Journal of
Marine Science
and Engineering
Article
A New Plastic Design Approach for the Vertical-Side-Plating
Thickness of Ice-Strengthened Ships Suffering from Ice
Floe Impacts
Mengying Mu 1,2 , Kailing Guo 1,2 , Wei Cai 3, *, Ling Zhu 2 , Zhenyu Pi 4 and Shuo Zhou 2
Citation: Mu, M.; Guo, K.; Cai, W.;
Zhu, L.; Pi, Z.; Zhou, S. A New Plastic
Design Approach for the Vertical-Side
-Plating Thickness of Ice-Strengthened
Ships Suffering from Ice Floe Impacts.
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2024, 12, 233. https://
doi.org/10.3390/jmse12020233
Academic Editors: Pentti Kujala,
Bernt J. Leira and Mojtaba Mokhtari
Received: 30 December 2023
Revised: 15 January 2024
Accepted: 20 January 2024
Published: 28 January 2024
Copyright: © 2024 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2024, 12, 233. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse12020233
1 Key Laboratory of High Performance Ship Technology, Wuhan University of Technology,
Ministry of Education, Wuhan 430063, China; mumengying30@163.com (M.M.);
guokailing@whut.edu.cn (K.G.)
2 School of Naval Architecture, Ocean and Energy Power Engineering, Wuhan University of Technology,
Wuhan 430063, China; lingzhu@whut.edu.cn (L.Z.); 298288@whut.edu.cn (S.Z.)
3 State Key Laboratory of Materials Synthesis and Processing, Wuhan University of Technology,
Wuhan 430070, China
4 School of Civil and Transportation Engineering, Hebei University of Technology, Tianjin 300401, China;
zhenyupi@163.com
* Correspondence: caiwei199696@whut.edu.cn
Abstract: Ice-strengthened ships inevitably suffer from ice floe impacts during navigation in icy
regions. Under some extreme-ice-impact loadings, the ship structure will experience plastic deforma-
tions. The magnitude of plastic deformation is highly correlated with the ice floe-impact energy level.
During most ice impacts, only the ship’s plate undergoes minor plastic deformation. Considering
that the structure still has a high structural strength with a minor permanent deformation, developing
a structural plastic design method for polar ships has become a hot research issue in current studies.
Therefore, in this paper, based on the rigid-plastic theory and the ice-crushing-energy approach, an
experimentally verified theoretical model for predicting plastic deformations of the vertical-side
plate of polar ship subjected to ice floe impacts was established. According to the analytical so-
lutions of the plastic deformation, the plastic design formula to determine the plating thickness
of ice-strengthened ships subjected to ice floe impacts was further derived based on the plastic
design criteria. In addition, the parameter analysis of ice strength described by the ice pressure–area
relationship, allowable-permanent-set parameter, impact energy and ice shape were conducted, and
plating-thickness design curves with different design parameters were given. The design of plating
thickness is very sensitive to the determinations of the allowable-permanent set and ice pressure–area
curves. The designed plating thickness decreased with the increase of the allowable-permanent set.
Moreover, a comparative analysis of the designed plating thickness for ice floe impact and rigid-mass
impact was also carried out. Under the same impact conditions, due to energy absorption caused by
ice damage, the designed thickness of the plate for rigid-mass impact was much larger than that for
the ice impact. It is necessary to consider the impact-induced ice damage and energy dissipation in a
structural design, instead of using rigid impact loads for conservative design. The research in this
paper can provide some useful references for the structural design of ice-strengthened ships subject
to ice floe impacts.
Keywords: ice-strengthened ship; ice impact; plating thickness; plastic deformation; plastic-design
method
1. Introduction
The Arctic region is rich in oil, gas and mineral resources. The opening of the Arctic
route and the increases in polar expedition and tourism activities year by year have made
the Arctic polar region a hotspot of concern in the world. With the melting of the Arctic
glaciers accelerating due to global warming, the number of ice floes has gradually increased,
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/jmse
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2024, 12, 233 2 of 27

and their thickness has gradually decreased. Due to the changes in this polar-navigation
environment, more and more low-ice-class ships can enter the polar regions, and the
decrease of ice thickness reduce design requirements of ship structure. The demand for
low-ice-class ships such as polar transport ships, polar cruise liners, fishing vessels, naval
ships and some other ice-strengthened ships, has been gradually increasing. The definitions
of low-ice class in different design rules are summarized in Table 1. Figure 1 illustrates
two navigation scenarios of ice-strengthened ships of a low-ice class (PC6 and PC7) in
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2024, 12, x FOR PEERicy regions, where one is that the ship navigates in free-broken-ice regions as shown
REVIEW 2 of 29in
Figure 1a, and another one is that the ship navigates the broken-ice region induced by the
guidance of an icebreaker as shown in Figure 1b. Under some extreme ice loads, the ship
structure will be prone to experiencing small plastic deformations, and the ship structure
glaciers accelerating due to global warming, the number of ice floes has gradually in-
will still have a high residual strength with these small plastic deformations. Therefore,
creased, and their thickness has gradually decreased. Due to the changes in this polar-
a plastic-design method for a structure allowing for small permanent deformations is
navigation
widely applied environment, more anddesign
to the structural more low-ice-class ships can
of ice-strengthened enterThe
ships. the polar regions,
structural size
and the decrease of ice thickness reduce design requirements of ship
and design requirements can be diminished under the premise of ensuring the safety structure. The de-of
mand
the ship forstructure,
low-ice-classsuchships such as polar
as reducing transport
the plating ships, polar
thickness. cruise liners,
Therefore, it is fishing ves-
particularly
sels, naval ships and some other ice-strengthened ships, has been gradually
important to carry out research on the plastic design of ship structures based on the plastic increasing.
The
designdefinitions
criteria. of low-ice class in different design rules are summarized in Table 1. Figure
1 illustrates two navigation scenarios of ice-strengthened ships of a low-ice class (PC6 and
PC7)
Table 1.in Ice-class
icy regions, where
categories onedifferent
within is that the ship
design navigates in free-broken-ice regions as
rules.
shown in Figure 1a, and another one is that the ship navigates the broken-ice region in-
duced by the guidance of an icebreaker as Polar shown in Figure 1b. Under some extreme ice
Class
Ice Descriptions loads, the IACSship structure will be prone to experiencing small
[1] DNV [2] RMRS [3] LR [4] plastic deformations,
FSICR [5] and
CCS [6]the
ship structure will still have a high residual strength with these small plastic defor-
Summer/autumn operation in
mations. Therefore, a plastic-design method for a structure allowing for small permanent
medium first-year ice that may PC5,6 ICE-10 Arc5 1AS IA Super B1*
include old ice inclusions deformations is widely applied to the structural design of ice-strengthened ships. The
structural size and design requirements can be diminished under the premise of ensuring
Summer/autumn operation in thin
the safety of the ship structure, such as reducing the plating thickness. Therefore, it is
first-year ice that may include PC7 ICE-05 Arc4 1A IA B1
old ice inclusions particularly important to carry out research on the plastic design of ship structures based
on the plastic design criteria.

1. Ship
Figure 1. Ship navigation
navigationscenarios
scenariosininananicyicy
region: (a)(a)
region: Navigation in an
Navigation in ice
an floe region;
ice floe (b) Navigation
region; (b) Navi-
in a broken-ice
gation region region
in a broken-ice when guided by an icebreaker.
when guided by an icebreaker.

