam
temperature or else continue.
3. So lve th e evapora lo r performance. Obtain the duty and cxil
gas tempera ture u sing Eq ua tio ns (4-16 )to (4-19) .
4. Salve economizer perfo rmance usi ng Equations (4 - 20) to (4-23).
This is aga in an ite ra tive p roccdure . Calculate the to ta l transfe rrcd
du ty . . The transferred duty is then:
5. The st eam flo w is th en co rrec tedbased on th e tot al transferred
du ty a n d e n th a lpy ri se , Eq ua tio n (4-24). If th is is c10se 10 the
assumed s tea m flo w in step 1, con tinue or else repea t steps 1 to 5.
6 . If the final st ea m te m pera tu re is grea ter than that desired, the
steam flow is co rrected fo r the desired stea m temperature.
'I
HR5G Deslgn and Performance Sirnulation 225
7. If th e d esircd st ea rn flo w is ze ro (u n fired m od e ) o r less tha n thc
ror rcc ted flo w, p rocccd to s tep 11.
8. If t h e d esired s tca rn flow is lar g er th a n th e corrcc tcd Ilow,
calc u la te the íuel inpu t rcqu irc d lo rai se th e gas tcm pcr ature to th c
req uired le vcl to ach icvc th c dcsi rc d s tca m Ilow . Thi s aga in
invo lves severa l ite rations, a nd for cach fir ing te rnpc rat urc, all the
stcps fro m 1 to 8 ha ve to be rcpca tcd u nti l they m at ch .
9. If th e fina l s tcarn tc m pcra turc is highe r t ha n dcsi r ed,
calc u la te the inters tagc spray quanti ty based on a split supcrhea tc r
10. Ano ther rou nd of fine lu n ing is do ne lo check thc tem pcr ature
profi les a nd stcarn fl ow ,
11. lt ca n be eas ily sccn th a t a 101 o f it crat ive ca lc u la tio ns a re
in volvcd. For cach ro u nd , th e gas and s tea rn propcrti cs have to be
co m p u tad ba sed on the g as anal ysi s and te m p e ra tu rc . If th e re is
stea m ing in th e eco no m izc r, thc eco no rnizcr is sp lit up into tw o
stagcs, a s ma ll e va p o ra to r and a n eco no rnizcr and ca lcu la tio ns a re
d on e to evalua re th e extcnt o f s tea m ing . It is obvious that without a
co rnp u te r, th e ca lc u la tio ns ca n be over w helm ing . p articularl y if
lh er e a re scvera l al te rna re pe rfo rma nce co ndi tio ns, a nd s tea m is
gcne ra ted a l severa l pressure lc vels .
INSERT B
Eq uatio ns used in performance calculations
Su p er heater performance.
Assuming that th e s te a rn flow = Ws, fr orn e ne rg y balance w e
ha ve:
Q/a = Ws(hü-hs/ ) = Wg(Cp) (hlf )( 7'gl 7'g2) (4 -11)
where ts2 = exit steam temperature and hS2, the enthalpy. Compute
lhe exi t gas temperature, Tg2, from th e aboye.
Q1I = (US)p L1T (4 -12a)
~T = log -m ean tem pera ture d ifference
~T = (Tgl -ts2H Tg2- tsl )]/ ln( Tg1-ts2)/ (Tg2_ ts l )] (4-12b)
assu ming counter flow configuration, which is widely used. (US)p is
the prod u ct of 5 and U in performance mode and is ob tained from the
 226 Wa sl e Hcat Bollcr Dcskboolr. HJ{5G Deslgn a nd Per form ance Sirnulatio n
227

( US) valu e in th e d esi gn case b y adj us tin g a s fo Obtain T g4 and thcn the t>T, ass u mi ng coun tcr flo w cond itions
llo w s fo r th e gas
p ro per tics a nd flow .
(4-2 1)
(4· 13)
Tra ns fcrred dut y:
K¡ is ob tained from QJ, ¿f r , Wg and Fg values in d esign cas e:
(4-22)
(4 -]4 )
w hc re
(4-15)
(4 -23)
If fo r th c a ssumcd s tcarn tem pcra lure Q la a nd Q1I d o not come
clos e (s a y w it h in 0.5 %), an othc r itcrat ion is w ar ranted. AII K3 is o b ta ine d as in Equa tio n (4-14) fr om d esig n co ndi tions . If
of the
aboye s tc ps a re re pcal ed until Qla and Q1I m at ch . Q3a and Q3t a re closc, co n tin u é o r else th e ite ra tio n co n tin ues
from
Equ a tions (4-20) and (4-23) with a di fferent tW2 . Th e steam
Ilo w is
Eva p or a lor Perform ance. then co rrec ted a s Ioll o ws:
Fr o rn ene rgy ba lan ce,
Wse = (Q 1I + Q2t + Q3t)/[(hs2 - huii) + bd(hf -hw l )} (4- 24)
(4 -16)
If Wse is not c lose lo th e assu rned flo w, W 5, th e calcu la tions
a re
where L1T = [(T 2 - lsH T -unn« [(Tg2-ls)/(T - tS)) = repeat ed s ta r ting with Ih e superhea ter. T h e ga s p ress ure
d rop is
g g3 g3
(Tg2 - Tg3)/ln (Tg2_IS)/(Tg3- tS)] (4- 17) corr ected for perform an ce condi tio ns:
i.'
Fr orn Eq ua tio ns (4-16) and (4-17) af ter si m p li fica lio n, we ha ve: áP = (tl P)d (Wg/ Wgd)2 [(T aug + 460)/(T
augd + 460)} (4- 25)

(4-1S)
Fro m the aboye calcula tions we ca n dra w so rne co ncl us ions:
(4·19)
. 1. In a HRSG w ith an econo rn ize r, th e pinch and approa
ch
K2 is compu tad as in Equatio n (4-14) from the design conditi ons. poinrs d ecrease with a decreas e in inlet gas temper ature and vice
F is cornpu ted for the perform ance condit íons . T is sol ved versa ; for a g as turbine HRSG, this means that as the ambien
g g3 from t
Equati on (4-18) withou l iterntio n. Q2 , the duty, can be obtaine lemper ature decrea se s (ca se 2), the pinch and approa ch
d from points
Equati on (4-16) . decreas e. The reason is that the energy transfe rring ability
of the
ceonom izer ha s not reduce d (na mely U x S), as it is a functio
n of the
Econom izer Perform ance. ~urface area and overall heat Iransfe r coeffic ient,
which has
Assum e tW2, the water exit temper ature. Then, lncreas ed due to the larger mass flo w ,
With a reduce d s tea m flo w , du e to th e reduce d duty of th
e
evapor ator, the econom i zer ca n now bring the water closer
lo
 228 Wasle Heat Boilcr Dc'Skbook
sa tura tion te rnpcra turc th a n befa re. Hcnce th c ca u tion that s tea ming
is li kcly in the cold un fircd arnbicn t gas tu rbi ne cxhaust co nd ilion s.
l t ca n also be scc n from cas e s 3 and 4 t h at as th e firi ng
tc rn pc rat u rc in cr casc s. more s tca rn is ge nera ted a nd thc pi nch and
approac h poi n t incrca sc,
2. T he o thc r po in t lo kcc p in mind is that due lo the lower
wa te r ílow. th c cxi t gas tcmpcra tu re f rorn the econorniz- r w il l be
highe r in case 2 ver s u s case l . So thc HRSG efficiency is a íectcd. It
wil l be also be scen la te r that as thc inl et gas tc mper ature increasos,
m ore s tcarn is gelle ra led a nd th e s tac k tern p cra ture red uces. These
tr cn d s a re important a nd spccifica tion writcr s and co nsu ltan ts s hould
be a wa re o f th em .
3. Thc s u pc rhc a ter duty is not ob vio us in thc fir ed m od e as seen
fr om cas e 4. It is higher co m pa recí lo th e si tua tio n w here tht s tea m is
s im p ly ra ised Irom sa tur a tic n to 650° F du e lo th e spray ing oí
in jcct ion wa te r fo r ternpcratu rc co n tro l. H ence the s ugges tio n that
tcmpcrature p rofil es s houl d be sc lcc ted in the unfired rnod e and the
pe rfo rmance chcc ked in the fired m ode.
SOITWA RE fOR
H RSG SIMULA n ON - COGEN
P redi cling lh e o ff-des ig n p er fo rma nce of a HRSG is a co mplex
procedure in vol vin g severa ! iterative loops even for a sing le p ress ure
H RSG a s seen from abo ye . If m o re lh an o ne pressure le vel is involvcd
o r if th e fuel in p u t ha s to be a rri vc d a l a Ulo malicaIl y o r if a common
e conomi ze r feed s severa l p re ss u re level s, the HRSG p erformance
cannol be eva lu a led man ua Ily unles s one is prepa red lo spend severa'
hours on calculalions.
The author h;as d e ve loped a softwa re, "C O G EN" , which is
a vail abl e from h im. Th is m ay be used to arri ve at a design and then
predict its pe rformance in a matte r of minutes for complex HRSGS-
Several alterna tes may be s tud ied and the system optimized. Th
fea tu res wiIl be ex p lained lhrough examples . Figure 4-6 shows tht
v a rio u s configurations of HRSGs tha t can be combined to fonn a
complex single or mul ti-pressure HRSG for simulation.
ll RSG Design and Performance SimuJalion
229
Wi th t h is so ftwa re, con sult anl s, p la nt engi nee rs a n d
cogcnera tio n sys tc rn a na lys ts ca n prcd ict th e HR SG p erforman ce
un d er d iffe rcn t co ndi tio ns o f g as a nd s tea rn pararnct crs . Bascd o n
known pl ant o pcra ting d at a o r assurned pinch a nd approach p oints, a
-DES /GN" is sim u la ted; gas/s tea m tern pcratu ro profiles a nd s tcarn
flow a re co mp utod, thc n, fo r any o ther in lct gas flow, tcrnpcrat u ro,
stcarn p ress u re o r fecd w at er ternpcratu re, the re viscd gas/s tea m
tcmp erature profiles and stcarn flo w a re a r rived a t based o n a quic k
converging ite ra tivo log ic dcveloped by th e a u tho r; this is t he
-PERFORMA CE"; if the stcam flo w desi rcd is more than tha t in
thc unfired mode, a gas o r oil fir ed bu rn cr kicks in if th e re is
sufficic n t oxygen in th e gas st rca rn and au tomalicall y co m p u tes t he
fuel inp u t and firin g te m pcra tu re a nd re vise d te m perat u ro p rofiles .
Differe n t co n fig u ra tions a s sc en in Fig ure 4-6 can be ha nd led bv
this prog ra m; by co m bini ng th e modules, multi-p ress ure un its ca n b~
cval ua tcd in OI\'E run oIn o rder lo use th is p rogram o ne need not kn ow
how to s ize a HRSG o r ca lcu la re th e heat tr a n sfer coefficien ts; the
tube size, p itch o r fin p arameters, e tc., need not be kn own,
In s ho r t, this is a powerful tool for co ns u ltan ts, pl ant engi nee rs
and cog en era tion system de si gners, who would only Iike to simula te
the HRSG performance under different conditio'ns but d o not want to
ge t involved in detailed thermaI or mechanical design aspects,
whi ch is be st done by HRSG suppliers.
SpeciaI Features of the Programo
1. The softwa re a r rives a t a H RSG "DES IG N" based o n p lan t
ope ra ting d ata o r initiaIl y s ugges ted p in ch and a pproach p oin ts o r
and then e val ua tes its "P ERFO RM ANC E" und er di fferent inl et gas
Cond itions a nd s tea m p aramet ers in unfired o r fired co nd itio ns. Sing le
Or muJti-pressure HR SGs can be eva lu a ted in ONE runo
Th ere is n o Iim it ati o n on th e number of modu les. Up to s ix
~S sure ¡e vel s can be easi )v a na lvz ed . The HRSG configurati on is
selected by co m b in ing lh e variou s m odules shown in Figure 4-6.
COmpl ex HRSG sys te ms ca n thus be modelled . Each m odule can
ope ra te at its o w n p res s ure, feed w ater o r s team co ndi tio ns .
SUpp leme n ta l firin g can be introduced a hea d of th e HRSG or
between modules .
 W ast e Hcat Boiler IA'Skbook
230
2. O ne nee d no t actu all y d esign a HRSG in o rder to evalua te its
off-design perfo rma nce. Tube config ura tion, la y out, s urface arca,
boiler size e tc. nced not be k now n. Hea t trans fe r coefiicient U is no]
co mp u ted; ins tead th e pro du ct of U a nd surface a rca S is compute<!
and then co r rcctcd for di ffe rent gas flows, analysis a nd tem pcra ture.
3 . Unfir e d o r s upplernc n ta ry fir ed H RSG s can be ana lyzed.
Caseo us (u p to 14 co ns tituen ts) as well as oil fuels car be used in the
b ur ner sys tern . The pro gram auto m ati call y a r rives a t the firing
ternperature, burn er fu el in put if the required stearn flo w in any
evapora to r is m ore than th at obtained in unfired mod e.
So urce o f oxvgen ca n co me fr om th e ex ha us t ga s o r from
at mos p he ric air (fr esh a ir fir ed cas e) ; a ugmenting air can al so be
a d ded if th e re is insuffici ent oxygen in th e ex h a us ' g as ; th is is
importa n t in HRSGs fo r St eam Injectcd Gas Turbine: which have
low le vel s o f o xy gen and h igh water vapor content.
4. Th e e ffec t of ga s analysis is co nsid ered: ( U x S) va lue s and
s pecific h eat valu es are co r rec ted for differenl g as a naly sis and
ternperature making the e va lua tio n realistic.
5 . lf th e fin al s tea m ternper ature is co n tro lled and if for given
g as in let conditions, the s tea m tempera ture exceeds the desired
va lue, an interstag e d esuperheater is s imulated and s p ray water
flow req u ired to achieve th e final temperature is computed along
w ith the g as and stea rn temper ature profil es. Th is ca n be d one for
a ny module in mu lti-press u re uni ts.
6. The extent of "Stea m ing" in any economizer can be computed,
if it does occur under different gas and s tea m conditions. The
"DESIG N" can then be ea s ilv re vised if desired .
7. The HRSG is modelÍed such th a l sorne sa tura ted steam from
th e eva pora to r can be ta k e n off for process heating or o ther
a p p lic a tio ns if r equired and th e ba la n ce superheated . Sat u ra ted
stearn from o ther bo íle rs can also be in troduced in to th e superhea tel'
thus increasing it s flow.
8. The common econo mizer concept ca n be used to su p p ly leed
w at er to any number of modules; th e program a rrives a t the water
flow and ex it w ater tempera tu re th rough several ro u nds of complex
ite ra tio ns .
9. O n e can arrive at a design and fine tune it based on íts off·
d esign performance wi thi n minutes.
HRSG Design and Performance Simulation 231
EXAMPLES T O ILLUST RAT E
USEOFCOGEN
Su pp lementary firing and HHSG Effi cie n cy
Examp le 2:
A gas tu rbine HRSG gcnerates satu rated steam at 200 psig using
Iecd wate r a t 240°f; blow down is 3%. The gas flow is 150,000 pph
and inlet gas tcrnpera ture is 900 °F. Using a pinch a nd approach of
20°F desig n th e HRSG and s tudy th e effect o f fu el in p ut on
perfo rmance while gene rati ng 40,000 and 60,000 pph o f stcam, Fuel
used is na tura l gas with 95% me tha ne and 5% e tha ne. Gas ana lysis :
'7c vol C02 = 3, H20 = 7, N2 = 75, and 02 = 15.
Sol u tion:
Using COGE N , th e d esign and p erformance ca lcu la tio ns were
do ne. Rcsults are s ho w n in Fig ure 4-7. The program automaticall y
arrives a t th e firing te m p cra tu re, Iu el required a n d th e exh aust gas
analysis af te r firing w ithin seco nds.
T he d at a and results a re show n in Exa m ple 1-5, C hapte r 1 and
the sys te rn efficie ncy is comp u ted in th e un fir ed a nd fir ed m odes . lt
was s how n tha t th e sys te m efficiency as es tima ted by ASM E PTC
olA , inc reases with add iti on al fu el input.
IMPROVING EFFICI EN CY OF HRSGs
COGEN may be used to imp ro ve th e e fficiency of HRSG sy ste ms
in two wa ys:
a. Use ad d -on surfaces sueh as condensa te heat er, deaerator co il
or heat ex changer to lower th e stack gas te rnpe ra ture . Figure 4-8
shows a HRSG with several add-on coils to improve th e energy
reco very .
Wi th a condensa te heate r, the efficiency is improved thro ug h
reduced demand of deaera tion steam.
b. Rea r ra ng e locatio n or disposition of hea ting surfaces to
arrive a t a lower stack tempera tu re with the steam production
remaining unchanged in the fired mode or more stearn generation in
Unfired mode,
 Waste Hea l Boilcr Dcskbook HR5G Dcsign an d Perf orm ance Simu lation 233
232

RESULTS • . • . OES ICN CASE U>/fIREO

900 GAS TURBINE

r e l hum- ' " O he at. 1 08 8 - \ - I 9'· tcmp t o HRSC-
omb t.e mp- t- 60
9" t r o e --p p h - 150000 \ vo l C02 - 3 H20- 7 N2 75 0 2 1 5 s02- O
- - WASTE HEAT BOILER

wat¡et m duty p r e . .. ( 1 0 "1 p. tro p i n ch a pp r c h

9&· temp f
l.n - out -F K.~ b / h p oig pph \ F (,1
i n - out -F

3 88 1 9 .57 200 22779 1 0 0 . 0 20 20

900 40 8 368
E VA P
ECO 408 3 27 24 0 368 3. 10 2 10 2 34 62 0.0 ,,.,.
--- - - - - - - - - --- - - - - - - --_. - -- - - - - - - - ---- - - - -- - - - -- ----- - - - - ---
- RESULTS . . . PERFOflXANCE CAS E . . . f I REO

t 6 0 r e l hum- \- 6 0 h e a t. 1 0011 - \ - 1 ga s t emp t o HRSC- 9 00

omb temp- -
gas í: low-pph-
1 5 0 0 0 0 \ v o l C02- 3 H20 - 7 N2 _ 75

wa t /s t m du ty p r e a e
02 · 1 5 S02- O

t 10\01 p s t m p 1.n ch a pp r c h
~
't -
I
!
, -
:
!
, .-- - ---- -
:¡
.
, -- ._.-
g a8 temp
i n - out -F i o - o ut-Y KM b / h p ele¡ pp h \ F F ! : I :
; I !
; l' 1 ;
1 7 . 30 O 808 O (1))
BURN 900 1 2 8 9 O O
33 6 388 35 .80 20 0 40 0 2 9 1 0 0 . 0 32 52
EVAP 1289 4 19
ECO 41 9 Jl5 2 40 3 36 4.07 2 10 4 1 2 30 0.0

.. 150 S0 e \ vol coz - 3.9 2 h 2 0 .. a. 7 9 n2 -7 4 . JO 0 2 -}2. 9 8 .02-

g alO t 10w a f ter HR SG
0 . 00

fu el GAS: v o l \
Figu re 4-8. HRSG w íth condensa le heater and glycol heater. [ARCO Id" stries ]
1 metha ne - 9S
:2 e tha ne '" S
lhv -btu/c u i t - 94 9
I h v-b t u / l b - 214 2 2
a ug a ir- pph .. O
Improving HRSG Efficieney Using Secondary Surfaces
-- - -- - -- - - --- - -- ---- ----- --- ---- ---------- ----------- Figures 4-9, 4-10, 4-11, 4-12 s ho w the concep l of add ing a
--- ---- - - - ------
-- - - - - - --- - --
- --- ---- ----- ----- ---- -------------- ------------
RESULTS • . . PERFORKANCE CAS E . . . FlRE D conde nsale heater, a heat exchan ger or a d eaerat or lo impro ve the
mb t p-f - 60 r e l huo- \ - 6 0 heat 10 • • - ' - 1 gas t. emp to HRSG- 9 00
efficiency. The sys tern consis ts of a HRSG ge ne raling super hea ted
: •• f~()W-PPh. 15000 0 \ v ol C02- 3 H2o- 7 N2 - 75 02 - 15 S02 - O steam for producing electrícal power via a stearn lurbine cond ense r
gas t emp wa t / e tln dut y pr... flow p stm p l nch a pprch systern. The stea rn for deaerat ion is laken from an extrac tion point in
in- o ut -F KM b/h p . iq pph \ F F
i n -ou t- F
(d the turbine as it is more economical lo do so than take it off th e
BURN 900 ln4 o O 37 .53 O 1752 O HRSG . The reason for this will be gi ven later.
EVAP In4 430 3 15 38 8 55.16 20 0 601 28 100 .0 42 73
ECO 4 3 0 3 10 2 40 315 4 . 74 210 61 9 32 0 .0

.02-
Condensate he ater.
9 •• t low . t t e r HR5G· 151752 ' vol co2 - 4 . 97 1\20 -10 .84 n 2 - 73 . 5 0 02_10 .67
0.00 This is basicalIy an econo mizer used for prehealing the mixture
fuel GAS; vol ,
of condensa le retu rns and make up before it enlers the deaerator,
Figure 4-10. A 20°F app roach is used; that is if the deaeration
1 II'l8thane- 95
2 .thana- 5 temperalu re is 240°F, the design condensa le heater exit ternperatu re
lhv-btu/cu ft- 9 49
lhv-btu/lb - 21 422
is 220°F. The folIowing aspects of this option should be considered.
_.u9_~:::pph :~ --- 1. The log-mean temperature difference belween the gas and
----------------- ----- -------------------------- ---------------------------- Waler is higher than in the deaerator oplion described below; as a
Figure 4-7. Prinloul of results of example 2 from COGEN software. resuu the su rface area requi rements will be lower.
 N
~

sru Jl Sf'E )JI ,J

rtnUUN6 'lV1I BlN6

HRSO H1l3 C

Go\S Go\S
~ Go\S n.D'J
~

'"
.<.
;;
Fig ure 4-9. Bas ic arra nge men t: Opt Figu re 4-10. Con den sate hea ter :I:
ion 1 has is add ed
hea t reco very onl y pro vid ed by
HR SG dow nstr eam of HR SG eco nom ize
r in Op- "~
(Po wer l tion 2 ." pre hea t con den sate redu t=
8.
cing de-
aera tion stea m. [Po w erl ?f
ii'se-
¡

STU J(
~
TURBlN6 STU J(
,J
~
r!lR BIJa ~.
IW:[I I' ..
"o..
lI[AD IATm l ~
?
O'

ª..
111fSC

""v»r:

S'
e
~
Hu r o'
6ZC /UNC 6R
Go\S Go\S "
~ ~

Fig ure 4-11. In Opt ion 3, hea t exc

han ger is Figu re 4-12. A low pre ssu re eva por
use d to pre hea t mak eup /con den ator can
sate mix- be use d to gen erat e 10w pres sure dea
ture bef ore ente ring dea erat or. [Po erat ion
wer l s tea m, ma xim izin g el ectr ic al
o ut p u t.
[Po w erl

[;:l '
v.
 236 Wast e Hcat Boilcr tA'Skbook I IRse Dcsigu and I'c r{orn u nc c Simulation
237

2. Due lo thc low w at e r tc m p c ra ture al th e inl ct , the tu bc wa ll Hcat Exch a nge r.

tc m pc ra tu rc will be lo wcr and hc ncc co nd c ns a tio n o f wa te r va po r can Fig ure 4· ] ] s hows a hc at cxc ha ngc r u s cd to i rnp rovo t hc
occ ur re s u lt in g in co r rosio n . 11 is sugges tcd th a t th e tu be wall l'lficie ncy o f a 1-1 RSG systcm . A wa te r lo wa te r cxc ha nge r p reh ca 15
rc m pcrat ure be above the w at er va por dew point o f the e x ha us t g as. lhe ma kc up usi ng the íccd pump di scha rg e bef o ro it en tcrs thc
If th er e is s tc a rn in je ct ion in rhc gas tu rb i ne, thc w at er va po r l'lO ll(lllli ze r. T he ma ko up wa te r t crnpc rnt u r c i ncrc a sos the rc b v
d c w poi n t is h ig he r and hencc sui t.iblc p reca u tions ha ve lo be ta ken rcduc ing thc d ca cra ting s te,1I11 rcq u irc m onts. Since th e Iccd wa te r to
s u ch a s bctter c hoice o f tu be m a tcrial s. If the cx h a u s t g as es con taí n rhc c conomizer is lo wcr, thc stack gas tcm pcra turc red uces.
s u lf ur ic acid vapo r o r s u lf u r d ioxi d e, th e n th is o p tio n is not 1. If thc g as s trea m co n ta ins s u lfu ric ac id , the n Ih is sc hc me is
recomrncnded. unsuita blc du o lo thc lo w tubo wal l tc m pcr a tur e a t thc econ orni zc r
3. T h e g as pressure d rop wi ll al so b e Io wc r d u c to th e lo wer inlct. Bcttcr tubo rna tcr ials ma )' hav o to be used if w at er \'a por d c w
s u rfa cc arca req u ir c rnc n t. p(lilll is hi gh.
2. T his sc hc rnc is a ttra ctive if thc mak e up wa ter tcrnpcra tu ro
o
is lo w sa)' 40 to 60 r . Th cn , thc Iccd w a te r ca n be co ol ed Iurt he r in
Tab le 4-4. the e xc hange r. Th o sizc o f the exc ha nge r will also be sma ll er d ue to
Resu lts of Study of Deaerati on thc larg cr la g -m e an tc rn pcratu rc diffe r en cc. A lso , if th e m a kc u p
Stearn and Electri c Oulpul • tcmpcrat uro .is v~ry h igh, o n th e a rder o f 150 lo 180°F, th e e xcha nge r
may no t be Iea siblo du e lo th c res u lt ing low log-mea n tc rn pe ra tu rc
Opt ion (1) (2) (3) (4) and possiblc tempcrat uro cross co nd ilio ns in the e xcha nge r.
Base Cond Hea t L-p 3. D uo lo t hc lowcr Ic cd wa ter tcrnpcratu rc , lh e s ize o f th e
Des ig n refe renc e ease htr exc h evap econ o rn izc r wi ll in crca se. Thi s cos t has lo be eva lua tc d al one with
b
Exhaust gas , 10 3 Ib/hr 55 0 550 550 550 lhe cos l o f th e excha nge r, pipi ng and associa led va lves.
Gas -inlet temp eratur e, F 9 75 975 975 975
Staek-gas temperature, F 3 74 310 323 297 De.ler.1tor eDil.
St eam to turbine , 10 3 Ib/h r •• 80 80 80 80 Fig u re 4- ] 2 sh ows the d eaera lo r coi l u sed lo recover ad d il ional
St eam lo deaerator energy from lh e g as s tre a m . Th e b u nd le gene ra tes lo w p res 5ure sleam
(from turb ine). Ih/hr 10 ,25 0 173 0 34 0 0 O ~or dea era lio n a nd is essen tially an olhe r evapo ra lor. Thi s m a y be a n
Feedwater temperature , F 240 240 151 240 Inleg ra) d ea erato r o r s im p ly an e va po ra to r ge ne ra ting low pressu re
Mixture temperature Sleam , whi ch is laken lo a dea e ra to r.
(to deaerator),F 107 220 200 107 1. T he s u rface a rca required w ill be m ore du e lo th e lo\\" lo g -
Eleetrie power, kW 6528 6830 6770 6890 mean te mpera lu re d ifference ca m pa red to th e co ndensa te heat er.
2. T h is se heme is s u ila b le eve n if th e gas s trea m con tai ns I
suli ' 'd
u nc aCI as lh e evapo rato r p res sure ca n be rais ed to a va lue c10se 1I
• Assumptions : Natural-gas fired gas turbine; gas analysi5, %
C02 = 3.5, H20 = JO, N2 = 74, 02 = 13.5; pinch point = 20 °F; approach
• lo Or a bo ve Ihe ac id d e\\! p oinl. Th e tubes \\!ill be a t Ic asl 5 to 100F
above lh e sa lu ra lio n temperalure .
I
point = 20 °F, blowdown = 2 %; deaerator pressure = 10 p sig; makC:UP 3. Thi s sy s le m is m ore ex pe ns iv e than the others du e lo lhe s ize
temperalure = 60 °F; condens er pressure = 2.5 in . Hg abs (1.22 ps and lhe use oi d ru ms a n d asso ciat ed trim and co n tro ls.
heat 1055 in HRSG = 1%. O •4. The gas pressure drop w ill al so be higher than th e other
uConditions: 620 psig, 650°F. Phons, du e lo th e s iz e.
 238 Wa5le Hcat Boil er Deslc.book HR5G Dcsign and Perf orm an ce Sirnula tion 239

USE OF COGEN TO ANALYZE T HE OPTIO S RE 5ULTS ••• • OE 5I CN CAS E UHFl RED

amb tf!1Tlp- t_ 60 r-e I hum- l - o h e a t loen- \- 1 qa 8 t eep t o HRSC- 9 75

Exam p le 3: qas flow-pp h_ 5 5 0 0 0 0 \ v o l coz- ). 5 H2 0- 1 0 N2 " 73 02 _ 13.5
so:- o
A HRSG ge ne rales abou t 80,000 pph o { s upe rh eat cd s tearn al gau l emp wa t / Bt m duty pr e . . t l ow p. tm p inch . p p r c h
620 psig a nd 650°F fro rn 550,000 pph of gas lurbine ga ses a l 975°F; lhe i n- o u t - F in-ou t- F KM b / h p.i g pph , F F

s tea rn is expa nded in a s tcarn tur bine lo gcncrat e po we r, with SH 975 9 14 49 5 650 9. 31 620 BOOB5 100 . 0
EVA P 9 14 515 475 495 59.57 63 5 B0085 10 0 . 0
dcac ratio n s tearn take n from an ex trac tio n poin l in th e s tea m lur bine. ECO 5 15 3 74 2 40 475 2 0.36 6 45 B1687 0.0
20 20

Stud y th e o plions a ssu m in g th at th e gas s trea rn con tai ns no s ulfur

d io xid e . --;;;~~;;~ ~~~~;~ ;~~-~;- --- -~~;;~~----- - ----------------- --- - ------- --- ----
Soluti on: ...mb t e mp -f - 60 e e I hum- \- o hea t 10s8- ' . 1 9 a 8 t.erep to HRSC - 975
Figu re 4-13 s ho ws the rcsu lts fro rn COG EN in the d esign modo 9'· t 1o w- p p h - 5 50000 \ vol C02- 3 .5 H20- 1 0 N2 . 73 02 _ 13 .5 so: . o
for a l! o f th e o p tio n. A 20°F p in ch and ap proach were used . Thc 9'· temp wa t /s t m d u ty pr e s 8 fl ow p s tm pin c h a p p r c h
in-out-F in -out - F
s te a m required for d eaerati on wa s cs tirna ted for each case lhrough l'oH b/h p . i9 pph \ F F

heat balance as d escribcd bel ow. Thc power o u tp u t frorn the stearn 5H 97 5 914 49 5 650 9 . 31
lb)
620 80085 100 . 0
EVAP 9 14 515 47 5 4 95 5 9 .5 7 635 8008 5 100 . 0 20 20
turbine wa s obtained throu gh co rnp u ta rio n of turbine s teai \ rat es. A ECO 515 324 1 51 475 27 .65 6 45 816 B7 0.0
Basic program for thi s is g iven later, ------- --- ----------
RESULTS • . . . DES l eN ~~~;-- -- -~ ;;;;~------ -- ---- ------------ -- -- ----
Table 4-4 shows th e s u m ma ry of results. Since th e d ea erator
o p tio n ge ne ra les th e má ximum st earn output lo m at ch d ea eration amb t e mp- l - 60 e e I h um- \- o heat 10 ••- \- 1 9a. t emp t o HRSG- 9 1 5
requirernents, th e eléc trica! power is the highest . 9 ' · t lov-p ph - 55000 0 \ v o l 002 - 3 .5 H20- 10 N2 - 73
0 2 - 13 . 5 50 2 - e
One may also predict the HRSG performance a l any other 9a8 t emp wa t /st m d ut y presa fl"" petm p inc h apprc h
i n- o u t - F i n -ou t -F' I<H b/ h p . i9 ppb
co nd ition using COGEN and see how the system beh aves. \ F F
5H 9 75 914 4 95
r VAP
6 50 9 . 31 62 0 80085 100.0 rel
914 515 4 75 4 95 59. 5 7 635 B0 0 85 100.0 "
20 20
ECO 515 37 4 24 0 47 5 20 .36 645 81687 0.0
DEAERATION STEAM CALCULAT IONS ECO 3 74 3 10 10 7 22 0 9. 0 2 65 0 79 8 7 0 0.0

Estirnating stearn quantity for deaeration is an importa nt

------------------------- ---------- - ---------- -- ----
RES ULTS . . • • DE5ICN CAS E ONFlRE'D
as pe ct of planl ma ss and energy balance cal cu la tio ns. Stea rn for
d eaerati on should preferabl y be taken from an extra cti on poin t in 4:nb t emp-t- 60 rel h um- \ . o heat 1 0 •• - ' . 1 gall temp ta RRSe- 915
~ . . fl ov- ppb- 5500 0 0 \ vol coz- 3.5 H2o- 10 xz _ 73 02 _ 13.5
502- O
the s tearn tu rb ine if available. This res u lts in a better sys tcm
gaa temp wat /.tm duty pre•• tlow
efficiency co rn pa red to the case where the stearn is ta ke n fro m lhe in-out-F in-out-F I<H b/b pe19
p ila pi.ncb a pprc h
ppb \ r F
HRSG ex it. Figure 4-14 shows the tw o sche mes. 5H 975 914 495 650 9 .31 620 B0085 1 00.0
tvAP 914 515 n5 495 59.57 635 80085 100 .0 20 20
Ea> 515 374 240 475 20.36 645 81687 0.0

COMPUTING DEAERATION STEAM EvAP 374 297 107 2 40 10.93 10 10050 1 00 .0 57 132
AND ELEcrRIC OUTPUT --- --- - ------
Figure 4-13. a. b, c. d: Results from COGEN program for various op tions,
To i1Iustrale the procedure, consider two sources for deaeralion
stea rn for the base case (Option 1), Examp le 3. Assume, first, that the
 "TI

240 Wasle Hea l Boiler ~ k book IIRSG Dcsign and Performance Simulalion
241

stca rn is la ken fro m th e H RSG ex it (Fig u re 4-]4 le ft) rat her lh a n

frorn the tu rb in e. Ma keup te m pe ra lu re is 60°F a nd co ndensa le cn tcrs
thc m ixing ta nk a l 1OsoF (2.5-in . Hg con d e nse r prcssu ro), Neg lec ting
tlas he d and ve nt ed s tca rn, a m a ss bal an ce a ro und th c mi xin g ta n k
Makeup. Y gives: 81,700 - X = Y + (80,000 - X), wh cro X is the d eaer a lio n-sl ea m
60F
{I7DO lb. ,vi fl ow and Y th e make u p flow, Vc ry si rnplv, y = ] 700 Ib/hr. (Fla s h ed
stca rn frorn b lo wdow n an d vcnt s tea rn a re ncgl cct ed in th is analys is.)
An e ne rgy ba la nce is then perform ed aro und thc d eaer at or, givi ng :
( ],700) (20 ) = (l 700) (28) +(80,000 - X) (76) + 1319X, w her e 1319
Btu / Ib is the e n tha lpy of s tcarn a l 620 p sig a nd 650°F, 28 Blu/lb t he
rnake-u p en tha lpy, 76 Blu/ lb thc e n thal py o f conden sat e ret urns, and
20S Btu/ lb that o f feed wat or af tcr d ea eralion . So lv ing this eq ua tío n,
X = 874 1 Ib/ h r stea rn: using 8785 Ib/hr a llows for lo sses. To ob tain th e
clcctric o u tp u t, w e mu st co mp u te th e actu a l s team ra te (ASR) fo r th e
expa ns io n frorn 620 p sig and 650 °F to 1.22 psia (2.5 in. Hg )
Atakeup : 60F
A p ro gram d e ve lo ped fo r th is p urp ose give s ASR = 1] .14
Deaerarion stes m. Mixing
X (IO.250 rM1r) tank Ib/kW h. Allowing for 4 % m echa n ical losses, P = 0.96 (80,000 _ 8785)
/]1.14 = 6137 kW.
---..
Extraerion stcam:
30psia ex t, consi der d eaerat íon s te a rn ta k cn from th e tu r b in o
Mixrure:
I07F extr actio n p o int (Fig ure 4-14 rig h l) al about 30 p sia . For an expa ns io n
efíici e ncy of 70%, thi s cor respond s lo a n en tha lpy o f 1140.6 Btu z lb
_ ___-1 (ca lcu la ted from th e p rogram refer cn ccd ). An e ne rg y ba lance in thi s
r-+--:-t-.,., Feedweter: 24CF. case g ives: (81,700) (208) = 1140.6 X + (80,000 - X) (76) + (1700) (28 ).
. 8 1.i OO lb..nr So lv ing fo r X gives 10,206 lb / h r for d ea eralion-st eam flo w . To
inelude losses, use 10,250 Ib/hr. Th e program th en g ives 19 Ib/kWh
Condensare: I 08F Ior the ASR fro m 620 psig lo 30 ps ía, and 11.14 Ib /k Wh for the enti re
! •
expansionoFor the n et electr ic ou tp ur, P =0.96 10 0,250/19) + (80,000 - t
Fig ur e 4-14. Two allerna lives for deae ra tion slea m tak e off location: stearn from 10,250) / 11.14) =6528 kW .
HR5G (top) and from steam tur bine (bot to rn) . IPowerJ
Thus, greater electri c o u tp u r is ob laine d by laking s tea rn from
the st earn turbine, and so thi s is th e pref erred procedure for all other
Oplions. Results oí similar ca !cu la tio ns for those opli ons are
summarized in the Table 4-4.

STEAM TURBINE CALCULATlüNS

Engineers involved in cogene ra non project s and power plant

studies of ten need lo calculate the stearn properties during expansíon
in a steam turbine to evaluate the theoretical and actual stearn rates
.a ~_ • - : _ e- _ . • - J • • ~ ... • •• - ':" ..

/-I R5C Des ign and Per formance Simula tion 243
\Va s le Hea t Boller Dcskbook
242

an d hcnce, th c clec trica l power o u tp u t. Wilh th e hclp o f th is

pr og ram w ritt e n in BASIC, e ne ca n qu ickl y e valu a te a ll th e
pc r tine n t data . Co rrcla tions used fo r s tca rn p roper ty evalua tio n are
a lso pr escntcd .

Th e ory:
Figure 4-15a & b s ho ws the typ ica l ex pa ns i ón process in a s te a m
turbine .
.
J TS R = 3,413/(}lJ - h2s) (4-26)

(4 -27)

A SR = 3,413f(h ] - h2) (4 -28)

Superhea ted s tea rn ent halpy is compu ted from the eq ua tions
give n P, T as sho w n in Appendix E. For wet stearn enthalpy, use:

h = xh u + (1 - x) hf (4-29)
where th e sa tu ra ted vapo r a nd liquid properlies a re ob tai ne d
from Appendi x E g ive n th e pr essure. Th e dryness fra ct ion. x, is
cornpu ted for eae h s ta tc fro m ei the r th e en tha lpy relation in (4) o r
from th e en lro py rela tion:

5 = XSu + (1- xls] (4-30)

Th e logic us ed in the program is s ho wn in Figure 4-15b .