TableFor impact-response
1. Ice-class analysis
categories within incorporating
different ship structure and ice floes, experimental
design rules.
and numerical methods have been widely used to estimate the impact force and the plastic
Polar Class
Ice Descriptions deformation and energy absorption of the structure. Ritch et al. [7] and Gagnon et al. [8]
IACS [1] DNV [2] RMRS [3] LR [4] FSICR [5] CCS [6]
carried out some tests on impacts between the CCGS Terry Fox icebreaker and small iceberg
Summer/autumn operation in medium first-
bits to study the ice-impact loading. Gagnon et al. [9] carried out ice-impact tests between
year ice that may PC5,6 ICE-10 Arc5 1AS IA Super B1*
cone-shaped ice samples and a steel plate by using a large double-pendulum apparatus to
include old ice inclusions
study the impact load. Ince et al. [10] conducted an ice-drop test between the cone-shaped
Summer/autumn operation in thin first-year
ice and a steel plate to study the plastic deformation of the plate and the impact force–time
ice that may include PC7 ICE-05 Arc4 1A IA B1
relationship. Kim et al. [11] carried out quasi-static loading tests on the laboratory-grown
old ice inclusions
cone-shaped ice and the grillage structure under different loading and different loading
positions and analyzed the deflection of the grillage and the maximum load. Zhu et al. [12]
For impact-response analysis incorporating ship structure and ice floes, experimental
and Cai et al. [13] carried out impact tests between the steel plates and freshwater ice
and numerical methods have been widely used to estimate the impact force and the plastic
deformation and energy absorption of the structure. Ritch et al. [7] and Gagnon et al. [8]
carried out some tests on impacts between the CCGS Terry Fox icebreaker and small ice-
berg bits to study the ice-impact loading. Gagnon et al. [9] carried out ice-impact tests
between cone-shaped ice samples and a steel plate by using a large double-pendulum
apparatus to study the impact load. Ince et al. [10] conducted an ice-drop test between the
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2024, 12, 233 3 of 27

wedges. The plastic deformation and energy absorption of a plate and the collision forces
during the impact process were studied. Jang et al. [14] designed an experimental set-up,
including a double-pendulum system situated within a cold chamber, which can predict
the collision forces under ice impacts by varying both the collision energy and velocity.
Considering the influence of fluid motion on ship–ice impact, Kim et al. [15] carried out
a series of laboratory-scale tests of freshwater granular ice blocks against stiffened steel
panels in the ice tank and analyzed the impact force and the permanent plate deformations
of the structure.
In general, the finite-element method is commonly used as a structural design tool to
evaluate structure strength under ice-impact loads. Liu et al. [16] carried out simulations
of a head-on collision between a ship bow and icebergs by using LS-DYNA 971, and
the energy absorption and plastic deformation of the bow and iceberg were analyzed.
Shi et al. [17] proposed a temperature-gradient dependent elastic-plastic material model of
ice and carried out numerical simulations of iceberg–ship plate collision. By analyzing the
contact area–pressure curve, the influence of a temperature gradient on the impact force
was studied. Yu et al. [18] established an ice-material model considering temperature, and a
drop-hammer-impact model between ice and stiffened plates was established by LS-DYNA
software. The ice load and the structural deformation were studied. Mokhtari et al. [19]
used the VUMAT model developed by Liu and the crushable-foam model to simulate the
ice, and they used ABAQUS 2019 to establish a 1/4 model of cone-shaped ice compression.
The failure strain, hydrostatic pressure and equivalent plastic strain of the ice model were
studied. Yu et al. [20] used ABAQUS software to carry out the finite-element model of the
impact of a wedge-shaped ice block and stiffened panels, and also studied the impact force
and permanent deformation of stiffened plate. Cai et al. [21] proposed an ice-material model
similar to soil/concrete. The numerical simulation of wedge-shape-ice–plate impact was
conducted, and the impact force and plastic deformation of the plate were studied. Based
on Liu’s model, Yu et al. [22] studied the impact force and energy absorption of the impact
between the semi-submersible offshore platform column and the iceberg. Chen et al. [23]
used LS-DYNA software to establish the interaction model between ice floe and submarine
and studied the plastic deformation of the structure. Zhou et al. [24] carried out a numerical
simulation model of ice-propeller collision and studied the impact force.
Some researchers have also carried out theoretical analysis on the dynamic responses
of ship–ice collision. Zhu et al. [25] proposed a rigid-plastic analytical model of the ship
plate under repeated rigid-mass impact loadings and considered the strain-rate-sensitivity
factor of the ship plate. The variation of the cumulative increase of the plastic deformation
of the ship plate and the variation of the structural stiffness during loading and unloading
were analyzed. Based on the previous work, Zhu et al. [26] extended the study of repeated
rigid mass impacts of plates to stiffened plates. Based on the rigid-perfectly-plastic method,
accounting for the influence of the strain rate, strain hardening and material elasticity, the
theoretical formulas of plastic deformation of rectangular stiffened plates under rigid-mass
impact were proposed. Based on the rigid-plastic assumption, Guo et al. [27] established
a theoretical model to analyze the plastic mechanical behavior of metal-foam-sandwich
beams suffering from repeated impacts by applying the membrane factor method, and they
analyzed the effects of the core strength and the face thickness on the deflection response of
sandwich beams. Different from the rigid-mass impact in the above research, Cai et al. [28]
considered the energy dissipation caused by ice failure and derived the formulas of plastic
deformation and maximum collision force for ship plates impacted by ice floe by combining
the rigid-plastic theory and the energy approach of ice crushing.
The above literature analyzes the evaluation method of plastic deformations of ship
structures subjected to ice floe impacts. In structural design, blindly increasing the structural
size to avoid the occurrence of plastic deformations will greatly increase the weight of
the ship, the cost of ship construction, and also encroach on the internal space of the
ship. It is noteworthy that the structure still has high structural strength with small plastic
deformations. Therefore, it is urgent to propose a structural-plastic-design method based on
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2024, 12, 233 4 of 27

plastic design criteria under ice floe impact to determine reasonable structural dimensions.
Some researchers have performed research on the plastic design of ship structures under
the impact of ice floe. The design method based on plastic design criteria was first applied
to the design of ship-plate thickness under wheel load [29–31]. Daley [32,33] derived
the plastic design formula of polar ship frame using work-energy principles based on
the specification design requirements, finite-element analysis and analytical solutions of
plastic-collapse mechanisms. In addition, based on the non-linear-finite-element analysis
and IACS polar rules, Daley et al. [34] developed the plastic buckling deformation analysis
of flatbar frames to ice-like loads under overload conditions. Based on the rigid-plastic
theory, Hong and Amdahl [35] proposed the “double-diamond” patch-loading mechanism,
which was used to derive the plate-thickness formula under patch-loading that accounted
for membrane effects under finite deformation. Zhu et al. [36] assumed the ice-impact
loading as an idealized rigid-mass loading. Based on the ideal rigid-plastic theory, the
plastic deformation of the ship plate under ice floe impact was analyzed. The plastic
design formula to determine the plating thickness under ice floe impact was proposed, and
the plating-thickness design curves were given. Zhu et al. [37] applied the elasto-plastic
method of deck plates under quasi-static patch loads to determine a simple design formula
of plating thickness based on an acceptable level of permanent set.
Within the current polar-ship-structural design rules, the method based on plastic
design criteria is also used to design the ship plate and grillages. The IACS polar rules [1]
introduce the plastic-design concept for the local structure under ice loading. The design’s
load form is local uniform pressure. The plastic-collapse failure mechanism is considered
when determining the design loads, and the crushing-failure-class factor and flexural-
failure-class factor are used. In general, ice loads applied to the ships may be categorized
as ‘stationary’ or ‘moving’. Kim et al. [38] conducted the experiment of moving-ice loads
acting on an elastic plate to determine the force-displacement curve, which was compared
with the similar stationary-ice-load-experiment results. The results show that when the
structure remains elastic during the interaction the difference in magnitude of ice load
between stationary and moving loading conditions can be negligible. However, in the
context of when the structure begins to undergo plastic deformation, Quinton et al. [39]
compared the magnitude of an IACS design load with the actual ice loads, and they applied
an Mpp-Dyna code to establish the numerical model for full-scale grillages subjected to
actual ice loads and analyzed the plastic strain and deformation of the structure. The results
show that when the structure undergoes yield the structural responses under moving-ice
loads are significantly different from those under stationary-ice loads.
According to the above-mentioned literature review, some plastic-design methods
have been developed for ship structures under local-static-uniformly distributed loads,
which can be used to determine the plating thickness of the structure under ice-patch
loading or wheel-patch loading. However, the ice-impact load is a dynamic response load,
which is difficult to directly simplify or make equivalent to uniformly distributed loads.
Moreover, it is unreasonable to assume the ice-impact load as a rigid-body-impact loading
due to the influence of the ice damage. In view of the above problems, this paper establishes
an analytical model for the dynamic responses of the vertical-side plates subjected to ice
floe impacts. The impact scenario is shown in Figure 2, and the ice floe-impact position is
in the mid-ice-belt area of the ship, as shown in Figure 3. On this basis, the design formula
for the plating thickness based on the plastic design criteria has been further derived. Some
design examples have been carried out to illustrate the proposed plastic-design method
and some design curves created using some given parameters to determine suitable plating
thickness for an ice-strengthened ship with an ice class of PC6 and PC7, and these are given
in this paper according to different ice parameters.
J.J.J.Mar.
Mar.Sci.
Mar. Sci.Eng.
Sci. Eng.2024,
Eng. 2024,12,
2024, 12,x233
12, xFOR
FORPEER
PEERREVIEW
REVIEW 5 55ofof 29
of29
27

Figure2.2.
Figure
Figure 2.Impact
Impactscenario
Impact scenariobetween
scenario betweenan
between anice
an icefloe
ice floeand
floe andvertical-side
and vertical-sidestructure.
vertical-side structure.
structure.

Figure 3. Icebelt
Figure belt divisioninindesign
design rules:(a)
(a) RMRSrules;
rules; (b)DNV
DNV rules.
Figure3.3.Ice
Ice beltdivision
division in designrules:
rules: (a)RMRS
RMRS rules;(b)
(b) DNVrules.
rules.

2.Theoretical
2.2. TheoreticalAnalysis
Theoretical AnalysisModel
Analysis Modelfor
Model forthe
for theDynamic
the DynamicResponse
Dynamic Responseof
Response ofaaaShip
of ShipPlate
Ship Plateunder
Plate underIce
under Ice
Ice
Floe
Floe Impact
Impact
Floe Impact
2.1. Introduction
Introductiontoto
2.1.Introduction the
tothe Proposed
theProposed Theoretical
ProposedTheoretical
TheoreticalModel Model
Model
2.1.
When
Whenthe the ship
theship plate
shipplate is impacted
plateisisimpacted
impactedby by an
byan iceice
an floe, both
floe, boththe the shipship plate and and
plate the icethefloe will
icefloe
floe
When ice floe, both the ship plate and the ice
deform
willdeform or receive
deformororreceive damage
receivedamage to absorb
damagetotoabsorb impact
absorbimpact energy.
impactenergy. An
energy.An elastic-plastic
Anelastic-plastic deformation
elastic-plasticdeformation deformationthe of
will ofof
ship
the plate
ship occurs.
plate occurs.After the
After impact,
the impact, the elastic
the energy
elastic energy absorbedabsorbed by the
by ship
the plate
ship willwill
plate be
the ship plate
released, which
occurs.
will
After thea impact,
produce rebound
the elastic energy
phenomenon.
absorbedaccording
Therefore,
by the ship to
plate
the
will
energy
bebereleased,
released,which whichwill willproduce
produceaarebound reboundphenomenon.
phenomenon.Therefore, Therefore,according accordingtotothe theen-en-
conservation
ergy conservation law, the law, energy-dissipation
the energy-dissipation equationequation of the of impact
the impact between between the the
ice floe ice and
floe
ergy
ship conservation
plateplate[28] can law,
be the energy-dissipation
expressed as as equation of the impact between the ice floe
andship
and ship plate [28] [28]can can beexpressed
be expressed as
E0 = EP + E I + Er (1)
EE = E +E +E
0= E P+ E I+ E r
(1)
(1)
0 P I r
where E0 = 0.5m0 V022 is the initial total impact energy, m0 is the initial ice mass and V 0 is
==00.5.5mV
EE0 0relative mV 2
where
the
where initial 0 isisthe
0velocity the initial
ofinitial
the ice total impact
floeimpact
total and energy,EmIm0is0isis
structure;
energy, the
thethe initialice
dissipated
initial iceenergy
massand
mass and
of VV0 ice
the 0 is
is
0 0
Eprelative plate; Eenergy 2
damage;
the initial is the plastic-strain
velocity of energy
the ice or absorbed
floe and energy
structure; E Iof
is the
the ship
dissipated r = 0.5m of rV
the
the initial relative velocity of the ice floe and structure; EI is the dissipated energy of ther
is
icethe rebound-kinetic
damage; energy in the rebound process, where menergy r is the residual massplate;
after
ice damage; EEp p isis thethe plastic-strain
plastic-strain energy
energy oror absorbed
absorbed energy ofof thethe shipship plate;
ice impact, 2and 2 Vr is the rebound velocity in the rebound process. In the impact process,
E
the
=00.5.5mV
Er=mass mV r r isis therebound-kinetic
the rebound-kinetic
loss (m0 energy −energy
mr ) isininathetherebound
rebound process,
process,
for thewhere wherem mr is
r is the resid-
the resid-
m0 . In
r rofr ice floe-damage small amount initial ice mass
ual mass after ice impact, and Vr is the reboundr velocity in the rebound process. InInthe
ual
the mass
subsequent after ice impact,
calculation, and
the V r is the mass
residual rebound m velocity
after ice in
impact the rebound
can be process.
approximated the
as
impact
the initial
impact process,
mass the
process, the mass of ice floe-damage loss (m − m
m0 . mass of ice floe-damage loss (m0 − mr) is a small amount for the initial
0 r ) is a small amount for the initial
icemass
ice mass
For m them0.0.InInthethesubsequent
ice-impact subsequent
load, many calculation,
scholars the
calculation, theresidual
[40–43] residual
use the mass
mass mmr rafter
pressure-contactafterice iceimpact
impact canbe
area relation-
can be
approximated
ship (P–A as
relationship) the
approximated as the initial mass m0. initial
to mass
describe m 0.
the local contact pressure between the ice floe and the
Forthe
structure.
For the ice-impact
Inice-impact
this paper,load, load,
the impactmanyscholars
many scholars[40–43] [40–43]use
force-displacement usethe thepressure-contact
expressionpressure-contact
is derivedarea area relation-
according
relation- to
ship
the P–A(P–A relationship)
relationship, and to describe
then the the
impact local
forcecontact
is
ship (P–A relationship) to describe the local contact pressure between the ice floe and the pressure
integrated to between
obtain thethe ice
energy floe and
absorbed the
by the iceInIn
structure.
structure. crushing.
thispaper,
this paper, Assuming
theimpact
the impact P–A relationship (P
theforce-displacement
force-displacement = P0 · Anexis),isderived
expression
expression based
derived on the impact
according
according toto
scenario
theP–A
the as shown
P–Arelationship,
relationship,and in Figure
andthen 4,
thenthethe impact
theimpact
impactforce force and ice
forceisisintegrated dissipation
integratedtotoobtain energy
obtainthe can
theenergy be calculated,
energyabsorbed
absorbed
respectively, as follows ex
bybythetheiceicecrushing.
crushing.Assuming Assumingthe theP–A relationship( (PP==PP·0A
P–Arelationship ·An),),based
ex
basedon onthetheimpact
impactsce- sce-
0 n
narioasasshownshownininFigure Figure 1 + ex 1+ex
nario Fn (δ4, ) 4, the
=the · impact =force
An (δ) force
P impact [and
P0 ·and 2h tan
iceice(dissipation
dissipation
θ/2 )] δenergy
· energy canbe
can becalculated,
calculated, (2)
respectively, as
respectively, as follows Z follows
δ P0
· [2h tan(θ/2)]11++ ex
· 1δ+21ex++exex
EI =
F (
δ Fn (δ)dδ =
) = P ⋅
F (n0δ) = P ⋅ A (nδ2) + A (
δ )==ex
PP0⋅[2⋅[2hhtan(tan(θ θ/ /2)] 2)]1ex+ex⋅δ ⋅δ (3)
(2)
(2)
n n 0
 ice thickness, as shown in Figure 4. In order to facilitate the analysis, the loss velocity
parameter Vi caused by ice damage is defined. It is assumed that the relationship between
the energy absorbed by ice and the kinetic energy lost due to ice damage is