." : ,

\(\.
~

Example 4:
Two exa m ples illustrate th e u se of the programo Example 4:
Superheated stearn al 650 psia and 750°F is expanded in a steam
lurbine lo 150 psia with an expa ns io n efficie ney of 80%.
Ca lcul ale the s tea m properties at inlet and exit as also the
actual and theoretical stearn rates,

SoIution:
Key in the program in Figure 4-16a . In the RUN mode the screen
asks for the inlel pressure and temperature. If saturated, key O for
244 Was le Hea t Boiler Dcsk booj, HRSG Desig n and Performance SimuJation 245

10 fU: J1:PROCR.AJ1 ("()Io4.PUT ES T UR BIN E STEA.H RA T ES

th e tcrnperaturc and thc pro gram co m p u tes the sa tu ra ted stca rn
lS DIH A Ce r. S(SI .ceS) , 0 ( 8 ) , E I S ) , r e SJ , c ce). HW(8 . 2 8 ). Viol e S , 28) tcrn p c rature. T hc n, th e ex it pres surc and ex pa ns i ón efficie ncy a re
20 YOR 1 - 1 ro 8 ; JU:A!) A (I ) , B (I ). C (I ), O ( I ) , l (I ) , ' {I ) ,C ( I ) :N EXT 1
2~ CATA - . 1 77 24, J . 8 38 36 ,11 . 4834 5. Jl .1 J 1 1 . 8 . 762969E-5 . -2 . 78794[-8, 86 . 59 4, -5 .28 012 in put a s shown in Fig ure 4-16a . The results a re p ri n ted ou t. lt can be
6[- 7 .2 . 9 ';';61E -5. 1 .521874[-4. ti . 62 5 1 2 l- S. 8. 4D8 8 !:1 6 r:- l O. l. 8 64 0 1E -1 4 • . 01 5 96 , - .4 8 7 9 9 . J
0 '; .71 1 61 4 .9 .8299035 scen tha t thc fina ] s tcarn is supc rhea tcd . Ac tua l and the ore t ica l
J O DATA - 1 6 . 4 5 5 2 74 . 9. 4 14 7 4 5 [ - 4. - 1 . ] f.))66l-6 . 19 .53953.:2. f.62 E-J . 4 5 1 . 5S02. - . 1 7 6 9 59 .
. 92686 2. - 4 . 601876E -7 . 6 . 318 1E-l1. - 2 . 3 9 2 8 , - . 1 5 1 1 5 5 6 1 , 3. 6 1 140 4 , 1 1 . 6 2 2 50 5 8 , 3 0 . 8 3 2 6 6 1 , s tea rn ratcs a re shown .
8 .74111[ -5
35 CATA -2.62306[ - 8 . S 4. 55, - . 1 4 1 29 . :2. 25822S . J. 40 U802, 14 .4 3 8 0 7 8,4. 2 2 2 6 24 [ - 5 , - 1 .!t6
To co m p ute th e clect rica l po w er o u tp u t wi th, say, a s tea rn flow
<)916[ -8. 1100 .5, -1 .617 12[- 4, 4 .2 7 2 6 8 8[-) • . 0 10 400 46 , . 0 58 0 150 9 . 9 . 101 2 9 1E- 8. - 2 . 7592E:-
of 100,000 pph, s im p ly d ivid e th e s te a m flo w by th e actua l s team
11, . 118 0 1
4 0 CATA -1. 4 76933E:- 4, 1. 26 119 46E:-3. a, 44 2 0 1E- 3 , - . 0 84 941 2 8 , 6. 89 138 E-8 . -2. 4 941E - l 1 , 1 ral e o H cre il is 100,000/26.9 = 3,7 17 kil owatts.
. 9 13 6 4
4 5 PRINr- ST DJi PROPERTIES AFTER EXP ~SIO N • • BY V.C ANAPATHY · : PRINT '"-
SO INP UT'" INL.ET PRLSS-PSIA,TEHP -F(l f SATURATlO I NPUT o roR TEHP ) -'" ; P l ,T l : PRlN T-
Example 5:
S S 1:II P01'- EXIT PRES S-P SIA , [XPN Eff- \- '" ; P2 ,E'
60 Ir TI-0 T"EN COTO 100
70 P-Pl :1' - Tl:COSUB ) 0 0
eo Hl-z:s1 -sv:GOTO 1 20
Sa tura ted stca rn al 1,000 psia is ex pa nded lo I p sia in a turb ine.
10 0 P-Pl : COSUB 40 0 De te rm ine th c d ata for isentropic expansion o
11 0 HI - HV:S 1- SV:TI- TSAT
12 0 P- P2 : COSU8 4 0 0
1 J O IF Sl>SV THEH COTO 200
So lution:
1 40 x- (S1-SLI/ (SV-SL) :lUS-HV - X.11- X) - HLI Q
150 H2-H1-.0 l-E F - (H1-H25)
160 I F H2>HV THEN COTO 200
Input as before u sing °
for s tea rn tempcrature a n d 100 fo r
1 1 0 XF- (H2-Hl.I Q) 1 (HV-HL I Q) : CELH-H1 -H2: T2 -T$AT l COTO 29 0 efficiency o f expansion oResults are s ho w n in Figure 4-1 6b. Actu al and
200 T2 - TSAT :RA- 10 0 0 - TSAT
210 P- P2 : T-T2 : GOSUB 300 theoretical steam rates are th e sa me.
220 S2C -sv : Ir ABS ( (Sl -S2C)/S l)< .002 TREN' 2 40
23 0 RA- . S - RA:T 2 - T2+ SCN (Sl- S 2C ) -RA : CO'I'O 21 0
2 40 XF- l :T - T2 : COSUB 300:82S - Z
2 S 0 H2-HI- .01 "Ef" (Hl-H2 S )
26 0 T2-TSAT :RA -I00 0-TSAT
2 70 P-P2 :T-T2:COS UB 3 0 0
2 8 0 H2c - Z:I F ABS «H2 -H2C ) /H2) <. 0 02 'I'HEN 2 9 0 USE üF COGEN TO OPTIMIZE HRSG
28 5 RA- . 5 - RA: T2-T2+SCN (H2 -H 2 C ) - RA: COTO 2 70
290 ASR-J4 1 3 1 (H1- H2) :T SR - J 4 13 / ( H1-H2 S ) : PRINT - '" : PRI N't- I KLET PRES S - PS IA -- ; PI; '"TE TEMPERATURE PROFILES
HP - F- - ; 1'I ; · ENTH -- ; H1 ; - tN'TRPY --;S l :PRIH'T '"
2 94 PRI NT- EXI T PRESS - - ;P2; " TEKP - '" ;": 2 1 '" ["ni -- ; 8 2 ;·SAT TEHP. -; TSAT : PRl tn'· .o

295 PRI NT- AS R -'";AS R;· TS R -· ;TSR ; · EXP!'f l" -'

-- I EF; · EXIT QLTY - ·;XF:PR I N":' - '"
Exam p le 6:
2 9 7 ENO
JOO T-2 7J.l " (T- J2 ) /1.8 'P-P /14 . 69 6
310 X4 - e 0870 l/ T/ T: LI- I 0 ""J::4 - ( -2 641 .62/1' ) : MI-l . 89+LII NI-M I- P- P/ T/ T
320 01- 2" (372420 I/T/T) ,QI-<l l "Ll, ar-r , 890<11. Ul - ( . 218 28 "T-126970 I /T ) : V4 - 2 "Ul "R l - fH Thi s exarnple shows that by rearra ng ing th e hea ting su rfaces
I/ T ) " 1 2 6 9 7 0 '
JJO wl- 8 2. S 4 -162 460 I/ T ' Y¡- 2 -vi- ar - ( Hl/T) "1 6 24 6 0 I o ne m a y lo w er th e s tack te rnpera tu re w hi le generati ng the sarne
340 ' 1 - « (UI - Ml - rn+ Wl) -N l / P+ l ) -H l +4 . SSO . -T/ P) - . 0 16 0 18 5
350 %-775.6+ . 63296 -T+l . 62 467!:-04 -T - T+20 . S697 e [,..(;)(¡( T) s tea rn o u tp u t. Table 4-5 s hows th e d ata fo r a gas turb in e HRSG
360 %-%+.0 43 55 , . (RI - P-e, S - NI - (r1+ M1- ( Wl +V. ' Ml)) )
370 SV- « (O I -Hl-2 -V 4) - . S e MI - MI- Yl) · ..5-1( 1+ ( HI-Rl) .P ) / T- (-.0241983) - . 355579-11. 421
ge ne ra ting s tearn a t 625 and 205 psig . T he re are tw o options, shown in
6 /T
380 SV- s v + l. 8052 E-o.c-T-.II022 -LOC(P) + ..3 516oC-LOG (T )
Figu re 4-17 and 4-18. In Figu re 4-17, the H P stage is followed by th e
390 P-14 .696 -P:T-CT-27J .. lS) -1. 8 +J 2 LP s tage. In Figure 4-18, the HP and LP stages a re follo w ed by; a
J 9 5 RETt1RJrC'
40 0 fOR 1 -1 TO 8. M(I) - A(I) " P+ B(I)/ P +C(I) " P·. S+O( I) " LOC(P) +E (I) +P "P+ P(I) "P-JoG(1 co m mo n econornizer, which handles th e w at er fo r bo th H P a nd LP,
) : HEXT 1
thus increa sing th e ca pacity of th e h eat sink a n d th us loweri n g th e
410 TSAT-AA ( 1) s ta.IQ-AA ( 5) :HV- M( 6) I S L-AA(7) I SV- M( 8 )
4 20 RETtIRH stack g as temperature .
H ence, we need a lo w er in le t gas temperature in Fig ure 4-18 in
Figure 4-100. Listing of program for expanslon of stearn [Hydroalrbon Proassingl order to generate the same quantity of HP and LP steam or we can
gene ra re m ore steam (HP or LP) with the same gas in let conditions.
 "

246 Waste Heat Boiler Dcskboo k

Figure 4-1 6b
Dala a nd result s l or e xa rn p les

Example 4:
STEAM PROPE RTIES AFTER EXPANSION
- BY V. GANAPATHY
INlET PRESS-PS/A, TEMP-F (IF SATURATED INPUT O FOR
TEMP) = ? 650.750
EX IT PRESS-PSIA, EXPN EFF - %. ? 150,80
INLET PRESS - PSIA = 650 TEMP - F = 750 ENTH =
1377.067 ENTRPY = 1.601213
EX IT PRESS = 150 TEMP = 458.7688 ENTH = 1250.208
SAT TEMP = 358.5408
ASR = 26.90375 TSR = 21.523 EXPN EFF - % = 80 EXIT OlTY = 1

Example 5:
STEAM PROPERT/ES AFTER EXPANSION
BY V. GANAPATHY
INlET PRESS-PSIA, TEMP-F (IF SATURATED INPUT O FOR
!'-
TE MP) = ? 1000.0 w
EX/T PRESS-PSIA, EXPN EFF -% = ? 1,100 ....'"
'-'
<
INlET PRESS-PSIA = 1000 TEMP - F = 547.2928 ENTH = '"w
a.
1193 .038 ENTRPH = 1.392013 " 0400 ¡i
~ H-P SUPERHEATER
EXIT PRES S = 1 TEMP = 10 1.7387 ENTH = 776.87 300
SATTEMP = 101.7387 COI+Ol
20C ECO!'OllZER
ASR = 8.201008 TSR = 8.201008, EXPN EFF -% = 100 H-+ EVAPORA TDR L-P EVAPDRA TDR
• j
EXIT OLTY = .682389 100 [ -'--- - - - - - - - - - - -- - - _ _-.J 1•
I
' 1r
Figur e 4-17 (top) : Temperature pro file iot HRS G wilh two sepa rale econo mize rs.
Solution: IPower]
I"

i~'
The results are shown in Figure 4-19, output from COGEN. 5inec
the burner duty is small and the firing temperature less than 900°F,
Figur e 4-18 (bo ttorn): Tempera ture pr ofile iot HRSG wilh com bined economize r.
only the design rnodes are analyzed lo show how the rearrangemenl IPower]
of surfaces is helpful. The gas analysis was assumed to be close lo the : .
inlet gas analysis, The saving in fuel input is about 12 MMBlu/h for
the irnproved option¡ assuming that the HRSG opera tes in this ~~e Alternalively we could have generaled more HP or LP stea rn
for 7000 hours/year, the annual savings is $210,000 al $2.5/mllhon with the configuration in Figure 4-18, if the ga s inlet ternperature
Btu. end flow were the same as in Figure 4-17 .

\
\
 248 Was le Heal lloile r Ocsl<boolc !"IRSG Design and Performance Sirnu lation 249

RE5ULT5 .. . . 0e s l c N CASE UNFlRED

RESULTS . . . . OESIGl/ CASE UNFl REO

, mb temp-t- te r o l h um- \ - O h~a t 1 0 8U- \ - 1 qA A t e mp t o HRSC- 9 00

9'· t l ow - p p h- 12 150 0 0 \ vo l C0 2- 2.6 H20- 21 N2 - 6 3 02 1 3 . .;
- 502 - O
lab t emp-f_ 60 rel hum-1- O heat 10Sl-1- 2 gas t e"ll t o HRSG-
gas fl ow-pph_ 15‫סס‬oo 1 vol COZ- 7 H20- 12 H2 _ 75 02 _
1400
6 S02- O

9 0 • t e mp wa t. ! e t m dlJty pros. tl o"" pstm pin ch e p p r c h

in-cut-Y in - out-y 1'-" b /h p e í q p ph \ F F ga s t emp watlstm dut y pres s f low ps tm p lnch
I n-o ut- F
app r ch
tn-out -r ~ b/ h es Ig pph 1 F F
5H 90 0 BBO 49 5 60 0 6 . 47 62~ 77372 10 0. 0
E VAP BBO 721 480 49 5 57.12 635 77372 1 00 . 0 22 6 15
ECO 721 661 23 0 4 80 21. 12 645 79693 0.0 EVAP 1400 578 408 448 34. 84 400 42398 100 .0 130
578 398 250 408 40
7 .17 410 43670 0.0
EV A? 66 1 4 10 3 75 390 B6.32 205 101 33 7 10 0. 0 20 15
ECO 4 10 363 230 3 75 15 .60 215 104 3 7 7 0.0

RE5ULT5 • • . . DE5r cN CASE UllFlREO

RESULTS . .. PERFORIlAHCE CASE. . . UHFl REO
amb t e mp -t - 60 re l hu m-\ - O heat 1080 - \ · 1 gas t e mp to IlRSG- 86 4
9'. t l ow -pp h - 1215000 \ vol C0 2 - 2 .6 H20 - 21 N2 - 63 02 - 13 . 4 502- O
a.b temp-f. 60 rel hum-1- 60 heat 10ss-1- 2 ga s temp to HRSG- 1300
9 0 • t e mp wa t / o t m duty press f Lo w pstm pinch a p pr c h gas fl ow-pph _ 165000 1 vol COZ. 7 H20- 12 H2. 75 02 _ 6 502- O
in - ou t - F in -cut -Y MM b/h p.19 pph \ F F
gas te mp wat/stm dut y press flow p s t m plnch app r ch
1n-out- F 1n-out-F f'i1 b/h ps1g pph
SH 864 B46 49 5 600 6 .3 4 625 7579B 100 .0 1 F F
EV AP 84 6 662 375 49 5 6 4 .99 635 75798 10 0 . 0 1 6 7 120 EVAP 1300 544 396 414 34.7 6 275 41795
ECO 544 364 100 . 0 130 18
240 396 6. 97 26S 43046 0 .0
EVA P 6 62 4 10 375 390 B6 .76 205 10 19B6 1 0 0 . 0 20 14

ECO 410 328 230 375 27.32 65 0 18311 B 0 .0

a ______ _ _ __ _ _ _

---------- ------------- - - - - - - ----- --------- - - - ---------------- - 1400

~
~98
Figure 4·19. Results from COGEN for example 6 for the 2 opt íons shown in Fig 4-17and

~2S0
4·18.
O.s igo
j H I
1)00 Econ omize r

38 4
414
Tabl e 4-5. Dal a for HR SG design
~
~JV ~ 240 Performance
Exhaus t gas f1ow, pph = 1215,~00
Exha ust temperature, F = 770 Economuer
Evapontioa
HP steam f1ow, pph = 75-77,000
Module 3
HP steam pressure ;, psig = 635
HP steam temperat ure, F = 600
LP steam f1ow , pph = 95-100,000
LP steam pressure, psig = 205 Figure 4-20. Results from COCEN and lemperalaure profiJes for Example 7.
LP steam temperature, F = 390 (sat.)
Feed water temperature, F = 230 This exa mple illus tra tes how COCEN may be used to simula re
Exhaus t gas analysis = % vo/uma CO2 = 2.6, H2Ü = 21,
N2 = 63, O2 = 13.6
the design of a n opera ling HRSG from field dala and then p redí ct its
performa nce al a di fferenl condi tion.
 Was le Heal Bo ilcr Dcs kboo k HR5G Dcs ign and Performan ce Simula tion 251
250

USI NG FIELD DATA TO PREDICf íired HRSG, whi ch are used in largc cogcnc ra tion systcm s. Dat a is
sho wn in Exarnpl e 8 and result s in Figures 4-21 a, 4-21b and 4-21 c.
HR SG PE RFO RMANCE

Exarnp le 7:
Ta blc 4-6. Dat a For Dc."ign and Per for ma nce IEVAP 1I ECO I Module 1

This is an example where the des ign is simulaled from plan~ o~eraling IEVAPI Module 2
d ala . Tab le below shows I h e operaling dala ter a HRSG to r In~ lner.ator
exhausI gases . By playi ng with p inch and approach po i~ t s , a ~es lgn IS arrived IEVAP I Mod ule 3
al match ing I he ope rating data . Then its perlormance IS predl~l ed for case 2
con ditions . The HRSG consist s of an avaporator and econorruzer, modu le 4
and generales saturat ed stoam .
IEVAP llECO I Module 4

1. Case
2. Gas f1ow , pph
1
150,000
2
165 ,000 lE Ca I Modu le S Mod ule 2 Modu le 2 Mod u le S M od u le 3
HP SH + EYAP IP 5H + EVAP COMo ECO LP EVA P
3. Gas inlel ternp, F 1400 1300
4 . Sleam pres, psig 400 275 Modu le 6
5. Feed water lemp, F 250 240
Su 1t 05 bl e HRSG Conflg u t"4tuO ns Can Be Ar ri ve d AT By Combinirl 9
6. Staarn f1o w, pph 42,400 ? Mod ule s. Pr c bl e m 1 u seaetcdcjee 2. 2. 5 and J aurne r Can Se
7. Ex il gas tarnp, F 400 ? PlAc e d Al"l ea d Of Oc I n Bet lJeen Mod ule 3.
O ~ S im u.1ate d
Mor e t hen 1 Surner Can

8. Blo w down % 3 3

{Gas vol %- C0 2 = 7, H2Ü = 12, N2 = 75, 02 = 6,Heat 1055 % ~ 2J Figure 4-21 a. H RSe configura tio n for p robl em . [Sci-Tech publishersl

Results !rom COG EN are shown in Figure 4-20 . Example 8:

Th e resu lts of COGEN ma y also be used to check if there ís
fouling of heat tran sfer su rfaces . The results frorn COGEN a re bas ed
on the faet that there is no apprceiable fouling.
For exa rnple in the aboye case 2 if the stack gas tem peralu~c
were 420° F versus 384°F pred icted, then one can assume that rhere 15
so rne fouling in the H RSG. If the gas temperature al the economizer
inlet were m easurcd and found to be much higher than 544°F then the
fouling could be in the eva po ra tor.
MULTI-PRESSURE HRSG DESIGN
ANO PERFORMANCE
As a final exarnpl e, the d esign and performance of a mu lt~
pressure HRSG with suppl ementary firin g wiII be simulated. Thls
exa rnple shows how one can sim ula le the behavior of cornplex and
This is a m ul tip ress ure HRSG. A commo n eco nomizer p ro vid es
feed water to bo th HP and IP evaporators . The config u ration is
obtained by combining fou r mod ules, namely 2,2,5, and 3. Both H P
and IP s tea rn a re su pe rhea ted, w hi le LP s tea rn is sat ura ted . Th e
desig n case ass umes that 375°F wa ter is ob tained from the co m mo n
eco. Since its flow is unknown to begin with, inpullin g of zero fo r th e
wate r flo w wi lI ena ble it lo be co rnpu ted automaticalI y . In th e
performance case, the des ired HP st earn is obtai ne d by firing the duct
burner , which a u toma tica lly arriv es a t the firin g temperalure and
fuel input.
Note that augmenting air is also u sed fo r th e burner. A
Desuperheat er is also sirnula ted . The program a lso aulomaticalIy
arrives at the flow lhrough the common economizer and its water
ex it temperature, which is the inlet feed waler lemperature lo HP
and IP steam systems. AlI these com plex iter ati ons ar e completed
within 30 to 40 second s wilh a 386 processor. The design case takes
less than 5 seconds.
252 Wa st e Hca t Boilcr Dcs k boo k I IRSe Desígn a nd Per forman ce Simulati on 253

RESULTS.• . OESIGN CASE UNf [ REO

amb t emp- f- 60 r e1 hUIl>-"l- O hea l lo ss-l- 1 ga s t emp t o HRSG - 900

9as flo,,- pph- 1215000 "1. vo l C02- 2.6 H20 • 22 N2 • 63 02 - 12 .4 S02-0
900
pstm pl nch ap pr ch 8 77
ga s t emp " aU s l m du ty pr es s f l o"
I n- out - E í n-ou t-F 1'.1'. b/h ps \9 pph "1. f r

~
SH 900 677 492 600 6 . 36 600 97665 100.0 600 5 00
EVAP 677 642 375 492 63 .7 0 615 97865 100. 0 150 116 HP
492
SH 642 625 394 500 5 .71 205 65876 100 .0
EVAP 625 414 375 394 73. 08 215 85876 100 . 0 20 18 IP
394
ECO 414 336 240 375 26 .11 650 187415 0 .0 W UCO 37 5 375
27 .08 10 270 15 100.0 15 49 LP 240
EVAP 336 255 190 240
190
I I I I ¡
HP 5H HP fVAP IP 5H IP EVAP COMo ECO lP EVA?
RESULT S. . . PERfORMA NC E CAS E. .. r 1REO
amb temp- f . 60 re l hUIl>-"I. - 60 hea t 10ss-"I. • 1 ga s t emp t o HRSG - 900 1003
991
ga s flo ,,- pph. 1215000 "1. vo 1 C02 - 2. 6 H20 - 22 N2 - 63 02 • 12 .4 S02 -O F ue l ~

dut y pr es s f lo " pstm pln ch appr ch 900

ga s t emp " aU s t m
I n- out - f 1n- out-f MM b / h ps Ig pph "1. f f

BURN 900 1003 O O 45 .77 O 2135 O

SH 1003 971 493 600 11. 51 600 124936 100 .0
OESH 991 991 560 552 0 . 00 6 11 732 O NP
EVAP 971 676 366 493 107 . 15 623 1249 36 100.0 1 j 127

SH 676 658 395 508 6 . 96 205 96342 100.0 395

EVAP 658 417 366 395 64 .72 2 18 96342 100.0 23 26 IP

366 29 . 41 650 226575 0 .0 COM . ECO 366

ECO 417 332 240 240
50 LP Case 2
EVAP 332 255 190 240 26. 51 10 2641 3 100.0 15

gas flo" aft er HRSG • 1242294 "1. vol c02 - 2.83 h20 • 22.10 n2 • 63. 11 02 . 1 1. ~ 190
s02. 0 .00

fu el - GAS : ana l ys s - "1.

í vo luae

1. methane 97 Figure 4-21c. HRSG lemperature profiJ es. (5ci- Tech publi sMrs]

2. et hane
1. Case no. 1 2
3. propane 2. Remarks design performance
lhv-btu/cu ft • 942 3. Heat source gas turbin e gas turbine
lhv-btu/lb • 21438
aug al r-pph - 25000 4 . Gas flow , pph 1215,000 1215,000 j
f·
NOTE: TEMPERAnJRE PROFlLES ARE NOT GENERATEO BY SOfOORE. 5. Gas ternp lo HRSG, F 900 900 i
6 . HP stearn pressure, psig 600 600 • I
fuel Input Is on LHV bas s í

7. Ir stearn press, psig 205 205

Figure 4-21b . Print o ut of results from COGEN. [5ci-Tuh publishusl 8. LP stearn press, psig 10 10
 waste Hcat Boiler Deskbook l lRSG Des ig n and Per forman ce Sim u lat ion 255
254

240 240 NOMENCLATURE

9 . Fced water tcrn p, F
375 ?
10. Feed water to H P, F
375 ? bd - Blow do wn fract ion; if blow do wn = 2%, then bd = 0.02.
11. Feed water to IP, F
150 ? Cp -Gas specific hca t, Btu / Ib'F.
12. HP pin ch point, F
20 ? Fg - A factor accoun ting for gas propert ics, defined in Equa tio n 4-5.
13. IP pinch point, F
15 ? hlf - Hea t loss factor; if heat loss = 2%, thcn hlf = 0.98.
14. LP pin ch point. F
? 125,000 h52, h51 - Enthalpy of superhea tcd steam and inl et stearn, Btu /l b.
15. HP stca rn flow, pph
600 600 huri, hW2 - Enthalpy of wat er a t eco inlet and exit, Btu/l b.
16. HP stca rn ternp, F
? ? k ---Gas therm al co nd uctivity, Btu/ ft hOF.
17. IP stearn flow , p ph
500 ? K), K2, K3 - Factors obtained Irom d esign condi tions, Equa tion 4-]4 .
18. IP s tcarn ternp. F
15 ? Q ), Q2, Q3,-E nergy absorbed in su pe rhcater, evap orator and
19. HP SH prcss dro p, psi
IP SH press dr op , psi 10 ? econornizer, Btu/h; subscript a = assumed and 1 = tran sfcrr ed .
20.
190 190 Tg 1, Tg2, Tg3, Tg4 -Gas ternpcrature di stribution, 0F.
21. Feed water tem p to LP, F
? ? S - Surface a rca, sq ft.
22. LP stca m flow, p ph
élT - Log-mean tcmperature dif fer ence, °F.
[Iuel u sed in ca se 2:N . ga s:% vol C1 = 97, C2 = 2, C3 = 1, Tavg, Tavgd - Average gas tempera tu re in HRSG in
au gm en ting air flow = 25,000 pph; exhau st gas % vol COZ = 2.6, HZO performance and design mod es.
= 22, N2 = 63, Oz = 12.4; hea t loss = 1% and blo ¡ d own = 2% each 1W1, 1W2 - Water ternperature at inle t and exit oí economize r ° F.
151,152. -Saturated and superhea ted steam tempera tur e, °F. r
pr essure levell
U -overall hea t transfer coefficien t, Btu/sq ft hOF.
(US)p - Prod uct of U and S in performance mode.
Wg, Wgd -Gas flow in pe rform an ce and design mod es, pph .
W s, Wsd - Sleam flow in perform an ce and design rnod es.
(élP) d.p -Gas pres sure drop in de sign and perfor mance, in. Wc.
REFERENCES
1. V. Canapatby. "Simplify hea' recovery st eam genera tor Ji ---Gas viscosity , lb/ ft h.
ovaluatio n", Hyd roca rbon processing. March 1990, p 77
2. V. C an apath y. "A na lyzc options for d eaer a tio n stea m".
Powcr, Sep ternber 1989, p 35
3. V. C ana pathy, "H RSG tem pera ture profiJes g u ide energy
reco very" Pow er, Septem be r 1988 . I
4. V. Ga napathy, "Win more ene rgy from ho t gases", Ch emlcaJ
Engineering, March 1990, p 102
5. V. Gana pathy, "Program compu tes turbi ne stea m rat es and
proper ties", Hydrocar bon Proc essing, Nov 1988, p 105
r
6. V. Ca napathy, "COC EN", sof tware p ublished by Sci Tech,
New Jersey, 1990
 Cha p ter 5
Specifyin g W aste
Heat BoiIers

Wast e Heat Bo ilcr s are being specified and bou ght for ev ery
sort o f appli cati on -hyd rogen pl a nt s, gas tu rbine exhau sr sulfuric
acid plan ts, effIuents from incineration of sol id, Iiquid and ga seou s
wast cr, f1uidised bed ca t cracke r exhau st etc., to narne a few .
Having d esign ed sev era ! ty pes of fire tube and wat e r tu be
boil ers for the ab oye applicatio ns, th e author feels tha t a la rg e
nu rnber of boilers are being specified inadequately or even inco rrectly
in sorn e cases by consultants o r th e specification w riters, This chapter
wil l highligh t sorne of the áreas which shou ld be emphasized o r
elabora ted so as to result in a bo iler that wiIl be fu nctional and cos t
effec tive .

1. APPLICAnON OR SYST EM DESCRIPTION

The a p p lica tion o r the sys tem of which th e H RSG is a pa rt
shou ld be described compl ete ly. Often 1 come across specifi cat ions
that simply say was te heat boil er for flu e gas heat recovery withou t
men tioning the p rocess or the so urce of the gas .
r epe nd ing upon the p roc ess the gas stream may have pecul iar
characterist ics wh ich ca n be in ferre d if th e appl ication is sta te d .
For in stance if the flue g as is frorn a muni cipal so lid w ast e
incin erator. we kno w that it ca n be d irt y and hence precautions
sh ould be tak en to ha ve clea ning lan es, soot bl owers and a vo id
extended surfaces.
If the flu e gas were frorn a fume inc inerator th en it is mu ch
cleaner and hence extended surfac es may be used to obtain a compact
d esigno If the efflue n t is reforrned gas from a hydrog en plant, o ne can
ensure that provision is mad e for exit ga s temperature control and
also design the boiler to handle the high gas pressure. Extreme
 \'la ste Hcat Bollcr Dcsk booj,
258
opcra ling co nd itions o r u psct co ndi tions s hou ld also be d cscr ibcd so
that thc d esi gn ca n acco rnmoda tc thesc co nditions.
Me n tio n sho u ld al so be madc as lo ho w a nd w he re thc s team
tha t is ge ne ra ted is bcing ut il i zcd so tha t stearn puri ty could be givcn
co ns idc rat io n . If s tea rn is usc d in a stea m turbinc drive. d c pend ing on
thc prc ssu re, the puri ty cou ld be d e ma ndin g . Propcr dru rn in tc rnals,
Fig ure 5-1, s ho u ld be us cd lo g ive the d esircd p urity . In the Cheng
cycle di scu sscd in Ch a pt cr 1, wh c re the supc rhe a tcd s te a rn is
in jc ctcd in to th c gas tu rbi nc, a co rnb ina tio n of interna ! and cx terna l
s tearn separa tion dcviccs wcre uscd lo achicve a stcarn pu ri ty o f less
tha n 50 pa rt s pcr billi o n so lids.
In h ig h pr essure boil ers, a co rnbina tion o f cyc lones, a nd che vrons
may be u sed lo o b ta in a s tca m pu r íty of 11.'55 th an 100 p p b so lids. If
s tca rn is uscd in a s tea rn tu rbine or injccted int o a gas turbine for NO.
pu r poses o r for in cr ca sing its po \\' er o u tp u t, thc spccifica tio n writer
sho uId o b ta in ín fo rrna tio n on s tea rn p urity requ iremcnts from the
s u p p lie rs of these equipme n t so th al the bo iler dru m in ternals ca n be
p rope rly d esigned. If th e s tca rn is u sed fo r p rocess hea ting or cooling
a nd is al a lo w p re s sure, a dcmist er pad which gives 1 lo 3 p pm so lids
m ay be a deq ua te.
A flo w diagram sho wing th e flo w pa th of wa te r and s tea m in
th e syste m is hel p ful , part icul arl y in H RSGs for multi-nre ssu rc
units, In so rne boi lers sa tu ra tcd s tea rn ma y be taken off the d um a nd
the balance s u per hea tcd. In so m e systc ms, externa l su per hea ted
s tea rn fr orn another boilcr o r so u rce m ay be mi xed with th e sa tura ted
s tea m fr orn the w a st e h cat boi ler a nd th e to tal may be su perhea ted
in th e w ast e heat boil er. In ord er to under st and a nd properly d esi gn
th e variou s heat tran sf er surfaces suc h a flow scherne wouId indeed
be helpfuI and avoid confusion later.
The ta ke off point for deaeration st eam is aIso an important
aspect of a n y HRSG sys tc rn: as discussed in Chapter 4 if steam is
taken off the steam turbine at a suitabIe ex trac tio n point, the pIant
efficiency is better than if it had been taken off from the boiler
outlet. This is beca use the steam that is drawn off the turbine has
performed some work in the process of ex pa nsionoThe scheme or fIow
diagram shouId sugg est th e so urce of d eaeration s tea m or any other
steam for process.
Specif yi ng Wasle Hcat Boilers 259
l. eh e v r o n
2.c yclone s
3.d o wnc o n e r
4.r is e r s
5 .f eed 'KU t e r orpe
6 .st ea M
,\4
3
Figur e 5-1. Arrangerncnt of drum in tema ls.
2. SPACE AN O LAYOUT GUIOE LINES
Wa st e heat bo iler s may be located inside a build ing, wh ere th e
spa ce is limited o r could be located o u tside but within a plant a s pa r t
o f the expa nsi on sc he me or ther e co u ld be no restrietio ns as in a n e w
p rojeet; anyho w s pace l írnitations and layout restri ct ions if any
sh ould be o u tline d in th e specifiea tio ns.
The boiler configuration eould be d eveloped based on the spaee
a vailabili ty. As seen in Chapter 1, for unfired gas turbine exh a u s t a
two-pass couId be used instead of a sin gle gas pass design to minimize
fIoor space. If height is a concern, a short but wide boiler could be
designed. There are cos t impIications to these speciaI d esigns and
hnce the specification should s ta te any requirements in th e ea r lv
iag es of th e proje ct. As di scussed in C ha p te rs 1 to 3, sever;I
d ifferent boiler configurations co u ld be d eveIoped for the sa me gas
and steam paramet ers.
 260 Wa st e Hea t Boíler Oeskb<lok
3. GA S PARAMETERS
All o f the da la pc rtaining lo thc wast e gas sho u ld be stated
c lca r ly .
a. Gas flow in rnass uni ts NOT in volumetr ic un its,
One of the commo n errors rnad e by specifica tion w riters is lo
s ta te thc gas flow in cubic Icct pcr minu te. This s ho uld be avoi ded .
The gas mass flow lo the boile r should always be give n in po unds per
hour; one can con fuso cfrn with acfrn o r scfm and come up with a rnass
flow th at is di ffercnt Irorn the actua l flow due lo a n inco rrect
cs tirna tio n of ga s d cn sity which is dependen t o n the gas mo lecular
we ig ht, tcmpe rature and pr essure.
Thu s several variab les are involved and a wro ng assumption of
a ny o nc oE them could resu lt in a different d ensity and hence mass
flow . Th e a ut hor is fam iliar with a case wh ere a spccifica tion
mention ed that the gas /low was 5000 cfrn and did no t say wh ether it
wa s acfrn o r scfrn . Tw o differ ent boil er design ers ca me up with
designs in wh ich the rnass Ilow s wer e apar l by a factor of 4; one
des igner had assumed that thc /low was in sc frn a nd the other
tho ug h t tha t th e flow was in acfrn. A 10 1 of lime was wasted in the
process of ex plai ning the basis of design to the co ns ultan l, which
co uld ha ve bee n avoided .
J( lhe gas is exha us l from a gas lur bine, il is prud ent lo slale lhe
gas /low da ta al di ffere nt gas turbi ne loads and a mb ient condi tions
and also specify th e d esign poinl so lhat comparison or proper
evalua lio n oE boiler pe rfo rma nce could be mad e. As men lioned in
Chapler 1, the mass flow an d exha us t gas temperalu re vary
significantly with ambienl cond ilions.
If a bypass d amper is u sed . lhe leakage flow lhrough the
damper should be accounted foro In some wood based cog~ 1eration
projects, a portian of the hot gases are taken off for drying the wood
products and the balance goes to lhe HRSG. Hence the gas system
should be described adequately so lhat the HRSG mass flow can be
properly evaluated.
Gas temperature lo the boiler should be stated along with the
gas f1ow. If the duct work belween the waste gas source and the
boiler is significant, the healloss in lhis should be accounted foro
Spcáfying Was te J leal Boilers 261
b. gas anal ys is.
Thi s is ano the r import anl aspec t wh ich is ncgl cc ted by
spec ifica lion wri te rs. Dcp ending u pon the co m pos ition, the gas
prope r ties such as speci ñc heat, viscosi ty and therrn al cond uc tivitv
can vary; Append ix E shows ho w to com pu te the properti es. J( the
gas proper ties are differenl na tu rally the heat lransfer coe fficie nts
an d hen ce the duty and gas lempe rature profiles will be d iffer ent as
disc ussed in Chapter 4.
The differ ence in d u ty cou ld be as high as 10% if the rnoíst ur e
con ten t is significa nl ly differen t. Hen ce if a stea rn injec tcd gas
tu rbine exhaus t boi ler is being specified it is advisable lo sta te the
gas flow, exha us t temperatura and an alysis pe rlai ning lo the rnod e
of opera tion of the turbine, whether stearn injected or d ry.
In the Chen g cycle, discussed in Ch apter 1, the ga s propert ies
vary signi ñcan rly betw een the dry mode (7% volume of wat er vapor )
and the injecled mode (25'70 volu rne of wa ter vapo r). Append íx E
sho ws how the gas properlies differ. As the size o! the boile r ge ls
larger or the stearn production increa ses, eve n a 2 lo 3% diffe rence in
outpu t can affect the project econornics.
Also, de pending upon the process, the gas s trearn could ha ve
lraces o r small fraction of Hcl, C/z, saZ, Hz5, or 50 3, JI is in the ., .
inte res t of the speciñca tíon writer lo menli on lhis as lhe d esign
wo u ld ha ve lo consider metho ds of minimi zing low or hi gh
lemp er at ur e corrosion concern s as discussed in Appe ndix B, even •
!:..
thou gh lhe heal lran sEer aspecls or sizing may not be affecled .
In hyd rogen planls Eor exa mp le the da la on parlial pressure oE
hyd roge n is used in lhe selecl Jn oEboiler lube ma terial as d iscu ssed
in Cha pler 1. Hence gas al.a lysis is rel evant. Gas velocily an d
press u re drop lhr ou gh lhe boile r ar e also affceled by gas den sity
which in tum depends on lhe gas anal ysis used.
Even if an analysis is nol readiJy available, lhe specificalion
sho uld d.escribe lhe process of oblaining lhe f1u e gas-eg. nalural gas
combuslIOn al 20% excess air-and the boil er d esigner can perform
combustion calculations lo arri ve al lhe flue gas analysis and f] ow.
C. Gas pressure and pressure drop.
. A fire lu be boiler may have lo selected if the gas pressure is
I1lgh; if it is mar ginaIly higher lhan almospheric pressure and a
 262 Was le Hca t Boil er Dcs kboolc
w at e r tu bo boi le r is u scd , thc casin g w ou ld have to be s lre ng lhened;
o r as disc usscd in Cha p tcr 1, the boi ler or supc rhca tcr o r eco nomizer
ma)' ha ve lo be loca ted w ithin a pr essu re vesscl.
If the gas p ressu re is ve r)' hi gh, o n th c o rde r o f a fe w
atrn o s phcrcs, t he gas prope rt ies wo uld a lso b e aff' cc tcd . See
Rcfcrcnce 2 o n co rn p u ta tio n of gas propert ies a t eleva ted p ressu res.
Ap pendi x E s ho ws how gas p rcssure a ffect s h eat tr a nsfe r coefficienls
in flow in sid e o r ovc r tu be bund les. Ga s p rcss u re a lso affects the
d cn sity a nd hencc the vclocity and gas pressure drop.
Gas p ress u re d ro p thr ough the boi ler is an opera ting expense. As
m cnti oned in C ha p te r 1 in the case of gas turb in e ex ha us t eac h 4 in wc
o f add itio na l p ressu re drop resu lts in nea rly 1 % d ccrea sc in thc ga s
tu rbine power ou tpu t. The spe cifica tion may suggest a pr essu rc d rop
bu t s ho uld give cre d it if a J-1RSG ve nde r has a lo wc r gas p ressure
dro p tha n suggcs ted o r pen alizo the d esign if it is hig her.
The life cy cle co s t o f thi s expense sho u ld be ev a lua ted , though
th e in itia l cos t of the d esig n with a high gas p ressure drop m ay look
a ppea li ng .
D. Nature of gas.
Th e nature o f the gas s lrea m should be s ta ted, whe the r il has
p articul at es, wheth er it a di r ty gas and has pot ential fouli ng or
slag gi ng conce rns . If an ash anal ys is is pr o vid ed o ne can in fer frorn il
whethc r the as h has s laggi ng cha rac teris tics: if sa lts of sodi um and
potassiurn are present, then as d iscu ssed in Chapter 1, we kn ow thal
lh e m elting poinls of lh eir sa lts co u ld be low an d ca n result in
sla gging pr obl ems al lhe fronl end of lhe boiler.
Depending on lhe typc of combuslion or incineration device and
lhe process, whelher it is a fixed bed, moving bed or fhidized bcd,
the carryover of particulates could be different and . ence has a
bearing on the boiler designo The particulate coneenlration in
grains/scf should be staled. . 4. Hence on e s ho u ld be familiar wilh HRSG lemperalure profil es
Bare tubes ha ve to be used in the ca se of a dirty gas, whlle
extend ed surfaces could be used if il is clean, thus making the dcsign
eo mp ac t. The author is familiar wilh cases where exlended surfa~
were u sed on boilers which sho u ld have had bare lubes and whlch
had lo be replaced complelely within a few years of slarlup.
Spc cifying Wasle Heat Boilers
263
Sp ee ia I clea ning provisions as d iseussed in C ha p te r 1 s ho u ld
also be m ad e if the gas s trea rn is di r ty. It is a ls o a wcll kn o wn fa ct
"
tha t it is easier lo clea n ba re lubes eo m pa red lo finn ed tubo s .
4. BüILER DUTY
Th e du ty or the energy to be reco vered from the boi ler s ho uld be
clearl y s ta ted . This incl ud es the s tea rn a nd fced wa ter pa ramct e rs
and the s tearn ge nera lion. Thi s may not be di fficu ll in case s s ue h as
sing le press ure boil ers. H o we ver, if th is is nol c lea r, d iff erent
sup p liers can co me up wi th d ifferen t co rnbina tions of e va po ra to rs and
eeo no m ize rs and th u s have a s tack gas le m peralure th at eould be
diffe re n t.
The specificatio n sho u ld a llernalively s ta te th e cri terio n uscd
fo r optimizati o n; th e cos t o f e ne rgy, s team and fue! s h o u ld be
pro vid ed so that the boi le r s u ppl ie r can make hi s own eco no m ie
eva lua tio n .
In the case of multipl e pressure boil er s as di scu ssed in Ch a pt er
4, o ne ca n ha ve di ffer ent co m bina tions of H P, IP a nd LP s te a m ; the
s p~e i fica lio n writer s ho uld a na lyz e th e HRSG lem peralure p ro fil es
usm.g so flw a re sue h as CO G EN a nd a r rive al th e lemperalure
profJles an d du ty of eaeh sectio n a t di ffere n l ope ra tio n cond itions. '1
. So rne speci:ica tio ns require that th e p inch po in l o r a pp roa ch
por n t hav~ certa ín .va lues. This is a poor wa)' of s pecifyi ng boil er
d u ty., As d iscu ssed m Chapl r 4, lhe pineh a nd a pp roaeh points a re a , j
funelJ on of lhe ga s (Jo w a nJ in le l ga s lem p erature a nd vary w it h
o.pe ra.ling eo nd ilio ns and load. Th ere co u ld be lemperature c ro ss
sltualJOns a nd one eannot a rbilra rily se leet lhese va lues .
Some specifications ealI out the desired exit gas lemperature
from lhe boiler; now lhi s may or may nol be achieved wilh lh e
lowesl practical pinch and approach poinls as di scussed in Chapler
and how lhey vary with gas inlel conditions befo re suggesling lhe
dUly or lemperalure profiJes.
Parl load conditions if any should al so be addressed in lh e
speeifications. In lhe case of ineineralor ex ha us l, lhe gas ex il
lemperature would be lower at lower loads and concerns aboul low
lemperature eorrosion should be addressed.
 wa st e Hea t Boilcr Deskbook Specif yi ng Wast e '.Ic" Boilcr s 265
21>1