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2024, 12, 233 P0 1 + ex 2 + ex 1 2

EI = ⋅ [2 h tan(θ / 2)] ⋅δ = m 0Vi 6 of
(4)27
2 + ex 2

Figure
Figure4.4.Geometrical
Geometricalparameters
parametersofofwedge-shaped
wedge-shapedice
iceand
andship
shipplate.
plate.

InInthe
theimpact
formula: P is thethe
process, average
ice haspressure
a certainofrebound
ice in thevelocity
processVof impact
r after extrusion;
impact. The re-P0
is the pressure with a contact area of 1 m 2 ; A is the contact area; ex represents a constant;
bound-kinetic energy is smaller than the initial n impact energy. Vr can be taken as αV0, α is
θ iscoefficient
the the front-end angle of the
of restitution andwedge-shaped
the range of αice, δ is theThe
is 0~0.3. ice-crushing and h iscan
length, energy
rebound-kinetic the
ice thickness, as shown
be expressed as follows in Figure 4. In order to facilitate the analysis, the loss velocity
parameter Vi caused by ice damage is defined. It is assumed that the relationship between
the energy absorbed by ice and the 1 energy 1 lost 2due
E kinetic α V to ice damage is
2 2
= mV r
= m 0 r 0 0
(5)
2 2
P0 1
I = analysis,
According to the Eabove tan(θ/2)]1+the
· [2hconsidering ex
δ2+ex = m
· dissipated 0 Vi
2
(4)
2 + ex 2 energy of the ice damage
and the elastic effect of the ship plate, by combining Equation (1) we can determine that
the netInimpact
the impact
energy process, the ice has into
fully transformed a certain rebound velocity
the plastic-strain energyVof r after impact.
the ship plate The
is
rebound-kinetic energy is smaller than the initial impact energy. Vr can be taken as αV 0 , α
1 1
is the coefficient of restitutionE p and
= the range
−α )ofV0 α−isVi0~0.3.
] = Them 0V0′rebound-kinetic energy (6) can
2 2 2 2
m 0 [(1
be expressed as follows 2 2
1 1
E = m0 Vr2V= m0 α2 V202 V 2 − V 2
where V0′ is the initial net impactrvelocity, ′ 2
= (5)
2 0 2 (1 −α） 0 i .

Generally,
Accordingin tothe
the elastic-plastic-response
above analysis, considering analysis of the ship’s
the dissipated energystructure
of the under ice-
ice damage
impact
and the loading, the stiffeners
elastic effect in the
of the ship sideby
plate, of combining
the panel are a strong(1)
Equation boundary relative to the
we can determine that
the net
plate. In impact energy
addition, fully transformed
the stiffeners need to beinto keptthe in plastic-strain
an elastic range energy
in theofstructural
the ship plate
design is
to maintain their high load-bearing capacity during ice impact, so the stiffened structure
1 1 2
model can be simplified as E pa=single 1 − α2with
m0 [(panel )V02 − Vi2 ] = m0 V0′ boundary. Based on the
a fixed-support (6)
2 2
rigid-plastic theory, which considers the influence of ice damage and the elastic effect of
material, ′the theoretical method of dynamic ′response 2 of the ship plate under ice floe im-
where V0 is the initial net impact velocity, V0 = (1 − α2 )V02 − Vi2 .
pact isGenerally,
developed. The deformation mode of the ship
in the elastic-plastic-response analysis of the plate under ice impact
ship’s structurerefers to the
under ice-
impact loading, the stiffeners in the side of the panel are a strong boundary relative to
the plate. In addition, the stiffeners need to be kept in an elastic range in the structural
design to maintain their high load-bearing capacity during ice impact, so the stiffened
structure model can be simplified as a single panel with a fixed-support boundary. Based
on the rigid-plastic theory, which considers the influence of ice damage and the elastic
effect of material, the theoretical method of dynamic response of the ship plate under ice
floe impact is developed. The deformation mode of the ship plate under ice impact refers
to the experimentally obtained deformation mode of the plate under wedge-shaped-ice
impact [28]. The plastic-dynamic-response equation for the ship plate is expressed as
Z s Z .
.. . .. .
− m0 w w −
A
µwwdA = ∑ ( Np w + M p )θ m dlm (7)
m =1 l m
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2024, 12, 233 7 of 27

where w is the plastic deformation of the plate; µ = ρH is the unit-area density of the plate,
where ρ is the density and H is the plating thickness. A is the integral of the ship-plate-
deformation area; Mp and Np are the bending moment and membrane force of the plastic
.
hinge line per unit length, respectively. θ m is the relative angular velocity between adjacent
rigid plates; lm is the length of the plastic hinge line and s is the number of plastic hinge
lines. In Equation (7), the first term on the left is the work power of the external impact
force, and the second term represents the inertial dissipation power of the plate. The right
side of the equal sign represents the internal energy-dissipation rate caused by the bending
moment and the membrane force of the plastic hinge lines. For the bending moment Mp
and the membrane force Np , Mp = ζM0 , Np = ζN0 , where M0 = 1/4 · σs H 2 is the ultimate
plastic-bending moment per unit length; N0 = σs H is the ultimate plastic-membrane force
per unit length, and σs is the yield strength of the material. ζ is determined by the square
yield surface. According to [28], the theoretical upper bound of plastic deformation based
on the inscribing-square-yield condition is closer to the experimental value. Therefore, the
inscribed yield line is used in this paper, and ζ = 0.618.
According to the deformation mode of the ship plate, each parameter is substituted
into Equation (7) to obtain
..
wc + η 2 wc = γ (8)
where
2Np B + Ld L
η2 = ( + ) (9)
1 L B − Ld
m0 + µL( B + Ld )
6
8M p B L
γ=− ( + ) (10)
1 L B − Ld
m0 + µL( B + Ld )
6
In Equations (8)–(10), wc is the plastic deformation at the center of the plate and Ld
is the length of the middle plastic hinge line. For the wedge-shaped-rigid-mass impact,
the hinge line length Ld is equal to the impactor height h. However, for the ice floe impact,
the ice body will experience deformation and damage during the impact process. The
length of the middle plastic hinge line is smaller than the ice thickness h, since the top and
bottom tips of the wedge-shaped ice body are prone to breaking during impact. Therefore,
a damage coefficient ω is defined to consider the influence of ice damage along the height
direction, and Ld = ωh. The value range of ω is 0.6~0.75. η 2 and γ are the intermediate
values in the calculation process.
Equation (8) is a second-order nonhomogeneous linear differential equation, and its
initial conditions are as follows
w c (0) = 0 (11)
.
wc (0) = V0′ (12)
then, we can obtain the analytical expression wc (t) of the plastic deformation at the center
with respect to time of the ship plate, so that the maximum plastic deformation wm and the
maximum impact force Fm of the plate under ice impact can be derived as follows
q
γ2 + η 2 V0′ 2 + γ
wm = (13)
η2
q
Fm = m0 γ2 + η 2 V0′ 2 (14)
2
where V 0 ′ is the initial net impact velocity, V0′ = (1 − α2 )V02 − Vi2 .
When the loss velocity parameter Vi due to ice damage is zero, Equations (13) and (14)
can be used to obtain the maximum plastic deformation wm and the maximum impact force
Fm of the plate under rigid-mass impact.

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2024, 12, 233
(14) can be used to obtain the maximum plastic deformation wm and the maximum impact
force Fm of the plate under rigid-mass impact.
However, for ice impact, it is necessary to give the force balance equation. According
to Newton’s third law, the maximum impact force should also be equal to the force ob-
tained by the P–A relationship, so we obtain 8 of 27

Fm = m 0 γ +η V0′ = P0 ⋅ [2 h tan(θ / 2)]

2 2 2 1 + ex 1 + ex
⋅δm (15)

whereHowever,
δm is finalfor ice impact,
crushing it isofnecessary
length ice. to give the force balance equation. According
to Newton’s third law, the maximum impact
In summary, combining Equation (4), Equation force should
(13)also
andbe equal to (15),
Equation the force obtained
the parame-
by the P–A relationship, so we obtain
ters wm, δm, Fm, Ei and EP can be obtained. Figure 5 is a diagram to introduce the theoretical
model of the dynamic response q of ice floe–plate impact.
+ex
Moreover, based Fm =onmthe γ2 + η 2 V0′ 2ice–structure
0 simplified (θ/2)]1scenario
= P0 · [2h tanimpact · δm 1+ ex
(15)
in Figure 4, the used
range of the proposed analytical model is summarized as follows:
where δm is final crushing length of ice.
- Head-on impacts of an ice floe with a vertical plate structure;
In summary, combining Equations (4), (13) and (15), the parameters wm , δm , Fm , Ei and
- Ignoring the effects of ship motion and ice rotation during impact;
EP can be obtained. Figure 5 is a diagram to introduce the theoretical model of the dynamic
- The assumed boundary condition of plate structure is fully clamped.
response of ice floe–plate impact.

Figure
Figure 5.
5. A
A diagram introducethe
diagram to introduce thetheoretical
theoreticalmodel
modelof of
thethe dynamic
dynamic response
response of floe–plate
of ice ice floe–plate
impact.
impact.
Moreover, based on the simplified ice–structure impact scenario in Figure 4, the used
range of the proposed
2.2. Theoretical analytical model is summarized as follows:
Model Verification
•- Rigid-mass
Head-on impacts
impactof an ice floe with a vertical plate structure;
- In Ignoring the effects
order to verify theof ship motion
accuracy and ice rotation
of theoretical model ofduring impact;
the ship plate under rigid-mass
- The assumed boundary condition of plate structure is fully clamped.
impact, the impact tests between the rigid-wedge impactor and the steel plate were carried
out. The experimental device is the same as that for ice impact, as shown in Figure 6. The
2.2. Theoretical Model Verification
height of the impactor is 200 mm, the length of the hinge line of the test plate after the
•
impactRigid-mass impact
is the same as the height of the impactor. Table 2 gives the material parameters of
In order to verify the accuracy of theoretical model of the ship plate under rigid-
mass impact, the impact tests between the rigid-wedge impactor and the steel plate were
carried out. The experimental device is the same as that for ice impact, as shown in
Figure 6. The height of the impactor is 200 mm, the length of the hinge line of the test
plate after the impact is the same as the height of the impactor. Table 2 gives the material
parameters of the test plate. Table 3 gives the dimensions of the test plate, impact mass,
impact velocity, rebound velocity and the comparison of results for the plastic deformation
of test plates from experiments and from the theoretical model. The theoretical results
are basically consistent with the experimental results, which verifies the accuracy of the
theoretical model.

Table 2. Material parameters of the steel plate specimen.

Plate Thickness H Density Young’s Modulus E Yield Strength

Test Material Poisson’s Ratio
[mm] [kg/m3 ] [GPa] [MPa]
Rigid-mass impact steel 6 7800 206 0.3 253
Ice impact Steel 2 7850 206 0.3 253
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2024, 12, 233 9 of 27

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2024, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 29

Table 3. Experimental and theoretical results under rigid-mass impact.

Initial Impact Rebound

Test Plate Specimen Impact Mass wcExp. wcAna. Relative Error
Velocity V 0 Velocity Vr /V 0
Number L × B × H [mm] the
m test plate. Table
0 [kg]
[m/s] 3 gives the dimensions
Vr [m/s] of the test
[mm] plate,
[mm] impact
(wcAna.mass, impact
− wcExp. )/wcExp. velocity,
× 100%
rebound velocity and the comparison of results for the plastic deformation of test plates
1 400 × 400 × 2 93 1.73 0.89 0.51 7.00 8.14 16.26%
2 800 × 400 × 4 from
90 experiments3.19 and from the
1.56theoretical
0.49model.
7.06The theoretical
7.83 results 10.90%
are basically con-
sistent with the experimental results, which verifies the accuracy of the theoretical model.

Figure6.6. Rigid-mass-impact
Figure Rigid-mass-impactexperimental
experimentaldevice
deviceand
andtest-plate-deformation
test-plate-deformationmode.
mode.

•TableIce
2. impact
Material parameters of the steel plate specimen.
CaiPlate
et al.Thickness
[13] carried
H out some wedge-shaped-ice–plate
Density Young’s Modulus E impact tests that canStrength
Yield provide
Test Material Poisson’s Ratio
some validated data for the accuracy
[mm] [kg/m3] of the theoretical
[GPa] model in this paper. The experimen-
[MPa]
Rigid-mass impact tal set-up used in
steel 6 the experiment
7800is shown in Figure
206 7. The material 0.3parameters of253
the plate
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2024, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 29
Ice impact specimen used in
Steel 2 the experiments
7850 are shown in206
Table 2. Table 4 gives
0.3 the dimensions
253 of the
plate specimen, the impact mass and the initial impact velocity.
Table 3. Experimental and theoretical results under rigid-mass impact.