So rne enginccrs a re undc r thc ím p rcssio n th at low tcmperaturo
co rrosion i n th c econo m izc r can be avoid cd if th e boi lc r exit gas
ternpcrature is in crcased al lowcr loads by u sing m ethod s such as
bypa ssing a portien o f th e e con omi zer. Th is ís inco r rcc t. As. disc~ ssed
in Appendix B, th c tube wall lempera ture of th e cconorru zer 15 not
affcct cd by the ga s tcmpcraturc bu! by th c Iccd water tcmpcrature.
Hcnce by bypassing thc econ omi zer, wc are no t in crcasing the
tu be wall to rn p e rat ure of rhc eco no m ize r. 1f the objecti ve is to
minimi zo corrosion in th c du ctwork bc tween the economi zer and the
s tac k, the n probably it could be achiev ed by th is m ethod .
The s tearn lcmpera l u re va rics w it h gas flow and inl et
te m peral u re condilions . l t is d csirable lo know if the stearn
rom pc rat urc could be a llowed lo Iloa t wi thin a ra ng e or a const an!
tc rn peraturc is req uired al various gas flow conditions. Oversizing of
the superhea ler ma y b e n ecessary lo achieve the d esired st carn
le m p eralure a l lo wer loa d s .
Provision shou ld be made for stearn le m pe ra lure cont rol a l
hi gher lo a d s. In the case o f gas turbin e HRSGs it s ho u ld be stated
c1early ii th e sa rne stearn te m per alure is requ ir ed in the unfired as
well as in th e fired mo des. As shown in Cha p te r 4, th e s upe rhea ter
shou ld then be d esigned lo genera te thc steam in unfir ed mod e and
th e ternpe rature wo uld ha ve lo be co n trolled in the fired mode. If .a
6. EM ISS ION GUIO ELIN ES
In the case o f ga s turbine cx ha us t, wh er e a SC R o r ca taly sl is
used for CO o r NO x control , the incoming lc vels o f th ese po llu tant s as
well as the desired outl et level s ho u ld be s ta tcd .
Even if th e SCR is likely to be add ed aft c r scve ra l year s, t he
HR SG sho u ld be design ed wi th th is re quircrn ent in m ind . Space
sho u ld be provid ed for the SCR . In addi tion , th e boil er cros s sec tio n
s ho u ld be p refe rab ly cl osc lo tha t of th e SC R in a rd er lo m ini m izc
th e gas pressure drop.
7. FEEO WA TER ANALYSIS ANO BLOWOOWN
Often th e feed wat er a nalysis is orni tted from the specifi-
catio ns, Th is is an important data and is helpful in d elermining th e
blow d own requirem ents.
The boi le r wa te r quality d e pe nd s on the s tearn pressure. Both
ABMA (A merican Boiler Manufact u res Associatio n) and ASME have
iss ued guidelines , Tables 5-1 a nd 5-2.
In o rde rto calcula le th e blo w down, the exten t of make up wat er an d
condensa le retur n s s hould also be known a s illus trated in th e
ex a m p le below.
"

lower stea rn tem pe rature is a cceptable in u n fired modes, th e n this Examp le 1:

sho u ld also b e s ta ted as i t will help re d u ce th e size o f the A boiler genera les 25,000 pph of sa turated stearn a t 400 psig.
su pe r hea te r. 60 % of the fee d wa te r is co ndensa te returns and 40 % is make u p
water, whi ch has a TOS of 250 ppm. The boiler drurn is maintained
al 2000 ppm De te rmine the blow d o w n, make up flow and condensa te
retu rns
5. AUXILIARY FUEL DATA , \
In case s u p p le m e n la ry fue l is need ed, a s in gas lurbine Solution:
applications, th e fu el anal y si s and augmenting air requirements if Lel us d efine a few va riables. See Fig ure 5-2.
any should be stated. The bumer supplier can provide info rm a tion on Le t E = evapora tio n, 25000 pph
augmenting air requiremenls based on the ga s turbine e xhaust gas R =condens a te retums, pph
an alysis, the firing temperature and th e fu el u sed . M = make up wa te r flow, pph
If lh e bumer is required to bum a d ifierent fue l a t a la ter date, F = feed wa ter flo w, pph
thi s requirement m ust be stated in the specificati o ns. Modifications B = blow d ow n, pph
that may be required to be done later to the boiler co nfig u ra tio n could S =s lea m to process, pph = E-R
be reviewed early in the design and handled Iess expensively. '
 N
Table 5-1. Sugge ste d Wate r Quality Lim its ~
[Adapte d From A5ME 1979 Consensu s]

Boiler Type: Industrial watertube , high duty, primary fuel lired, drum
type
Makeup Water Percentage: Up to 100% 01 feedwater
Conditions : Ineludes superheater, turbine drives, or process restrictio
n on steam purity
Saturaled Steam Purity Target (9)
Orum Opera ting MPa (}...2 .07 2.06-3.10 3.11-4.14 4.15-S.17 5 .16-6 .21 6 .22-6 .89 6 .9(}...10 .34 10 .35-1 3 .79
~ (psig) LO.:Wl ~ (~ 1601-7SO \ 1751- 900\ (90HOOo \ 1l00HSO Ol ll S01-20001
EeedWaler l11
Oissolved oxygo n (mgll 02)
moasurod befaro oXYQon
scavenger add ition (8) <0.04 <0.04 <0.007 0 .007 <0.007 cO.007 <0.007 cO.007
Tota l iron (mg/l Eo) SO.I 00 ~;O050 ~0 . 0 3 0 ~0 .02 S ~0 .020 so 020 SO.010 SODIO
Total copper (mgJl Cu) SOOSO so 025 ~0 0 20 s O.0 20 ~OO IS SOOI S ~0 . 01 0 so01 O
Total hardnoss (mgllCoCO:¡l SO.300 S0300 s O.2OO s O.200 s O.100 SO OSO - No! detectable-
pH rango @ 2S"c 7.5-1 0 .0 7.5-10 O 7.5-10 .0 7.5-10 .0 75-10 O 8.5-9 S 9(}...96 9 (}...9 6
ChemIcaJ. Ior pt cboile<
~ lam pmlO<:llon Use only votaute alit..ahnc m mena ts
Nonvolati le TOC (mg/l cl(6) <1 <1 cO.S <O.S <0 .5 - As low as poss íbíe, <0 .2 - - -
Oily ma ne r (mgll) <1 <1 <O.S <O.S cO.S - As low as possible. <0 .2 - - - - -
.<.
'J'
Boiler Water ;;
:r:
"..
Silica (mgll S I 0 2) SI SO s 90 S40 S3 0 s 20 se S2 <1
Total alkalinity
(mgl l CaCo:¡) <350(3) <300(3) <250(3) <200(3) <IS0(3) cl00(3) - NOl Specif ied (4) -
Ereo hyd roxido alkalinity '"!<.
(mgl l C0C03)(2) _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ NOl spcc ificd - - - -- - - - _ _ _ _ __ _ _ __ _ _1'01del ecu ble (4)_ - ?f
Speciñc ccnduc tanc, ¡(
l¡&rNlOIcml e 25"c "'"
"'¡bloll_8 IIlallon <3sool S) <3O<d)) 2$ll.(5) <200¡()) e l ) 0,,(5) <Iroo<~) srso sroo ,8..

Il>
Notes lor Table 5·1 ~
o.
1.
-::; .
With local heat f1uxes >473.2 kW/m2 (>150,00 0 Btu/hrlft2), u~ e
values Ior the next higher pressure range . 00
2. Minimum level 01 OH- alka linity in bailers below 6.21 MPa (900
solub ility and other components 01 internal treatmen!.
psig) must be individually specil ied with regard to silica .<.
'J'
;;
3. Maximu m total alkalinity cons istent with acceptable stea m
pu rity . If neces sar y,should override conduc tance as :r:
blowdown control parameter. 1I makeup is demineralized water
water alkalinity and conductance should be that in table lar 6.90
at 4.14 MPa (600 psig) to 6.89 MPa (1000 psig). ba iler '.".
to 10.34 MPa (1001 to 1500 psig) range .
4. Not detectable in these cases rel ers to free sodium or potassiu
m hydroxide alka linity. Some small variable amoun t 01 total
'"
g.
alkalinity will be present and measura ble with the assume d congr ?f
uent or coor dina ted phosph ale-pH control or volat ilo '"
treatment employed atthese high pressur e ranges.
5. Maximum values often not achiev able without exceedi ng suggest
ed maxi mum total alkalinity val úes. espocially in ba ilers
below 6.21MPa (900 psig) with >20% makeup 01wator whose total
alkalinity is >20% 01 TOS naturall y or after prelrea tmont
by line-sod a , or sodium Cyl.... Ion exchange softe ning. Actual
permissible co nductance valuos to achieve any desired
steam pur ity must be establish ed lor oach case by carel
ul stea m puril y measurements . Relat ion ship betw aon
conductance and steam purity is affeeted by too many variable
s to allow its reduction to a simple Iist 01 labul aled values .
6. Nonvolatile TOC is that organic carbon not intentionally addod as
part 01 the water trealment regime .
7. Boilers below 6.21 MPa (900 psig) with large lurna ces, large steam
release space and internal chelanl , polymor, and /or
antilo am treatment can sometim es tolerate higher levels 01 lee
dwater impurities than tho so in ths table and slill achiove
adequate doposit ion control and steam purity. Removal 01 l hese
impu rities by external prelreatment is always a moro
posit ive solution . Alternat ives must be evalua ted as to practica
lity and economics in each individual case .
8. Values in table assume existence 01 a deaerator.
9. No values given because steam purity achieva blo deponds upon
many variablos, including bailer wator total alkalinity and
specific cond uclance as well as design 01 bailer, steam drum internals
, and opera ling condit ions (note 5). Since bailors in
th is category require a relativo ly hiqh deg ree 01 steam pu
rity . other oporatin g parame lers mus! be sol as low as
nocessary to ach ieve th is high pur ity tor protection 01 the
supe rheato rs and tu rbines and /or lo avo id procoss
contamin ation.
N
~
 268 Was le Hcat Boiler Oeskboo k Spccifying Wa sl c Heat Boilers U f)

T. ble S-2
W. lertu b e boilers
Reco rnrnend cd Boilcr Wal cr Limi ts
and Associ. lcd Slcarn Purity
s
Al Slcad y Slal c Full Load Ope ra lio n
Drurn TnlC Boilers
R
"-
IABMA - 19821
E
Orum Flan;IJ Rarg¡ ~rdod SoIds Flan;IJ
Pressure TelalDlsof.ed Telal Alain ry 2 BellerWate, Total Discl.ed $o'ds. 2. 4
$olés1 Belor 8oJ:er Water ppm (MAX) Slea m
W. :e, ppm (MAX) ppm ppm (MAX e.pacted va!<Je)

? .
0 ·300 700·3500 140·700 15 02-1.0
1
301-4 50
4 51· 600
60 1·750
600-3000
500-2500
200·1000
120·600
100·500
40-200
10
8
3
0.2-1.0
0.2· 1.0
0.1-0.5
M F
751 ·900 150·750 30·150 2 0.1·0.5
90 1-1000 125·62 5 25-125 1 0 1-0.5

100 1-1800
1801·2350
100
50
NOTE (3)
N/A
1 0.1
0.1
B
2351-26 00 25 N/A 005
260 1-2900 15 N/A 0.05 Figur e 5-2. Schern e of blow d own system,

ONCE MlOUGH BOHRS

from a mass balance of d issolved solids,
1400and Above 0.05 N/A N/A 0.05

NOTES: 250xM + Ox R = salids in leed water = 2000 x B (5 -4)

l. A<:l ual Values wilhin!he,anO" rañectthe TOS in L'le Iwd water. Highe, valoesare lo, hogh soles, Iowe, valoes aI1
101 Iow soles inlhe leed wale'.
2. A<:lual vallJes wilhin lhe rangeare direc tlypro>"rtíonallO iheactual vaJue 01 TOS 01 bOllerwater. Highe' wav1ues or M = 8 B (5-5)
are lo,!hehigh soles , Io wer values arelo, Iow so>ds intheboiIer waler.
3. Dlc:aledby be'e, wale' treatment.
These vaes areexclusive 01 silica. also, R + M =25000 + B (5-6)

substit uti ng (5-3) and (5-5) in (5-6) ,

The total di ssolved solids (TDS) in blow down water is 2000
ppm; TOS of make up water is 250 ppm; the steam or condensa te 2.5 M =25000 + B or 20 B =25000 + B (5-7)
returns is assumed to have O so lids. Mass balance gi ves thl EoIlowing '. t
hen ce B = 1316 pph; M = 10526 pph; R = 15790 pph; F = 26316 pph
equations:
F =;M+R (5-l) i
In case all of the Eeed water is make up, then R = O. Then :
S =E -R (5-2)
F=M (5-8)
s ínce the condensate retums and make up are in the ratio of 60 to 40%,
RIM = 1.5 (5-3) 250 F = 2000 B (5-9 )
 270 Wasl e Heat Boiler Des kboo k
F = 25000 + B (5-10)
h cnce B = 25000/7 = 3572 pph and F = 28572 pph.
Note a lso th at th e d ca erati on s te .rm rcquircrn cnts will change
w ith th c rat io of R/M . Th e m or e th e co nd ens a te returns . lc ss th o
dcae ra rio n s tea rn.
In addition lo the Iced wa te r or make up wat er analysi s, the
s pcc ifica tio n should g ive th e Ieed water tcrnperature. It is usually
th e sa tu ra tio n tem pcraturc corrcspond ing to th e d cacrator pressure if
th errnal d ea er ati on is used.
8. SURFACE AREA
AND FIN CONFIGURATION
In applicatio ns su ch as gas tu rb ine cx ha us t, ex tended surfaces
a re widely used . Depending u p on the fuel used in the gas turbine and
HRSG burner, up to 5 o r 6 fin s / in . may be used for the evapora lor and
econornizer. Lower fin density shou ld be used fo r su rfaces wi th a low
tu b e side coefficien l such as superhea tcrs o r ai r heate rs a s d iscu ssed
in Appendix A.
Engi nee rs who are not familia r with heat trans fer aspec ts of
extended surfaces sometirnes fa lI into the trap o f ass u mi ng th at m ore
s u r face a rea m eans more dut y . T h is ca n be wrong as s ho w n in
Appendix A.
As s u rface area is de ter rnined by a co rnb ina tion of fac to rs.
specifying the fin densi ty to be used o r pu rchas ing a d esign ba sed on
surfa ce area al one should be avo id ed. In appl ícations where lh e gas
s tr ea m could be slightly d irty, !he m a ximum number o f fins lo be used
fro m c1ea ning consideralions may be spceified.
Surfa ce area is a lso affecled by lhe gas v elocily Jsed . One
sho u ld aIso no le lhal lhe surface area is so me limes s p ecified on lube
inner diameler basis in case of fire lube boilers. FinalIy, lhe basis for
e va lua tio n should be lh e o verall o pcra ting and in sl aUed cosls and
nol su r face area.
Spc cifying Wasle Hcat Boilers
271
9. COST DATA FOR ELECffiICITY,
FUEL A N D ST EAM
Informa tion on the cost of u tiliti es su eh a s elec tricity, fuel and
st carn s ho u ld be provid ed whenever possibl o so th a t th e HRSG
d esigner can make his own economic evaluation of th e desi gn o In a
Iired H RSG for exarnplo, th er c can be varialions in gas p ressure drop,
fue l con sumption and stearn production among differenl d esigns.
If th e co st dala and th e period o f operation in ea ch m od e
(u nfired , fir ed low load, high load et c. ) are kn own, a stud y may be
pc rfor med by th e HRS G d esigner and th e design may be oplimized lo
y ield th e lowest Jife cycle cost.
The consultanl sho uld a Iso use a life cycle cosling analysis lo
~r:i.ve ~ l the op tim u m d esign from d ifferent bid d er s and no t go by
initia l mves trnen r alone, Whi le selec ling a n op tio n based on lo w
inilial cost may loo k attractive in th e short ter rn, in the lo ng term it
may p rove to be u necon om ica l. Hence th e cost of majo r ut ilities such
as st earn, fu el, electricíty should be stated in the specifications.
10. DRUM SIZING
One of the parame ters tha t is often suggested in the
specifica tion is the d rum hold up time or th e du ralion be tween
va rious leve ls such as normal le vel to low le ve] or normal le vel to
empty. The objec tive is 1 ensure tha t s tea rn ca n be gene ra ted fo r a
few m inules even if the red pump o r th e heat so u rce is cu t off
w itho u t selling off the le vel trips.
The drum sizing is usua lIy based o n s tea rn release rates and th e
stearn purily th at ca n be achieved wi th the requ ir ed drum in lerna ls .
In addi lion, the hol dup lim e crí teríon has to be rnet .
Fig u re 5-3 sho ws the formula used for compuling th e hold u p as
a fu n ct ion o f the liqu id le ve!. The formu la may also be used to
com p u te th e duration be lween levels as show n in Exa m p le 2 be low.
Example 2:
A boil er g enera ling 20000 pph of sleam at 400 psig has a 42 in.
drum 10 feet long with 2:1 eIlipsoidal ends. If th e normal water level
(N WL) is 2 in . below th e center lin e a n d the low level cut off (LLCO)
is 4 in . be low il, d el ermine th e duration a vailable between NWL and
LLCO at th e d esign steaming rateo
 272 Wa s te Hcat Boile r Dt.-skbook Spe cifying Was le Hea t Bcílcrs
273

he re. Tab le 5·3 below sho ws a formal that sum rna rizes the aboye
L1quld volume ln . tr. lght ..-ctlon d iscussion s,
V. = (L R ' / 23 1)[(0 /57 .3) . I lnoc olo
L1~ul d volume In each end
V. =O.2 6 1H' p R - H)/2 3 1 Table 5-3
Totl l llquld volume Engineeri ng data or check list
=
V, 2V. + V.
for wast e heat boiler de sign
(or aspects lo be considercd while de veloping sp ccificalions)

1. Ap plication: describe proces s; g ive ílo w diag ram to r gas/steam ;

L.
Figu re 5·3. Pa rti a l volume of liquíds in pr essure vessels.
Solution:
The speeifie volume of saturated water al 400 psig = .01934 cu
fl/lb. hence evaporation rate = 20000 x .0193/ 60 = 6.43 cu fl/min.
L = 120 in., R = 21 in., HI = 19 in., and H2 = 15 in. It is desired lo
find the volurne VI - V2, where V1 corresponds lo H 1 and V2 to
H2..cOS a = 2/21 . hence a = 84.53 . cos a = .09523; sina = .9954 . Vsl =
120 x 21 21 x [(84.53/57.3) - .09523 x .9954/ = 73052 eu. in. = 42.38 cu. fl.
Vd = .261 x 19 x 19 x (3 x 21-19) = 4145.7 eu. in = 2.4 eu. ft. Hence VI =
42.38 + 2 x 2.4 = 47.08 eu. ft.
Similarly V2 = 34.1 eu. ft. Henee VI - V2 = 13 ' u. ft. and rhe
duration between the level 19 in., and 15 in., = 13/6.4: = 2.02 mino In
sorne applications the drum has lo be sized to handle a fast star~ up
or load ehange requirements, This usually inereases the hold up lm~e.
These are sorne of the important aspcets to be looked into while
developing a specifieation for waste heat boilers from the proeess
view point. Meehanical details and eode aspeets are not eovered
sour ce 01 de aeration slea m; distribution 01 process and superheat ed
HP ,IP and LP steam.
2.
3.
Spa ce limitalions : desc ribe or provide dra wings. Is site visit required?
a. ga s f1ow, pph : (al different loads /amb ient condition s).
II
b. ínlet gas temp erature, F: (associat ed wilh gas Ilow)
c. an alysis, % vol ume: C02, H20, N2, 0 2, S02, HCL, S03, H2S, CL2,
L etc. corr espond ing to each gas Ilow condition
d. ga s pressure, psig:
e. suggested ga s press ure drop : (at a give n gas ílow and in let
cond il ion) or the max imum value.
t. nat ure 01 gas : d irtylc /ean; part ic ulate concent ration in grains/scf ;
as h ana lysis to indicate slagging tendencies.
4. Out y or suggested staarn generation/temperature prolile or exit gas
tempe rature : part loa d cond itions; % 01 time in each opera ting mode ;
steam temperat ure e ' nI rol it any ; provide Ilow diag ram showing
HP/IP/LP steam, make ut ' water , condensate returns at various loads.
5. Aux iliary fuel data: tuel analysis, augmenting air for burners it any .
6. Em ission data : NO x and CO at bailer inlet and out/el. Contr ibution by
burner: (trom burner vendor): Emission control equipment suggested :
7. Feed water or make up water analysis: % condensate returns il any . Is
dem inera lized water available lor spray temperature control? The TOS
in injeetion water should be very low.
8. Cest 01 luel, elect ricity and steam: In add ition, the % 01 time in each
operating point in order to optimize lile cycle cost.
9. Steam pur ity requirements : Orum hold up time criteria il any . Qu ick
start up or load change requirements.
10 . Special requ irements if any.
274 Waslc Hcat Bollcr Deskbook

REF ER E CES

1. V. Canapa thy, "HRSG íca tu rcs and appl ícat ions", H eating,
piping and a ir-co ndi tio ning, Jan 1989, pg 169.
Appendix A
2. ABM A g u idel ines o n wa ter quality for boilers. Extended Surface I
3. A5M E g u idelines on wate r quality ,
Heat Transfer I
,:
I
'I
Finned tu bes a re ex tens ive ly use d in boil ers, supe rhea te rs,
I
cco no rnize rs and wat er heat er s for reco vering energy from clea n gas
s treams suc h as gas lurbine cx ha us t o r flu e ga s from co m bus tío n o f
p re mium foss il fu el s; if th e pa r tic u la te co nce n tra lio n in th e gas
s trea rn is ver y lo w, finn ed tubes with a low fin density m ay be used .
Ho wever the ch o ice of fin co nfig u ra tio n particularly in clea n
gas app lica tio ns is d et crrnined by se ve ra l fact ors suc h a s tu be side
heat transfer co efficient, o ve ra ll size, cost and gas pressure dro p ,
wh ich af fects th e operating cost ,
T h is sectio n deal s w ith calculations p erta ining to ci rcurn-
fere n tia lly finn ed tu bes o f solid o r se rra ted type, Figure A-l and A-2
'1
a nd th e e ffec l o f fin geo me try o n p erformance of heat lra ns fer
eq u ip men l. Th ough se ver al co rrela tio ns ma y be found in litera tu re,
the w id el y u sed E5COP co r re la tio ns will be th e basis for th e se
stud ies and conclusi ons.
Finned surfaces are attractiv e when the ratio between the he at
transfer coefficients on the outside of the tubes to that inside is ve ry
sma l!. In boiler evaporators or econornizers, the tube side coefficient
could be in the range of 1500 lo 3000 Btu/sq ft h F, while the gas side
coefficient could be in the range of 10 to 20 Btu/sq ft h F.
A large fin density or a large ratio of external to internal
surface area is justified in this case. As the ratio between the ou tside
and inside coefficient decreases, the effectiveness of using a large
ratio of external lo internal surface area reduces. For example, in
superheaters or air heaters, where the tube side coefficient could be
in the range of 30 lo 300 Btu/sq ft h F, it does not pay to use a large fin
surface; in fact it is counter productive as wiII be shown la ter.
 Wa st e Heat Boi ler Dcskboo k Appen d ix A - Extend ed Su rfacc Il eat Tran sfcr
276 277

A m od e rar e fin dcnsi ty such as 2 or 3 fins /in. is adcqua te. wh

ile Re = Gd/12Jl ( A -S)
for eeonom i zers or eva pora tors, a 5 o r ev cn 6 fins / in . may be
justi fied
if c lca n liness perrnit s. S=(1jn )- b ( A -6 )
The o the r import a nt íac t lo be ke p t in mi nd is tha t m ore sur
facc
a rca docs no t neeessa rily mean mor e encrgy tr ansfc r. 11 is po
ssible lo
ha ve, thro ug h a p o o r ch oice o f fin eo nfig ura lio n, m o re su rfa
ce a rca
T abl e A-l. Factors e, lo C6
and yet rra ns fc r less cn ergy. Onc ha s lo look a l th e p roduel of
surface
a rca a nd ovc ral l hca t trans fc r coc fficicn t an d nol the su rface Solid Fins Serr a led Fins
a rca
al onc .
Ove rall heat tran sfer eoeffi cien l reduce s sígriific a ntly a s
we C, = 0.25 Re- 0.35 C, = 0.25 Re-O.35
in c rea se thc fin surfaee or us e m or e fin s /in. We will discuss C2 = 0 .07 + 8 .0 Re -0.45
these C2 = 0.07 + 8.0 Re -D.45
aspects as we go a long .
INLlNE INLlNE
HEAT TRAN SFER , rRESS URE onor
C3 = 0.20 + 0.65 (-0.25 hIs) e-L ~ I /, c. C3 = 0.35 + 0.50 e (- 0.35h/s)
e
C4 = 0.08 [0 .15S:/d I- 1.1 (h/S)O.15) C4 = 0.08 [0 .15SJd ][- 1I1
The ba si c eq u a tio n for h eat transfe r eoeffi ei enl with finn
ed o] o (h/S)o ~
tu bes is given by : C5 = 1.1 - [0. 75-1.5 .70N
e(-0 d)]
. Cs = 1.1 - [0.75 - 1 .5e(~ 70 Ndl] [e(- 20Si/St)]
l = lAr +
U h¡A¡
ff¡ x AT + ff o + Ar
Ai
d In-º-+ _l_ C6 = 1.6 - [0.75 - 1 .5e(~·7 ~] [e(-9 SVStl l
Aw 24Km d , Tlho (A - ] )
C6 = 1.6 - [0 .75 - 1 .5e(~ 7 Ndl] [eH oSvSt)2]

The cal cul ation for tube s ide coeffic ie n l hi is discus sed
in
cha p ters 2 a nd 3. ho consists o f two pa rts, a non -lurninou s eoeffi STAGG ERED STAGGERED
cienl
b « which is compu led a s di scu ssed in chaple r 3 and
he, the
convec tive heal lransfe r coe fficie n l. Compu lation of he a nd involve C3 = 0.35 + 0.65e-(0.25h/S) C3 = 0.55 + 0.45 e(-D·35h/S)
an ela bo ra te proced ure and solving of scveral equatio ns, as
delailed C 4 = 0.11 - [0 .05SJdol l~.7 (h/S)020)
below. Determ ination of he (o r h g >
C4 = 0.11 _ [0 .05S Jd ] (~.7 (h/S)OZl )
o

's
he = Cl C3 C5[(d + 2h)jd ¡-5[( + 460) /
e, = 0.7 + [_ .70_0 .8e(~· lSN6 1] [e(- 1.0Si/St)]
(ta + 460) ¡-25 GCpk/j1Cp)/O.67 (A-V
e, =0 .7 + [_ .70-0 .8e(~· lSN~)] [e(- 1.0Si/St)]
G = Wgll (St/12) - Ao! LNw (A-3) C6 = 1.1 + [1 .8- 2.1 e(~·l SN~ )] [e(-2.0SvStI]

-[O. 7_0.8e (~ · lSN~ )] [e(~·6S>'StI]

Ao = (d/12) + nbh/6 (A-4)

el to C3 are obtaine d from Table A-lo C6 = 1.1 + [1.8-2.1 e(~· lSN6)] [e(-2.0SfSt)j

-[O. 7_0.8e(~·15N6)j [e(~.6St>'Stl¡

 Was te He at Boil er Deskboo k Appe ndi « A - Extended Surf acc Hea t Tran sfer 279
278

FIN EFFICIENCY A N D EFFEcn VENESS

Ser rated tin!

For bo th sol id a nd scrra ted Iins, fin cffcctivcncss 7) is:

1] = 1- (1-E) Af/AI

For solid fins:

(A-7J

(A -S)
I Salid lins
Af = Ttn (4dh + 4h2 + 2bd + 4bh)j24

( A -9)
A l = Af + mis (1-nb)/1 2

E = 1/11 + .002292 m 2 h2 (( d + 211) /d)·5 ) ( A - JO)

( A - l1)
W1Iere m = (24 ho/Kb)·5 Figure A-l ,2. Salid an d serrated fin s.

For serrated fins : Table A-2. Besse l func tio n, 10 ,11, Ka, and Kl
Valu es for Various Aug me nts
(A- W
Al = minl2h (uis + b) + btus] /12ws
X lo (X) 11 (X) Ko(X ) Kl (X)
( A - 13)
Al = Al + mi (1 -nb) /12

( A -14)
o 1.0 o 8 8
E «[ ta nh (mh) ) [m]: 0. 1 1.002 0 .05 2.42 7 9 .854
0 .2 1.010 0 . 10 1.753 4.776
Where m =124 ho (b + tos) / (Kbuis) ]-5 (A -15) 0.3 1.023 0 .152 1.372 3 .056
0.4 1.040 0.204 1.114 2.184
0 .5 1.063 0 .258 0 .924 1.656 l.j-
Gas p ressu re drop 0 .6 1.092 0.314 0.778 1.303 1.
0.7 1.126 0 .372 0 .66 1.05
(A-16) 0.8 1.166 0.433 0 .565 0 .862
0.9 1.213 0.497 0.487 0 .716
1.0 1.266 0 .565 0 .421 0 .602
f = C2 C4 C6[(d + 2h) /d)5 for staggered arrangemen t (A-In 1.2 1.394 0 .715 0.,3 18 0.434
1.4 1.553 0 .886 0 .244 0 .321
(A-lB) 1.6 1.75 1.08 5 0 .188 0 .241
= C2 C4 C61 (d + 2h) Id] for inline arrangemeni 1.8 1.99 1.317 0.146 0 .183
2.0 2.228 1.591 0 .114 0.140
(A- 19) 2.2 2.629 1.914 0.0893 0 .108
2.4 3.049 2.298 0.0702 0.0837
(A-20) 2.6 3 .553 2.755 0 .554 0.0653
Where B = (free gas arealtotal area )2 2.8 4.157 3 .301 0.0438 0.0511
3.0 4.881 3 .953 0.0347 0.0402
C2, C4., Q" are given in Table A-l for solid and serrated ñns. ( Con tinued)

\
 230 Wasle Hea t Boiler Desk book Ap pcndix A - Extended Suría ce Hcat Tra nsfer 281

Tabl e A-2 (Co nt in u ed) . Bessel fun ction, 10 , 11, KO, an d Kl Whe re R3, R4 a nd R5 are res ist ances to hea t tran s fer of the
Va lues fo r Variou s Aug men ts insid e film , fou ling laye r a nd th e tu be walI , and heat flux q is given
by :
X lo(X ) 11 (X) Ko (X) K1 (X )
(A-2 6)
3.2 5.747 4.734 0.0276 0.0316
3.4 6.785 5.670 0.0220 0.0250
3.6 8.028 6.793 0.0175 0.0198 The folIo w ing exa mple illu strat es the use of the equations .
3.8 9.517 8.140 0.0 140 0.0157
4.0 11.30 9.759 0.0112 0.0125 Examp le 1:
4.2 13.44 11.70 0.0089 0.0099
4.4 16.01 14.04 0.0071 0.0079
46 19.09 16.86 0.0057 0.0063 A stearn superhe a tcr is d esign ed fo r th e folIowing condi tions:
48 22.79 20.25 0.0046 0.0050 Gas flow = 150,000 p ph
5.0 27.24 24.34 0.0037 0.0040 Ga s inlet ternpera turc = l ooo°F
Gas ex it temperaturc = 861°F
Gas a na lys is: % vo lurne C02 = 12, H20 = 12, N2 = 70, 02 = 6
Stea m flow = 30,000 pph
TUBE WALL AND FI TIP TEMPERATURES Steam ternp erature in . = 49 1°F (sa t)
Stea m exit ternperatu re = 787°F
Fo r so lid fin s th e rel at io n bct wec n tu be wa lI a nd fin tip Stearn p ressure (exit ) = 600 p sig .
tempera tures is given by : Tubes used: 2 x .120 lo w alIoy steel tu bes, 18 tubes / ro w, 6 deep, inline
a rra nge me n t w ith 4 in . sq u a re p itch a nd 9 s tr ea m s. Tube in ne r
d ia m etcr = 1.738 in . Length = 10 ft.
( A -21 ) Fin s u scd: So lid s ta in less s tee l, 2 fins / in ., .5 in . hi gh a nd .075 in .
thi ck . Fin therma l co nd uc tivity K = 15 Btu/ft h F. De termi ne the
The va rio us Bessel func tiona l data a re show n in Table A-2. hea t tra nsfer coe fficient an d pressure d ro p .
For se r ra ted fin s, treat ed as lon g itu d inal fins: 1"
Solution: Aa = (2/12) + (2 x .5 x .075/6) = .17917 sq [tIft. G = 150,000/ '1
(1g - ti ) /(lg- tb) = Ilcosh (mb) ( A -22 ) /1 8 x 10 x ((4/12) - .17917)J = 5420 Lb/sq ft h. Th e gas prop erties at
the average gas temperature (fro m Appendix F) ar e:
.. .
-

A good estimate of t¡ may also be obtained for either type of Cp = .2851, J1 = .08146and k = .03094
fins as follows: Re = 5420 x 2 /(12 x .08146) = 11090
Cl = .25 x 11090-.35 = .0096
t¡ = lb + (I r lb) x (1.42 - 1.4 x E) (A -23)
s = 1/2 - .075 = .425
C3 =.2 + .65 e (-.25 x .5/.425) = .6843
tb, the fin base temperature is estimated as follows:
C5 =1.1 -[.75 -1.5 e (-.7 x 6)J[e (-2 x 4 /4) J = 1.0015
tb = ti + qx (RJ + R4 + RS) (A -24) Assume tha t the average fin temperature is 750°F. The average
gas temperatu re = 930 °F and steam temperature = 640 °F. Th e fin
th ermal conductivity K is assumed to be 15 Btu/ft h F.
 \'las te Heat Boile r Deskbook
282
he = . 0096 X .6843 x 1.0015 x (3/2) .5 xl (930 + 460) /
(750 + 460 ) J 0.25 x 5420 x . 2S51 x (.03094/.2S51/.0S146) .67 = 15.74
b« = 1.12 usi ng me thods di scussed in Chapter 3 . Th e bea rn
le ngth fo r fin n ed tu bos is cornputcd as 3 .4 x vol ume/s urface arca .
H c nce h¿ = 15.74 + 1.12 = 16.S6, 111 =(24 x 16.86/ (15 x .075) J.5 = 19.
E = 1/[1+.002292 x 19 x l9 x .5 x .5 x{f3] = 0.80
Al = 3.14 x 2 x(4 x 2 x .5 + 4 x .5 x.5 + 2 x .075 x 2 + 4 x .075 x .51
/24 = 1.426
Al = 1.426 + 3.14 x 2 x (1-2 x .075)/12 = 1.S71
Henee = .S + (1- .S) x 1.426/1.571 = .S48
Let us compllle h; for stcam, IV = 30000/9 = 3333 lb/h per tube;
From Tabte 3-3 in Chapter 3, factor C = .337. h¡ = 2.44 x .337 x
3333· 8/1 .73S = 200 Btu/sq ft h F.
l /U = 1/(1 6.S5 x .S4S) + 12 x 1.872/(200 x 3.14 x 1.738) + .001 +
.001 x 1.S71 x 12/(3.14 x 1.73S) + 24 x ln(2/1.738 x 1.S71 /(24 x 20 x 3.14
x 1.73S) = .0699 + .021 1 + .001 + .00·11 + .0024 = .0985; U = 10.16 Btll/sq
ft h F.
Ca lcu la tio n of tu be w a ll a nd fin tip te rn pe rat ure H ea t flu x q =
10.16 x (930-6 40) = 2945 Btulso ft h, tb = 640 + 2945 x (.0024 + .0041 +
.0211) = 722 F.
Us ing th e e labo ra te Bessel Iuncti ons:
mr¿ = 19 x 1.5/12 = 2.3S fl. mro = 1.58 Jt
Ka (2.38) = .07, Kl (2.3 8) = .OS37, lo (2.38) = 3.04S, 1I (2.3S) =
2.295, Ka (1.58) = .186, lo (1.58) = 1.74, Hence (930-t¡)/(930-722) =
(.0837 x 3.048 + 2.295 x .07 )/(.0837 x 1.74 + .1S6 x 2.295) = .723, Hence
t¡ = 780 °F.
Using the approximation t¡ = ~b + (1.42-1.4 x .S) x (930-722) =
7S5°F.
Note that this is only a n a verage base and fin tip temperature.
For mat erial selection purposes one should look at th e m a ximum
heat flux', which occurs for in stance at the gas inlet in co u n te r flow
arrangement and also co ns id e r the non-uniformity or mal-
distribution in gas and steam flow . A computer program may be
developed to compute the tube wal1 and fin tip temperatures at
va rio u s points along th e tube length an d th e results used to select
aPJ:'~op,riate ~a~erials.
Appcndix A - Extended Surfa ce Hcat Transfer 2&3
It m ay be not ed fro m the aboye th a t ther e are a Iew ways to
red uce the fin tip te m perat urc:
1. Incr ea se fin th ickness. This red uces facto r m and hence tr
. . 2. Inc rease th cr m a l conductivi ty of fin ma terial. T his may be
diffic ult as the therrna l condu ctivi ty of carb ón s tee ls is h ig her th a n
alloy s teels a nd ca rbo n s tee ls can w ithstand only up to 850°F, while
a lloy s t.e?ls can w it hs ta nd u p to BOO°F, de pendi ng o n the allov
cornposuion. -
~. Red uce h o o r the gas sido cocfficien t by usin g a lower ga s rnass
vcl o city .
4. Red u ce fin h c ig h t o r d ensi ty .
~ . h~ d esig ns w her e .lhe gas in le t tc m perat uro is ve ry hig h, use a
co rnbi na tio n o f bare and finned ro ws. T he first few ro ws could be bare
fo ~l o wed by tu be s w it h a lo w fin d ensity o r hei ght o r incrcascd
thl.ck n es s a nd th ?n ío llo wed by tu bos wi th h ig he r fin densi ty .
heig ht o r lo wer thickness to ob ta in the d esir cd boil er pe rformance . A
ro w -by -r o w anal y si s o f th e finn ed b undl e is nccessa rv which
requ íres the use o f a co m p u ter p rog ra m o •'
Co rnp u ta tio n of ga s pressu re d rop:
C2 = .07 + S x 11090 -.45 = .191
C4 = .08(.15 x2/- u x 1.5/.425) .I5¡ =.3107
C6 = 1
J = .191 x .3107 x 1 x (3/2) = .OS9
B2 =((.33-.1 7917)/.33J 2 = .20S9
a =((S61- 1000)/{460 + 930) J xll + .20891/24 =-. 005
.1Pg = .084 x 5420 x 5420 x6/{.0288 x 1.083 x 109) = .53 in we
Cornputer solution to th e aboye syst em of equat ions saves a lot
of ~i me. Ho wever, th e a ut ho r ha s d evelop ed a chart, Figure A-3
which may be used lo ob tai n he (or h g ) and TI va lues for serrated fins
and i~l~ne arrangement for various fin configurations and ga s m a ss
velociti es for g a s turbine exhaust g ases a t an a verag e g as
ternperature of 600 °F.
While a computer program is the best tool, th e chart wil1 be
use~ to s ho w tr ends and th e effect o f fin co nfig ura tio n on performance
of finned surfaces. The u se oE the ch art is explained with an
exampl e .
 Wa st e Hca t Bo llcr Dcs kboo k Appcn dix A - Exte nded Surfacc l lcat Transfer
285

8. Boiler co nfigura tion : 18 tu bes / ro w; squa re p itch = 4.0 in .;

Leng th = 10 ft; serrat cd fins; 4 fins/in., .75 in ., h ig h, .05 in. thick, all
l'> f'(J IO mvs so
carbo n stecl ( Km = 25) surfacc arca of finned tu be = 5.35 sq fl/ fl.
23 S ~'<" _:: Let us use equation (A-l ) and Figu re A-3 to a r rive at he and Uo.
zz . " --'=:=====:.;:o==::::::==~=::: ...z.. h -':; az
Note th at he a nd "s a re used syno ny mo us ly. Th c gas p ro perties ha vo
21 3 - 00
79
20 2 h:l.75 - 76
to be compu ted firsl. Table A-3 be lo w gives th e p ro perties al on g w ith
7< the facto r F used ro compu te hg .
19 1 7Z
70
19 O 68
66
!t 17 c..
Ta ble A-3
t 16
Data f or Gas Turbine Exhaust Gases
~ IS
fUac (JO • 21l '
l s:ouARE PI.eH • <.o'
(% vol C0 2 = 3, H20 = 7, N2 = 75, 0 2 = 15)
13

r1 G. Z crrccr CT rlN CtlNf1GURATlON []N lemp, f sp. heat. viscosi ty th. cond
'2
H(AT TRANSrclt PRCSSURC ll ROP F
11
200 .2529 .05172 .0182
10 c¡, LB/Sd rt H ""'s:i VELOC!TYl .1152
400 .2584 .0612 .02176 .1238
600 .2643 .0702 .02525 .1316
800 .2705 .0788: .02871 .1392
Figu re A-3. Effcct 01 fin configu ra lion on hea t transfer, pr essur e d rop (Chemi c.1 1000 .2767 .0870 .0321 .1462
Enginuring l

Example 2:
Det ermine the o vc ra ll he at transfer co efficient and pressur.e
To obtai n hg the gas mass velocity G must be computed.
drop for a finned tube boiler for gas turbine exhaust under the followmg
Using the eq ua tio ns gi" ~n earlier, A o = (2/12) + (5 x .75 x .06/6)
conditions:
1. Gas flow = 150,000 pph (% vol C02 =3, H20 = 7, N2 = 75 and = .1979 sq ftlfl. G = 150000/W '< 10 x (.33-.1979) = 6308 Lb/sq [t h.
From Figure A-3, "s = 11.5; fin effecliveness = .745; gas pressure
00 ,

02 = 15).1
2. Gas inlet temperature = 1ooo°F. drop/lO rouis = 1.5 in. wc(no te that Figure A-3) has been developed
3. Exit gas tempera tu re = 382°F. for gas turbine ex ha us t gases for an a verage gas temperature of 600 0F
4. Outy = 150000 x .2643 x .99 x (1000-382) = 24.25 MMBtu/h and for serrated tu bes; hence corrections for gas data or fin type
(1% heat Ioss assurned): Cp= .2643 was taken from Table A-1 aboye. should be done as required . The gas pressure drop is for 10 rows and
corrections for actual number of rows should be made.
(See Appendix E also),
Let us assume that h¡, the tube side coefficient :: 2000. The
5. Steam pressure = 150 psig.
boiling heat transfer coeffi cient is ve ry high compared to th e ga s
6. Feed water temperature = 240°F.
si de coefficient and hence does not impact "s- Ratio AtfAi =
7. Fouling factors (in/out) = .001 ft2 hF/Btu.
5.35/(3.24 x 1.77/12) = 11.55. Then substituting in (A-U, we have:
 286 \Vaste Hcat Boiler Deskbool< Appendi x A - Extend ed Surfa ce Heat Tran sler 287

l l il ¿ = (1/11.5 X .745) + (11.55/2000) + .001 X 11 .55 + .001 + 2 x Table A-4

10.85 x In(2/1.77)/24/25 = .13946. Hc ncc U¿ = 7.17; si nce thc a verage Comparison of bare vs finn ed tube boiler
gas tern pe ra tu re in our ca se is closc lo 600°F a n~ th: g as a ~a l ys i s is
thc sa rnc a s that u scd fo r thc cha r t, no co r rcc no n 15 requ i rcd : else bare rubo finned tube
fa cto r F s ho ul d be corn pu tcd an d liS sho uld be correctcd: al so due to 1. Gas flow, pph < 1.50,000 >
thc lo w g as tc m pera tu rc. non -lu m inou s heat transfer coefficien t was 2. inlet gas ternp, F < 1000 >
3. exít gas temp, F < 382
ncgl c ct cd . >
4. du ty, MM Btu /h < 24.25 >
Lag-mean tcmpcrot ure differe 11ce, t,T = (1000-366) - . (38 2- 5. steam press, psig < 150 >
6. leed water tern p, F
366)/ln{1 000-366)/(382-366) I = 168 °F. Surface ar ea reouired = 7.
< 240 >
s iro m flow , pph < 24500
24250000/168/7.17 = 20140 sq fl = 5.35 x 18 x 10 x Nd, uihere Nd = 8. surface arca, sq It 11670
>
20140
number of rows decp = 21. Hence S(/~ prcssure drop = (21 /10) x 1.5 = 9.
10.
Uo, Btujsq {I h F 12.86 7.17
gas pr drop, in wc 4.5 3.15
3.15in.wc. 11. no 01rows decp 124 21
12. heat flu x, Btu/sg fl h 9213 52295
13. tu be w all tern p, ¡: 385 484
COMPAR ISON OF BA RE VERSUS Tubes wide = 18.leng lh = 10ft. square pitch = 4.0 in.; linned lubes use
4 linslí n. serrat so l ins, .75 in. high , .05 in. thick.
FINNE D TUBE EVAPO RATO R

Example 3: .
The advan tages of u s ing ex tended su rfa ces are obviou s. T he
Let li S se e th e ad va nt ag es o f using fin ned tubes . Try to d esig n thc
fin ne d tube desig n is m ore com¡: rct as it has Iewer ro ws d eep ; th is
bo ilcr for th e sa me applica tio n using bare tu bes a nd co m pa re the two
also results in lo wer labor cos t. TI e len gth o f drums or casing would
d e si gns. Chapter 2 d ísc us sed thc mct hcdo logy for d esi gn of ba re
a lso be sm aller a s a result of fewer rows d eep, re sulting in savings in
tu bcs. Let us use the sa rne cross scc tion a nd tu be sZrow, le ngt h, tubc
mat eri al cos t. The gas pressure d rop is a lso lo wer, result ing in lower
size, a nd p itch.
opera ting cos ts . It ca n al so be shown that the weight of the finn ed
G = 150000 x 12/0 8 x 10 x (4-2)) =5000 Lb /sq ft h
bundle is mu ch Iower. However th e heat flu x in sid e the tubes is m u ch
G as film temperature = .5 x[O OOO + 382)/2 + 366) = 528°F. From
higher wi th fin ned tubes, as a lso th e tube wa ll tem pera tu re.
Table A-l, Cp= .262,p. = .0675, k = .024. Fl = .262.33 x .024.67;'0675.27 =
This is due to th e larger rati ) of ex te rn al to internal su rface a rea .
.1093. he = .9 x 5000.6 x .1093/2.4 = 12.36; non-luminous heat transfer
Th e heat flu x difference is mue pronounced when th e ga s inl et
coefficient is mo re significant for barc .tube s compared to finned tu~
temperature is higher, a s in fired HRSGs. Hence care must be taken
h n can be shown to be abou t 0.5 Blu/sq [1 h F. Hence h¿ = he + hn -
to use appropriate finning. A few bare rows of bare tubes, followed by
12.86.
tubes with low fin density and then with high fin dens ity tu be s is •¡
From Chapter 3, Equation (3·2) , recommended.
I

l /U o = 1/12.86 + (2/1.77) x .001 + .001 + (2/1.77>12000 + 2

1n(2/1.77J/24/25 = .08085; Uo = 12.37 Btulsq ft h F. COMPARISON OF INLINE VERSUS
Surface area req u ired = 24250000/168/12.37 = 11670 sq [1 =3.14x
STAGGERED ARRA NG EM ENT
=
2 X 18 x 10 x Nd/12 94.2 Nd; Nd 124. =
G as pressure drop ca n be competed as in Chapter 3 and show~ to
equal 45 in. wc. Table A-4 shows the resu lts. Advantages of u ~ mg Both inline and staggered arrangements have been used w ith
finned tubes are obvious. extended surfaces. The advantages o f s taggered arrangement are
higher overall heat transfer coeffidents a nd lesser surface area; cost
 288 Wa sl c Hca l Boiler Dcs kboo j, Appcnd ix A - Extend ed Surfaco Hea t Transfcr
289

could be rnar gina lly lower d e pend ing on th e config ura tion; ga s
p ress ure drop could be higher o r lower d epend ing o n the gas rnass Tabl e 5c-2 x .75 x .05 Ta ble 5d-2 x.75 x .05 x .157
veloc ity u scd . Sa lid fins Serra ted fins
lf c1 ean in g la n es a re rcq u ir cd ío r soo t bl ow in g, an inline l. col. no 2 2 2 3
ar rangeme n t is prc ferrcd . Sa lid as wcll as se rra ted fin s ar e used in 2. arrgt in SI st in st st
th c ind u stry . Ccn crall y so lid íins are uscd in appl icati on s wh cre the 3. tubes/row 18 18 18 18 18 18
dcpositio n o f so lid s a re likely. Th e following exarn plcs compare the 4 . no. deep 20 20 18 20 20 18
effect o f a rra nge me n l o n boil er performance. 5. length 10 10 10 10 10 10
6. u, 9.75 10.85 10.86 10.02 11.42 11.45
Examp le 4: 7. dPg 1.72 2.51 2.27 1.79 2.59 2.33
150,000 pph o f turbin e c xhau st ga ses al 1000°F en te r an 8 . dul y Q 21.68 22.21 21.70 21.59 22.22 21.72
e va po ra to r o f a wa st e heat boilcr ge ne ra ting s tea rn at 235 psi g. 9. ex it gas 455 443 455 458 442 454
De te rm ine the performance using so lid a nd serra ted fins and inline 10. surface 9802 9802 8822 9341 9341 8407
ve rs us s taggercd arrangcmcnt. Tubc size is 2 x 1.77 in.; tubes/row = 18,
leng th = 10 ft. use 2 x .75 x .05 a nd 5 x .75 x .05 fins. duly-MM8Iu/h; d Pg - in wc; su rjace-so fl ; iemp-F; Us-Biulso JI h F.

Solution; Th e following ob servalions may be mad e:

Using th e Escoa correlati on s and the methodology di scu ssed in 1. Staggered arrangemenl rcsults in lower su rface area for th e sarnc
Chapter 3 for evaporator p erformance, the following result s shown dUly . b.u~ higher gas pressure drop for both ty pes of fins and {in
in Table A-S we re ar rived al. Da ta in co lurnn 3 are Io r a s taggered densi ty if the gas mass veloci ty is the sarne. Fo r the same surface
d esign with a duty close to the inline arrangernen t. ar ca you can .l ra nsfer me re ene rgy with s tagg ered confi gurali on .
2. Serrat ed fins hav e é hi gh er o ve ra ll heat tra nsfer co efficienl for
Table 1\-5 th e sa rne m ass velocity, the s urface ar ca is lower tha n tha t of so lid
Resul ts of boiler performance fins for the sa me duty; also, the gas p ressure d rop is sJigh tly higher
(so lid /serra ted fin s and inl ine/staggered arrangernents) than tha t of solid fins for the same dut v.
Usin g 5 and 2 fin s/In., the aboye design was re vised lo obtain a I
Table 5a -5 x .75 x .05 Tab le 5b-5 x .75 x .05 x .157
~ ta.ggered a rra ngement with a low er pressu re d ro p, closer to th e r,
Salid fins Serrated fins in line configuration, fe . the same d uty. Results a re shown below.
lo col.no 2 3 2 3
2. a r rg t in st st in st st
3. tubes/row 18 18 18 18 18 18 Table A-Se co mpa res inlin e ve rsus staggered d esigns fo r nearl y
4. no . deep 20 20 18 20 20 17 the sa me gas pressu re drop and same duty. It m ay be see n that du e lo
5. leng th 10 10 10 10 10 10 the use of a lo wer gas mass velocity with s taggered arra ngement -'
6. Uo 6.51 7.71 (more tubes pe r row ), the gas p ressure drop is reduced . It turns o u t •
7.71 7.18 8.67 8.69
7. d Pg 2.76 4.87 4.38 3.19 5.45 4.62 th at less su rface a rea is req u ired with staggered arrangemen t for th e ,,'
8. d u ty Q 23. 14 23.46 23.28 23.24 23.55 23.30 sarne duty and p ressure drop.
9. exi t gas,F 418 410 415 416 408 414 The staggered design could be marginally less in cost but there
10 . su rface .(sqft) 21677 21677 19509 20524 20524 17446 are o ther as pects to look int o s uch as the effec t of p itch on ligament
.1
efficie ncy, wid er head ers o r lon ger tu bes and a bove all, c1ean ing
 290 WJ sle Hca t Boilcr Des kbook
Ap pc nd íx A - E,tended Surfa co Hc at TrJ nsfer
291

rcqui rern cnts. Selecti on o f typc of a rrangcm ent is 1110s IIy ba sed o n thc IM PO RT AN CE OF T UBESIO E
pas t expcrience of th e cornpa ny . CO EFFICI ENT
T ab le A-Se
Comparison bctwccn s tagg crcd and inlinc designs A sim p le calc u la lion m"y be d on e lo s how the effeel of tub e s ido
eoeffieien l en Uo. 11 wa s m cnn on co ea rlier th at higher the tubo sido
fo r nearly sarne d u ty and press ure drop
coeffi cienl, higher can be th e ra tio o f c xterna l lo int ernal surfa ce
1. ca l no 2 3 4 arca . In o the r word s, i t makes no se nse to use the sam e fin
2. arrgl in si in st eonfiguralion , say 5 fin s/in . fin d ensity, for a s uperhea ler as wcll as
for an evaporat or.
3. fin ty pe se n se n so lid so lid
4. fin co nfig 5 x .75 x .05 x .157 2 x .75 x .05 x O Rewriting Equali on A -l based o n tubo side arca and neglectin g
other resistanccs:
5. tubes/ row 18 20 18 20
6. no d ee p 20 16 20 16
1/U¡ = I lh¡ + (A¡/A tJlT]h o (A -2 7)
7. lengt h 10 10 10 11
8. Uo 7.18 8.36 9.75 10.02
9. ¡j Pg 3.19 3.62 1.72 1.42 Using the dala frorn Figure A-3, U¡ values have been compul ed
10. Q 23.24 23.3 1 21.68 21.71 fo r d ifferenl fin densities and for diffe rcn t h; va lues. These are
11. su rface 20524 18244 9802 9584 shown in Table A-6. Also shown are th e rat io o f U¡ valu es be tween
a nd th e 5 and 2 fins/in. designs as wel l as lh eir su rface area .
FolIowing eoncl.usions can be drawn.

FIN CO N FI G UR ATIO N AN O
PERFORMANCE
Now th a t w e ha ve a feel for the effec t of ty pe of fin s and
a r rangemen t o n th e pe rfo rmance, the nex t importa n l q ues tio n is h? W
s h o u ld the fin configurati on be selecte d? Does th e . tube. side
coefficien t in flue nce th e ch oi ce? Sho uld one select a desig n si m ply
beca use it has mo re su rface a rea than ano the r one? Can w e transfer
more e nergy with less surface area ? We wilI answer the aboye
ques tions in the folIowing sections. . b. A si m p le es tima tion of tube walI temperature can teJl us that
1. Higher fin d ensity or he ight mea ns lower U. From FIgure .A-
3, it can be seen that for a given mass velocity, higher the fin dens.lty
or height, lower th e gas side coeffieienl o r effeetiveness, which
resu lts in lower Uo'
2. Higher fin d ensity o r height mean s hig~er ¡jPg . Even afte~
ad ju s ting for the inereased su rfa ce arca pe r row, it ean be shown tha
higher the fi n density o r height, higher will be the gas pressu re
d ro p for mass veloci ties w h ích are cIose.
a. As the lu be s ide coefficien l red uces, th e rati o of U¡ val ues
(be tween 5 and 2 fi: s/in.) d ecreases . Wi lh h¡ = 20, U¡ ra tio is only
1.11. Wilh a h¡ of 20C 1, U¡ ra tio is 1.74. What this means is tha t as h¡
decreases the benefit of adding mo re externa l s u rfaee becomes less
all rae tive.
. We ha ve 2.325 lime th e su rface a rea but o nly 1.11 limes the
irnprovernem in U¡. Wilh a higher h¡ of 2000, the ine rease is better,
1.74.
"
higher the fin dens ir, hi gh er will be tube wall temperature. For the
ease of h¡ =100: Wi th 11 =2, U¡ =39.28, gas temperature = 9000F and
fluid temperal ure of 6ooF, the heat flu x q¡ = (900-600) x 39.28 =11784
Btu/sq ft h.
Th e temperature d rop ac ross th e tube side film (h; = 100) =
11784/100 =118°F. The wall lempera ture =600 + 118 =7180F.
With n =5, U¡ =53.55, q¡ =53.55 x 300 = 16065 Btu/sq ft h. Tube
~all temperature = 600 + 0 6065/100) = 76JOF. Note tha t eomparison
15 for the same height. Th e increase in waJl tem p era tu re is 430f.
 •
292 \V.ste Hcat Boilcr Deskbook Ap pc nd ix A - Extended Sur faco Hcat Transfer
293

e. The ra tio of the ga s press ure drop bc tw ecn the 5 and 2 fins/in . lran s fer capability depcnd s on the product o f th e surface arca and
designs (af ter adjus ling for thc effcct o f U¡ valu cs and diffcrcnces in the o vc ra ll hcat transfer co cfficic n r, no t on su rface area a lon e . \Ve
s u rf'acc arca for th e sarnc c nc rg y tra nsfer) in cr ca ses as th c tube side sh all illustrate th is wit h t wo cxarnples, on c fo r an evapo ra lor and
cocffi cicn 1 red uccs, o ne Ior a supcrhcater.
1I is 1.6 for h¡ = 20 and 1.02 fo r h¡ = 2000. T ha t is, when h¡ is
srnall cr, it is prudcnt lo use a lowcr fin su rface .. Tab lc A-6
Effect of h¡ on Vi
Effce t of fo u ling faeto rs:
The effect of insidc and o u tsid c foul in g Iac to rs ff¡and ffo are
shown in Table A-7. Following obscrvations can be made: _ l~alcula tions based on: 2. O x .105 tubos, 29 tubes / row, 6 ft lo ng,
a. W it h a smallc r fin dc ns ity . thc e ffec t o f ffi is s rna lle r. Wilh = 0.75
?O::J thick serrated fins; tubos o n 4.0 in. squa ro pi tch ; fin height
.0 1 fouling a nd 2 fins/ in., U¿ = 6.89 eo m pa red with 10.54 w ith .001 in. : gas flow = 150,000 pph ; gas in let lemp = l 0000F]
fou lin g.
Th e ra tio is .65 . Wilh 5 fins / in., the eo rr espo nding values are <- 20 - -> <-2000->
4.0 1 a nd 7.56, the rati o be ing .53. Tha t rneans w ith increa sed tu be 2 5 2 5
s idc fo u lin g, it rnakes se nse to use a lo wer fin d en si ty o r lo wer rat io of 559 1 6366 5591 6366
ex tc r na l to in terna] su rfacc arca. The sa me conclu sion was drawn .01546 .00867 .01546 .00867
w ith a lo w er tube s ide eocf fieien t. 2.73 1.31 11.21 8.38
b. Th e eHeet of ffo is less sig nifica nt as it is not enhanced by the 15.28 17.00 62.66 109
rat io of ex te rna l to infern al s u r face a rca .
<--1.11-->
<--1.6->
P ER FORMAN C E A ' O SU RFA C E AR EA
(su rface a rca of 2 fins / in. tu be = 2.59 sg fl/ft and fo r 5 fins/in. =
Let us now s tu dy the performance of an e va pora to r and 6.02)
s u per he a te r with d iffer ent fin co nfigu ra tio ns to br ing out the íact
tha t i t is possible to tr a ns fe r mo re energy w it h a lower s u rface area
a n d at a lower gas pressure dro p .H RSGs in variabl y use ex tended
s u rfaces if the gas stream is clean ás in gas turbine exhaust, air-to-
Table A-7a
fluid heat transfer, and sim ila r appl ications. With bare tu bes, one affect of ff¡, tube si de fouling factor
could probably as sume that the g rea te r the su rface , more energy wiII
be transferred (for compar able velocities),
(tube si, 'e coefficient = 2000)
With HRSGs u sing ext ended surfaces, however, one can Iall
into a trap by evaluat ing alt ernate designs or bids based on surface 1.Fin s/in., n 2 2 5 5
a rea alone. The reason is th at d ifferent combinations of fin height, 2. u, clean 11.21 11.21 8.38 8.38
th ickness, a n d d en sity lead to d ifferent heat tra nsfer coefficie n ts, fin 3. ff¡ .001 .01 .001 .0 1
efficiencies, and ov erall heat transfer coefficients. A large surfac~ 4. U¿ dirty 10.54 6.89 7.56 4.01
area does not necessarily mean more energy transfer. The energy 5.u, as % 100 65 100 53
 ,
Was te I-I eal Boiler Deskbook Ap pe ndix A - Extend ed Surface Hcat Transfer
29~ 295

Ta b le A-7b
aHe ct of iio, ou ts ide fouli ng factor STUDY OF EVAPORATOR
(tube sid e coefficient = 2000) Tube Síze: 2 x .105 in o 29 tu bes/row• 6 {l lona'" 20 deep, 4 10
' square pttch
.

Fins: 2 lo 6 per inch, 0.5 lo 0.75 in high, .05 th ick, serrated

1. fin s/ in . 2 2 5 5
2. U o clean 11.21 11.21 8.38 8.38
3. ffo .001 .01 .001 .01
4. U o di r ty 11.08 10.08 8.31 7.73
5. u,as % 100 91 100 93

Example A-S: Evap orator c.s 1Iow.~ 15Q,OOO

"' ilóoI ~r 900
sw. pr...... P"c m
Let us co n sider a fin ned eva po ra tor for a HR SG for gas turbine r_~r Z~
GIs-'rZ. , br-
ex ha us t. Table 8-A-a sc ts fo rth th c design d at a. c.rt>oo .... J
11M .7
"tr. ]S
Orn<o 15
......,.,pstlrtlioe_. •" 4.500
Table A-8a
Data for HRSG evaporator design

Gas flow, pph 150,000

Gas inl et temperature, F 900
235 lNIJ. Q. Cu 11''''''' drop.
Stea m Pressure, psig 1 .1I'.in.
Feed w a te r ternperature, F 240 llrIy.1Nltob 1J.41 ILa
19
' " 11'...... drop. ... llC 2,24 UZ
Gas analysis, % by volume Sorbe< ¡¡ e.. sq ft

.
12.Ul IU.12
Carbo n d ioxid e 3 115
""t
IMDI tnnsf<r codo
icient. Sla 1'" '" ft.jw.f 1.60 , ,(Z
Water 7 :
Cm A: J Iins por ... 0.15 irt.1Up brO.DS ill/lici
75 Cme: 4r... porit..o.soin.~byO.05in.ltIi:1
Nitrogen
15 zo~
Oxygen
Nominal gas turbine power, kW 4,500 11.5
15 ~ JI... per,....a.
....
17 Ilotr,llMBlllII
10 11.41 1!l4
We shall evaluate fin densities ranging from 2 to 6 fins per in. c.s 11' drop,in.WG 2.24 11&
SaÑa ",fI 12.Ul Zl.~
16.5-'---- f -- , - . -- . -_ ,.---!: ha.... in dutr. porcont uo
and fin heights of 0.5 and 0.75 in. Assurnpt íons include 6 ft long rubes, llaast io aru. porcmt 15..50
2 by 0.105 in ., 29 tubes per row, 20 rows deep, serrated fins, 0.05 i. fin
EIfOCl el In geomotry en pofformonoo.
0>mI ""1tnns/" codo
r.o..lSI. por sq Il./v·r 1.60 U:l
thickness, and an inline arrangement with 4 in . square pitch. The
methodology of design is presented e lsewhere, and the results are
shown in Fig ure A-4. ~i~urce A¿ : E~{ed of fin configura lion o n ev aporalor performance. [Healíng P' .
nlT- ondl / lon rng\ • 'plng .
 296 \',Ias le Heat Boilcr D,'Skbook Appc ndix A - Extended Surfa ce Hea t Transfer
297

Figure A-4 s ho ws the c ífe ct of fin d cnsi ty and fin he ig h l on Ta b lo A-8c s hows the cffect of fin d ensity on the du tv and gas
el1er gy tr a ns fcrrcd . Q; ga s pressure d rop, sr.
an d surfa ce a rca , 5. As prcssu re d ro ~ .fo r th e sa mc fin heig ht . Because of the lo w cr hea t
th e fin d e ns ity increascs. so do Q, S. a nd ¡jI'. Ho w c vc r. th c rat o of .t ra ns fer co cffici onr , th o ad d itiona l s u r face a rca of 86 pe rce nt re su lts
in crca se in Q dcc reascs w hile th at for .1l'decreases. One can scc tha t 111 on ly .a 4 .5 p c rcent increa se in du ty . AIso, th c gas p ress u ro drop is
for a pa r ticular Q, the surface arca and th c gas p ressure drop are m u c.h hl ghe r. Based on a n e lec trical cos t of $0.06 per kW h and a as
lowc r fo r th c configurali on with the lowc r externa! surface arca . tu rb ine powcr ou tpu t of 4500 k\\', Ihe addilional ga s pressu re dropgis
Ta b le A-8 b s hows thc resu lts for a duty of a pproximately 18.4 w o r th .
M M Btu h . Thc higher hcat tra ns fer coeffic icn t associa ted with the e = (3.86-2.24) x 0.06 x 8000 x 4500/4 00
lo wc r sur face / ft helps in tran s ferring thc sa me el1ergy w it h less e =$8740 per y r
surfacc and also al a lowcr ga s pres sure drop. Hcnce, with finned The addilional energy outpur al $3 per MMB lu h is wor th :
tubos. one has lo loo k a l the product of su rface a rea and o vera 11 heat e = 09.24-18.4]) x 3 x 8000
tr an s fer coefficie nt and not just thc surfacc a rca. e = $ 19,920 pe r y r
Eva lu a ting alterna tes from sp rc ads hee t givin g o n ly s ur face
arcas, which unfortuna tely is be ing d one in a number o f eng ineering . Based on casi a nd overa ll cco no rnics, o ne co u ld a rrive at e ither
o rgan íza tio ns . may res ul t in a poo r sclection th at wi ll a lso be more O p tion A o r ~plion B. H o we vor, selec ti ng a n op tio n be ca use th cre is
expcnsive to oper a te beca use o f rhe highe r gas pre ssure d ro p. ~ore su rface 15 simplis lic a nd can lead lo w ro ng concJusions and
(C rca te r fin d ensity a n d fin h e ig h t res ult in g rea ler gas pressure improper HRSG se leclion.
drop .)
Typically. a 4 in. WG additional g as pressure drop in a HRSG Table A-Bc
re sult s in a 1 p crcent d ro p in e lec trica l p ower o u tp u t o f th e ga s Effect of fin density on performance
turb in e, Greater fin d en sity o r fin heig h t can al so result in hi gh er for the same fin height (evapora1or)
tubc wal l ternperature a n d fin tip tcmperature . T h is w ill be
di scu ssed wh en we tak e up the example o f the s upe rhea ter. 31ins 61ins
per in. per in.
Table A-8b
Effect of fin geornetry on performance DUly, MMBlu h 18 .41 19.24
for the same evaporator duty Gas pressure drop, in. WG 2 .24 3.86
(see Figure A-4 also) Surface area, sq II 12 ,633 23 ,444
Increase in duly , percenl
4.50
Case A Case S Increase in area, percenl
85 .50
OveralJ heal Iransler coefficient
Duly, MMStu h 18.41 18.38 8Tu per sq ft-hr-F ' 8 .60
Gas pressure drop, in. WG 2.24 1.82
6.60
Sur/ace area, sq h 12,633 11,432
Overall heat transler coefficient
Example A -6: Superheater
Stu per sq ft-hr-F 8.60 9.42

Case A: 3 lins per in., 0.75 in. high by 0.05 in., thick Let us n ow consid~r a superheater for cJean gas application .
Case S: 4 lins per in., 0.50 in. high by 0.05 in. thick Jable A-: shows. the deslgn data. We shalI evaluate fin densities of
and S fms per m., and fin heights of 0.5 and 0.75 in. We shall also
 waste Hcat Boiler Deskboo k Appcndi x A - Exte nded Surface Hcat Transfer
298 299

var y th e n u rnbcr o f ro w s dccp lo ob tai n d es ir ed dut tc rn pcrat u rc is 836°F versus 90 °F in Case 2 while th c
ies of fin ti p
app rox im a lcly 14 and 17.5 MM BlU h . ternper ature is 949°F ve rs us 1033°F. Hen ce, o ne could be for ced
. ' in to
Ass u mplio ns includ e 10 í t lo ng tubes. 2 by 0.120 m ., 0.075 111 selectin g better g rade ma tc rial s (al hig hcr cost) for thc tubcs
. a nd
thick so lid fins. 22 tu bcs ~r ro w, squarc pitch of 4 in ., 22 s ~eams fins by u s ing a high fin densi ty desig n, par ticularl y in supcrh
and ea te rs
cOlln lerflo \\' a r ra nge men l, and fouling Iactors of 0.001 hr ít F/Btu w ith h igher s tca rn ternpc rat u re requi rcment s.
on
bo th the ga s a nd s tearn sidcs .
Tabl e A-ID
Tablc A-9 Effect of fin ge omctry on sup erh ca tcr perform ance
Dala for HRSG s u pcrh calcr design
r ~::ie 1 Case 2 Case 3 Case 4
Gas lIow, pph 200,00 0
Gas inlet temperature , F 1,200 Duty, MMBlu h 14 .14 14.18 17.4 3 17 .39
Gas analysis. % by voíurne Leaving steam ternperatur e. F 689 691 74 7 747
Carbón dio xide 7 Gas pressure drop, in. WG 0.65 1.20 1.15 1.37
Water 12 Leaving gas temperature, F 951 95 0 893 892
Nitroge n 75 Fins per in . 2 5 2.5 4
Oxyge n 6 Fin height, in . 0.50 0.75 0.75 0.75
Steam f1ow, pph 100 ,000 Fin thickne ss, in. 0.075 0.075 0.075 0.075
Entering steam temperature , F 491 Surtace area, sq ft 2471 5342 5077 6549
Leaving steam pressure , psig 600 Max tube walltem peratur e , F 836 908 905 931
Fin tip temperature , F 949 1033 1064 1057
Overall heat transíer coefficient ,
Table A-lO sho ws the resulls of ca lcu la lio ns for four cases, two Btu per sq ft-hr -F 11.79 5.50 8.04 6.23
al eac h o f th c 1\\'0 d csired d uties . The foll o wi ng fac ts ca n be in Tube side pressure drop , psi
ferr cd 9.0 6.5 11.0 9.0
from Table A-lO . Number 01 rows deep 6 4 7 6
1) The energy lransfe rred is the sa rne for both the 2 a nd 5 fin per Fin efficiency, percent 79 70 .8 63 68
in . design s (Cases 1 and 2).
2) Becaus e of the higher heat lransfe r coeffici enl of 11.79 versus
5.5, howev er, the surface arca for Case 2 is nearly 2.16 limes that As a genera l rule, the Iower the tube side coeffic ienl (as in
for
Case 1. This c\early shows that thr~lIgh poor fin geomet ry, one
ca~ superh ealers or air heaters ), the lower the ratio of externa
] lo
ha ve excessi ve surface area and still transfe r the same amoun interna l surface area should be. By calcula ling the heat lransfe
l o r ,,
energy as a well designe d configu ralion with a much low~r coeffic ienl based on inside tube diarnet er, one can easily show
su.rface that a ,, <
a rca. Also, the higher fin density combin ation results Jl1 high ratio of exlerna l lo interna l surface area does not improv
hlgher e
operati ng costs. The same conc\us ion is drawn by compa ring Cases perform ance.
3
and 4 and Cases 2 and 3. In Case 3 there is less surface area but Superh eaters using more than 3 fins per in. do not contríb ute lo
more
energy is transfe rred than in Case 2! improv ed duty and have lo be looked al careful ly. Also, they
. . , can be
3) The tu be wall and fin tip lemper atures are SlgmfJ cantly counte r-prod uctíve , leading to higher tube waJl and fin
tip
higher for th e higher fin density . In Case 1, the ru b temper atures or gas pressur e drops.
e wal1
 3 \Vas te Hcat Bo ilcr o..'Skbook Appendl x A - Extended Surfa ce Hcat Tran sfer 301

Thc au tho r's a d vice lo potcnrial users of fin ned su rface is: Don 'j
e va lua re a ny fin ncd s u rfacc ba sed o n s u rfacc a rc a al o ng; lry lo
u nderst an d th c cffcc t o f fin co nfig u ra l io n o n h c a t lransfer ' D 1.1S 1.2S

coeff ícic nts, gas press ure d ro ps, a nd met al tempcratures.

S URFACE AR EA or FINNE D TU BES

Finned tub os ar e widc ly used in boil e rs, ec on omizers,

s u pc r hca te rs and o thc r h c at -tran s fer d e vi ces . Estirna tin g their
s u rfa ce arca involves so lv ing thc following cornplcx equati on .

(Soli d Fins]:

> >
A= 7m
2
[4dh + 4h + 2bd + 4bh ] + (rrd) ( I-nb)
(A- 28)
A ,IIl J I'h
-.-.,..,..•
24 12

This n o m og ra p h can be uscd lo est íma te tube s urface area in

Nomenclotla' e
ft 21ft. It cove rs the mos t common configurations in boiler plan ts: A s..faoo .... ol -....t tubo. ~ 'Il\ Clndudinc ..... ol
T ubes of 1.25 in. 0 .0. to 4.0 in. 0 .0., fin heigh ts of 0.5 in . to 1.0 in., '""..,¡ .... ~)

and fin densities of 1 to 6 fin s/ in. • • 1'10.-, ...

1\Ibe -.la' ~. in.
1 rio .........
For quick estimares . th e cffect of fin thickness on surface are a • 1'10 4Noilr. 600.....
can be neglected. For examplc. the surface area of a 2.0 in. tube with 3

~~.
fin s/in., where each fin is 0.75 in. h ig h and 0.102 in . th ick, is 3.88
ft 2/f t, wherea s for th e sarne configuration b u t wi th fins 0.036 in,
thick, the area is 3.81 ft 21ft.
T
Example A-7: I - - -
j
Estimate th e su rface area o f a finned tube w ith an 0 .0. of 2.0
in . and a fin d ensi ty o f 3 fin s/in., where th e fin s a re 0.75 in. high and
CJ - - - ~
0.05 in. thick.

I
Figure A-S. Chart lar
estimaling surface area . 1
So lution: [Chemica l Engineering]
I

·1
The line on th e nomograph i1lustrat es th e s te ps. Start at o = 3
o n the right horizontal ax is . Draw a ver tical line up to the h =
,
.
I 0.75in. line, th en a h ori zontal lin e left lo th e d = 2.0 in . lin eo From
th ere, draw a vertical line down lo the left horizontal axis lo find
that A = 3 .85 fl 2/ ft.
 Wast e Heat Boiler Deskboo k Appendi x A - Extended Surface Heat Tran sfer 303
302

FI WEI GHT E5TI MATI O

To evaluat e struetu ral a nd hand ling problerns. fin w eig h t must

be kno w n . While rab lc s a re a va i lab le for figurin g weig h t
of bare
tu b cs, tabl es are not rcadil y avail.lb le for finned tu bos beca usc
of he
severa! variabl es in vo lve d in thc es ti ma tion of fin weigh t, namely
th e fin d c nsity, tu be oute r d ia mct er . fin th iekness , e te . W
ith the
.~
~.
.t
enclose d cha rt, howc vcr , o nc ca n rapidl y d e termine th e fin T-
weig h l <.
fo r eo m mon ly usc d fin eo n figura tio ns in ind us tr ia l h eat
tr a nsfc r
equipm ent.
O f cou rsc, to de term ine thc tota l w eight o f the tu be o r pipe, one
rn u s t ad d th e fin wei ght ro th c barc tube w e ight. Thc eha r t
is based
on thc fom1 u la for so lid fins o f ca rb ón steel give n below:

w = 10.68 x (O + H ) (H + 0.03) NB (A -29)

wh er e
B= fin th ick ness, in .
O = ou tside di amet e r o f tu bc o r p ipe, in.
H = fin h eigh t, in . (see d ra w ing on chart)
N = fin d en sity, fins pe r in .

Examp le A-S:
A 3 in. sch edule 40 pipe is used in a Iired heat cr fo r reco ve rin g
energy from fIue gases. If fin dcnsi ty is 4 fins per in ., fin hei gh
t is 0.75
i n., a nd fin th iek ness is 0.06 in ., d e termi ne th e fin weig h t
if fins are
of ca rbón s tee l.