Test Plate Specimen Impact Mass Initial Impact Rebound Velocity wcExp. wcAna. Relative Error
Vr/V0
Number L × B × H [mm] m0 [kg] Velocity V0 [m/s] Vr [m/s] [mm] [mm] (wcAna. − wcExp.)/wcExp. × 100%
1 400 × 400 × 2 93 1.73 0.89 0.51 7.00 8.14 16.26%
2 800 × 400 × 4 90 3.19 1.56 0.49 7.06 7.83 10.90%

• Ice impact
Cai et al. [13] carried out some wedge-shaped-ice–plate impact tests that can provide
some validated data for the accuracy of the theoretical model in this paper. The experi-
mental set-up used in the experiment is shown in Figure 7. The material parameters of the
plate specimen
Figure used in the
7. (a) Experimental experiments
set-up of ice–plateare shown
impact andin
(b)Table
ice 2. Table
ice sample
sample 4 givesdimensions
geometry
geometry the dimensions
dimensions (unit:
(unit:
of the
mm) plate specimen, the impact mass and the initial impact velocity.
[28].
Figure 7 shows the geometric dimensions of the wedge-shaped ice with a front-end
angle
Table
Table 4.4.ofExperimental
90°. Cai et al.
Experimental and[28]
and used the
theoretical
theoretical sameof
results
results ofice sample
ice–plate
ice–plate preparation method as [13] to make
impact.
impact.
ice samples with the same geometric size, and they carried out ice-impact tests on a rigid
Test Plate Specimen Impact Mass Initial Impact wcExp. wcAna. Relative Error
Test Plate Specimen plate.
Impact The
MassP–A relationship
Initial Impact (pressure
Vr/V0 P is inwunits
Vr /V 0 [mm]cExp.
of MPa
wcAna.and contactRelative
area AErroris in units of
Number LL××BB××HH[mm] m 0 [kg] Velocity V 0 [m/s] [mm] (w cAna. − wcExp.)/wcExp. × 100%
−
Number [mm] 2m0 [kg] Velocity V 0 [m/s] [mm]
m ) of the ice sample based on experimental data was fitted as follows[mm] (w cAna. w cExp. )/w cExp. × 100%
1 800 × 400 × 2 99.21 3.42 0.20 11.53 12.70 10.14%
1 800 × 400 × 2 99.21 3.42 0.20 11.53 12.70 10.14%
− 0 .7 5 6
22 800
800 ××400
400 ××22 98.99
98.99 3.69
3.69 = 012.20
0.150.15 P 12.20
.1 2 A 13.35
13.35 9.42%
9.42% (16)

The ice deformation

2.3. Comparative Analysis of damage coefficient
Theoretical Results of ω IceisImpact
set asand0.65Rigid-Mass
in the theoretical
Impact analysis
based Figure 7 shows theobservations.
on experimental geometric dimensions of the wedge-shaped
Table 4 compares the theoreticalice with aresults
analysis front-end
and
In this◦section, the head-on impact scenario with the typical side structure and the ice
angle of 90 . Cai
experimental et al.for
results [28] used deformation
plastic the same ice sample
w, and the preparation method
error is around as [13]
10%. Theto make
theoret-
floe is selected in order to compare and analyze the theoretical results of ice impact and
ice
icalsamples withinthe
results are goodsame geometric
agreement size,
with theand they carriedresults,
experimental out ice-impact tests on
which verifies a rigid
the accu-
rigid-mass
plate. The impact.
P–A The side(pressure
relationship structurePofis the
in midship
units of MPais aand
transversely
contact framed
area A is instructure
units of
racy of the theoretical model.
with
m a the
2 ) of framing spacing
ice sample of 0.6
based onm. The plate height
experimental data wasis 1.2 m and
fitted the plating thickness is 25
as follows
mm. The ship plate material is polar cryogenic steel and its material parameters, which
are referred to the test data of Q390D P steel, −0.756 in Table 5. The initial impact velocity
are shown
= 0.12A (16)
V0 is 4~6 m/s, and the impact position is assumed to be at the center of the ship plate. The
mass of ice or rigid body m0 is 15,000 kg. For ice impact, the ice floe is assumed to be
wedge-shaped ice with a front-end angle of 90°, the ice thickness h is taken as 0.6 m, the
ice damage coefficient ω is taken as 0.6 and the coefficient of restitution α of the ice floe is
taken as 0.1. For rigid-mass impact, the impactor is a wedge-shaped rigid body and the
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2024, 12, 233 10 of 27

The ice deformation damage coefficient ω is set as 0.65 in the theoretical analysis
based on experimental observations. Table 4 compares the theoretical analysis results and
experimental results for plastic deformation w, and the error is around 10%. The theoretical
results are in good agreement with the experimental results, which verifies the accuracy of
the theoretical model.

2.3. Comparative Analysis of Theoretical Results of Ice Impact and Rigid-Mass Impact
In this section, the head-on impact scenario with the typical side structure and the ice
floe is selected in order to compare and analyze the theoretical results of ice impact and
rigid-mass impact. The side structure of the midship is a transversely framed structure
with a framing spacing of 0.6 m. The plate height is 1.2 m and the plating thickness is
25 mm. The ship plate material is polar cryogenic steel and its material parameters, which
are referred to the test data of Q390D steel, are shown in Table 5. The initial impact velocity
V 0 is 4~6 m/s, and the impact position is assumed to be at the center of the ship plate.
The mass of ice or rigid body m0 is 15,000 kg. For ice impact, the ice floe is assumed to be
wedge-shaped ice with a front-end angle of 90◦ , the ice thickness h is taken as 0.6 m, the
ice damage coefficient ω is taken as 0.6 and the coefficient of restitution α of the ice floe is
taken as 0.1. For rigid-mass impact, the impactor is a wedge-shaped rigid body and the
height is 0.6 m, which is as high as the ice thickness. The coefficient of restitution α of the
rigid impactor is 0.5 according to the experiment. The P–A relationship of ice obtained
from the DNV rules [2] is used, and its expression is

P = CA−0.5 ( A ≤ 1.0 m2 ) (17)

where C is the parameter related to the ice strength and the ice belt region, C = 0.58FA σice .
σice is nominal ice strength and FA is the coefficient related to the ice belt, where A is
the contact area between the ice and the ship plate. The value range of the parameter C
corresponding to the ICE-05 and ICE-10 ice classes is 1.4~1.95. The parameter C is taken as
1.7 in this section. Therefore, the P–A relationship is

P = 1.7A−0.5 (18)

Table 5. Material parameters of the polar cryogenic Q390D steel.

Density Young’s Modulus E Poisson’s Yield Strength

Material
[kg/m3 ] [GPa] Ratio [MPa]
Q390D steel 7800 206 0.3 390

Figure 8 shows the plastic deformation and energy absorption under ice impact and
rigid-mass impact conditions. From Figure 8a, the plastic deformation of the plate under
ice/rigid impact increases approximately linearly with the increase in velocity. It can be
seen from Figure 8b that the energy absorbed by each part of the impact system increases
with the increase in velocity. The plastic-strain energy of the ship plate under ice impact
is much smaller than that under rigid-mass impact. This shows that during impact, the
ice damage will absorb most of impact energy, so that a small part of the impact energy is
absorbed by the ship plate by undergoing plastic deformation.
In order to further study the energy-absorption difference of the ship plate under the
impacts of ice and rigid body, and under the influence of absorption energy owing to ice
damage on the plastic deformation of the ship plate, the energy-absorption reduction factor
(EARF) [12] and the plastic deformation reduction factor (PDRF) [44] of the ship plate are
introduced as follows
EARF = E pi /E ps (19)
PDRF = w pi /w ps (20)
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2024, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 29

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2024, 12, 233 11 of 27

Table 5. Material parameters of the polar cryogenic Q390D steel.