Solutio n:
C o up from O = 3.5 (o u te r diamet er of a 3 in . pipe) to eut H
=
0.75 . Mo ve left to eut N = 4 fins per in. and move clown to
eut fin
thickne ss at 0.06 in. Mo ve r ight to cut fin w eight seale at 8.5 lb
per ft.
MuItip lication fact ors for other fin materia ls are given in the
table within the chart. lf fins were made from 316 stainle
ss steel,
the fin w eight w ould h a ve been 1.024 x 85 = 8.7 lb per ft.
The w ei gh t o f bare 3 in. schedu le 40 p ipe is 7.5 8 lb per ft, and
hence th e total weight of the finned pipe is 7.58 + 8.5 = 16 .08
lb per
fL
 30t Was le Hea l Boile r Ocskbook Appcnd íx A - Exte nded Surface Hcat Transfcr 305

IMPORTANT CONCLUSIONS d - tu be OD, in .

11 - gas viscosi ty, Lb/ fl h
Severa l impor tanl aspcc ts of Iinned tu bcs were discussed in this E - fin efficiency, Iraction
Ap pend ix: Th ey are s u rnm a rized bel ow for co nven ience . F, F¡ - fac to rs acc ou n ling for gas pro pert íes
1. More s u r face a rc a d o cs n ot n eccssnr ily m ean m ore energy f - facto r dcfi ne d in ga s p ressu rc d rop eq ua tio n
tr ans fer. So d o n 't purch a se a bo iler o r finned equ ipmen t a ssu m ing ffj, ffo - fo uli ng facto r, insidc and ou tside, sq ft h F /B tu
th al it wi ll d o be tter simply bec a use it h a s m ore s u rface area . G - g as rnass ve locity, Lb/sq fl h
Th e spread sheet approach lo p u rchasing s ho u ld be a vo id ed h - fin heigh t, in .
even lh o ugh the d iffe ren ce in surface a reas could be 100 lo 200 %. Fin hi - tu be s ide hea t lra nsfer coefficien t, Btu / sq fl h F
co nfi g ura tion affec ts U s ig n ifica n lly and o ne s h o uld lo o k a l the he, h g - convective gas hea t tra nsfer coefficien t, Blu/sq ft h F
product of U x S a nd not a l S a lo ne. One can lra nsfer m o re e ne rg y w ith h n - non-lurn ínous hea t lr ansfe r coeffici en l, Btu Zsq ft h F
les se r s u rface area a s sho w n in the exa rn p les . h o - tot a l o u tside 'ieat tra nsfer coe fficie n t, Btu / sq ft h F
2. Lo w er th e tu be s ide coefficien t, a s in s u p erhea te rs o r ai r k - gas therrnal co ndu ctívi ty, Btu/ fl h F
h ea ters lower shou ld be th e rat io o f ex te r na l lo in ternal su r face a r-a. K - tu b e o r fin m et a l the rrna l conducli v ity, Btu /fl h F
Tha t is, d on 't use the sa rne high d ensi ty fin configura lion Io r a n L - tu be length, ft
evapora tor as we ll as fo r the su pe rhea ter. m - fact or d efined in eq ua tio n (A -ll )
It s ho u ld be m uch lowe r fo r the su pe rhea te r. Else, the tu be wall n -fin d en sity, fins/in .
a nd fin ti p tern perat u re would be h igher a s also the gas pre ssu re N w, N d - nurnber of tubes w ide an d deep
d ro p . ó Pg - gas pressure drop, in. wc
3. S la gge red a r range me n l resul ts in lesse r s u r face area q - hea t flu x, Btu/sq ft h; s ubsc ript i sta nds for in sid e a nd o fo r
req u ir ements for the sa m e energy tra nsfe r a nd sa me p ressu re drop. ou tside.
H owever th e im pacl on lig ament o r o the r rnech anical conside ra tions Re - Reyno ld s number
sho u ld be looked into, 5- Su rface area, sq ft
4. Insid e fouling factor affec ts the performance m ore th a n th e s - fin spacing, in .
o u tsi de foul in g factor; th e e ffec ts are similar lo a low tube s ide St - tr ans verse pitch o f tubes, in .
coeffic ie n t situatio n. The tu be wa ll and fin tip tempera tures a re also 51 - lo ng ilu d in a l pi tch , in .
in fluenced . óT - log- m ea n tem peratura di fference, F
ti, tb, tE- temperatura of fluid, wall and fin tip, F
's - a verage gas temperature, 1 and 2 refer lo inle t and ex it
NOMENCLATURE co n di t íons .
U- overa lI heat transfer co eff icient, Btu/sq ft h F- subscript o refer s
a- factor defined in gas pressure drop equation to outside and i to inside. "
A o , Al, A i - obstruclion area, lotal area, inside tube area, sq ft/ft W g - g a s flow, pph
Al - area of fin s, sq fl/fl ws - width of serration, in.
b - fin thickness, in . 1] - effec tiveness of fin s
Cl to C6 - facl o rs d efined in Ta b le A- l Jl - visco sity of gas, Lb/ft h
Cp - gas specific heat, Btu/Lb F Pg - ga s density, Ib/cu ft
 wa ste Heat Boiler Deskbook
306
REFERENCES
l. Escoa fin tube m anual, published by Escoa Corp. Tul sa , 1979
2. V. Canapa thy, "Ap p lied hea t tra nsfcr ." Pennwell Book s, Tulsa,
USA
3 . V. Ga na p a thy, "H RSG hea t tra ns fer," Hearing, Piping, Air-
co nd itio ning, March 90, Pg 99 . Corrosion
4 . V. Ga n a p a thy ," U n d e rs ta nd i ng a nd eva lu a ll ng ex te nded
s u rfaces," paper presented a t th e 12th Na tio nal Indu str ial Ene rgy
Technology co nfercnce, [une 20, 1990, Houston, Texas. "
5. V. Cana pa thy, "H o w fin co n fig ura tion affec ts heat tr a nsfc r,
Chemical Eng inee ring . March 90, Pg 147 . "
6 . V Gan apathy, "Cha r ts simplify sp ira l finn ed tube ca lcu la tions.
C he m ica l Eng inee ring, April 25, 1977
7. V. Ca na pa thy, "Cha rts help eva luate finned tub e alte rna ' ves,"
O il and Gas [ournal , Dec 3,1 979
8 . V. Ga n a p a th y , "Es tim a te s u r face area of finned tubes,"
Chemical Engineering, May 27, 1985, Pg 156
9. V. Ganapathy, "C ha r t s pecds up fin w ei ght cstimation,"
H eating, Piping, Air-conditioning, March 1988, Pg 107
Appe ndix B
Low Tem peratu re
I . Ch a pt er 1 we d iscussed two main a reas of concern in wa s te
heat boiler d esign, namely tho se due to high a nd low temperature
corrosi on . Hi gh temperature corros ion concerns as di scussed in
Chap te r 1 m ay be allev iated by use of pro per mat e ria ls a nd design
and by keeping th e tube su rfaces clea n so as to pre vent the format ion
o f d epo sits of salt s responsible for corrosion.
Low ternperature corrosion probl erns may be found in boil ers a t
th e co ld end, in equipment suc h as econornizers wat er heat er s, and air
heat ers. Th ey are caused by th e cond en sation o f co rros ive acid s on
th e su rfaces of th e tubes or du ct work whi ch o pe ra te below th e aci d
d e w poi n t. A few w id ely used method s of d ealin g w ith th is prob le m
w ill be addressed in th is section.
CA USES AND CURES
Whenever fossil fue ls containi ng su lfur are fircd in heaters or
boilers, sulfu r dioxide, and to a small extent sulfur trioxide, are
formed in addition to COZ and water vapor. The 503 combines with
water vapor in the f1ue gas to form sulfuric acid and condenses on
heat transfer surfaces, which could lead to corrosion and destruction
of the surfaces. This condensation occurs on surfaces that are at or
below the dew point of the acid gas.
Also when cooled below the water vapor dew po ínt, CÜ2 can
combine with water vapor to form carbonic a cid , which though
weak, can attack mild steel.
While thermal efficiency of the equipment is increased with
reduction in exit gas temperature (or enthalpy), lower temperatures
 3~ Was te Hea t Boiler Desk boo k Appendix B - Low Tempcraturo Corrosion
309

th a n the ac id ga s de w p oint a re not advisablc fo r met al lic su rfa ces in 170 ,...-- -- -- - - ~

contact wi th thc gas .

In munic ipa l salid wa stc fired pla n ts, in ad d ition to s.ulfur.ic
6
acid , on e h a s lo d ea l wi t h hyd roch lori c and hydro b rorni c acid
form at ion .
T his a rticle dca ls wi th mc thods for solv ing cold , o r back end
co rrosio n as it is ca lled, wi th th c mos t com mo nly u sed hea l reco very 8
eq uiprne n t, na m ely eco nomize rs o r wat e r heat ers. Th ese ar e used lo
9
p re hea l feed w ater en te ring th e sy s tcm (Figure ~- l) and o ~~ r~ lc al $
lo w m e tal te m pc ra turcs, ther cby incrcasi ng thc ir s uscep ~ l bJ1l.ty to 10 9-
r
co rros ion by sul fur ic, hydrochl ori c. hyd rob romic and carbon ic acid. 11 e,
Example
P so , = 32 ppm 12
PM¡o = 10% 13
Top = 150 · C 14
15
t Econ orruzer 16
17
18
Deaerator
19
c....- ------- --.J 20

Figur e B-2. Dew Poin t oi su1furic acid as a fu nction o! partial pr es sur e Df S0:3 and
Gas wa ter vapor. [Hydrocarbon ProcessingJ

Feed water To co mp ute the su lfuric ac id de w poin t, on e shou ld kno w th e

Evaporator
arno unt of 50 3 in the flu e gases. The fo rrna tíon of 50 3 is prima r ily
d erived from two so u rces .

Figure B-l. Econornizer in a heat recovery boiler sys tem.

Estimating th e dew p oint of these acid ga ses is the starting
point in understanding the problem of back end corrosio~. Table ~1
gives th e d ew point s of the va rio us acid gase s as a function of their
partial pressures in th e flu e gas. Figure B-2 gi ves the dew point for
s u lf uric acid . .
As an example consider a typical glu e gas ha ving the followmg
a n a lys is : . 'ib
CO = 8%, H20 = 12%, N2 = 73%, 502 = 0.02%, HCL = 0.015 ,
02 = 6%, HBR = 0.01%, all by volu~e._ _
1. Re action of 502 w íth a to mic oxygen in th e flame zone. It
de pe nds o n th e excess ai r used a nd the sulfur content.
2. Catal ytí c oxidati on of 502 with the oxides of vanadium and
iro n, which are formed from the va na d ium in the fuel oil .
.,l
It is w id ely ag re ed tha t 1 lo 5 % of 502 conver ts lo 50 3. Hence
lhe % volume in o ur case wo uld be 4 p pm, assumi ng a 2% con ve rsio n.
Using th ese num bers and a fte r proper co nv ersio n and
su bs ti tu tio n in th e equations in Tabl e B-l, we ha ve : d ew point of
sulfuric acid = 267°F, dew point of hydroch loric acid = 128°F, d e w
poínr of hydrobromic a cid = 134°F and dew point of wat er vapar =
121°F.
 310 Wa ste H eat Boil er Des k book Appendi x !l - Low Tempera ture Corrosio n 311

be notcd als o that th c m áximum co rrosion rat e occurs al a

tcmperature mu ch below the dew poin t (Figure B-3).
HCI, HBr, HNO, and SO, correlation s were derived Irom va-
por-liquid equilibrium dat a.' The H,SO. cor relat ion is trorn reí -
erence 5.
Hydrob romic acid: Pe ak CO((0510n
l,OOOIToP 3.5639 - 0 .13 50 In (p" ,o) -
2

0.0398 In (p" ",) + 0 .00235 In (p" ,o) 1n (p" ",)

Hydroc hloric acid : c:
l ,OOOIT"" = 3.7368 - 0 .1591 In (p",o) - °¡;;
e
Dew po rnt
0.0326 In (PHO ) + 0 .00269 In (p" ,o) In (PHO) (; I
Nitric acid: o I
1 ,0001Top = 3.6614 - 0 .1446 In (p",o) -
0.0827 In (P"NO,) + 0.00756 In (PH,o) In (PHNO , )
Sulfurous acid :
100 110 120 130
1 ,0001Top = 3.952 6 - 0 .1863 In (PH o) +
0.000867 In (Pso, ) - 0 .0009 13 j n (PH,o) In (Pso,} Wall temperature, -c
Sulluric acid :
1 ,0001Top = 2.276 - 0 .02 94 In (p" ,o) - Fi gure !l-3. Corrosion rat e as a l unetion 01 waU tcmperature (Hydrocarbon processing l
0 .085 8 In (PH, sO.) + 0.00 62 In (p ",o ) In (PH,so.)
Where : ToP is dew point temperature (1<) and P is part ial preso
sure (mmHg).
Compa red with publi shed data , the predicted dew points are
Steam tor preneatmq
within about 6K 01 actual values Axcept lor I , SO. which is
within about 9K.
To process Feed w ater

Tabl e B-l. Dew points 01 acid gases.

I i [ E c onomizel
He nce, it is apparent the lim iting d ew point ís th at d ue to
sulfu ric ac id and any hea t tran sfer surface sho uld be ab oy e this Condensa le
ternper atur e (267°F) if condensati on is lo be avo ided. To drum
There is a misconception even among experienced eng ineers that
the gas ternperature d ictat es the metal temperature of surfaces such
as economizers. It is not so . To exp lain this, an example will be
worked lo show the metal ternperature of an economizer with two
differenl gas temperatures. Figure B - 8 sho ws this calcula tion.
It can be seen that the water side coefficient is so high that the Figure B-4. Stearn lo water exchanger preheals leed water. !•

tube wall temperature runs very close to the water ternperature in

'lt
spite of a large difference in gas temperatures. Thu s, the tub e wal1
temperature wiII be close to the water ternperature and the water
temperature fixes the wall temperature and hence, the dew point. j,
Methods oi dealing with cold end corrosion: ."
,¡
Sorne engineers think that by increasing the flue gas
tempera tu re the economizer corrosion can be solved; not so! It shouId Basically there are two approaches used by engineers to combat
the probl em of cold end corrosion:
 3 12 Waste Hca t Boilcr Deskbooj, Appe nd ix B - Low Temperature Corrosion
313

A. Avoid it by usi ng p ro tcc tive mcas u res such as main ta in ing a eCO n?~1~~e r. .O ne ben efit, ho wevcr, fro m by p a ssing is tha t s tearning
high cold end tc rnpera turc so that cond cnsation o f any vapor d oes not possibilities In thc econornizc r are mini m ized .
occu r.
B. Pcr rnit condensation o f acid vapo r or both a cid and water
vapo r, th ercby incrca sin g thc du ty of the hcat transfe r s u r face. and Feed water
use co rrosio n resistan: rnatc rial s s uch as g lass, et c. Waler lO water
Economizer . [ heat e.changar
Methods of avoiding cold end corros ion:
1. Mai n ta in a rea so n a b ly h igh íced wa ter inlet te rn pc ra tu ro. If I
th e compuled dcw poin l is sa y 250°F, a feed water of 250°F should Gas
keep the mí ni mum lu be wall tcm pe ra tu re abovc the dew point. Wilh
fin ned hea t tr ans fer su rfaces, thc wa ll tcm pcra ture will be slightly Figur e 8·5. Water to wate r cxcha nge r p rehca ts feed wat er.
hi gher th an with bare tubcs .
Th e s irn p les t w ay w ould be lo o pera re th e d ea crat or at a
slig h tly hig he r p ress u re, if thc Iccd wa te r cn te rs th e econornizer Feed water
fro m a deae ra to r (Fig ure B-I). A l 5 psig the satura t ío » ' 5 228°F and
at 10 psig it is 240°F. Eccnomtzer

2. In ca se th e deae rator n rcssu re ca n no t be rai sed , a heat

excha nge r ma y be u sed ahcad o f th e econornizer (Fig ure B-4) lo
To drum
in crea se the feed w ater ternperature. It may be s tea rn o r wa te r
hea led .
3. Figure B-s sho w s a m ethod for using an exc ha nge r to pre-h eat Recirculating pump
th e wa te r . The same amoun l of wa te r from the eco no m izer ex it
preheat s th e incomin g water. By conlrolling th e flow of the hot ter
Figure B-6. Recirculation pump mixes hot wat er with feed water.
w a te r, o ne can adju st th e wat er ternperature to th e economizer so
thal a bal ance be tween corrosion cri te rio n a n d eff icie ncy of opera tion
ca n be main lained.
4. Hot water from either the economizer exit o r th e stearn drurn Feed
water
(Figure B-6) can be recirculated and mixed with the incoming water.
The economizer has to handle a higher flow, but the exchanger is
elirninated and a pump is added.
Note that some engineers have the rnisconception that by-
passing a portion of the economizer (Figure B-7) would solve the
1~I~EconomlZa' 2 i~~UE~conomizer 2
"
1
problem; not so . While bypassing, the heat transfer surface reduces
TO drum Todrum
the du ty on the economizer and increases the exit gas temperature; it A B
does not help to increase the wall temperalure of the tubes, which is
the most importanl variable. A higher exit gas lemperature :igu re B-7" .Bypass arrang ement f oc econom ize r. In "B" eco I is by-pa ssed. Th is
probably helps the down stream ductwork and equipment, but not th~ mercases exit gas temperature and a voíd s steaming but does nol sa lve d
corrosió n in eco 2.
. t
e w poln
'r - ::--
 314 Waste Hcat Bo ilcr Dcsk booj, Ap pc ndi x B - Low Tcmpcra tur e Corrosion 315

I'enn itting condensation on surfaccs: T he ab o ye mat e ria l o u tline the im porta nce of the de w poin l of
By usi ng proper rnat erials onc ca n prot ect th e hcating surfaces acid ga s an d rnethod s ío r d ea lin g with the pro blem of co ndensa tion
from co rros io n a ttac k.if condensa tio n is likely . Thi s concept ha s now o n healing sur faees suc h as eco nomi zer s. Sim ila r rnct hod s cou ld be
been ex te nd ed lo rcco vcring the sens ible a nd lat ent he a t from the u sed for air heaters, The basic d iffcre ncc lies in the fa et that the
flu e gases, th ereby increas ing th e thermal efficic ncy of th e sy stem ba ek end tern p eraturc is a Iu nct ion of both the gas a nd a i r
by scvcra l percen tage point s in what a re ca llcd cond ensing heat tern pera tures. Steam a ir heating or a ir bypassing have been u sed o
cxc hange rs. cornba t the problern of eorrosion. Replaccabl e matrices and eorro si on
If flue ga se s contain sa y 10% by volurne w at er va po r, by resistant rnat eri al s su eh as c narncl s ha ve becn used al the eo ld end of
eondensing evcn half of it, approxirnatcly 30 Blu /lb of flue gas can be reg en era tiv e a ir heat ers.
reco vc re d . Thi s is nc arl y c q u iva le n t to a 120°F drop in gas
ternperature if se nsi b le heat a lone is lransferred .
A large amoun t of sensible and lat ent heat in the flu e gas can be The average wall temperal ure 01abare tube economizer is
given by the simple equat ion:
reco vc rcd if thc gas is eo ol ed bclow the wate r dcw po in t. This t. = 0 .5(t, + tg - U(to - t,) (lIh . - lIh ,)J
irnpli es that sulfuric acid , if prescnt in the gas strearn, will cond en se Where :
on th e heat trans fe r su rfa ces as its d ew point is rnu ch higher than b, = heat transt er coefticient inside tubes, Blu/
ft 2 h ° F
that of water vapor. h. = heat transter coellicient outside tubes, Btu/
Borosi liea te gla ss and teflon coa tcd tubes have becn wid ely ft 2 h °F
used as hea l tra nsfer surfaccs for this se rvice. Glass is suitable for t, = temperature 01 water inside lubes , e F
tg = temperature 01 gas outside tubes , °F
low pressures and te rnpe ra tu res (less than 450°F and 20 to 100 psig). t•. = average tube wall temperature , °F
However, prescn ce of fluo rid es and alkalis is ha r mful to th e glass U = overall heat transte r coetfic ient. Btu/ft'h °F
llU = l/h, + l/h• • neglecling fouling and metal re-
tu bes, sistance , which are much smaller.
One manufaeturer of eondensing heal exehangers uses teflon Typ ica lly tt, = 1,000 , h. = 15 and hence U = 14.77
eoated tubes. A th in f m (abou t 0.015 in .) is extruded onto ca rbón or Case 1: Dete rmine t. when to = 750°F and t, = 250 ·F
a lloy s lee l tubes, and th e s urfaee is resistant to eorrosion of sulfu rie t. = 0 .5 [250 + 750 - 14.77 (750 - 250)
(0.066 - O.OOl)J = 260°F
aeid. Finned tubes can not be used as teflon cannot be extruded on to
Case 2: tg = 350 °F, t, = 250°F
th ese s u rfaees. He nce, these exehangers wil l be larger than those t. = 0 .5 [250 + 350 - 14.77 (350 - 250)
with e xte nd ed su rfaces, h o w e ver , th e higher heat tr an sfer rat es (0.066 - 0 .001)] = 252°F
wi th eo n de nsa tio n p rocess, irnpro ves the overa ll h eat transfer Thu s, tor a varial ion 01400° F gas temperature, the tuba wall
temperature hardly changes by S°f. Thus , the water ternpera-
eoeffieie n ts and partly co m pensa tes for th e lo wer su rfaee a rea per ture li xes the lube wall temperature.
linear foot of bare tubes.
The high initial inves tme n t ass ocia ted with eondensi ng heat Figure 8-8. Determ in ing tube wa ll temperalure of economizer .
[Hydrocarbon ProCtssingl
exeha ngers ha s to be earefully rev iewed a lo ng with the energy
reeo vered, fuel eos ts, e tc . If th e fue l eost is not h igh, th en the
paybaek period for th is typc of eq ui pme n t may be long .
CORROSION IN STACKS, ovcrs
Ma te rials sueh as east iron an d s tainless steels p roba bly ha ve
better eorrosion resistanee than earbon s teel, but still they a re not
If a boiler staek or duetwork leading to the staek is uninsulated
eorrosion proof. It is also felt by some that the higher th iekness oC
th en the a verage w all temperature wi ll be lo wer than the gas
ea st iro n is responsibl e for th e longer life.
 3 16 Wa st e Hca t Boil er Dcskbook Appcnd íx B - Lo", Temperarure Co rrosion 317

tcrn p crature du c lo the 10 55 of hcat from th e casing, whieh d e pcnds

u po n the amb ient con d itions and thc wind vc locity . Insulation
A l lower loads th c gas cxi t tcmperature fr orn bo ile rs wi ll be
lo w c r a nd hcnce the p ro b lern be comes m or e acu le. By ad d ing ext erna!
ín s u la tio n . thc hcat 10 5 5 ca n be minimized and the sta ck wall
tcrnperaturc ca n be main tai ncd close lo th e g as te rn p erature . The
foll o w ing m ethod o log y illu stratcs th c p rocedure lo compu te th e wall
tcmpcrature o f s tae k o r d ue t.
Stac ks, duc ts and sc rubbcrs a re d esigned so th at th e in sid e wall
tc m p cr ature a lways rcrna ins abovc th c d ewpoinl o f any a cid vapo rs
pa ss ing lh ro ugh these uni ts. T his is bcca use th e co ndensed ae id s will ,
I
,,
a ttac k many m at erial s oí co ns truc tio n, whi eh w ould r eq u ire the Stack or duct wall
cquiprnent lo be rnad e frorn co stly all oys, ceramics o r pla stics.
Desi gning eq uip mc n t lo avoid condensation req u ires es tirnating Figure B-9. Tcmperat urc profiJ e in ducts, stacks .
th e in s id e-w all a n d s tac k ternperatures (the latter being thc
ternperature o f th e gas cx i ti ng th e s ta ck), and any heat losses
rhrou gh th ese walls, whe the r th ey are in sulated or not , Generally, uihere: C = (CP/J1)0.4/~.6 (8-4 )
e ng inee rs u se ru lc -o f-thurnb estimares for these temperatures.
H owc vcr, su ch g uesses are so rnc tirnes inaccurate and a s a result, The du ct-wall tem per ature drop is g íve n by :
st ruc tures a re built tha t suffer necdless aci d eo rrosion.
Here is a sim ple mcthod lo calcu la re these tem perat u res, as t wj - l ioo = Qdoln(do/d¡/24K m ( B-5 )
w ell a s th e heat losses, ba sed pa rtly on sorne eq uations previous ly
d evel o ped by th e au tho r. Th e tern perature d ro p aeross th e in sulation is:

D eri ving th e equations: t wo - te = QL/K¡ (B-6)

The figure sho ws a ty pical tcm perature p ro file in a wall that The effeel of curvatu re [th e hea t- tra nsfer surfaees are curved,
is insu lated . The heat loss is g ive n by: si nee they are pa rt of a eylind riea l shape ] is neglected , sinee du cts.
stacks another sueh s tructures a re gene ra lly large in dia meter,
Q = 0.173 x lO-s E(Té - Ta4) + .296(Trf1) Ta)l .25[( V + 69/69)J05 (8- J) The to ta l heat Joss from the due t (or staek o r ot he r sueh
st ructure) is:
The tem pera ture d rop ae ross the gas film is:
Ql= 1td o HQ/12 = 3.14 doHQ/12 (B -7)
tg - tw j = Q(do/d¡)/h (8-2)
"
The tem p erature of the exiting gas is:
where th e gas-fil m heat- tra nsfer eoeffieien l is given by
tg 2 = tg l -.Qe/WCp (8 -8)
h = 2.44 ~.S C/d jl .8 (8-3)

3 18 Wa ste Hca t Boiler Deskbook
Solut ion rnethod:
'1'0 so lve the abovc cqua tions :
l. Ass urne a g as-exit te mpcra tu re, I g2 and calcu lare th e average
ga s tcmperaturc, Ig = 0.50 g 1 + Ig2) (B -9)
2. Assume an in s u la tio n -ca sing tcrnpcra ture, Ic.
3. Calcula te Q, the hca t 10 55, lIsing Equation (B-1).
4 . Calcula le h , t hc film co e ff ic ie n l, a nd th e v a r iou s
tern pc rat urc dro ps, u sing Equalions (B-3), (B-2) and (B-4) - (B-6).
5. Assurnc a va lue of the ca sing te rnpcra tu re, Ic.
6. Sel tolera nce fo r th e diffcrence between th e assurned and
ca lculated valucs o f le- A differencc of between 1-2°F w ill u suall y be
acc ura te enough. If the toler an ce is cxceedcd, repeat Steps 2-5 .
7 . Calculare th e total heat 10 55 Irorn Equation (B -7) and th e
ex it-gas tcrn pcrature, tg 2, via Eouation (B-8)
8. If th e ca lcu la ted a nd ass u rnc d va lues o f tg2 are not with ín the
tol eran ce , re p eat th e p ro cess, s la r ting fro m Ste p 1; o the r w ise, the
calcu latio ns a re fin is hed .
Alt ho ug h thi s method m ay scern ted iou s, th e calculal ion s are
eas ity d on e o n a sci enlific calcul a tor, and th e ass u rne d a nd
calculated values quickly conve rg e lo within a reasonably accuracy.
A few trial s are all that is u sually n ceded. A cornputer program can
eas ily be created lo perforrn the cal culations: the author will supply
his ve rsio n upon requ est . To ill us lra le th e m ethod , here is a n
cxa rnple :
Example 1; Insulaled stack:
Flue gases al 110,000 Ib/h and 423 °F enter a 48-in.-I.D. stack,
50 ft long and 1 in. thick. If the arnbient ternperature is 67°F and the
wind velocity is 125fl/min, determine the wall and casing
temperatures if the stack is covered with 2 in. of mineral-fiber
insulalion.
For f1ue gases al 420°F, Cp = 0.266 Bluj(lb)(OF), )1 = 0.058
Ibf(ftJ(h), and k = 0.023 Bluf(ftJf(h>WFJ. The gas temperature drop
in lhe insulaled slack/ducls is relalively low, typically 2-s oF. Thus,
assume lhat lhe exil-gas lemperalure is 420 °F:
1. Assume lhat the casing tempcralure is 90°F. Then: Q = 0.173 x
0 .9(5 .5 4 - 5.274 ) + 0.296(550-527)1.25[(125 + 69)J69]0.5 =47.3
.
Appcnd íx D- Low Tcm po ratu re Corrosion 319
Btll/(ft 2 )(h), and h = 2.44 x 11 0,000°.8(0.266/.058)°.40 .023°.6/481.8 =
4.74 Blu f(f t 2)(h)(°F).
2. Thc therrnal co nd uc tivity o f th e Iiber (frorn manu íac tu rc's
tables) is 0.30 and 0.42 BIII-ín .f(f I2)/(h) f( °F) al 200 a nd 400°F,
rcspectively. Al 250°F, the va lu e is 0.33 .
3. T he ternpe ratu rc dro p across the ins u la tion = 47.3 x 2/0.33 =
287 °F. The av erag e in sulation ternperature is 232°F. For the next
tri al , th e th errnal co n d uc liv ity h a s to b e es tirn at ed a l thi s
tcmperature.
4.51ack-wall tc m p eratu rc drop = 47.3 x 50 In(50/4S)j24 x 25 =
0.16°F. 'o le: A thcrm a l co ndu ctivi ty of 25 Bluf(ft )(h)( °F) is us ed for
carb ón s tecl.
5. Ga s film drop = 47.3 x (50/48)/4.74 = 10.4°F.
6. Thu s, th e corrcct ed ca sing ternpcratu re = 422-1 0.4-0 .16- 287 =
124°F. Since 124°F is h igher th an th e a ssurnod valu e o f 90°F, a no ther
itc ration rnu s t be tried . It can be s how n that ass uming a value of 92 °F
g ives good results, Using thi s valu e Q = 52.5 Bluf(fI2)(h)
7.T he total h eat lo ss = 3. 14 x 50 x 52.5 x 50/12 = 34,300 Biulh.
8. Th e gas ternperature-drop in th e du ct = 34,300/110,000/0.266
= l. rF. The final re sults: Tempera tu re drops: gas-film = 11.5°F, duci-
wall = 0.2 °F, and insulati on = 31 ¡OF.
Example B-2:
Le t u s now check the s tac k wa ll te m perature if no ins ula tion is
used.
Solution:
1. Let the gas ternperature drop = 20°F; as the heat lo ss is
higher, the gas ternperature drop will al so be higher. The average
gas lemperalure is = 413 °F.
2. Let the casing ternperature = 250 °F. This will be checked and ,,
corrected laler.
3. Heat 1055 from lhe casing is: Q = .173 x .9 x l7.1 L 5.2741 + .296
x (710-527)1.25 x [(125 + 69)/6910.5 =610 Blu/sq fl h.
4. Temperature drop across gas film = 610/4.74 = 129°F.
5. Temperalure drop across lhe slack wall = .0034 x 610 = 2 °F.
6. Hence Iwo = 413-129-2 = 282 °F versus 250°F assumed. Hence
anolher round of iteration is required.
i -" -
 320 Wa ste Hea t Boi ler Deskboo], Appendíx B - Low Tcmperarure Corrosi on 321

It may be show n that a wa ll ternperature of 266°F bala nces the

equa tions. Hea t 10 55 = 679 Btu/sq ft h. S CLS :K.I:r orr : Cl.E AR
6 DIJ1 A ( 6 4 } ,A S (l 5 ) , L ( 1 5 )
The gas ternperature d rop =3.14 x 50 x 679 x 50/(l1()(){)() x .265) = 7 t- O:OO " O
lO PR I HT-IH SlILATI ON PERroRXANCE-PROCAAH • . • FLAr SURT ACES OR P: FES · : PRI /'Ir " ..
15°F. This agrees with w ha t we assumed in st ep 1 a nd hence no 20 PRIH1"'Th l . proq-r a.ou Ca n h andl .. a n y numt>.r o( l .y.r .-lnfo n~.&tl cn on c oncc e e Lvt e
y 01 •• e h l ayer a t a n y two teme pwra t u r •• 1 . n••d ed - I PRZHT- ..
fur the r itera tion s are neces sar y . Since in sul a tion calcu la tion s J O IN PVT- ",A.H! OY PROJECT-DATE ( u p t o JO Ch ara ctera) - " JPR OJ S : PR Il"I-:-- ..

pa r ticu la rly those w i th m u lt iple Ja yers in vo lve ite rativo 40 IN PU'T-p lpe cc t e r d ia. In 1n e h-l o r tlat . u da c e input 0. - ¡OO : I r 00- 0 TtiE tl es. -
fht eurh ce "ELSE SS -" p ipe"
SO DO( l )-DO
ca lculatio ns, the au thor has d ev eloped a progr am to solve for the 60 PRINT "' "
heat 10 55 and the tem perature profil e ac ross multi-layer insulation. 70 ItlP UT"nulllber 01 l .yer .,hot fa c e tenlp , amb i e n t tec:ap , wind ve I
" ¡ p. A « 1 ) • H, V• .] r HF- A ( 1 )
in t p:a. e u r t fWlllaa -

This is prese nted in Figure B-lO, follo wed by tw o exarnples. SO PRINT " "'
90 PRltlT"Input In . ulatlon dat a . tartlnQ t r otr:. t h. hot . u r t a c v - t he nw. l c ondu ctl vlt.
y in BTU in/tt2 h "z PRINT " "'
10 0 POR 1 -1 1'0 P
11 0 INPUT"NaJIMlI(up t o l a ch ar ac tere),thlckn . . . -l n _" ,AS.L
120 AS ( I )-A S : L (I -l ) . L
HEAT -LOSS CALCULATIONS THROUGH lJO PRINT " •

MULTI-LA YERED INSULATION 14 0 I NPUT"tec:ap l,cond 1 , t emp 2 , c o nd 2-"OC(I),X(I), tI(I) .O(I)

I SO Ir 00-0 THEH A (l S + I ). L I COTO 170
1 6 0 ....( 15+1) - . S" LQG (00+2 "L) /DO) 100.DO+2 "L
1 7 0 A ( 45+1) - (X(l) -OC 1) ) / ( H(1) - He 1 » ) IA(JO+I) - X ( 1 ) - A( " 5+ 1 ) "1'C {I )
le o PRI HT· • : HEXT 1
The heat 10 55 from the casing of any sur face can be found from 19 0 A ( P+1 ).H+2 0 0 : C_" ( 1 )
2 00 Z-A ( P+ l ) - H
210 X-(O-A( P+ 1 )/P
Q = 0.173eCTa4) + 0.296 (t s_ ta )1.25 [(V + 69)/69¡0.5 220 W-. a l " ( A ( P+ l ) +460) I Y •• 01 " (H+ 460)
2J O Q- . 1 7 3-.]- (W"' 4-Y "'4 ) +9 3.6 - (W-Y) "1 . 2S "SQR( ( V+69) /69 J
~ :~ ~: . ~: ; ( ~O;H7 ) IQKAX- . 1 7 3 -. 9 · (XX " 04-Y" 4) +9 3 . 6- ( XX -Y) "l . 2S· ~R ( (V +69) /69 )
260 A ( P+l - I)-A ( P+2 - 1 )+X
2 7 0 T-. 5 - ( A(P +l-1 )+ A( P+2- 1» JG- A(J l+P-1) +A( 46 +P- I ) - T
This equa tion is obvious ly difficult to handle rnanually, but the 2S0 Ir 00· 0 TKEN 7""'- 1 ELSE rA. DO

Basic program presented here provid es a quick calculation of heat 290 R-A ( P+2 -1 ) ~ - 7A - A( l 6+ P-I) ic
300 I r ABS(R-A ( P+l- l ) ) <3 COTO 32 0
1055 from refractory or insulati on -lined pipes or flat surfaces. It also 300 Ir ABS ( R-A ( P+ I - I ) )<3 COTO 320
310 A ( P+ I - I )- . S * ( R+A ( P+ I - I » ) IGO'T'Q 270
ca lcu la res int ermediate ternperatures and casing outer tern per at ure. 320 HEXT 1
33 0 1l' o\.BS(A(1)-O)<3 COTO 360
The program can handJe any number of layers , with the hea t 34 0 r:. ,S·r:IA( P+l )-A (P+l) +SGH( O-A ( l » )_Z IGOT'O 210
3 50 PRINT· ..
105 5 between Jayers being given by 3 6 0 CLS
370 PRI N'T SrRINGS(SO,20S)
~ :~ ;:::: ~SULTS- I NS Ul.ATION PERrORXANCE- · ,8$ 1 PR1N'T·
Q = ¡jT/L (8- 10)
: ~~ ;=;~:.--:-. Pr oj ect : ., PROJ$

420 PRllfT·N~ t hick-ln Temp-7 TU<Pl

For flat surfaces, L is the ínsula tion or refractory thickness, For PRIHT- • COHDl =2
.foJO AS(P+l}.·C.... J.nq·
cylindricaJ surfaces, L = 0.50 0 ln(O o/Di), where Do = outer diameter .fo40 roR l-} ro P+l

of the Jayer and Di = inner diameter of the Jayer. 450 PRIN'T A$ (P+2-I), CSINC·'I"".I,· ,L ( P+} _ I J ,.\ (P +2-1) '"(P+2- 1 J ' l( r+ 2- 1 I,H (P+2 1
) , O( P+2 - 1 ) , -
460 lfUT 1
ThermaJ conductivity K for each layer is calculated at its mean .70 PRIJIfT· -
temperature. K is input at two given temperatures, and the program ::~ :~::B~.t 10 •• -BTUltt2h··,O,-Hwnber 01 lay.r. ol in.ul&tl00-" ¡ p

interpola tes for the actual mean K using a linear relationship. : : . P~IHT·Amb temp-·, H,-Wlnd V.l-lpm.·,V'·Ez:ai••• · ' .]l·HU Lo •• -B'TO/!t2 h."' ,QHA%: PR

Quick converging logic is used to compute the final results. A =~~ ::0 DO(l}>O T'HEIf PRln-Pipe outer d ia-in .·'00(1 )
trial value of casing temperature is assumed, and intermediate
temperature and heat 1055 are calculated. The intermedia te Figure 8-10. Usting af pr ogram far mult i-Iayered insulatian designo (Machine Designl
 322 \'Ja sle Heat Boile r Deskbook Appcndix U- Low Temperatur c Corrosian 323

tcrnpcratu res are cor rcct cd du rin g each it crati on, and th e final
• • • • • • • • • • • • • iiii •••••• ti •••••• • • • • • • • ••• H i • • • • • •••••••• • , ••• • • • • ~ ..
casing tcrnperature is cal cul ated a nd co rnpa rcd with th e assumod
PESUL T S-! I\ISUUTI O.... rEfl.FOR.KAJriC[ - piro-
tcmpcrature. If th e tw o va lúes d o no t ng ree , itcra tio n cont inúes .
_ _ _ _ __ P r o j.ct. : • • &.3IIpl .

Exam p le 8-3: HaJNt t h l c k- l n Te.lllp - F nMPl COl'fDl TEKP 2 CONO:2

A p ipe with an outer diarnetcr o f 6.625 in ., is layercd w ith 3-in. C.... ln q 0. 00 9 5 .39 0.00 0.00 0 . 00 0 .00
th ic k mi ne ra l fibcr ins ula tion . Al 200 °F, K = 0.3 Blu-in.ffILh-oF; al ml n l b J . OO 65 1. 17 200 . 00 O.J O 40 0 . 0 0 0 . 42

400 °F, K = 0.42 Blu-ill./fI 2_h- oF. The pipe ho t fa ce is a t 650°F, H. .. t l o . . -B TU/lt 2 h- SS . HJ 6 6 Number- ot la y er . 0 1 ln. l.Iht l o n- 1

ambient temperature is 70°F, and wind velocity is 150 fp m . ~ t_p- 70 Wi n d Vel- l p:a- 1 50 E",!-. - .9 H.. . Lo " - BTU/ tt2h " 3 7 41 .703

Find th e o utc r casing ternperat ure a nd heat loss per unit surface P ipe ou t e r dh-l n - 6.625

arca , a ssuming a casing emissivity of 0.9. Figure B-ll list s the results
of th e itcration . Casing tcm perature is 96°F, and h cat loss is 55
Rl:SlJL TS - INS U1...AT I ON PERFO RXANC[-
Btu/ft 2-h.
Pro j e ct : &JlAKPLE

Exampl e 13-4: "amo t h i e k- i n TeClp -r T I:HP1 CO NOl TEHP 2 CONO ,

A hea te r has tw o layers of re fra ctory , each 4-in. th ick. Kast 30 Cad nq 0.00 1 79 .22 0 .00 0 .00 0.00
is facing the h o t gases and has a K o f 3.31 Btu-in./ft 2 /hF a t 1200°F e""
XAST J O
e , 00
4. 00
1 5 5 1.4 0 40 0 . 00 0 . 42 eoo. oo
0 .00
0. 6 1
18 0 1. 63 1 200. 0 0 J.J 1 eoo. oo 3.11
an d 3.11 a t 800°F . The second laye r is castable block m ix wilh a K of
H. at l o . . -B TU/tt 2 h- 22 0 .2 42 J NWllbe r ol la yere ol inauh t i o n _ 2
0.42 Blu-in.ffI2-h -F al 400 °F and 0.61 Blu-ill ./fILh-F al 800 °F. The
h ot fa ce temperature is 1,800°F, a mbie n t tern perature is 80 °F, wind Figure B-l1. Results frorn pr ogram Ior Exampl os 3 and 4.
ve loc ity is O fpm, a nd ca sing e m iss ivity is 0.9. Find the hea t lo ss and
cas ing in termed iat e temperat ure.
For this ca lcula tio n, pipe diarncter is O, and K val ues a re inpu t
- - - - - - - - ---_._--
in o rde r, s ta r ting from th e refra cto ry closest to the ho t surface. Fig ur e
B-11 li st s the res ults : H eat lo ss is 220 Btu/f t2- h a nd in te rmedi a re
tern pera tu r e is 1,551 °F.

•
•
'. JD~~ ---
•
o
o ti
D.
....
D
o fIl o
G .
.0
.
a
0

HOT CAS ING DESIG N Figure B-12. Mem brane wall casing.

The casing for boilers could be of two types; membrane wall, The ot her ty p e of cas ing is th e o ne Iined internally w i th
Figure B-12, which is full y w a ter coo led and hence maintained al re fract ory, Figu re B-13. In th is d es ign th e casing is p ro tected from
'l
the saturation ternperature of st eam. 5ince saturation s tea m the hot g as stream by tw o or m ore lay ers o f refractory. Th e cas ing \

temperature at say 200 psig is u su a lly higher than th e dew p o int of

most corrosive ga s, low temperature corrosi ón is not a concern wi lh
membrane wall un it s. The b oil er pressure could al so be raísed íf
req uired to alleviate any concerns of lo w tube wall temperature.
tempera tu re could run from 140 lo 250°F d epending on th e gas
lemperature, ambient conditions and th e thickness and combination ...
o f re fra ctori es used , as see n in exam p le 8-3.
One concern wit h th is d esign is th at there is a possi bi lity of
corrosiv e g ases seep ing th rou gh th e refractory a nd attack ing the
 324 Wasl e Heal Boiler Dcskbook Appcndix B- Low Temperature Corrosion
325

casi ng, port io ns o f which co uld be blow the acid dew poinl of tho
corrosi vo gases. ,
The cas ing is usua lly pain ted wit h a co rrosion inhibi lin g pa int RESULTS - I NSlJLATION PE RFORHANCE- t l at . u r t a c e
o r co a ting : ho wcv e r if thc cas ing tcmpc rature w e rc ra ise d by ad d ing
ex te rna l fibc r ins u la tion, dcw p oinl co rrosi ón co uld be elimi na ted. Pr o jec t : EXAHPLE

So rne engi nee rs howe ver d o no t p refer th is so lution as lhey Ieel /lAXE THICK-IN TEMP- Y TEHPl COIlDI TEXP2 COND2
th at the ca si ng is hid d en fro m the observer and sig ns of hot spo ts du e Cas ing 0 . 00 85.00 0.00 0. 0 0 0 .00 0.00
lo the p os si bility o f thc refractory falling off ca n no t be spo tted. HI NF'B 1. 50 3 27 . 3 0 2 00.00 0.30 4 0 0. 0 0 0. 42
CBH 2.00
Adding a lay e r of rniner fibc r in su lation ex te rna lly increases KS4
550 . 49 400 . 0 0 0 . 42 eoo.oo 0. 61
4 . 00 601. 4 9 1200.00 4 . 29 800 .00 4 .1 2
the casi ng te m pera tu re: by using ap propria te thickne ss of mine ra l
HEAT LOSS -BTU/tt2h- 4 9 .4 1 7 9 Number al l a y ers ol lnllul ation- 3
Iiber and a combination of in te rnal re fract ory, o ne ca n m aint a in the
ca sin g a l say 300 lo 450°F if rcq uircd . xxs TEKP- 60 WIIlD VEL- t pm- lOO EKI S S - . 9 KAlC LOSS-BTU!FT2 H_ 3 0 57 . 6 66

The ou terrnost casi ng ove r the m iner al fibe r howe ver will be al
a lo w tc m pe ra tu re th u s m in im iz in g th e heat lo sses lo the
a trnosphere.
RESULTS - I NS ULATI O/l PE RFORKANCE- tl at 8 ur fa c o

Project: EXAKPLE
- - ------------ ga.s Flow
/lAXE THICX- I /l TEKP-Y TEKPI COIlDI TEKP2 COllD2
Cas i ng 0 .00 118 .98 0 .00 0.0 0 0 .00 0.00
refrQc t ory 1 KI NFB 0.50 3 3 7 . 30 200 .00 0 .30 4 00 . 0 0 0 . 42
CBH 2 .00 B65.8 4 4 0 0. 0 0 0. 42 800.00 0 .61
KS4 4. 0 0 9 9 9. 3 6 1 200 .00 4 . 29 eoo.oo 4 . 12
,'e fr-octory 2 HEAT LOSS - BTU/ t t 2 h- 1 3 6 . 84 6 Number o l la ye r s ol lnsulatlon _ J

AKB TEKP - 60 WIIlD VEL- t pm- 100 EllISS - .9 KAlC LOSS -BTII!YT2U_ 305 7.666
"
ms u lo,t ion

Figur e B-13. Refra ctory lincd casing . Figure B-14. Resul ts from pr og ram for Example 5.

Example 8-5:
A boiler ca sing has lwo layers of refraetory namely 4 in. of
KS4(AP Creen) and 2 in. of Castable Block Mix (CBM) . Determine al
average gas temperaturas of 1000 °F and 600°F, the external
insulation to be used to maintain a casing lemperature of 300 to 350°F.
Ambienl temperalure = 60°F and wind velocity = 100 fpm. lhermal
conductivity dala are shown in Figure B-14, which also gives the
results.
Solution:
As d iscu ssed ea rlier a lrial and error proeedure is required to
solve for th e hea t loss and cas ing ternperature, The program sho wn in
Figure B-lO wa s used. Figure B-14 gives th e results for the various
cases.
!.
It ma y be seen th at al th e boiler e xít where th e ga s
ternperature is lower, a higher thíckn ess of insulation is required, 1.5
in. vers us .5 in. at th e m id d le po rtie n of the boiler wh ere the av erage
..
gas lemperature is 1000°F. The analysis eould be earried out at
326 \Vas le Hcar Bo ilcr Dcskbool:

va riou s po r tio ns a long th e boilc r lc ngt h and app ro p riat e cx te rnal

ins u la tio n co u ld be sc lec ted . Also not e the lo w ca sing hea t loss lo lhe
a trn osphe rc . Appendix e
NOMENCLATURE Heat Transfer
Cp - gas s pecific hea t, Btu /J b F Eq uipment V ibration
C - factor used in Eq ua tion (B-4)
d - d uct d iamct cr, in .; subscrip t i a nd o refer lo insid e a nd ou tside
e.E - e rniss ivi ty o f cas ing
h - gas hea t lr a ns fer cocfficicn t, Btu / sq ft h F
H - length o f d uct o r stack, ft
k - gas th errnal co nd uc tiv ity , Blu /ft h F Tu be bundl e s in heat exc h a nge rs , boil ers, s u per hea te rs a nd
Km - m et al th er rnal co nduc tiv ity, Btu Zft h F heat ers are o ften s u bject to vib ra tio n a nd noi se probl ems. Vibrat io n
K - insu lation conducti vi ty, Btu in./sq ft h F ca n lea d to tube lh inn in g a nd w ea r, re sulting in tube failures.
L - th ickne ss of in sula tio n, in. Excessive noise ca n be a proble rn to plant opera ting perso nn el.
Q - he at loss, Btu/ sq ft h La rg e ga s pressure dro p ac ro ss th e eq u ip rnen t is a lso a s id e
Q¡ - tot al h eat los s, Btu /h e ffec l, whieh resu\ts in larg e o pera ting costs .1,2 Wilh th e d esi gn
tc,Te - tern perature o f casing, F a nd R ch ec ks ,p resen ted here, o ne can predict during d esign if pro b le m s
ta,T a- ambient temperature, F a nd R associa ted with no ise a nd vibrat ion a re likel y to occ u r.
's - a ve ra ge ga s ternperaturc, F; 1 a nd 2 refer to inl et a nd exi t
V - g as vel ocit y, fpm Vibration causes.

Vibration and noi se problems are caused when air or flu e gases
REFERENCES flow o ve r tube bundles, which may be arranged inline or stag g ered
(Fig u re C-l ). V órtices are forrned and shed beyond the wake of th e
1. V. Ganapathy, "C o ld e nd corro si on : cau ses and cures," tubes , resulting in harmonically varying forc es on the tubes
Hydrocarbon Processing, Jan 89 • perpendicular to the flow direction.
2. V. Ganapathy, "Preventing c órrosíon in stacks and serubben, Jt is a self-excited vibration . Jf the frequency of vibration of th e
Chemical engineering, Jan 89 Von-Karrnan v órtices. as th ey are called, coincide with the natural
3. V. Ganapathy, "Basic programs for steam plant engincen,· frequency of vibration of the tube bank, resonance occurs which leads
Marcel Dekker, New York, 1984 to tube vibration.
4. Kiang, Yen Hsiung, "Predicting dewpoints of ac íd gases, Another phenornenon that occurs with vortex shedding is
Chemical engineering, Feb 9, 1981, Pg 127 acoustic vibration, leading to noise and high gas pressure drop. The
5. V. Ganapathy, "Applied heat transfer," PennweIl bco , duct or the bundle enclosure vibrates when the acoustie oscillation
Tulsa, 1982 frequ ency co incides w il h th e vo r tex shedding frequ en cy .v T he
6. V. Ganapathy, "Simplified heat loss calculation;'· Machint acoustic osciIlation is normal to both the direction of gas flow and
Design, Sep 8, 1988. tube length.

~?7
328 Wa sl c Hcat Boiler DL'skbook Appcn dix C - Hca l Transfer Equipmen l Vibr ali on 329

De si gn mcth od s to ch eck vibrati on and noise.

T he fir st s te p in the a nalysis for p o ssibl e vi br ation or noi se is
To proc esa
F om economizar
th e es tima tion of th e vortcx shcddi ng freq u ency, fe . Vo r tex sh edding
0 1 dcaeralor is preva le n! in the Rey nold s nu rnber ran g e of 300 to 100,000, whi ch is
the opc ra tin g ra ng e o f m an y boi le rs, heat ers an d excha n gers .T he
vo r tex s hedd ing fr eq u cncy may be estima ted o nce th e S tro uh l
nurn ber, S, is known 1,2 whieh is g iven by the ex p ression:

Gas in

o ..
Gas oul
S = f e d/(12V ) (C - ])

H erc d is the tu be o u ter di a rneter, V is th e av erag e gas vel oci ty

a nd S is a fun etion of tube geo me try . Figures (C -2 lo C-S) g ive typ ieal
va lues o f S.
The n atural fr equ eney o f vibrati on of th e tubes is th en
d et ermined . For a u niform bea m su ppo rted a t each en d, fn is given by
Boller-wa ter -Iube d eslgn
the cxp ress íon- :

(C -2 )
Gas in
Steam a
C is eonstant d epending on end conditions and is g iven in Tabl e
J oul C- l. The tube len gth in feet is 1 and M e is the total wei ght of th e

-
Air out tub e, which includes th e eo n trib u tio n of th e fluid w eight insid e and
ou ts ide th e tubes . For ea rbo n s tee l tubes h e aboye eq ua tio n m ay be
L sim p lified and written a s 8:

-
AlrIn
U Sleam
(C-J)

I JI. In The ne xt step is estimation o f acoustic frequeney, f a

J 1
Gas out
Gas oul (C-4)
Alr huler superhester
V s is the sonie veloeity of the gas and A. is the wave length.
.\. =2w/n where w is the w id th of the due t in feet a nd n is the mode of
Figure C-l. Cross lIow of gas over tube bundles. vibration . For air or flue ga ses, V s is approxima tely 49 Ir where T is
the gas tem pera ture in degrees, R. For a eylindrieal du et

Ja=NVs/D (C -S)
 Appendi x e - Hca t Transler Equip menl Vibr alion 331
Was lc l lcat Bo iler De:.lcbook
330

N is a con stant =0.5681 for rnod e 1,0.972 2 for mod e 2 and 1.337
Ior mod c 3. o5
- - - -1-- I....L L L U - -- -- -- - - - 1- · .... - - - -- - - -
- .- - S lft:j = 1· 25 - - .... - - ...-

Che cks and analys is for vi bration an d uo is e. .... - lL - .. ·-- - - - - - - - - - .. - -

-- - .:¡ - ..
- . - - - .- - - _. -
- ~ _0 .... ..
_ - - - -
- ' V .... ....- - -- - .... - - - - - - -- - - _-. - - -
. ...-

-
To a na lyzc for possi ble vib ra tion or noise in thc tubc bund les - - · - -
Y.1 ::: i=- ::: -- - - -- -- 1- -
...-

ca uscd by flow of gases across tube bank s, the followi ng calcula - ~ Il - - . · - - - ...-

tions - --- - - .... - ,- _ .L 1.5 '- - - _. - 1- - -

a re perfo rmed :
1. Ca1cu la te f 1I fo r diffe re n t m odes an d load co nd itio ns. o - , - /i
- .
-
.... .. - . .. -- - - ~ - --
- 1-
.. .. - . lJ .... -- - ..
- ....-
i- -. -
-
--
I
...-

Co m p u te f e. lf fe and f n are within 20% of ea ch other, vib ration

a lmo st ce rtain to occu r.
is
w
Z
-
-. . J -
- - .. - / - - .. .. - f - -
...-

-- - ... - - - - - - - - - - ¡.; ~.- 1- -

...- ...-

2. Es tima te fa a t differen t load s. Compa re fa wit h fe· lf they - - - -- - L? - 1- - 2.0 1-

-'
z - .. -- .... - .. / -- - 1- - - -
- - · .. - -
...-
- -
. - -
a re wi thi n 20% o f eac h othe r, cxc essí vc nois e is likel y. ,- - --
...-

Th c fir s t mod c of vi b rat ion is the m ost cri tical onc as thc --- .... .... - 1-

ampli tud e o f vib ration s is large. oc o. J - - - .... 1 - - 1- -

w . - - - - ;t - -- -
ro
~
--
-
...-
-1
- . - - ti' - - -
-
...-

-
~
z - - .... - - - :::¡Z - 2. 5
.... - .- - ,L -
Table C-I -1 J - - L¡ - - ...-
./'

Values oí C <i - .. - 7 - -
....
1-
J: -
~
o 1
-r - -
Mo de oí vibratio n a:: O. 2 _
>-
- -LL 1:/ J. o
Ul
-1 '1
End suppor t conditio ns 1 2 3 -
- - -- -
. -ll -- - - ....- l.o'- _lL ,,'"-'" ..
I .. -- - -- - .... -
Bo th ends cla m ped 22.37 61.67 120.9 - ...- -- -
One clampe d, one hin ged 15.42 49.97
39.48
104.2
88.8
V "
- ~ j .: - - ,.¿-- - . - - -
F LOW
1-' 1-1 -
_.
Both hinged 9.87 l/

-<H~15L
1- ...-
f-7 1-
f-j - _. f-
0.1 ...-
f-

Y.J
- I1 -
5T ~
-¡ -
Table C-2 -
f-
Su mmary oí res u1ts I -- --. - f-
·1
- ...- -
-
.- - ' 1- -
....

n 1 2 3 - 1- - -
11 H . ..j- - -H
33.1 91 179
fn 0.0
54 54 54
fe 2 3 1,
(no baffles) 56.1 112.2 1683
fa
(1 baffle) 112.2 224 336.6
fa
fa . (2 baffles ) 168.3 336 S04
Figure C.2. Strouhl number from inline bank of lubes-Ch en. (Hydrocar
bon Prou ssing l
,
~
 332 Wasle Heat Boiler Dcs kboo k Appcnd ix C - Heat Tran sfer Equipmen l Vibralion 333

Elim in a ting noise and vibration problerns.

By ehanging th c tubc s pa n, tubc pit ch, or c nd cond itions, the ..
na tural fr cqucncy may be altcrcd kcepin g In and le apart lo avoid - \.1'#1"'' ' 0 IV" ''' H.
vi bration p roblems. Gas vcl o cit y can al so be eh an ged 50 that le is -·- ' '''''''0 lV9 ( t AH I:
e
a lte red. Th is may be d one by eha ng ing the tube leng th and n u rnbe r of
tu be s wide.
~ "
~

Primary eo r reet ion devi ccs for noise are baffl es. Baffles divide
th e gas eolumn into srnaller channcls or du cts and thereb y in crease
th e acou sti c Irequ en cy , moving it away from the vo rtex s hed d ing
i"
frcqueney .
If the gas tern pc ra turc is high, the rnat erials for baffl es must be
1
chosc n with ca reo Acou s tie vibra tion s usu all y líe in the range o f 40 lo ·'no.. .

1~
100 Hz.

Exam p le problem. DI ·
A tu b ul ar ai r hea te r l1 .7fl wide, 17.5 ft d ee p a nd 10 ft long is o

" ~l·
used in a plant oCarbon steel tu bc s of 2 in. OD and 0.08 in. thick a re
a r ra nged inli n e w ith a trans verso and longitud in al pi te h of 3.5 in. Figur e C-3. Strouhl number {or s lagge rcd ban k o! tubes-Chen. [Hydroca,bon Processingi
The bund le is 40 tubes wide a nd 60 tu bes deep,
Air flows over th e tu bes, while flu e gas flo ws inside. Air flow
is 300,000 Ib/h a t an average tcmpcra tu re of 260°F. T he tu bes are
fixed a t each end in tube shccts. U' 011

Analyze the bundle for po ssible noi se and vibration probl ems,

So lution:
Estimate fe ' For stfd = S1/d = .3.5/2 = 1.75, from Figure C-3, S =
0.3. Fr om Fig u re e s we see th at 5=0.31.
Calcul at e th e air ve locity, V. Air density = 0.081(492)/(460 + "
260) = 0.55 Iblft.3 V = 300,000(12)/f3600(O.055)40(3.5 - 2) 101 = 30 ft/s.
Hence l e = 12SV/d = 12(30)0.30/2 =54 Hz. "
Estimate / n using Equation (C·3). 1= 10, d = 2, di = 1.84, M I = 1.67 1.( · '"

lb/Jt = Me, (neglecting weight of a ir / gas ). For the first three rnodes, UJ ' .]J

e1= 22.37, C2 = 61.67 and C3 = 120.9, from Table C-1. U J, JI J, l. ,

Then, InI = 33.1, In2= 91 and In3 = 179 Hz, using Eq ua tio n (C·3) .
Let us compute the acoustic frequen cies, la. Sa nie velocity, Vs = 49(460 Figure C-4. Strouhl number {or slaggercd bank o{ tubes-Fitzhugh . (Hyd rocarbon
+ 260)0.5 =1.315 Jt/s. W idth, W = 11.7 Jt and A. = 2(11.7)/n, lal = Vs!). processíng]

= 56.1, I a2 =112.2, I a3 = 168 Hz.

 334 wasre Hca t Boiler Deskboo k Appe nd ix e - Hca t Tran sCcr Equipme nl Vibration
335

was di scu ssed . For elabora te ana lysis, one would use th e rnethod
s
d iscu sscd in Iileratu re.9
s rOR 111 U NE ARRA YS

( 2.
Howev er, noise a nd vibrati on p ro blems are bc tte r p re d ict ed
based o n field o pe ra ling ex pericnc c of simila r sized units. Perform
ing
the aboye calcu la tio ns and m odifyin g a d esi gn to keep the
H · forcing
0 11 020 0 11 0 21 020
frequ en cies wcll apart may not a voi d no ise /vibral ion s in al! cases,
as
)(. vi b ra tio n and noi se phen orneno n are ine xpli cable al limes .
Dampi ng effect o f finn ed tub es, presenc e of as h in flu e gases,
~ m anu fae turing toleran ccs used and eff ee t of end co n nec tio
JO ns are
va ria bles th at ca n no t be q ua n tified.
51/. 16 Hence, field ex perie nce couple d with anal ysi s would be th
e
id eal way to d eal with th e problem of noi se and vibrat ion,
1.1

1a NOM ENCL ATUR E

1.(
e - Consta nt used in Equ ation (C-3)
0 .\1 d - Tube outer diarne ter, in.
10 di - Tube inner diarnet e r, in.
0 .1 12 U 20 H lB l2 JI LO L(

Sl/ d E - Youngs rnod u lus of ela sticity, psi

la - Aeou st ie frequ ency, her tz
Figure e.5. Strouhl number Cor inline bank oCrubes-Fit zhugh . [Hydro carbon processing) l e - Vortex sheddi ng frequen cy, he rtz
In - Na tura l frequen cy of vibratio n of tu be s, hert z
The surnma ry or results is shown in Table C-2, which also sho 1 - Mo ment of inertia of lube
ws
th ela data w ith one and two baffl es (w being 11.7/2 = 5.85 ft and 1 - Tube len gth, ft
11.7/3 = 3.9 ft). Me - To tal weigh t o f tu be per foot , lb
No te th at l aa nd le are very close to each ot he r in th e very firs n - Mo de of vib ra tio n
t
m od e. H ence, a cousti c vi b ra tio n lead in g to noise is lik ely. S - Stro u ha l number
lf one
baffle is u sed, la and le are kept well ap a rt in al l the m odes.
Al so, Ie SI - Longi tudina l p itch , in.
a nd In are w ell apa rt in all modes, and tube vibratio ns are unlikel St - Tra nsverse p itch, in .
y.
T - Gas tern perature, R
V - Gas velocity , ft/s
Vs - So nie veloci ty, ft/ s
CONCLUSIO N w - Width of d uct, ft
A. - Wave leng th, ft
The aboye ca lcu la tio ns show how one ean check a tube bundle
design fo r poss ible vibrati on or no ise problem . A simple a p
p ro aeh

I.
336 Wasle H cat Boiler
REFERENCES
l. Chen. Y. I., "Flo w induced vibra tion and noi sc in tub e bank
hcat cxcha ngc rs d uc to Von Karm an Streets." Trans ASME, [our. Of
Engg for Indu stry , Vol 1, 1968, pp . 13-t-146.
2. Rog er s, j.O., ct al ., "Vibra tion p revention in bo iler ba nks of
indu strial boilers," American Power Co nference, 1977.
3. Fitz hugh, j.S; "Flow indu ced vibration in heat exchangers;
Symposiu m on vib ration problerns in ind ustry, UK, Apri11973.
4. Rogcrs, [.D. and Pctcrson, C.A. "Pred icting soni c vibration in
cro ss flow hea t cxcha ngcrs-expcricnce o f mod cl test ing," ASME 1977
WA/OE 28.
5. Barring ton, E.,A., "Acoustic vib ra tions in tubular exc hangers,
" Ch erni cal Engineeri ng Proccss," \'0 1 69, No 7, july 1973.
6. Pu tnam, A.A., "Flow ind uced noise in hea t exchangers,"
Trans ASME, jour. of Engg for po wer, Oc t 1959, pg. 417.
7. Dcane, W.j., a nd Cohan, L.j., "Baffle p la tes cure boiler
vib ratio n," Po we r, Feb. 66, Pg 82.
8. Ca napathy, V., "Applied Heat Tra nsfe r, " PennweIl Books ,
Tu lsa, O kla. 1982, pp. 650-658 .
9. Symposiu m o n Flo w Ind uced Vibra tions, Vol 3, Vibra tion in
hea t excha ngers, ASME, 1984, pp. 87-101.
D<!s~boo1r.
Appe ndix D
Ga s T ur bine Da ta
As di scu ssed in Chapters 4 and 5, in order to evaluare the d esign
and performance of gas tu rbine HRSGs, the basic gas paramct cr s of
the gas tur bine sho u ld be avai lable. Since the gas pa rarneters su ch as
ga s fIo w, ana lys is and exhaus l tcrn pera ture vary with load, ty pe of
fucl used and its a na lysis and ambien t con di tio ns, the pararnet ers a l
a ll of the opera ting co nd it ions sho u ld be mad e avai lab le lo th e
HRSG designer. In addi tion, if ther e are special requ irernen ts su ch as
steam o r wat er inj ecti on, the ex ha us t gas cond iti ons should be
evalua ted by the co ncerned sys tem engi nee rs an d furnished lo the
HRSG designe rs.
In o rde r to ob tai n an id ea o f the size of th e va rious machines
available in the indu stry, one ca n use th e data in the foIlowing
pages . Ho we ver, in o rde r to d es ign an H RSG fo r a specific
appl ication, the supplier of gas turbine must be con lac ted to ob ta in
the gas pararneters as discussed aboye.
These d a ta a re rep rod uced w it h pe rrnission fro m "Deisel and
Gas Turbine Worldwide Catalog . "
337
 338 was te Hea t Boile r Deskbook Appc nd ix D - Gas Turb in e Dal a 339

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 344 Was te Hca t Boiler Des kbook Ap pc nd ix D - Gas Turbinc Data
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 3~6 w aste Hcat Iloile r Desk book Ap pend ix D - Gas Turb inc Dala
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 Appendix E
Gas and Steam Properties

SPECI FIC HEAT, VISCOSITY AND

THERMAL CONDUCfIVITY OF GASES

The spccific hea t, viscosit y and th e rma l condu ctivity d at a for

a Icw common ga ses at a trnosphcric pressure are given below. Fro m
heat transfer cons idera tion, pressure effec t becomes sig nifica nt aboye
250 psig and at gas te m peratures be low 400°F. Sce refere nces 1 and 2
fo r mo re info rmati on on p ressure effect.
In Tabl es E-l to E-9, th e foJlow ing units a re used :
temp - F,
C p - gas specific heat -Btu / Lb F,
¡t - viscosíty-Lb/ft h,
k - the rmal cond uct iv ity-Btu/ ft h F.

Table E-l. Carbon dioxide Table E-2. Water vapor

temp Cp Jl k temp Cp Jl k
200 .2162 .04 38 .0 125 200 .4532 .0315 .0 134
400 .23 69 .0544 .0 177 400 .4663 .04 11 .019 7
600 .2543 .064 5 .02 27 600 .4812 .05 06 .02 6 1
800 .2688 .0749 .0274 800 .49 75 .05 97 .03 26
1000 .28 07 .08 29 .03 19 1000 .5 147 .0687 .03 93
1200 .29 03 .09 13 .0360 1200 .53 25 .077 3 .0 4 62
1400 .2980 .09 9 1 .04 00 1400 .5506 .0858 .05 3 2
16 00 .30 4 1 . 10 64 .04 35 1600 .5 684 .09 39 .06 04
18 0 0 .3 090 .113 0 .04 68 1800 .58 57 .01 19 .06 78
2000 .3129 .1191 .05 00 2000 .6019.1095 .07 53

349
 350 ApPC"d ix E - Gas and Stea rn Pro pcrties 351

T ab lc E-3. Nitrog en T ab le E-4. Oxyge n Tabl e E-9. Gas turb ine exhaus t gas es
temp Cp ~1 k rcmp e, Jl (% vol C0 2 = 3, H20 = 7, 2 =75, 0 2 =15)
20 0 .24 95 .05 18 .0 189 20 0 .2250 .0604 lemp Cp u k
400 .25 30 .06 08 .0 2 19 400 .2332 .07 16 20 0 .25 29 .05 17 .0 18 2
60 0 .25 7 4 .069 4 .0 249 6 00 .2404 .0823 400 .25 8 4 .06 12 .0 2 18
800 .26 2 4 .0 776 .0 279 800 .2468 .09 24 600 .26 43 .070 2 .0 253
100 0 .26 78 .08 54 .0309 1000 .25 23 . 102 1 800 .27 05 .0789 .0 28 7
1200 .273 4 .09 27 .033 9 • 1200 .25 70 . 1111 1000 .27 6 7 .08 70 .03 2 1
1400 .27 9 1 .09 9 6 .0369 1400 .26 11 . 1197
1600 .28 4 6 . 10 6 1 .03 99 1600 .2647 . 1278
18 0 0 .28 9 7 . 1122 .0 429 18 00 .2678 .1353 El T HA LPY O F GAS ES
2 00 0 .29 4 2 .1178 .0 4 59 2000 .2705 .1423
T he followi ng ta b le gi ves the en tha lpy o f a few gase s w ith
refcr cnce to 60°F in Btu/lb. They w ere compu ted using
T abl e E-S. Sulfur dioxid e T able E-6. Hydro gen chlo d d a ta fo r
individ u a l ga ses from refe rence 3.
temp Cp ~t k tem p Cp Jl
200 .15 78 .03 8 6 .0 0 74 20 0 .19 07 .04 12 .0 11 T ab le E-ID. Enthal py of gases
400 .17 04 .0493 .0 109 40 0 .19 16 .0534 .0 1
600 .18 06 .05 95 .0 143 600 .1936 .0655 .0 17 gas lype % vol C02 H20 N2 02 S02
800 . 18 8 7 .069 2 .0 175 800 .19 65 .0774 .0209 A • gas turbina axhaust 3 7 75 15
1000 .19 5 0 .078 4 .0 2 05 1000 .200 2 .08 92 ~2 B- suHur com bustion 81 la 9
1 20 0 .19 9 7 .08 7 1 .0 23 4 1200 .20 43 .1009 .02 c · f1ue gas 12 12 70 6
1400 .203 0 14 00 .208 6 .1124 .0321 D · dry air 79 21
.09 54 .0 2 6 1
1600 .20 5 4 . 1030 .0 28 6 1600 .2128 . 1239. 03
1800 .20 69 .1103 .03 10 18 00 .2168 . 135 1 .0401 ternp, F A B e o
2000 200 34 .98 3 1.85 35 .52 33.74
2000 .2 079 .1170 .03 32 .2203 .1463 .04
400 86 .19 78 .57 87.83 83.00
600 138.70 126.57 141.79 133.42
800 192 .49 175.77 197.35 184. 91
Table E-7. Air (dry) Table E-8. FIue gas
('Tovol co.z. 12. H:zO· u.N2. i'O. . 1000
1400
1800
24 7.56 226.20
330.15
254 .47
372.93
237 .52
345 .77
temp Cp Jl k temp Cp Ji 437.86 496 .42 457.82
200 .2 4 3 9 .053 7 .0 188 200 .2570 .0492
400 .2485 .063 2 .0221 400 .2647 .0587 •
.2800 .0763 ESTIM ATIN G FLUE GAS PROP ERTIE S
800 .25 8 7 .08 09 .0 28 7 800
1200 .2 69 6 .09 68 .03 5 0 1200 .29 47 .0922
.308 0 .1063 F1u ga s proper ties are require d for perform ing heat tr ansfer
1600 .28 0 0 .1109 .04 12 1600
.1188 cal~lations. Since th ey consist of se veral eompo nents,
2000 .28 8 7 .123 2 .04 73 2000 .3 190 a q u iek
CShmat e of specifie heat e , viseosi ty Jl and therma l eondue
p tivity k
may be obtaine d for low pressur e gases as folIows.
 352 Wasl e H ea t Bo iler Deskboo k Ap pcndix E - Gas and Stearn Pro pc r tics 353

(.03x.25-13'<4-1 + .07x .481x lB + .75" 2574" 2B + .15>: .240lx32)

(E-1)
Cfm= 2B.38
= 2(.13

([-2 )
(.03" .0645" y:¡:¡ + JJ7x.0506>: {i8 + .75" .ffi9-1x ,¡¡¡, + .15>: .0823:< -{.32)
_ ECpi MW,y, 5.31
Cpm -
E MWiY, (E-3 ) = .fJ702
wher c MW is the molecu lar wei ghl, y the volume fm cl ion of
a ny
co ns lilue nl and m sta nds for mi xture p roperty .
(.03:< .0227 x v:; + .fJ7x .00(fJl x fu + .75>: .024~" V2S + .l5x .0272x Y32)
km 3.03B
Examp le 1:
De termine C , u, k for gas turbine exhaus l gases at 600° F; l ~e = .02524
p
?,
gas a na lysis is: % volu me CÜ2 = 3, H 20 = N2 = 75 a nd 0 2
Da la for in d iv idua l gases m a y be ob tained from ta bl es
= rs. EFFE Cf OF PRES SURE üN HEAT TRAN SFER
E-1 to
E-6 .
The effecl o f pressur e on heat tran sfer becorne s m or e sig nifica n
l
ab o ve 20 a trnosphe res. Refer en ce 1 d escr ibes th e method o logy
Solutio n: for
compu ting pressur e effect on gas mix tu re properti es.
I Yi MWi = .03 x 44 + .07 x 18 + .75 x 28 + .15 x 32 =8.38
Figures E-1 lo E-12 show the effect of pr essure on so me commo n
gases fo r flow inside tu bes a nd Figures E-13 lo E-24, th e effecl
Ey. 'r' MW¡ = 0.3 x Y44 + .07 sy m m+ p ressure for flo w o u tside tu be s. Tw o exa rnples illus tra te th e
of
use o f
th e cha r ts .
.75 x fI[ + .15 x YJ2 =5 .31 Examp lc 2:
200 pph o f air al 400°F and 100 a tmos pheres flow in sid e a tu be
Ey,3 vMW¡ = 0.3 x Y44 + .07 x Y18 + of inn er di amel er 1.7 in . de te r mi ne the tu be side heat lra
nsfer
coeffic ien l.
.75 x Y28 + .15 x ro = 3.038
Solutio n:
The ga s dala al 600°F are as foIlows : Using the Equatio n (2-7) of Chapte r 2,
h¡ = 2.44 w .8C / di 1.8; factor C is obtained from Figures E-1 to E-
C02 H20 N2 02 units
12.
C = .18 for air at 400°F and 100 atrnosp heres.
Cp .2543 .4810 .2574 .24 04 Btu/lb F
h¡ = 2.44 x 200.8 x .18 / 1.71.8 = 11.71 Btu/sq ft h F
11 .0645 .05 06 .0694 .08 23 Lblft h
k .0227 .026 1 .0249 .0272 Btulft h F
If air had been at atmosp heric pressu re at 400°F, C = .171 a nd hen
ce
h¡ = 11.12 Btu/sq ft h F.
substit uting in Equatio ns (E-1) to (E-3):

\
 3>1 Wast e Heat Boiler lNs kbook Appcndix E - Gas.and Stcarn Pro pcr ties 355

Exam p le 3: Fact or F at 700°F is .1355 for dry and .144 for injection mod os, sho wing
Determine the heat transfer coeffi cienl ho wh en ai r at 400c F that a significan l difference in heat tran sfcr coefficients CJ n arise if
and 100 atrnospheres flows ov er a bank of 2-in tu bos . Gas rnass thc effect o f gas analysis is ncglccted.
vcl ocity G = 5000 Ib/sq fl h.

So lu lio n: CO V ERTING FLUE G AS AN ALYSIS

Using Equatio n (3-23) of Chaptcr 3 FRO M W EIGHTTO VO LUM E BASIS
h o = .9 c-6 F/ d o.4 .F is obtained from Figures E-13 lo E-24 for
flow outside tu bes. In this case it is .109. One of the freq ucnt calculations pcrforrnod by heat tran sfer
ho = .9 x 5000.6 x .109/2.4 = 12.32 Btu/sq ft h F er.gineers is the conversión from wei ght lo volurno ba sis and vice
If air had bee n at at mosph eri c p ress u re, F = .1025 and hence ho = versa. Thc following cxampl e sho ws how this is d on e.
11.58 Blu/sq ft h F.
Ano the r ex am p le is g iven be lo w lo sho w th e effec l of gas Exam p le 5:
ana lys is on gas pr opcrties. Th e d ala a re from Cheng cyc lc sys tern and A gas co n ta ins 3% C02, 6% H20 , 74% N2 and 17% 02 by
th e compa riso n will be rnad e be tween the d ry and injection rnodes of weigh t. Determine the gas analysis in % volume.
the gas lurbine.
SoIul ion:
Example 4: gas % weight MW moles % volume
In th e Ch en g cycle sys rem, the gas an al yses in th e d ry and C0 2 3 44 .068 18 1.9 1
inject ion modes ar e as g iven below in Ta ble E-ll. Calc ulate the gas H2 0 6 18 .3 3 33 9 .32
properties a l 1000°, 600° and 400°F. N2 74 28 2.6429 73 .9 1
So lution: 02 17 32 .53 12 14 .8 6
Usi ng the aboye me tho dology, the gas properti es we re obtained total 3 .575 63 100
and are shown below.
Mo les of a gas are obtained by d ivid ing the weight by the
Table E-ll. Gas dala for dry and injection mo des molecular we ight; moles of COZ =3/44 = .06818.
The vol ume of each gas, then, is the mole frac tion x 100. Percent
dry injectio n volu me of 02 = (.5312/3.57563) x 100 = 14.86 an d so on . On e can wo rk
1. C02 (% vol) 2 .9 2 .7 in revers e and convert from volume (or mole) basis to weig h t basis.
2. H2 0 7 .1 25 .1
3. N2 76 .0 61.0
4. 02 14 .0 11 .2 PRO PERTI ES OF STEAM

ternp Cp Jl k Cp Jl k Tables E-12, E-13 and E-14 gi ve the properties of sa tu ra ted and
superheated steam and cornpressed water.
1000 .2 771 .0868 .03 2 1 .3086 .08 3 9 .0333 Tables E-15 and E-16 g ive th e equations for saturated a nd
700 .2677 .0 7 4 4 . 0269 .2971 .0 713 .0273 su perhe a ted steam proper ties.
400 .25 8 8 .0 6 1 1 .0217 .2862 .05 78 .02 14
 356 Wa ste Hcat Boilc r Desk bOok Ap pc nd ix E - Gas and Stearn Pro
pc rtics 357

Thc au thor has d cvc lope d a pro

gra m whi ch co m put es stea m
p rop c rlies u sing the equ at ion s
pr esen led in Tab lcs E-15 and E-16 )J a;¡ -
sa tu ra tcd a nd sup c rhea tcd stca for : ~ ~~~ ~~ r") ..n "" CI00C 'llM W")

~~g~ : ~~8S ~ ~ ~ :: ~~
~ClJCD- N M ...... <or-. CO (DO'!

rn and tabu la r da ta for com pres -- - - - --o c O O 0 0 - - ........ - - - - ~- ~-

.. 000 00
sed ~ o
- -- -- - - -
wa ter. The resu lts of the pr og ra m
are sho wn belo w for thre e case s ¡;
- - - - -- -
. CO-M .... lD
~
,.,.01 -
~0
~0
(") 11')
~0
;: 0~ 0~ ~~~;,;;; ~~~~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 0 0
<0«)0 ) -"'" nlDr- -CCO t
...
~
WJ 0000 0 0000 0 0000000
~~
----- ----- -- --- -- --- --
Exa mp le 6:
"'. ~ ~~~ ~~ ~~~ ~ ~ ~~~ ~ ~ ~;
De ter m ine the íollo win g: . Z O M CI) ~ ~ ~ ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~ro ~ ~ :;: ~ ; ~~
1. Pro pe rties of 85% qua li ty a nd sa ~~~ ~ ª
tura ted s tea rn a t 1000 psia .
2. Su pe rh ea ted s team pr ope rties a
l 450 psia a nd 750°F. ,... ........ ""
3. Com pre ssed wat er pro per lies a l B ~ "'! "': "': .... ~~ .-O:~ ~~ ~
~
1500 psia and 30ü °F. e
6
c:: (")g~ :g ~
.... _ c.o,... ..,.COM

N NN '"
OCO -

....... ..
"" O MM:8 "'~
U"I "' CD C'lCD
..; .,n "': r'i cO "':cri
!¡ ~ ~~ ~ ~~ ""~M ~~~ ~ ~ ~~
M Ol
o
U

Sol u tion : j C'\lC'l N NM

i :1 J ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
M'Of' \l"JCO "" Cl)CJ) O N t") 1/)"" 10 ON 1/) ....
Fo r sa tura ted or wct stea rn, the
in pu ts are p ress ure and qua li ty; • 0
te m pe ra tur e is inp u tted as ze 000 0 0000 0 00 0 0 0 0 0000
ro and th e pro gra m a u tom a tica 00

co mp u tes the sa lura ted stearn pro lly

per ties. Res ults are sho w n in Figu
re
E-25a .
For su per hea led s tearn the inpu
ts are pr essu re and tem per at ur e.
The pro gr am d et er min es wh eth
cr the tem per ature is belo w or abo
ve ci
sa tu ra tio n tem pe ratu re a nd sele
c ts the app rop riat e su b ro u tinc
,
!"" ~ ~~~ ~ ~ :=! :g ~ ~ :g:28:;:ª ~~= ~ ~
Fig u re E-25c.