Density Young’s Modulus E Yield Strength

where Epi is the plastic-strain
Material energy of the ship plate ice impact and Eps is the
under Ratio
Poisson’s
[kg/m3] [GPa] [MPa]
plastic-strain energy of the ship plate under rigid-mass impact. wpi and wps are the plastic
Q390D steel 7800 206 0.3 390
deformation of ice impact and rigid-mass impact, respectively.

(a) (b)
Figure 8. 8.
Figure Comparison
Comparison of of
plastic deformation
plastic and
deformation energy
and absorption
energy between
absorption iceice
between impact and
impact rigid-
and rigid-
mass impact. (a) Plastic deformation; (b) Energy absorption.
mass impact. (a) Plastic deformation; (b) Energy absorption.

InFigure 9afurther
order to shows the relationship
study between the reduction
the energy-absorption differencefactor
of theand
shipthe impact
plate velocity.
under the
It can be found that, with the increase of the impact velocity, the energy-absorption
impacts of ice and rigid body, and under the influence of absorption energy owing to ice reduc-
tion factor
damage and
on the the plastic
plastic deformation
deformation reduction
of the ship factor
plate, the also increase gradually
energy-absorption reduction but the
fac-
torgrowth
(EARF)rate
[12]decreases gradually.
and the plastic Figure 9breduction
deformation shows the relationship
factor (PDRF) between
[44] of thethe reduction
ship plate
factor
are and theas
introduced follows angle of the ice floe. It demonstrates that EARF and PDRF increase
front-end
with the increase in the angle, and that the growth rate is also increasing. It can be seen
EARF = Epiimpact,
from Figure 9 that, compared with rigid-mass
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2024, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW / Eps the absorption energy owing (19)
to29ice
12 of
damage reduces the plastic-strain energy and plastic deformation of the ship plate during
ice–plate impact.
PDRF = wpi / wps (20)

where Epi is the plastic-strain energy of the ship plate under ice impact and Eps is the plastic-
strain energy of the ship plate under rigid-mass impact. wpi and wps are the plastic defor-
mation of ice impact and rigid-mass impact, respectively.
Figure 9a shows the relationship between the reduction factor and the impact veloc-
ity. It can be found that, with the increase of the impact velocity, the energy-absorption
reduction factor and the plastic deformation reduction factor also increase gradually but
the growth rate decreases gradually. Figure 9b shows the relationship between the reduc-
tion factor and the front-end angle of the ice floe. It demonstrates that EARF and PDRF
increase with the increase in the angle, and that the growth rate is also increasing. It can
be seen from Figure 9 that, compared with rigid-mass impact, the absorption energy ow-
ing to ice damage reduces the plastic-strain energy and plastic deformation of the ship
(a) (b)
plate during ice–plate impact.
Figure
Figure9. 9.
Reduction
Reductionfactor (EARF,
factor (EARF, PDRF)
PDRF) ofof
the ship
the plate.
ship (a)(a)
plate. Relationship
Relationship between
betweenthe reduction
the reduction
factor and
factor andthethe
impact velocity;
impact velocity; Relationship
(b)(b) Relationshipbetween
betweenthe
thereduction
reductionfactor
factorand the
and front-end
the front-endangle.
angle.

According
According toto Equation
Equation (6),
(6), the
the energy-absorption
energy-absorption reduction
reduction factor
factor ofof the
the ship
ship plate
plate
can
can bebe expressed
expressed asas
2 ′ 2
EARF = V0i′2 /V0s (21)
EARF = V ′
0i
/ V ′
0s
2
(21)
where V0i′ and V0s ′ are the initial net impact velocities under ice impact and rigid-mass
impact,′respectively.
V0i and V0s′ are the initial net impact velocities under ice impact and rigid-mass
where According to Equation (13), the relationship between the initial net impact velocity
impact, respectively.
and the plastic deformation of the ship plate can be obtained as follows
According to Equation (13), the relationship between the initial net impact velocity
2
and the plastic deformation of the ship V0′ plate
= η2 w
can2
m be obtained
− 2γw m as follows (22)

V0′ =η wm − 2γwm
2 2 2
(22)

The relationship between the energy-absorption reduction factor and the plastic de-
formation reduction factor can be obtained by comparing the Equation (22) corresponding
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2024, 12, 233 12 of 27

The relationship between the energy-absorption reduction factor and the plastic defor-
mation reduction factor can be obtained by comparing the Equation (22) corresponding to
the ice/rigid impact.

a1 · ( PDRF )2 − 2a2 · ( H/w ps ) · ( PDRF )

EARF = (23)
1 − 2a3 · ( H/w ps )

where αi and αs are the coefficients of restitution of ice impact and rigid-mass impact,
respectively; a1 , a2 and a3 are constants related to plate size, ice height, and ice damage
parameters, respectively, as follows

(ω − 1) · h · ( L + ωh2 ) ωhB
a1 = 1 + + (24)
b1 · b2 b2

(ω − 1) · L2 h + ωh2 ( B − h)
a2 = 1 + (25)
b1 · b2
L2 + B2 − Bh
a3 = (26)
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2024, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW b2 13 of 29

b1 = B − ωh (27)
2 2 2
b2 = L + B − h (28)
Figure 10 is the curve fitting the energy-reduction coefficient to the plastic defor-
Figure reduction
mation 10 is the curve factor,
fitting the energy-reduction
and it coefficient
gives theto thefitting
plastic deformation
formula,
2
reduction factor, and it gives
2 the fitting formula, EARF = − 1.03 · ( PDRF )
EARF = −1.03 ⋅ ( PDRF ) + 0.46 ⋅ ( PDRF ) . Combined with Equation (23) and Figure + 0.46 · ( PDRF
10,).
Combined with Equation (23) and Figure 10, EARF changes parabolically with the ratio
EARF changes parabolically with the ratio of plastic deformation. The plastic-strain en-
of plastic deformation. The plastic-strain energy of the ship plate under ice impact can be
ergy of the ship plate under ice impact can be estimated by the ratio of plastic deformation
estimated by the ratio of plastic deformation and the plastic-strain energy of the ship plate
and the plastic-strain energy of the ship plate under rigid impact.
under rigid impact.

Figure 10.
Figure The energy-absorption
10. The energy-absorption reduction
reduction factor.
factor.