RE FE RE NC ES
1. V. G ana pat hy, "Ap p lied Hea t
Tra nsfe r." Pen well Boo ks,
Tu lsa .
2. R.e . Reíd and T.K. She rwo
od, "Th e pro pert ies of gas es and
líqu id s." seco nd ed ition, McG raw
Hill , Ne w Yor k, 1966.
3. Nor th Am eric an Com bustion
Handbo ok, Clev elan d , 1978.
4 . V. Gan apa thy , "Prog ram com
pute s turb ine s tea m rat es and
pro pert ies," Hyd roca rbon pr oces
sing . No vem be r 1988 , P 105.
5. V. Gan apa th y , "1'0 g et
he at tran sf er coe ffic ie n ts ,"
Hyd roca rbo n Proc essi ng, No v and
Dec 1977.
6 . V. Gan apa thy , "Ba sic pro gr
ams for stea m plan t eng i nee rs:
Mar cel Dek ker. New York , 1984
7 . Am eric an Soc iety of Mec. h anic
al Eng in ee rs, "Co rrela tion s for
Sup erh eate d Stea m Pro pert ies,
" 196 7.
8. Gon zále s-Po zo, V., "Fo rm ulas
esti ma te pro per ties for dry
sa tu rate d stea m; Chemical Eng ¡;1 o~ ~~ ..~ ..,0 0.... ...
ineering . May 12, 1986, p. 123 .
!
o o o o o
.oo~ .ooi
2:&~:;¡ es s e a 8ª
 w
~

( Conc1usion - Tab le E-12)

110 334.77 001782 4 .~9 305.7 883.2 118.!9

120 140 2.8886 0.01629 123 .01 107.9 1014 .1 1122.0
341.25 00 1789 3.728 312.4 677.9 1190.4 145 3.281 0 .01632 109 .15 112.9 1011 .2 1124 .1
130 347.32 0 0 1796 3.455 318.8 872.9 1191.7 ISO 3.718 0.01634 97 .07 117.9 1008 .2 1126 .1
140 353.02 00 1802 3 220 3248 868.2 1193b 155 4.203 0 .01637 86.52 122.9 100 5 2 1126.1
150 358.42 001809 3 0 15 330 5 8636 119U
160 160 4.74 1 001639 77 .29 127 .9 1002 .3 1130.2
363.53 00 1815 2.634 3359 859.2 1195.1
170 165 5~35 0 .01642 69.19 132.9 999 .3 113 2.2
368.41 00 1822 2.675 341.1 854.9 1196.0
180 170 5. 92 001645 62 .06 137.9 996 .3 113 4.2
37J 06 001827 2.532 346.1 850 8 1196.9 175 6.715 0 .01648 55 .78 142 .9 993.3 1136 .2
190 377.51 0.0 1833 2.404 350.8 648 8 1197.6
200 180 7.510 0 .0 1651 SO.23 147 .9 990 .2 1136 .1
381.79 0.01639 2.28a 355.4 843.0 1198.4
250 185 8 .383 0 .016 54 45 .3 1 152 .9 987 .2 1140. 1
400.95 0.01865 1.8438 3760 825.1 1201.1
300 417.33 190 9 .339 0 .016 57 40 96 157.9 98 4. 1 114 2.0
0.01890 1 . 54 ~ 393.8 809.0 1202.8
350 200 11.526 001663 33.64 168.0 9 77.9 1145 .9
431.72 00 1913 1.3260 409.7 794.2 1203.9 212 14.696 0 .01672 2660 180.0 970 .4 l1SO.4
400 "4.59 0.0193 1.1613 424.0 780.5 1204.5
450 456 28 220 17. 186 0 .0 1677 23.1 5 166.1 965 .2 1153 .4
0 0195 \ .0320 437.2 767.4 1~ .6 2 40 24.969 0 .016 92 16.3 23 20 6.3 952 .2 1160 .5
500 467.01 0.0197 0 9278 449.4 7550 1204.4
600 260 35 .429 0.017 09 11.7 63 2 28.6 936 .7 1167.3
48621 0 0201 0.7698 471.6 731.6 1203.2 260 49.203 0 .0172 6

..::..
700 503.10 00205 0.6554 6 .645 249 . 1 92 ' .7 1173.8
49 1.5 709.7 1201.2 300 67 .013 0 .01145 6 .466 269 .6 9 10. 1 1179 .7
800 518 23 00209 0 5687 509.7 688.9 1198 6 3SO 134 .63
900 53198 002 12 OSOO6 5266 668.8 1195.4
0 .01799 3 .3 42 321.6 8 70 .7 1192 .3 ;;
400 247 .31 0 .0 186 4 1.8633
1000 ~. 61 0 0218 04456 375 .0 826 .0 120 1.0 ::r:
1200
1500
567.22
59623
00223
0 0235
0 3619
0.2760
~2 . 4
571.7
611.6
649.4
611.7
556.3
1191.8
1183.4
1167.9
4SO
500
422 .6
680 .8
0.0194
0 .0204
1.099 3
0 .67 49
430 .1
48 7.8
714 .5
1 13.9
120 4.6
120 \.7
.".
'-
5SO 1045 .2 0 .02 18 0.42 40 549 .3
~
6 40.8 1190 .0

ir
~r.
8
""

>
"1J
~
::l
a.
;;.
Table E-13. I'roper ties of Superh eated Steam. rn
I
..a...
C)
Abe Prftaura ,
poi Sol
(s.llamp. F) Sal
15 y
"qu id
002
tapo<
26.29
300 400 sao
Tem perelur. ot et•• m. F
800 700
"VI
(213 .03)
20
h
y
181. 1
0.02
l 1SO.8
29.91
1192.8
33.97
1239.9
37.99
1287.1
41.99
1334.8
45.98
1383.1
49.97
1432.3
800 900
53.95
1482.3
1000
57 93
1200
65.89
..
;;
3
20.09 22.36 25.43 1533 .1 1637.5
(227 .96) h 28.46
40 y
196.2
0.0 17
1156.3 1191 .6 1239 .2 1286.6
31.47
1334.4
34.47
1382.9
37 .46
1432. 1
40.45 43 .44 49.4 1 ""O
(267 .25)
60
h
y
236.0
0.0 17
10.498
1169.7
11.040
1186 .8
12.628
1236 .5
14.168
1284 .8
15.688
1333.1
17.198
138 1.9
18.702
1431.3
1482 . 1
20.20
1533.0
2 1.70
1637.4
24.69
1
~.
7.1 75 7.259 1481.4 1532 .4 163 7.0
(292.7 1) h 262.1 8.35 7 9.403 10.427
1177.6 118 1.6 11.441 12.449 13.45 2
1233 .6 1283 .0 1331.8 14.454 16.451
80 y 0.018 1380.9 1430.5
(312 .03 1 h 282 .0
5.472 .... 6.220 7.020 7.797
1480.8 153 1.9 1636.6
1163.1 .... 1230.7 1281. 1 1330 .5
8 .56 2 9.322 10.0 77 10.830 12.33 2
100 y 0.0 18 1379.9 1429.7
(327.8 11 h 298.4
4.43 2 .... 4.937 5.589 6.218
1480.1 1531.3 1636 .2
1187.2 .... 1227.6 1279. 1 1329.1
6.635 7.446 8.052 8.656 9.860
I SO y 0.0 18 1378.9 1428.9
1358.( 2) h 330 .5
3.0 15 .... 3.223 3.681 4.113
1479.5 1530.8 163 5.7
119 4. 1 .... 1219.4 1274.1 1325.7
4.532 4.944 5.352 5.758 6.5&4
200 y 0.018 1376.3 1426.9
(3S1.79) h 355 .4
2.288 .... 2.361 2.726 3.060
1477 .8 1529 .4 1634 .7
1198 .4 .... 1210.3 1268.9 1322. 1
3.380 3.693 4.00 2 4.309 ' .917
2SO y 0.018 7 1373.6 1424.8
(400 .95 ) h 376 .0
1.8438 .... .... 2.151 2.4 27
1476.2 1528.0 1633 .7
1201 .1 2.68 8 2.942 3.192
1263.4 1318 .5 3.439 3.928
1371.0 1422.7 1474 .5 1526.6 1632.7

( COlltilll lL'd)
w
tn
'C
360 wa stc Hcat Bo ilcr Desk book Appe nd ix E - Ga s and Stcar n
I'rop ertics 361

T ab le E-14. Pro pert ie s of Com pres

sed Wat er.
P (1 S ~ l .)
1&<XI O " 7 JI

.0 1159 1 SJI J9 S'2 .H )4 J

'"
"' ~
N~.
JI
so
0 1"011 • o/ • DI • CO(NJJ 0 1599' 00 1.'9 00000 .0 15967 OJ 2 99 000
N':i 100
01.0/ 1
0 / 61J 0
" 06 " H CHO I .0 1S'I' I 11 O! 19 SO .OJ 199 .0 1S9 72 11.99 l O94 OJ l
0- 61 OJ 61 OJ l/U ) .0 16 106 67 17 69.J6 .129 ) 2
I SO ( 16)11 1I 1.PJ /11"
.0 1601 2 6 7.10 7061 .129·
.l1 J 0 4 .0 16 J II 117 66 119 17 .1 1' 51 .0 1629J 1I 1.JI 120 ' 0 21'
lQO Old6J ' 161 01 ' " OJ .19 10 1 .0 16601 167.6S 169.19 .29J ' 1 .0 16510 161.26 170.)2 .I9l"
IS O OnDO ) l'A .JI 111 Jl .16 11 J .0 169 72 211.";>
.l()O
21956 .1610 2 .0 16941 21l.47 22061 .J 66.
OlllJ J }60. , 1"6/ Ij JJ1 .0 114 \1 26U 2
) 54 210.s ) .<J6< 1 .0 17)7 9 26114 271' 6 .0 5·
.0 11 0 0 0 Jl/ .H JlI .Jf .0 179S<
.' 0 ) " JlOH HU7 .50 249 .0 1790'1
l OO OI.U U j1 4 " j1 1 .I' J6U Q 011601 J 7J 61 )75 .'0 .5660< .0 Il H O
JI9 .1) JUIS .sor-
<5<1 019JO J 1/ 9. 96 119 '6 61UO )71 H )7S 91 .S64:
.01 9<20 <11.40 <JO I9 .6 2791 .0 19 J'0 <26 19 <JO.O .626·
M'" ~ ~ ~ '" 540
~eO o'" ~M 511
0 1060
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0 0 0 - JI/! .11 JJ .0 1100 HO .I
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no .0 /1 11 JJ' , JJ' , .t uu , ]IJO u:d
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SolO .0 1l A ] H I6
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JJ I ' .11 ) 1 .0 114 1 JJU J)l J .11 0 1 .0 2'" Sll.< l J 6.) .7) 7
550 01111
560 01161
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590 0119' JU ' .I U
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~ci ~ai 610 6 10.
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0-
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0-
. N
0-
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6::
1500 (l90 9) 1000 (6 is.oo: 2500 (66 1.JI)

S al . .013' 6 1 60<.97 611 .41 .1011< .OH 6' 9 661.<0 6 71.19 .16227 .0 216OS 717.66 lJO .19 .9 I JO
.0 1S9J9 .OS <.• 7 .0000 1 .0 159 12 .06 5.95 .0000 1 .0 111l S .01 l.4 J JXXJIJ'
.0 I S 9 ~ 6 11.9S 1l.31 .OH I < .0 159 20 11.91 n ll .OJ 515 .0 1SI 9S 17.11 lDJ
.0 16OSI 6UJ 11.99 .12110 .0 160 ) < 67.)7 .0 H 6-
lUO . 121J9 .0 160 10 67.20 7< 61 .1210:
.0 16161 111.10 111.61 .2 I J6< .0 1624< 116 1) 122 1'
.016H l 166.11 171.<6 .292 1 1 .0 16 527 166.'9 172.60
.2 1) \1
.29 16 2
.0 16220 116.56 114.07 .n n.
.016S01 166.1 1 17l.7 S .29 10-
.0 169 10 116 96 221 6S J6 H4 .0 161K0 21646
.0 11) 4 J 222.10 .J6 41 2 016! SI 215.96 2UIS .J 6'"
16UI 272 39 <J' 6 ) 0 17)01 2669J 27))J
01716S .<)) 76 .0 17274 16629 H <.ll .0 29<
)1 191 HJ .9' .Soo J ' .0 17122 JlIIS )2'14
.0 11. 9 J )7 1 <1 .' 9929 .0 17110 lI7 .)) J 2s.s 6 .491!l
)761 9 .S6 ) ' 3 .0 1l <J9 ) 70Jl )17.21 .56 216 .01lJl 6
.0 1926< <H ." J69.3 ' J 77.14 .560'1:
<JO.79 61410 .0 19 19 1 <2<.0 ' <JI .14 .6 2J I) .0 19 120 ' 1l.61 ' ) 1.51 .62161
seo 0101 ' <11.1 411." .6&SJ .0 20 14 <79.1 .su .6!J l .0 200< <71.0 <I U .61 1:
~ ~ "' N SI O 0104 1 . 9 J< <99.1 .6914 .0 20 J6 <91.' <91.9 .69SJ .010H
~~
N " 510 .010 72 SOU 51 1.0 .70'16 '19' <91.1 .69 1:
",O .01 060 SOU S10.7 .10 H .0 20<1 501.0
. N 530 .010'19 5 17.J snl .12 19 110.' .7051
0- 0- .0 101 5 SI <.9 S22.6 .7195 .0 20 72
SolO 011 27 5196 SJU .11' ) .0111 2 S17.0
S12.6 HU .7171
SJ U .11 17 .01091 HU l JU .7191

.....
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~

2!ai
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0-
S54
51>0
510
01151
.0 119 1
.0 2211
S41.1
S5' 9
S610
5'& 1
56 10
HU
.1469
.l S96
.7125
.0 2 1<1
.0 2112
.0 220 6
5J9.2
H I.I
56' 6
S41.2
559.1
112.1
.74<0
.2565
.169 1
.0 21H
.0 115<
.01 116
H66
541.9
S61.'
1'6.<
HU
511.5
.1411
.IS J!
.I 6S9
O . '"
. M 530 .01169 SIl 6 517.9 .71 S1 .0 21<) 577.1
o O
5'11l 516 .1 .18 20 .Oll l l HU 514.5 .77! S
.01J 14 S9S.1 601 .1 .199 J .0 121' 591.l 599.1 .19S1 .0 2251 SIl .< 591.9 .I 91J
600 .0 11" 610 , fl6 .' ." JI .0 1llO 605 .<
>.t:. 610 01J }.
6 1' .0 .1016 .0 1Joo 60 1.0 61 1.6 .100 J
' }J .A 4J/ 11 11 11 .0 2J1 1 620 .0 611.1
620 D!49J " 1 J U'., .1'" .0 24' J 6H.< 64<.s
.l ll S
.1 )7 1
.01) ' 6
.0))99
6150
629 .6
625.9 .11 77
.I JIS
630
..o
0 1"0 .60 I
"'.0 ." 0' .0 25 1' 6 51.9 66 1.2 .1525 .01419 64<.9
"0.1
6S6.3 .1' 59

650
.o } . O) 41' .1
.1'" .OH JO 661.2 67l.9 .1610

660
610
.011 11 690 .) 10 0 .' .1'" .01616
.02129
671.1
691 .<
690.1
111.0
.u n
.191'
.D} " J In.' In .J
 ...,
g;

Table E-15. Form ulas to estima te proper ti es oí dry, saturated steam.

Equalion used :
y - Ax t R/x t cx l l1 t [)In x t E¿ t F,} + G
y - p ro pc rl y
A l O (; are co ns ra rus as givcn bclow in Ta hl e
x - prcss\I re psiaI

TABLE-C oelllcle nls lo predlcl saturate d -st eam pr opertles

Property
Temperalure. of
A
- 0.17724
8 e o E F G
383986 11,48345 31 1311 8.762969 x 10' s
liquid SpeCiriC vclume , II' /Ib - 5 280126 X tO- 1 - 2 78794 x tO- ' 66 594
299461 x tO- S 1 521874 x 10-' 662512 X tO- 1 8 408856 x tO- 'O
Vapor specihc volume. II' /Ill 1 lló401 x 10-" 001596
1 lo 200 psía - O 48799 304 717614
200 ro 1.500 psia 98299035 - 16455274 9474745 x 10- ' - 1.363366 x tO·· 1953953
2662 x tO-' 457.5802 - 0.176959
l lquid enthalpy. 81uJIJ 0 826862 - 4 601876 X 10- 1 6.3181 x tO·" - 2.3928
- 0.15115567 3671404 11.622558 30 832667
Vaporization enlhalpy. 81u11b 8.74117 x tO- S - 262306)( 10-' 54.55
0008676153 - 1.3049844
Vapor enthalpy. 81u11b - 0.14129 2258225
- 8 2137368 - 16 37649 - 4.3043 x 10's 9.763 x tOo' 1.04581 :E
3401 4802 14.438078 42 22624 x 10- s - 1 569916 x lO" ~
llquid enlropy. 81u1(Ib)(OR) - 1 6n72 x tO·· 4 272688 x tO-' 1,100 5
Vaporizalion enlropy.
001048048 005801509 9101291 x tOo' - 2 7592 x lO' " 011 801
í>
81u1(Ib)(OR) 3 454439 x lO-s - 2.75287 X 10-' - 7.33044 x 10-' ;;
Vapor enlropy. 81u1(Ib)(OR) - 01 4263733 - 3.49366 x 10-' 7 4337 11)( 10-' l 1.85565 ~
- 1.476933x 10- ' 12617946 x tO·' 3.44201 x 10-'
l iquid inlernal enerllY. 81u11b - O08494128 689138 x 10-' - 2.4941 x tO- " 1.97364
- 0.1549439 366 2121 11 632628 308 2137 s 8'
Vapor ¡nlernal enerllY, 81u11l 8.76248 x 10' - 2 646533 x tO-' 5456 c:;
- O0993951 1.93961 2.428354 109818864 2.737201 x 10- s - 1057475 x tOo' 1,040 03 r¡

~,.,.
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"-i .0 X~ :0 - :3 ::l ......

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ti>
I - ... 0"1 "O
l) (=) ,., ."
:=' t.,3 = 3;
t
o .,
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n

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el
TO GET HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENTS
0 .21 i ¡ i ¡ w
0.24 i i I ¡ I
i i i ~

0.20 1\ I I I 1---- 1

0.19 Pa foll mele rl : Preuur e . atm • .

P~P~~ .a1mL I

..o-s, ..
:;;
0.16 \ I =:". .......... 1 =
.~

;-
~•
o
't
o•
0.17 p:::,.... I ~"::=L. ............... V ... / I I

<
....
;:;
;;
~

~
0.1 ~ 1 I I I I I I J I I I
1f
O 200 400 eoo eoo 1,000 200 400 600 800 1.000 ~,...
Tempe<atu.., 'F
,~...
Tem per alure. ·F

Figure E-l . Air Fig u re E-2. O xyg cn

0.22 1 \ i i i ,
2.4 I ¡ i I
>
"O
~
0.2 1 I \\ I I Paramete r. : Preaaure. I tma.
I i I "¡;.el.
.o 2.3 1 I I I I >~
lTl
I
....
C)
~
~
0.20 I '< \( I I I "...-1
;- "eIJ>l.
't 22 L .... - ters: Presaure , etms.
"r 2"
7 rr- l
,.. .f1Um;nU I
. r I
o•
I
3
";l
-e
ci
o
.
~
ci
a.
~
a.
IX
.3 2.1 I I /7"1,/7 I I !
~
o
•

2.0 1/ // / I -J I I

200 400 600 600 200 ' 00 600 600 1.000

Tempe<alu re, ' F Temper etu re , ·F

Figu re E-3. Nitrog en w

Figure E-4. H ydrog en ~
 0.23 i I I i I I
w
1.0 g:
0.221 \ I I I I
0.8
0.8
-
- 0.21 I \ I I I I I
0.1 Plllmell '.: P' ' ''UII . I lml.

0.8

0.5
i '
"':
o
o. .
~

;,.
1\\
~

f c:i

.
¡ 0.3
Paramel era: Preuuro, atm• .

\\
I
O
I
)

o. ~ 250
-
\~ ¡o...... ""
~
<
~
V-
1- - --~ I I I I I
;,
:r:
V' 0.15\
'u"

oI
V
o 200
I
400
I
600
I
800
I

1.0Q0
0.14 I
o
I I
200
I I
400
I I
600
I I
eoo
I I
1.000
""2.
1f
~
Temperature. - F Temperature, -F
""
8x:
Fivure E-5. Carbon dioxide Figure E-6. Carb ón monoxide

4.0

3.0 >
"O
-g
::>
2.0 _ ._ . - o-
;¡.
tT1
1-
I
1\ ou
1.0
'"
u
0.8 ::>
\ o-
V'l
0.8 \ \ ;,
•:i \ \ \ "3

~'''~~I
0.5 Paramelera: Presllure, atma.
~
• 0.4 1-\ \ \ o
~

O
•:¡.
I
0.3
3 =--~~~~ 1'" O
~

~
0 .40

s>
__ _

I
t
I
1
~.

0.22 O
"ó 'b" ""

o.1
0.0

0.06
0.0
I
1-

1-
.-
~
I ~ 2"-
,
--- -
0.30 1--/- I

0.04
1- I I I I I
0.0
o 200 400 600 eoo 1.000 J . 00 600 eoo
Tempera lure , · F t ernp er etur e. ·F

g)
Figure E-7. Sulfur dioxide Figure E-B. Methan e
 I Charts give heat-transf er coeffic ients constdering pressure effect I
0 36 i I I 2.5 1 I 1 I
I I I 1 w
0.34 &;
- --- ~- - - -, I 20 f-\ ,
0 32

0 30

0 .28

0 28
. 1\ \ \ I -i- -- -..- .---.

.~ ..-s,
ti

r
ti

'!.
U
I
' 'l·'.'·"f""""-- ti
S'
'"
ct
I
o
1\ \ f\-- ' -~ -- - - ' - - - - - '~ --

\--t \ j-
-
P.r. mttt",.: Pre nu'. , . Iml
- - - -- -

'11'\: ,- - - - _ .. - _. _ -

150 -~--+-">...,;- ' - - - - ---

. ~ "--t- ' OO 0 .25
- - ,-:,'0
\
0.20 ~
I ~
__ o

- '"
;;
o 16 f"-.;;:::::~ I 1 I
-I--
~' - -- - ...'"'
J:

2.
200
1f
400 600 800
Te mpereun e , -F
200 400 600 600 1.000 ~'1<"
le mpe ra1ure . · F

Figure E-9. Nitric oxide

~ro
Fig ure E-lO. Nitrog cn pcroxid c

~ .O i I I 1 I
1.0
4.0
0 .90
-- >
-o
080 Il
0.10 _ .-
";;o.
- - - en
0 80 I

.~
el
~
0 50 ...
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I~ . \1)
0 .40 ~
0.3 í ,\ ..
ti
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ci
3
:.?

I~
o
.l
030 Parl me lon: Pre ll ur. , 11m• .
r-- - - - ct .\---\ I '\ I p a '~~! ~e!..~~ ~:. alms ,_ 1.
0 .2 <,
I
o
.' r l -"c--t - - -. - -- -.- - -. ir
\ ¡- -
<, 25f :...=
02
"-'0400-
__
I ',1 ""--<:::1-- -- 1- - - ::- -
100

0 .1 i e-
.- ,-:::.--
V I 1..... ""'- I , .- -

O. O I I I I I
0 .2
o 200 400 600 800 1,000
1
o
I I ! I I I I I I I
200 1,000
Temperatu r • • ·F
Temper alure, - F

Figure E-n. Nitrou s oxide Figure E-l2. Ammon ia s

w
 TO GET HEAT TRANSFER CO EFFICIENTS 01 3
1 I 1 ¡ t 1

01 3 1\ I I I I w
el
0 12

0 \1

~
0 a.
..
' if
~
o
{ 0 .10 p .e ~V /f 1 1 _

,
:Jl
o
U.

""•
u. Parame lers.: Pr essur e, 31ms
,- - --

f-/ ----4 - - - .- - --
0 0 9 ._ 008
.<.
v.
;;
:r:
ro
~

'"2.
007 [ I I I I I I I I I I 1f
200 400
~".
600 800 o 200 400 600 80 0 1000
Tem perature. ° F
Fern pe rature , ° F
8"
o
Figure E-B. Air r:
Figure E-H . Oxygen

0 . 13
r-...--
\ - -,--
I - ---r-
I
- - r--
I
_ -,-__"'"
~ ¡

1.25
I I I I I > .""
>
01 2 f - - - ->.,,-t ¡ "O

1 20, 1-. ...• /~ j

~el.
1 ;( .
rn
I

...
~ 0 .11 1.15
---- ._- - - o
v.
{a. ::l
e,
~u
.;
o
.. 1.10 V>
¡j
if
""
...• I I
0 a.
;;u
3
~
0.10
o
""
a
Pa ram Clef S: Pre ssurc , alms .
11
1.05 I I /-
U.
----._-- ~.

"ª
1 00 Par arneter s_Prc ssure , 8 lms
H/f- - - I- _ _..
0 .09 t - -r - ¡ ' ' I_ _ ~

0 95

200 400 600 800 1000

200 400 bUU
Temper atur a . ° F 1000
Tempe ra tur o, 0F
Figure E-IS. Nitrogen
Figure E-I6. Hydrogen w
:::J

,i,l
 06
I I I I ¡ I

0 .5 . • • _
- -- -l I o ia 1\ I I I I I
'"
~
0 .4 - -- - _ 1 . - ¡ 1

0.3

}"~\\t...
;; 0.11
o
~

- .. -- -- ... - ~
o
Cl
~u
o
,
~

u. 0.10

0.1

009 P a ram et e rs - Pr e ssure , alm!

008 I ,.y L -¡
Par ameter s: Pr essure , a trn s.
, -, 1
0 09
1 V I ¡ 1 I ..<:
'"
;;
007
..
:t
~

2-
0.05 I I I I I I I I 1 I 1
~
008 I I I I I I I I I
~,.,.
1 ¡
O 200 400 600 800 100 0 o 200 400 600 800 1000
Temp er al ura. ° f
Temporatur e , - F 8,.,.
Figure E-17. Carb ón diox ide Figure E-lB. Carbo n monoxide

08
07
06
0 40
Ir- - - ,-
I
- - ¡---
I
__.,--_
I
_ --.,I --,
>
05
--_.- •._---- OJ5 I 1 ._ . __ ~;¡.
e,
04
m
I
03
I I _. _
o JO
..
C)

..'"
- - -- ._ - - -
N
'e",
V>
o 02
~
2"
~ - - '- - ' - - - - '- o
a :3
o
Cl ~ ~
~
o
0.15 o
~oo. o 25 o
]
l _
~

•
u.
o
~
á,.
"
u.
0 .1
000 - --.--- - -
000
om 020
~---- - ~
000 019 Pa ra me lers Pressu re . a lms
o~
- - --._--- -- -
Param el er s: Pressur e. atrns. 018

o~
017
----- ._- - -
0.16
om
o 400 600 800 1000
200 400 600
TempefSlur 6, - F SOO 1000
Tomporaluru . -r
Figure E-19. Sulfur dio xide '"
~
Figurc E-2D. Methanc
 / Charts give heat -tran sfer co efflcien ts conside rtng pressure effec t in cross flow situa tio ns /
4.0
w
0 20 ?:
O.lg 3.0

O.la
20
0.17

0.1a

0 .1~
\
\ 1.00

o.a ~\\
~ Par.mele, a: Pre nur• . • lm l

5, 014 \ 5.. - ~\
---
~ o.e
~
.
\\ \
¡
~
0.13
\ '" 2~ ~r
5"
J" 0.4 \\ r\
--- - -

.. I
\ 1;;

"... \9,~
0.12

~" -~~\ !lO --- ::::::::---::: I 0.3

- ~

,\ <,r-,
0.1

0.1

--V ~
--- ~
, Par.melera: Press ur. , alm• .
0.2

\ <, -. ""'---

::::::--
-=, '
..

..~
Oo¡

/
./
O.
008

0.08
1-

I- ~
, ---- '"
;;
:r:
'.".
8"
0.0

I I I I I 0 .04 I I I I I
~
008
o 200 400 eco 800 1000 o 200 400 eco 800 1000 ~
""
Temperature , -F
Tempera'Uf' . - F
8
Figure E-21. Nilric oxid e Figure E-22. Nitrog en pe rox id c ""

0.7
~o

oa 4.0
>
O ~
30 ";;,:
~
:>
Q.
;¡'
2.0 rn

~
0.4
Parllmelera: Pr e s sur e, atm • . I
..
C')

..'"
0.3 \\ Pare mete r. : Preuure. alml.
1.00
Q.
::l

r~
o.a - \ \ r\ V>

5 r- \ ..,\{, s3
~
oa
5.. ~- 'b\. 4'
!a.. 0.5 o
¡ 0 2-
\ 1

\~~
~ u
0.4
"'- ~.
..
I lO
\ 1"--
'1.
...
I
0.3
<, _ r---- --::: -
f-..
-~ 02 \ ¡--
;::;-

~
V--
O.O¡
0.1
....... - -z-:
~ 0.1 V
0.08
y ,/'

0 .07 7'
008 I I I I I I 1 I I
o --.l
200 400 eco eco 1000 20(, 400 800 800 1000
reml*'ltur• . 'F r em peralutl. - F
w
Figure E-23. Nitrou s oxide Figure E-24. Amrn oni a <Ji
376 \'Ias le Hcat Iloile r Deskbook

Figure E-2S. Resu lts fram s tca rn p ropcrt ies p rog ramo

S a turate d Stc a rn I'rop cr tics

PSIA TS AT-F H LIQ HVAP VUQ VVAP SU Q SVAP Appendix F
1000 547 545.1 1193.0 0.0216 0.4·156 0.7458-1 1.39201
T ubo Thickness
M ixtu re properties
Quality - % = 85 Ent h = 1095.848 SI' vol = .3819935 Enrrpy =1.295087
Calcu lations
H - Enthal py in Blu/lb,
V = Sp vo l in cu ft / lb, Det ermining thiekness of tubos is an irnportan t aspect o f boil er
s = en tropy in Btu /l b F.. . design o Cost, weight a nd fluid p ressu re drop (if water tube type
VAP refers to va por a nd L1Q to wat er phase .. . boi le r) a re in flue need by size of tu bos. Tu bes of fire tu be bo ile rs a re
su bject lo ex terna l p ressure: tubos of water tubo bo ilers and eq ui p men t
a s uch as cco nornize rs, superheatcrs are subjeet to intemal pr essure.
ASME eode sectio ns 1 and 8 provide guidelines for es tima ting
Superheated St eam Properties the tu be thiekness. While using the eode formula one shou ld keep in
PS IA TEMP H VA P VVAP SV Ap mind the fae t that the allowab le s tress values fo r th e parti c u lar
450 750 1387.2 1.53194 1.648026 tubo mat er ial sho uld be eva lua ted al th e d esig n temperature.
HVAP = Enthalpy in BIU /lb, . Jf se ve ra l eombinations of tube materials, sizes ar e u sed as in,
VVAl' = SI' Vol in eu ft/lb, say, s uperhc a ters, then it is lik ely to have differ ent tube thi cknesses
SVAP = En tro py in Btu /lb F a lo ng its length . Tabl e F-l gives th e a llo w ab le s tress for a few
corn m onl y used boil er tu be ma terials, The lat est ed ition of the code
b should be refe rr ed to for the allowable s tress stress va lues for a given
g ra de of ma te ria l.
Compressed Water Sp Vol & Enthalpy
PRES = 1500
TEM p=3oo T UBES AN D PIPES SUBJ ECf
ENTH = 272.4067 TO INTE RNA L PRESS URE
SI' VOL = 1.734667E--02
Tubes a re specified by the outer diameter and minimum wall
e thickness, while pipes are specified by the nominal diameter and
average wall thickness. Table F-2 gives dimens íons of steel pipes.
A few exarnples iJIustrate the eomputation p rocedure.
Exam pl e 1:
Determine the th ickness o f the tubes required for a boiler
su per hea te r. The material is SA 213 T 11; the metal temperature is
900 °F, (see ehapter 3 for diseussions on tube wall temperature and
 \'laste Heal Boiler ~kboo k Appe ndix F - Tube Thickness Ca lcul a tions 379
378

method of compu ting the sarnc ): and th e tube o u ter dia me ter Ta b le F-l. «(o n t'd)
is 1.75 AlIowa ble Stress Val ucs Fcrro us Tub ing, 1000 ps i
in. The design pressur e is 1000 psig.
Tempe ratures no t excccdi ng (OF) :
So lu tion:
Pcr ASME Boiler ¡¡nd Pr esSllre Ves se1 Code, Scc. 1, 1?80, Para.
M at erial 20 to
pg . 27, the following oquatio n may be us cd to obtain the thIC kness Specifi cations 650 800 750 800 850 900 950 1000 1200
or 1400
the allowa ble p ressure for tu be s.
SA 213 T 11,
t., = ~ + 0.005 + e Pll 15.0 15.0 15.0 15.0 14.4 13.1 11.0 7.8 1.2
25 . +p ( F-1) T22, P 22 15.0 15.0 15.0 15.0 14.4 13.1 11.0' 7.8 1.6
T9 13.4 13.1 12.5 12.5 12.0 10.8 8.5

P=
5{ 2 lw - O.Old - 2c
d - (lw - 0.005d - e)
1 ( F-2)
SA 213 TP
304 H 15.9 15.5 15.2 14.9 14.7 14 .4 13.8 6.1 2.3
TP 316 H 16.3 16.1 15.9 15.7 15.5 15.4 15.3 7.4 2.3
TP 321 H 15.8 15.7 15.5 15.4 15.3 15.2 14.0 5 .9 1.9
where
/w = mi ni mu m wall thickne ss, in. TP347 H 14.7 14.7 14.7 14.7 14.7 14.6 14.4 7.9 2.5
p= d cs ign prcssur e, psig
d = tu be outer d iameter . in . Sou rce: ASME, Boil er a nd Press u re Vessel Co de, Seco 1,
Po we r
e = factor that accoun ts for compe nsa tion in screwed tube s, Boilers , 1980.
ge ne ra Jly zero lw = 1000 x 1.7'5 + 0.005 x 1.75 = 0.073 in.
.
Sa = a Jlowab le st ress, pSI 2 x 13100 + I()()()

The tube with th e ne xt hig he r thi ck ness wo u ld be chosen .

From Table r-i. s, is 13,100. Substit u ting in Equa tion a-» yield s co rrosió n allo wan ce, if req uired , may be added to /w·
A

Table F-l. Allowa ble Stress Values Ferrous Tub íng, 1000 psi
MAX IMUM ALLO WABL E
Tempe ratuIes not exceed ing (OF) : PRESS URE FOR PIPES

Materi al 20to Examp le 2:

Specifi cations 650 800 750 800 850 900 950 1000 1200 1400 Determ ine the maxim um pressu re that a SA 53 B carbon s teel
pipe of size 3 in . schedu le 80 ca n be subject to a t a m etal temper
ature
SA 178 gr A 10.0 9.7 9.0 7.8 6.7 5.5 3/8 2.1 of 550 °F. Use a corrosi on allowan ce of 0.02 in.
12.8 12.2 11.0 9.2 7.4 5.5 3.8 2.1 By the ASME Code, Sec o 1, 1980, p g. 27, the formul a for
SA 1929rC 11.8 11.5 10.6 9.2 7.9 6.5 4.5 2.5 determ ining aJlowa ble pressur es or thi ckness of pipes, drums
a nd
SA 210gr A - header s is
1 SA 53 B 15 14.4 13.0 10.8 8.7 6.5 4.5 2.5
lw Pd +e
grC 17.5 16.6 14.8 12.0 7.8 5.0 3.0 1.5 25.E + 0.8P (F- 3)
(Contin ued) r .,
I
 \Vas te Heat Boíler Des kbook Appcnd ix F - Tube Th ickness Calcul a tíons 381
380

Tab le F-2. Whc re E is the liga m c nt cffl cicncy: it is 1 for searnl css pipes. c
D imcnsions of Stecl Pip e (IPS) is the corrosio n allowa nce . From Table F-2, a 3-in. schedule 80 p ipe
has an outer d iam eter of 3.5 in. and a nom inal wall thickness of 0.3
l>urf.ce pe r lin 11. Weigh t
Nomin al n ow l're a Il .'/Il. in. Con sidering thc man ufactur ing tolcrancc of 12.5'70, thc minirnurn
Schedu le pe ' lin 11 ,
pir.; ai re, OU, in . 1\0.
ID , in . por pipe.
in." Oul3ide I neid e lb . tcd thickn ess a vailabl e is 0.875 x 0.3 = 0.2625 in.
J 'S, in.
- - - - 40--
' 0 .269 0 .058 0 .106 0 .070 0 .25 Subs titu ting Sa = 15,000 psi (Table F-l) and e = 0.02 in. Equ arion
H 0 . 405 0 . 056 0 .32
B()l 0 .215 0 .036 ( F-3 ), wc havc
0 . 36-1 0 .10 4 0 .1'1 0 .0')5 0 . 43
}~ 0 .5 40 40 '
0 .302 0072 0 .07 9 0 .54 0.2625 = 3.5? + 0.02
B()l
2 x 15.000 + 0.8?
O 57
H O 675 40' 0 . 493 0 .192
0 . 1'1
0 . 177 0 . 129
0 .1 11 O. H Solving for P, we have P = 2200psig.
B()l 0 . 423
0 . 163 O 85
For alloy stcels. thc factor 0.8 in the denominat or would be
0 .8-10 40' 0 .622 0 .30 4 0 .220
H 0 . 546 0 .235 0 . 1{3 1. 0') diffcrcnt . The ASME Code may be referred to for de tails.
B()I
1.0; 40 ' 0 .824 0 .534 0 .2 75 0 .2 16 1. 13 A sim plified ap proac h is see n be low. Using standa rd pipe di-
X B() I 0 .H2 0 . 432 0 .1 94 1. 48
mension s a nd Equ . (F -3), the maximum allowa ble pressure fo r each
40 ' 1. 0 49 0 .8tH 0 .3 H 0 .27 4 1. 68
I 1.32
O 718 0 .250 2 . 17 pipe was arrive d al. Onc nced not refer to the codc for stress valu es.
B()l 0 .957
0 .3 62 2 . 28
In addi tion , specific pipe dirncnsio ns (0.0. and thickn ess) need
IX 1. 66 40' 1 .3 SO 1.50 0 . 435
SOl 1.27 8 1. 28 0 . 335 3 . 00 not be known, as the schedule number and pipe material a re all thal
40 ' 1 · 610 2 04 0 . 498 0 . 422 2 . 72 are necessary.
IH 1.00
1. 76 0 . 393 3 .64
B() I 1.500 Table F-3 gives the máxi mum allowab le wo rking pressu re, in
3 .35 0 .622 0 .5 42 3 .66
2 2 .3 8 40' 2 .067
2 .95 0 . 508 5 .03 psig, based on an allowable s tress of 15,000 psi. To correct fo r the
SOl 1. 939
5 .B()
specific mat erial a nd tem pera tur e, multiply the value obtained from
2}í 2 . 88 40' 2 . 469 4 .79 0 .7 53 0 .641
SO l 2 .323 4 . 23 0 .60 9 7 . 67 table by the appro pr iat e F factor from Figure F-1. Table F-4 lis ts the
3 3 . 50 40' 3 . 063 7 . 38 0 .9 17 0 .S04 7 . 58 va rious materials by composi tion and ASME cod e specification .
SO l 2 .!lOO 6 .6 1 0 .7 60 10 . 3

4 .50 40 ' 4 .026 12 . 7 1. 178 1.055 10. 8 Exam ple 3:

4 1.002 15 .0
SO l 3 . 826 11 .5
19 . 0
Est ímat e the maximu m allo wab lc wo rking pressur e for a 2-in.,
6 6 .625 40' 6 .065 28 .9 1. 734 1.500
B()I 5 .7 61 26 . 1 1.510 28 , 6 Sched ule 40 carbon-ma nga nese (SA 53B) pipe a t 750°F.
8 . 625 40' 7 . 98 1 50 .0 2 . 258 2 .000 28 .6
8 43 .4
SO l 7 .62 5 45 .7 2 .000 Solution:
10 .7 5 40' 10 .0 2 78 :8 2 .8 14 2 .62 40 .5 From Table F-3, a value of 1,782 psi is ob tai ned. Fro m the
10 2 .5 5 54 .8
60 9 .7 5 H .6
43 .8
fig ur e, for SA 538 (Curve 1) a t 750°F, F is 0.86. Hence, the maximum
12 12 . n 30 12.09 115 3 .3 38 ·3. 17
14 14 .0 30 13.25 138 3 .6 65 3 .47 5-4 .5 allowable pressure is 0.86 x 1,782 = 1,532 psig.
15 .0 30 15.25 183 4 . 189 4 .00 52.5
15 4 .52 72.7
18 18 .0 201 17 .25 234 4 .7 12
291 5 .2 36 6 .05 78 .5
20 20 .0
22 .0
20
201
19 .2 5
21 .25 355 5 .747 5 .56 84 .0 OESIGNING VESSELS ANO TUBES
22 6 .283 5 .09 94 .7
24 24 .0 20 23 .25 425 FüR EXTERNAL PRESSURE
• Commonly known as standard.
t Commonly known as ext r a heavy . The s tandard procedure for d esigning pressure vessels and tubes
t Approxlmately. (or pipes ) su bject to extern al pressure is tedious and time-consu mí ng,
 Wasl e Hea t Botler Deskboo k Ap pe ndix F - Tu be Thickn ess Calculati on s 383
382

5 Tablc F-4.
ASlVfE spccifi cations for various s teels

0 .9
Codo Curve
Co m po sitio n designat io n on figu re

0 .8 Carbo n-rna noanese SA 538 1

Carbon-m anganese·silicon SA 1068 1
Carbon- ~Mo (~% molybde num) SA 335 PI 2
0.7 5Cr·}SMo (5% chromium ,
~% molybde num) SA 335 P5 3
F 9Cr·l Mo SA 335 P9 4
1% Cr-JliMo SA335P ll 5
0 .6
2% Cr· l Mo SA 335 P22 5

Source : ASME boller and prenure venel code , Seco 1.

19 8 0 .
0.5 p . 184 , T oble PG23. 1

0.4 '
see Table lar key becaus e it invol ves a tr ial-and -error approa ch, and referen
ce to
many charts and tables. Howev er. by using he me thod explain
ed in
650 700 750 800 thi s article, and Figures F-2 and F-3, quick estimat es of shell or
tube
Tempera ture.OF th ickness , or ex terna l design pressur e, can be ob tained for a
wide
Figure F-1. Factor F corrects for lempera lure, [Chemical Enginuring] variety of materia ls withou t the need for a compli cated iterativ
e
p rocedur e.
Many chemic al process equipm ent items must be design ed for
Table F-3. externa ! p ressure . For exampl e, process vessels often may be subjec
ted
Maxim um alalow able pressur eo to acciden tal vacu um. The A5ME Boile r and Pressure Vessel
Code
require s tha t these be trea ted as vessels subject to ex ternal pressur
e.
Nominal Vessels with jackets, depend ing on the pressur e in the jackets
pipe size, in. Schedule 40 Schedule 80 Schedul. 160 , may
ha ve to be designed for externa l pressur e.
% 4,830 6,833 In hea t excha ngers, evapor a to rs, af tercool ers, etc. , w here th ere
~ 3 ,750 . 5 ,235 6 ,928
3 ,947 5,769 is h igh p ress ure on th e shell side, th e tubes m us t be d esig ned
1 2,857 for
1~ 2,112 3,000 4 ,329 ex te rnal pr essure.
2 1,782 2,575 4 ,225 To show the advantage of thi s new me tho d, le t us first describ e
2~ 1,948 2,702 3.749
th e p roced u re o f th e A5ME Boil e r a nd Press u re Vessel
3 1,693 2,394 3 ,601 Code,
4 1,435 2,074 3.370 Sec.VlI I, Div.l , Pa ra. UG-28.
5 1,258 1.857 3.191
6 1.145 1.796 3,076
1,58 7 2,9 70 ASME Procedure
8 1,006
For cylinders, shells and tubes where D]t» 10:
• B.. od on e lloweble atre.. of 15 ,000 psi
, ¡ I
} Step l -Assu me a value for t, and d et ermine LID and Dlt.
 Waste Hea t Boílcr Deskboo k Appendi x F - Tube Th ickness Ca lculation s 385
384

S te p 2-Ente r Figure UCO-2 8.0 (in the ASME manual ) at the
valué of L/D. For L/O> 50, u se L/O = 50.
Step 3-Mov e hor izo ntall y to the lin e fo r the valuc of 0 /1 , a nd
frorn th e poin t of intersec tion rea d off A .
Ste p 4- Us ing A, enter th e approp riate cha rt for mat erial and
lempcra ture and rcad off B (Ir orn Figure UCS 28-1 o r 28-2 in
the codo ).
Step S-Calc ula te P« = 4B//3(O /I)].
Step 6--1f Pa is lcss tha n the d esign pr cssure, P, incrcase 1 and
repeat Steps 1 to 6.
5- Lcsser of tw ice the maxirn urn all owable s tress valu é al
d esign tcmpe ra ture or 0.9 times thc tab u lat ed yiel d
s tren gth a t th c design tempera ture, (Va l úes of tabu-
lat ed yield str ength in Scction VIII, Div. 2 may be
u scd in the abscncc of suc h values in Div. 1) . M ínimu m
thickne ss of she ll o r tu be , exclus ive o f corros io n all ow-
an cc, in .
Table F-S.
C1assi fication of m a teri als for use in Figures F-2 & F-3

For cylinders, shells and lubes uihere 0 /1 < 10: Type lar use Type tor use
f::lQ. ~ ~ in 6 a E·1&F·2 f::lQ. ~ ~ E·1 & E·2
in El(]
1. SA36 AandB B 35. SA350 LE ] aOO LE2 S
Step 1-Usin g th e sarne p rocedu re as be ío re, find A and B. For 2. SA 283 AaOO B A 36. SA352 LCS B
3. SA283 CandO B 37. SA372 I S
0 /1 less than 4, A = 1.1/(0/ 0 2. For A > 0.1, use 0.1. SA285 AandB A SA203
4. 38. AandO B
Step 2-Calc ula te Pa1 and Pa2 . 5. SA285 C B 40. SA387 2 CI. . B
6. SA414 AaOO B A 41. SA387 12 el. 1 B
7. SA414 C,O,E andF B 42. SA387 11 e1.1 B
P.I = [2. 167 _ 0.0833] B 8. SA 442 55 and 60 B 43. SA 387 22 el. 1 B
DIt 9. SA 455 Al B 44. SA 387 21 el.1 B
10. . SA 515 Al B 45. SAl99 Al A
11. SA516 Al B 46. SA 209 Al B
P.2 =~../¡ - _1) 12. SA 537 Up lo 2.5 in. 47. SA 213 Al B
DIt\ D/t inel . CI.1 B 48. SA 333 4,7and3 B
13. SA 53 AaOO B B 49. SA334 7aOO3 B
Where S is th e lesser of: tw ice th e maxim um allo wab le stress 11, . SAl06 A, Band C B SO. SA335 Al B
15. SA 179 A 51. SA369 Al B
val ue a t the d esign met al temper ature (fro rn the applica ble 16. SA 192 A 52. SA423 1and2 B
table in
Su bsectio n 0, 0.9 times th e tabulat ed yield s tre ng th of th e m 17. SA333 1.6 B 53. SA260 Tlb A
at e rial 18. SA 334 1.6 B 54. SA 260 T1 , Tla B
at the design tem pe ra ture (va lues of yield strengt h are availab 19. SA524 1and 11 B 55. SA334 7and3
le in B
Sec tio n VIII, Di v. 2, Tabl e F-ACS 2). 20. SA556 A2 A 56 . SA423 1and2 B
21. SAsSs B2 B 57. SA217 WCI B
22. SA53 AandB B 58. SA 336 d F22a B
NO M EN C LAT URE 23. SA135 AandB B 59. SA336 dE2 1a B
24. SA 178 AandC B 60 . SA336 dE5 B
25. SA226 A 61. SA350 LF4,LE3 B
A,B - Factors frorn charts in ASME Boiler and Pressur e Vessel 26. SA334 1 A 62. SA352 LCI B
27. SA334 6 B 63 . SA508 1 B
Code, Section VIII, Di v 1 and 2, P 8 UCQ-28.0. UC5-28 28. SA557 A A 64. SA541 1 B
and UCS28 .2 29 . SA557 B B 65 . SA 240 405,410S, 410 B
30 . SA587 B 66. SA 268 TP405,TP410 B
0 - Outer d íarneter of shell or tube in. 31 . SA 105 B 67. SA479 405 B
L - Design len gth of shell or tube in . 32. SA 1811 and 11 B
33. SA216 WCAandWCB B
P- External d esign pressure, p si 34. SA266 Al B
Pa - Maxim um allowab le externa l pressur e on sh ell or tube
psi
 Wa sle Heat Boiler Des kbook Appendi x F - Tubc Thicknes s Calculat ions 387
386

St ep 3-C hoose the sma ller of Pa1 a ndPa 2 fo r ma ximum Melhod B (using Fig ure F-2 and F-3):
al Jo wab le d es ig n pressur e. Th is ca n be com pa red wi th P and Since 0 11> 10, use Figure F-2 frorn Table SA 515, Grad e 70 co mes
1, a nd u nd e r Ty pe B. O n Fig ur e F-2, s ta r t from Pa = 30, an d go u p to cu
may be a ltere d if necessa ry tT =
500 0F. Movc ho rizonta lly to int ersect a ve rtical lin e from LID = 2.25
at a 011 of a pp rOXill1<l tc ly 160. Hcnce, 1= 0/160 = 0.5 in.
A quick cstima ting method
Exam p le 5:
Figure F-1 and F-3 h a ve bee n d ev eJo pe d based o n d et ai led
ca 1cu la tio ns , and give a very good est ima te o f P« if O, I a nd An SA 335 P11p ipe having a diame ter of 5 in ., a thickn ess o f 0.8
L a re in . a nd a leng th of 40 in. is u scd a t a tem pcratur e of 800° F. De te
kn ow n . O r, I ma y be found if the o the r parame te rs a re kno wn rmine
. Th e the ma ximum ex te rna l p ressure tha t this pi pe ca n withs tand .
tw o ex a m p les th a t follo w a re wo rke d o u t u sin g bo th m ethod
s, to Melhod A (usi ng Code procedure):
illu s tra te th e versat ilit y o f the cha rts
Two ca tego ries o f m at e rial s common ly used a re consid e red
in LID = 4015 = S; 011 = 5/.0S = 6.25
these chart s under Type A a nd Type B. They are ca tegoriz ed in
Table
F-5 .
Fro m Fig ur e UGO-28, A = 0.3
Fro m Figure UCS-28 .2, B = 12,000
Examp lc 4:

A s hell o f materi al SA 515 Grade 70 is to be d esig n ed Pa1 = [(2.1 6716.25 ) -o.OS33l12,000 = 3,160 psi
to
w iths ta nd externa l pressur e under th e followi ng conditi ons:
P = 30 psi; 0= 80 in.; L = l S0 in.; d csign tem pcra ture, T, = 500°F. . To find Pa 2 w e rnu st first ob tain S. Fo r the mat e rial spe cified
,
Es tim a te the lhickne ss that is su itable . th e all owable s tress (fro m Tabl e F-UCS-23 , in Sec tion VIII, Div
. 1) is
M ethod A (using code procedure): 15,000 psi, and yield s tre ng th (Sectio n VIII, Div. 2) is 22,500 psi.
As sume the thickne ss to be 1.5 in . Th en :
0.9(22,500) = 20,250
LID = 2.25; 0 11 = 53 Twice th e allowab le s tress is: 205,000 ) = 30,000. We choose the
Frorn Figure UGO-28, for LID = 2.25 and 0 11= 53, find A = lower of th e tw o (20,250) to use in the eq ua tion for Pa2·
0.0015 .
Frorn Figure UC5-28 .2, for A =0.0015and T =500°F, find B = Pa2 = [(2)(20,500)/ 6.25](1- 0 / 6.25)] = 5,443 psi
11 ,000. Then:
Hence the maxim um allowab le pressur e is 3,160 psi.
Pa = 4B/f3W lt)] = (4)(11,000)/(3)(53 ) = 277 psi
Method B (using Figure F-2 and F-3):
Theref ore, we have to try a lower value for l. Try I = 0.5 in.
Then, L/D =2.25; D/t =160 Since D]t « lO, use Figure F-3 from Table 1, materia l used fal1s
From Figure UGo-2 8, A = 0.00028 under Type B.
From Figure UCS-2 8.2, B = 3,800 On Figure F-3 for Dl! = 6.25 and T = 800°F, read off Pa = 3,200
psi.
Pa = (4)(3,800)1<3)(160) = 32 psi
Hence, t =0.5 is reasona ble.
 .))/1 s. .',.1 I
~

~~
~~ i, \
-r-.
1---_ lO

~1'\ 1\f\
1-
r-- r---
~ 1"- Jo

-,~ r-
-
~
-~
f\ - -- r--
r-. --r---oo
- - Ni- i"- t-
:--
t--I'-

'\ 1-
- ~~" i"'-j'.. ~
\~
t'\ '" '"
i"-

~~~
~~
I ~
"~.-
~'"
.!¡,

""\~ 1'\ 1\
[\
f'-

l\
-.
[\ ....<:
;; .

~.
:r:
..
I"J

o:

,I ..
seo
I , . 8.
?f
,
'.
1.000 >00 '00 se lO l. ••
~
]
' • . p' 1 lO
( /0 _

Figure F·2. Cha rt us ed Ior solvi ng problem s concc ming shell s and tu bos subjectod lo ex terna! pre ssure. 8""
Use Ihis ch art wh en Dl ¡ > 1O. ""

"O
>
~
8.000 ..- I 5-
¡;.
."
I
-1
e
r{
;J
ñ'
x-
~"
n
~6'000 ~. - .
<, I 2"o;-'"'
o'
i;:

2.000

~· F

46
6
DIr_ 8S

Figu re r oJ oC ha r t la r s hclls a nd tu bcs subjec tod lo extern a! pr es su ro. Use whcn VII < lO. ~
-o
390 Was te Heat Boil cr Des kbook
CO N CLUSIO N
Appendix G
Th csc charts are reaso nably accura tc for cnginee ring purposes.
We havo wor ked out over 20 cases, and thc máximum error was 6%. Conversion Factors
For th is approach:
No trial a nd erro r is in vo lved if the thickness is not kn own . No Me tri e To American
"feel" for th e valu é of I is needed. Melric To Metric
Therc is no need to spend tim e look ing u p va lues fo r yield AREA:
st reng th a nd allowable stress a t the appropriate ternperat u re. 1 mm' = 0.00 155 in .' = 0 .000 010 ;6 rl'
1 cm' = 0. 155 in .' = 0 .001 0;6 rl'
There is no need to read values for A and B from the figures in the 1 m' = 1550 in .' = 10.;6 rl'
Cede ma n ual (Figure UGO-28.0 and UGO-28.2; this saves furt her
t irne.)
In add itio n, it sho uld be pointed ou t that the two figures in the
Code (UGO-28.0 and 28.2) ha ve log-Iog sca les, and the accuracy OENSITY a nd SPECIFIC GRAVITY:
1 g/cm' = 0 .0 36 13 lb/in .' = 6 2.4 3 1b1rl'
obtained by their use d epends in part on the skill of the user. = looo \:glm'= 1 \:gIl
From th e fo regoi ng exa mp les, one can see the e legance, = 62.4 31b1ft' = 8.345 1b1USga l
simplici ty a nd ver sat ility that mak e the use of Figures F-2 and F-3 Il' g/m' = 136 gra ins/ft'
[Ior particulate pallution )
pre fera ble to the Cod e meth od s.
1 \:gIm' = 0.062 43 Iblft'
E."'ERGY. HEAT . and WORK:
1 ca l = 0.00 3 968 Btu
1 <cal = 3.968 Btu = 1000 ca l = 4186 J
= 0.004 186 MI
1 I = 0.000 948 Btu = 0 .239 cal = 1 W ·s
= 1 N 'm = 10 'er¡¡ = 10'dyne · cm
1 W ·h = 660.6 cal
HEAT CONTENT and SPEC IFIC HEAT :
1 caUg = 1.80 Btullb = 418 7 IJI:g
1 caUcm' = 112.4 Btulft'
1 <caUm ' = 0 . 1124 Btulr l' = 418; pm'
1 caUg ·oC = 1 Btullb·oF = 4187 J/kg·oK
t 62.351b1rt'
¿ ...
al 60 F. 15.6 C: 8.3351b1USgal.
u . .. . . ..
American To Me trie
American To American
I in ! = 645 .2 mm' = 6.452 cm'
= 0.000 645 2 m'
1 rt' = 92903 mm' = 929 .0J cm'
= 0.0929 m'
1 acre = 4356 0 rt'
1 ci rc ula r mil = 0 .7854 square mil
= 5.067 x l O"" m' = 7.85 4 x 10"' in!
1 Iblin! = 27.68 g/cm' = 27 680 \:g/m'
Ilbl CI' = 0 .0160 g/cm' = 16.02 \:gIm'
= 0 .01 60 \:gil
Specific gravity relati ve to wa te r
(SGW) of \.00 = 62.431b1H'aI4Cor39.2Ft
Specific gr a vily r elative lo dry ai r
[SGA) of \.00 = 0.07651b1rlo;
= 1.225 <glm'
1 IblUSgal = 7.481 Ibl ft' = 0.1198 <gil
1 glrt' = 35 .3 x 10' l' g/m'
Ilbl looo ft' = 16 x 10' l' glm'
341 3 Btu = I< W ·h
1 Btu = 0.2929 ws
= 252.0 cal = 0 .252 <cal
= 778ft ·lb
= 1055 I = 0.001055 MI
1 ft ·Ib = 0.1383kg·m = 1.356 I
1 hp ·hr = 1.98 x lO' ít -Ib
1 lherm = \.00 x 10' Btu
1 bbp (bailar borsapower) = 33475 BtuIhr
= 8439 <callh = 9.81 <W
1 BIU/lb = 0.5556 caUg = 2326 J/l:.g
1 Blulr t' = 0 .008 90 caUcm'
= 8 .899 kca l/m' = 0.0373 MJlm'
1 BtulUSgal = 0 .666 <caUI
1 BtuJlb ·oF = 1 caUg ·oC = 4187 JII:8. 0 J::
 Wa ste Hca t Boiler Dcsk boo k Appe ndix G - Convc rsion Faetors 393
392

Am erican To Metric Metrie To Ameriea D Ame ri can T o ¡\ofe trie

Me trie To Am e rica n
Americ an To Ame rica n Me trie To .'-fe tric Ame ric a n To America n
Metri c To Metric
PRESSURE [cont 'd]
HEAT fLOW. POWER:
1 hp 33000 ft Ib/min = 550 ít lb/se c [For rou gh c alc uJa tions. 1 a tm t = 10 1.3 lPa = 101 32 5 Nlm'
1 N . mis = 1 W = 1 l/s 1 bar = 1 a tm = l 1g/em' = 10 330 mm H,O = 407.3 in. H,O
= 0 .001 34 1 hp = 0.7376 rt · Ib/sec 745.7 W = 745.7 l/s
641 ,4 kcal/h = 10 m H,O = 100 kPa ] 760 .0 mm Hg = 29.92 in . Hg
1 kcal/h = 1.162 J/s = 1.16 2 W
1 Btufh r = 0.25 22 kca l'h 235 .1 az/in! = 14.70 Iblin!
= 3 .966 Btulhr 1.033 19lc m'
0 .000 393 1 hp
1 leW = 1000 l/s = 3 413 Btulh r
= 0.2931 W = 0.2931 l/s
1.013 ba r
1.341 hp
TEMPERAnJRE:
C = ·I.(F - 321
HEAT n.ux an d HE AT TRANSfE R COEff ICIENT: F = ('1. C) + 32
1 ca Ucm"s = 3.68 7 Blulft" se c 1 Btulft' ·sec = 0.27 13caUcm' ·s K = C + 273.15
= 41.87 kW/m' 1 Btulft'·hr = 0.003153 kW /m' R = F + 459 .67
1 ca Ucm' · h = 1.082 Wlft ' = 11.65 W/m' = 2.7 13 lecaUm' ·h
1 le W/m' = 3 17.2 Btu! ft' ·hr 1 kWlfl' = 924 .2callcm' ·h
1 kW/mJ. 0C = 176.2 Btulf l' · hr · oF 1 Btul ft' ·hr ·o f = 4.89 lecat /m' ·h · oC THER.\lAL CONnucrrvrrv.
1 Wlm ·oK = 0.5 77 8 Btu · fUft' ·hr · oF 1 Btu ·lUfl' ·h r ·oF = 1.730Wlm ·o K
= 6.93 4 Btu - in lft' · hr - ° F = 1.488 kca Vm·h ·oK
1 ea )·cmiem' ·s , oC = 241.9 Btu ·IUIt' ·h r ·o F 1 8 tu ·i n lfl' · hr · oF = 0 .144 2 Wlm · oK
LENGTH : 2903 Btu .inlft' . hr . ° F 18Iu ·lU ll' · hr·o F = 0 .004139cal · cmI=' ·s ·o C
1 mm 0 .10 cm = 0.03 93 7 in.
1 in .= 25.4 mm = 2.54 cm =
0 .0254 m = 418.7 Wlm ·oK 1 81u' in l fl" hr· ° F = 0 .000 344 5 ea l · cm!
1 It = 304 .8 mm = 30,48 cm = 0.3048 m
=0.003 281 ft
I mile = 5280 ít
cm"s ' oC
1 m = ioo c m = lOOOmm = 39 .37 in .
3.28 1 ft 1 mic ron =1" =
100000m
1 Angs lrom unit = 1 A = 10'" m THE R ~IAL OIFFUSIVITY;
1 km = 0 .62 14 mile
1 m' ls = 38 760 l l'Ihr 1 ft'lh r = 0 .000 025 8 m'ls = 0.0929 m'lh
1 m"h = 10.77 fl' Ihr

PRESS URE:
1 N ' m' = 0 .00 1 lePa = I. 00 Pa
1 in. H,O = 0 .2488 lePa = 25,40 mm H,O VELOCITY:
I mm H,O = 0 .0098 lePa
1.866 mm Hg 1 c rn/s = 0 .39 37 inlsec = 0 .032 81 lUsee 1 in .lsee = 25.4 mrn/s = 0.02 54 mJs
0.002 54 leg/cm ' = 2.54 g/cm ' 10.00 mmls = 1.96 9 IUmin = 0 .0568 mph
1 mm Hg 0.1333 lePa = 13.60 mm H,O
1 torr = 0.01933Ib/in .' 1 in . Hg 3.386 lePa = 25,40 mm Hg 1 mrs 39 .37 in l sec = 3.281 IUsec 1 fUsec 304 .8 mm/s = 0.3048 mJs
345.3 mm H,O = 13.61 in . H,C 196 .9 IUmin = 2.237 mph = 0.6818mph
1 leg/cm ' 98 .07 kPa = 10000 kg/m' 3.600 lm/h = 1.944 knot
7.858 o:zJin.' = 0,491 lb/in .' 1 lUmin = 5.08 mmls = 0.00508 mis
10 000 mm H,O = 394.1 in. H,()
= 0 .0183 km/h
=
735.6 mm Hg 28.96 in. Hg 25.4 tor r
6.895 lePa = 6895 N/m' 1 mph =
0 .4470 mJs =
1.609 i.mIh
=
227 .6 miin.' 14.22Ib/in' 1 lb/in.'
703 .1 mm H;O = 27.71 in. H,O =
1.467 CUsec
= 0.9807 bar 1 knot = 0.5144 mJs
51.72 mm Hg = 2.036 in. Hg I rpm = 0 .1047 rad ianslsee
1 ba r 100.0 lePa = 1.020 leglcm '
lO 200 mm H,O = 401.9 in. H,O 16.00 o:zJin.'
0.0703 kg/cm ' = 70.31 g/cm'
750. 1 mm Hg = 29.53 in . Hg t Norrnal a tmosphere = 760 10 r r l m m H ~ a t Oq - no la " techní I .. . .
232.1 miin.' = 14.50 lb/in.' = 0.06897 bar or I l~lcm'. Subtract aboul 0.5IbJin! for eae h 1000 fl aboye se~~ev:'rosphere . whích '" 736 10fT
1 ozIin .' 0.4309 lePa
100OOON/m'
43.94 mm H,O = 1.732 in . H,O
1 grcm- 0.0 14 221b/in .'
3.232mm Hg
0.2276 oz/in.'
0.004 39 lell/cm ' = 4.394 g/cm '
0 .3937 in . H,O

. .;
 394 Wa st e Hea t Bo iler Desk boo k

Me tri c To Ame ric a n Am eric e n T u M etrie

Me tr-ic Tu Me tr-ic Ame ric an To Ame ric a n
Vlsm srrv . a bs olute .j/ : Index
01 Pa -s t d vne -src m: = 3 60l~lh 'm t lb ma ssJhr · It 0.000 006 634
I poise = 100 eenlipoise lb (orce -sed l t'
242.l lbmasslhr ·(1 0.413 ee nti poise
0.00 2 089 lb (or ce ' se dll' 0.00041 3 Pa ·s
1lJ¡,ñ ' m = 0.672 Ibihr ·1l = 0.00278 Ws ·cm 1 lb (or ee 'sedll ' = 1158oolbmasslhr '(1 I\[¡MI\ boilcr a nd fced wa ter gu íd clíncs Cog cn eration sy srcm s 5
0.000 00 58 I lb (orce ' sed(l' = ~ 7 880eentipoise 268 Cornb ined cyd e plants 6, ~ 5
= 47.88 Pa -s
Ac ous tic vib rati nn 329 Computcr programs
1 re y" = 1 lb (or ce ' sedin .'
A ir hc aters 91, 33 2 COGEN 228
6.890 x 10' eentipo ise
Allowablc stress valu cs 378 -379 d esupcrhea tin g st ca rn 19 ~
l' of water t = 1.1 2~ ee ntipoise l' of airt 0.01 80 ee ntipoise Ap pr oach p oint expansi on cf s tear n 2~~
2.7Z lb ma ssJhr ' (1 0.0436 Ib/h r · (1 d csign m od o 34, 165,209 ins ula tion pe rforma nce 321
2.349 x l o -' Ib ' sed ll ' 3.763 x 1 0~ lb -sec/It o ff-d esign m od e 227-228 supp leme n lary fir ing 25
eco no m izer s tc a ming J a, 212 Co nde ns a re heat er 233
fir ed m od e 2 18 Con vectiv c heat tra nsfe r 135-13 9
VIscosrrv. kin erna tic . v:
selec tion oE209-211 (See hca t tra n sfer cocíncie n ts abo)
1 em 'ls = 0.0001 m' /s 1 (t'lsee = 3600 ll' /h r = 92 900 cen tis tokes ASME boiler an d Ieed wat er guídelines Co rrosion
1 stoke = 100 eentislokes = 0 .09 29 m'/s 266 in econ om ize r 307-310
0.001 076 1I' lsee =
1 (1'/h 0.000 278 ll'lsee =
25.8 centisr okes Au xiliary firing high lcmperat ur e 77
3.874 (l'/h r 0 .000 0258 m' /s burners 15, 17 low temperature 80, 307-310
. I m'ls 3600 m' /h com bus ti ón ca lcula lions 20, 24, 28 in s tacks , ducts 315
38736 ft' /h r = 10 .76 (1'/see 'cornp u ter program 25 superhea le r 79, 80
v of water t = 1.130 centistokes v o( airt 14.69 centistokes effíciency of sys rern 30
JZ SSU 1.581 x lo"' ( l' /see fr es h ai r 19, 3 1 Dampers41
1.216 x 10~ (t' /see leaka ge lhr ough 4 2 -4~
BaEne s 332 Dea erat or
Bearn len gth 104, 141 in H RSG sys terns 237
VOLUME: Blow d own 265 steam consum plion 233-241
t cm -{ccl = 0.000001 00 m' 1 in .' = 16.39 cm' = 0.000 1539 m' Boile r wa ter 266-2 68 Depar tu re fro m nucleat e boili ng, (O :--.' B)
0.0610 in.' = 0.0338 US Iluid aL 0 .01 639 1 Bumers 174
1 1 (dm ') 0.00 10 m' = 1000 cm' 1 (t' 17Z8 in.' = 7.48 I USgal duct 15 Desuperheater 191
61.02 in.' = 0 .035 31 (t' 5.229 Br ga l reg ister 17 Dew points of acid ga ses 310
0.2642 ¡;Sg a l 28 32 0 cm' = 0.028 J2 m' = 28.32 1 Drum
= 52 .427 1b o( 39 .4 Fl 4 C) water Carbón Monaxide (CO) 35 hold up lime 272
= 5 2.344 lb of 50 F ( 15.6 C) water ca talysts 40 in ternals 258
1 m' = 1000/ = 1 000 000 cm' I USgal = 3785 cm' = 0.003 785 m' conversi ón calculations 35-36 sizing 271
61020 in .' = 35 .31 !l' = 3.7851 = 23 1.0 in.' Casing design 322-324
220.0 Brgal = 0 .8327 Br ga l = 0. 133 7 (1' Cheng cycle 47-50
5.290 bbl = sp gr )( 8.335 lb Chlorine co rrosion 78-80, 310 Economizer
254. 2 USga I =- 8.335 lb o( water Circulation con figura lions 196
1.3OB vd ' = '1.. barrel [oil] calculations 174-175 corrosion in 310-312
foreed 6 design 196
t At s tp. na tura l 6 steaming34
system 170, 175 Efficieney
COGEN so ftw are 228 fin 278
{ea tures 229 H RSG system 30, 31, 231
oplimizing tem pera ture p rofiles 245 im proving 231
 397
\Vasle Heat Boil er Dcs kbook
39 6
s rea m injcclio n 39 water wall /l6
elcvated drum 3, 97-99 water i n jcc tion 39 In cinera tio n
Emissions
gJ S bypass cJl cu lJ tion s 124 fume 87
C035
guid clincs for scl cctio n 99 l l.iza rdous ,, '.1 sl e inci neral ion 76 gasco us wast c 7
co n ve rsion Gllcu lations 3(,
h ea t lo ss CJlculal ions 125 l lca t flux haza rdous w a stc i6
5C R 40
h ca t flux 124 in fin ned ru be boilcrs 33. 291-294 liquid wa ste 87
NO, 35
h yd rogen plant s 52, 55, 123 in ti re tu be boilcrs 12·\ solid wa st e (MS \V) 62, 8-\
s te .r rn in jec tion 39
incin erat ion p la n ts 84,88 in wate r tu bo ovaporat or s 33, 157 RDF 72, 73
water injec lion 39
m u lti-pJ ss 99 l lcat loss ca lcula lions 317·32 0 V0Cs87,88
s peci ficJ tio ns 257
pe rformance 117 co rnp u ter program 320 Inline arrangcmcnt
'=m lsslv ity o f gJ ses 142·14 6
si mplified design p rocedu re 109 lh rou gh multi -IJyered insulation 320 ba rc tu bos 136, 148,1 53
.. ha nccd oi! reco vcry 51
simplified performJn ce ovaluat ion finn cd tu bos 287-289
EnthJlpy o f gJses 351 in fire tube boilcr 125
119 He at pipes 92 Insulation ca lculati ons 3 16-320
Eut lXtics 77
single pJSS 84,97 H cat trans ícr co c ífi cicnts
rnclting poin t 7&
si ngle s he ll 84, 97 c ífect of prcssure 353 Landfill gas 44
EVJpora tor (see w ate r tubc boil cr also)
R uidiscd bed co rnbustors 74 ínsid c rubes 139 Leak age thr oug h da rnpc rs 42-44
ba rc tu be 154, 286
R u id iscd bed CJt cra cker 62 ou tsidc bar e tu bes inl ine 135-137 Life cycle cos ting 115
co m p J rison o f ba rc versus finned 167.
For ced cir culation boi ler s 6 ou tside ba re rubos s lJggered 135-137 Low lem perature corrosion 307
286
Fouling factors ou tsid e finned tubos inlin c 276, 2 7-
co n figu ra tio ns 170
effec t in finned tu bes 292, 295 Melti ng poin t of eu lec ties 77-78
d esign o f 155, 2 6 289
insid e tu bes 120, 156,292 outside finned tu bos staggered 276, Multí -pr essure H RSC 4,245, 250
finned tu bc 286
outs ide tubes 294 287-289 Mun icipal so lid w ast e 64
fnr ced circulJt ion 6
scal e 121 non -Iumin ous 142· 146 anal ys is 64
h ca I flux 157, 286
hca r tr a n sf cr 135-140
Fuma ces stca rn 139 boilers 80
mem brane wall 16, 66 HRSCs (sce wa s te heat bo ilc rs a lso) corrosio n 77
inline versus s tJggered 153,287
refractor y lined 66, 70 cogene rJlion planr s 5
n at ura l circulat ion 6
wa ter cool ed 66, 174 com binc d cyclc plants 6 Natural ci rc ula tio n boilers 6, 174
performance 162
fir ed 12 Natural frequen cy of vib ra tio n 329
ExpJ ns io n of st earn 242-245
Ga s analysis fluidiscd bed cat cracker 62 NO x
effect on gas properties 354 for ced circulation 6 gas tur bine 35
Fee,j wat er 265 , scc A BMA, ASME
converting % volume to weight, 35 5 gas turbine exhaust 5 conversion calculation s 36
Fmned ru bes 33 , 277
compJrison with bare tub es 167, 286 of heat recovery systems 2 hydrogen plants 54 me thod of red ucing 37
Gas m ass ve loci ty 136, 156, 276 improving efficiency 231 SCRs 37-41
dficiency 278
effectiveness 278 GJS pr o perties incineration systerns 80,86-87 stea rn injec tion 39
e ffec t of fin eon ñgurction 294, 297 compuling 352 multi -p ressure 4,245.250 water in jection 39
cffec t of tu be side coeffici ent 291 da la 349 natural circula lion 6 NTU m et h od 181
enthalpy 351 pe rfo rmance 197 Nusselt N umbe r 102, 137
fin tip tem p er al ur e 280
effect of p ressure 353 sim ul a tio n of pe rfo rm ance 205
fouling facto rs 294
effect of gas an al ysis 354 specifying 257 Op ti m iza lion
gJS p ressure dro p 278, 295·297
specifications 260-262 sul fu ric add plants 57, 60 tire tube boilers 115
heat transfer 276-280
specific hea t 352 lemperature proñles 207, 213 pinch and ap pr oach poinls 165
hea l flux 291, 294
therm al cond uctivity 352 High lem pe ra tu re co rrosion 77 lemperature profiles 165, 245
in line arrang emen t 287-289
visco sit y 352 Hydroch loric acid dew poi n t 310 Oxygen for com buslion 20-28
se rr a le d 279
Gas turbine Hydrogen plan l 54 (see auxiliar y firing a lso)
sol id 279
staggered a rra ngem en t 287-289 cha racteristics 5
cogeneration plants 6 lncineralors Pin ch poinl
sur face area 292,300
co mbined cy cle plants 5 fluiclised bed 67, 74 design mode 165, 210-213
we ig ht 302
dala 260, 337, 351 modular 70 fired case 218
Fír e lu be bo ilers
exhausl ga s analysis 2, 351 refr aclory lined 66 selec lio n of 209-211
desi gn of 100, 103
HRSG fea tures 5 rol ar y kiln 68, 76 optirniza lio n 165
effec t o f s eale 121 1\11""\ ·" ~ II ,. . i n n -:lQ..J, 1
 399
Waste Hc a t Boiler Deskboo k ln d e x
398

Tubo wa ll tem pc rat ur c d a la for ga sl'" 3·19

('randtl Num be r 102. 137 S te a m ba re tu bos 157, 182,190 c ífcct of pr cssu re 353
dea era tio n 238-24 1 Vort ex shead ing frcljueney 32'1
I'rcssurc d ro p íinned rubes 280
gas insi d e tu bes 105 d es u p erh cat cr 191
oconom izer 315
gas o u tsid e inl ine ba re tu bc ban k 148- ex pansion of 242-245 Wa sl e hc a t botler (seo H RSG, )
h eat tra nsfer cocffi cien t 139 w at er tube borl cr
150 Vcl o ci t y
~as o u ts id e s taggered ba re tubc b an k injceti on 39 l'COIHlmizer 196
gas ma ss 136, 276
pr o pc rties 352, 362 -363 e"apo ra lor 155
148-150 stca rn 140
gas outsid e inl ine finned tube bun d le purity 258 for eed ci rcula u o n 6
Vi br a ti o n
278. 290
lem peratur e eo ntr ol 191
acouslie 329 guid eltncs for se lccti on n :;
gas ou tsi d e s laggered fin ncd tu be vel oc it y 140 multi -p rcssure -1. 245. 250
avoidi ng 330-332
bundle 278, 290 Stea ming c<:onomize r 34. 212 natu ral circulau on 6, 174
vor tcx shcdding 329
'; 05t im p lieati o ns 115. 166.17 1,295-297 Stro uh l Number 329 su perhca ter 176
Visco si ty
Sulfur eond cnscr 60
mix ture 352
Radi ation
Sul fu rie aeid
corr os i ón 309
distribu tio n of 187
non -Iurni nous 140-145 d ew poi n t 310
I{eelproc ati ng engínc 52 Su p e rhea ter
configura tions 176
Reeycl ing 63
R('(use De rived Fu cl (RD F) d esign of 176,179
he ad er arrangemcn t 183
a nalysis 73
flow in para llel p asses 189
bo ilers 75
hi gh tcm perature co r rosi ón 71
eorrosio n 83
p re pa ra tio n o f 72-7 5 performa nce of 181
tube wall temperaturc 182, 190
Reynolds Number 102, 136. 149,271
Supp lemen la ry fir ing (see au xil iar ),
Rotary Kilo 76
fi r ing)
Surfaee ar ea
evaporator 156, 167
Sea le
eon d u etivity 121 finned tu bes 292, 300
cffec t of 121, 122 fir e tube boil ers 101, 108
Selectivo Catal ytic Reducti on Syst ems superhe a ter 180
(SC Rs) 37-39
Sirn p lified pr ocedure
' ire tube boiler design 109 Tern pera ture profile
fire tube boiler performance 119 in design mode 213-215
water tube boiler evaporator 157, 164 off-design mode 216-222
s u pe rh ea ler /economizer 181 optimizing 245
NTU method 181 fired HRSG 218
Sim ul a tion of HRSGs 205 . from field da ta 250
multi-pressure HRSG 250
Sla gg in g 77, 78
So lid wa ste, see Municipal so lid wa ste 64 unfired HRSG 213-215
Thermaleonduclivily
Sp ecifi e heat
computing mixture 352 of mixture 352
dala 349-351 data for gases 349
c ííec t of gas analysis 354 effect of pressure 353
e ffect of pressure 353 scale 121
-ífica tions (HRSG) 257 boiler tubes 184
red arrangement Tube thickness
'u bes 137, 138, 148, 153 ex ternal pressure 381
u bes 287-289 interna! pressure 377