3. Design Formula for Plating Thickness under Ice-Impact Load

3. Design Formula for Plating Thickness under Ice-Impact Load
The design principles and the criteria guiding the design of ship structures have
The design
evolved over time.principles andelastic
Initially, the the criteria
designguiding
method was the design
used inof shipstructural
ships’ structuresdesign,
have
evolved over time. Initially, the elastic design method was used in ships’
as shown in Figure 11a. The design criteria in the elastic design method are the maximum structural design,
as shown in
allowable Figure
stress 11a. The by
determined design criteria
the yield in theof
strength elastic design method
the material are thesafety
and a defined maximum
factor.
allowable
Using the elastic design method, the design dimensions of the structure will besafety
stress determined by the yield strength of the material and a defined fac-
too large,
tor. Using the elastic design method, the design dimensions of the structure
which makes the design’s weight heavier and increases the high cost of ship construction. will be too
large, which
The elastic makes
theory the design’s
applies in plate weight heavier
design only and
if the increases
plate materialthe high
does notcost of ship
yield. con-
However,
struction. Thecauses
the load that elastic the
theory
shipapplies
plate toinyield
platedoes
designnotonly if the the
represent plate material load
maximum does that
not
yield. However, the load that causes the ship plate to yield does not
the plate can withstand. The plate can withstand loads several times greater than the represent the maxi-
mum load thatbefore
yield strength the plate canorwithstand.
failure The plate
large deformation can withstand
occurs [29]. For theloads several
safety times
of a ship’s
greater than the yield strength before failure or large deformation occurs [29]. For the
safety of a ship’s strength structure, recognizing that a structure with small plastic defor-
mation still has high structural strength means that it is acceptable for the ship to occa-
sionally undergo small plastic deformation during navigation and operation in an icy re-
gion. Therefore, it is significant to develop the plastic design method based on a maximum
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2024, 12, 233 13 of 27

strength structure, recognizing that a structure with small plastic deformation still has
high structural strength means that it is acceptable for the ship to occasionally undergo
small plastic deformation during navigation and operation in an icy region. Therefore, it is
significant to develop the plastic design method based on a maximum allowable-permanent
set. In the plastic design method, the determination of allowable-permanent-set criteria is
related to the operability, reliability and safety of ship structures. Therefore, it is necessary
to find the optimal critical value among structural operability, safety and construction cost
and so on. The plastic design criteria of the ship’s structure is shown in Figure 11b. Based
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2024, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 29
on the plastic design method, this paper proposes a plastic design formula for determining
the preferred plating thickness under ice floe impact.

Figure
Figure11.
11.Design
Design method
methodof of
ship structure:
ship (a) (a)
structure: the the
elastic design
elastic method;
design (b) the
method; (b) elastic-plastic de-
the elastic-plastic
sign method [37].
design method [37].

AccordingtotoEquation
According Equation(13),
(13),under
underaagiven
givenplastic
plasticdeformation
deformationthe
thethickness
thicknessofofthe
the
plate can be obtained. The allowable-permanent set w is substituted into the Equation
plate can be obtained. The allowable-permanent set ws sis substituted into the Equation (13) (13)
totoobtain
obtainthe
theEquations
Equations(29)
(29)and
and(30).
(30).

V00′′ 2 ++γγ
q 2 2 2
γ2 ++η
γ η 2V
wsw=
s
= 2
(29)
(29)
η
η2
2
V0′ ′= 2 2 22
V0 =ηηwws s −
− 22γw (30)
2
γwss (30)
2
The intermediate values η and γ are
The intermediate values η2 and γ are
2ζσs H
η2 = 2ζ+σβH H φ1 (31)
2 m
η = 0 s φ (31)
1
m0 +βH
2ζσs H2
γ=− φ2 (32)
m0 + βH2
2ζσs H
1 γ= − φ2 (32)
where β = m0 + βHcoefficients related to the dimensions of
ρL( B + Ld ); φ1 , φ2 are dimensionless
6
the ship plate and the length of the middle hinge line, as follows
1
β = ρL ( B + Ld )
where 6 B + Ld dimensionless
L B L
φ1 ;=φ1, φ2 are + and φcoefficients
2 = + related . to the dimensions
L B − L L B −
of the ship plate and the length of the middle hinge line, as follows
d L d

Substituting Equations (31)

B + and
L (32)L into EquationB(30), the
L parabolic equation of the
φ1 = as dfollows
plating thickness H is obtained + and φ2 = + .
L B − Ld L B − Ld
2 2
4ζσs φ2 ws H + (2ζσs φ2 w2s − βV0′ ) H − m0 V0′ = 0
2
(33)
Substituting Equations (31) and (32) into Equation (30), the parabolic equation of the
plating thickness H is obtained as follows

w −βV0′ )H − mV ′2 = 0
2 2 2
4ζσφ w H + (2ζσφ
s 2 s s 2 s 0 0
(33)

According to the formula of root, the analytical formula of plating thickness is ob-
tained as follows

βV0′ βV0′ m 0V0′

2 2 2
φ1 φ1 2
H = − ws + ( ws − ) + (34)
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2024, 12, 233 14 of 27

According to the formula of root, the analytical formula of plating thickness is obtained
as follows
v
2
u 2
βV0 ′
φ1
u
t φ1 βV0′ 2 m0 V0′ 2
H= − ws + ( ws − ) + (34)
8ζσs φ2 ws 4φ2 4φ2 8ζσs φ2 ws 4ζσs φ2 ws

2
In the formula V0′ = (1 − α2 )V02 − Vi2 , when Vi = 0, the thickness of the plate under
rigid-mass impact can be directly obtained. When Vi ̸= 0, the plating-thickness design
formula under ice impact cannot be obtained by using only Equation (34). Therefore,
the force balance equation and the ice damage absorption energy equation should be
introduced on this basis, that is,
q
Fm = m0 γ2 + η 2 [(1 − α2 )V02 − Vi2 ] = P0 · [2h tan(θ/2)]1+ex · δm 1+ex (35)

P0 1
EI = · [2h tan(θ/2)]1+ex · δ2+ex = m0 Vi2 (36)
2 + ex 2
The ratio of Equation (36) to Equation (35) shows that the relationship between the
damage length of ice floes and the velocity is

2 + ex
δm = q Vi2 (37)
2 γ2 + η 2 [(1 − α2 )V02 − Vi2 ]

From Equation (29), we can obtain

q
γ2 + η 2 [(1 − α2 )V02 − Vi2 ] = η 2 ws − γ (38)

Vi2 = (1 − α2 )V02 − (η 2 w2s − 2γws ) (39)

Substituting Equation (38) into Equation (37), the relationship between the crushing
length of ice floe and the ice loss velocity parameters Vi is obtained

2 + ex
δm = V2 (40)
2( η 2 w s − γ ) i

Substituting Equations (38) and (40) into Equation (35), we get

1+ex
2 + ex
m0 (η 2 ws − γ) = P0 · [2h tan(θ/2)]1+ex · [ 2
· Vi2 ] (41)
2( η w s − γ )

Substituting Equation (39) into Equation (41), the relationship between the allowable-
permanent set ws and the intermediate values η 2 and γ related to the plating thickness H
is obtained
1+ex
2 + ex (1 − α2 )V02 − (η 2 w2s − 2γws )
m0 (η 2 ws − γ) = P0 · [2h tan(θ/2)]1+ex · [ · ] (42)
2 η 2 ws − γ

P0 2 + ex 1+ex
Let ξ = · [2h tan(θ/2)]1+ex · ( ) , then Equation (42) can be written
m0 2
as follows
1+ex
2 (1 − α2 )V02 − (η 2 w2s − 2γws )
η ws − γ = ξ · [ ] (43)
η 2 ws − γ
2+ex
( η 2 ws − γ )
1+ex
=ξ (44)
[(1 − α2 )V02 − (η 2 w2s − 2γws )]
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2024, 12, 233 15 of 27

Substituting Equations (31) and (32) into Equation (44), we get

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2024, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2+ex 16 of 29
[2ζσs ( φ1 ws H + φ2 H 2 )]
1+ex
= ξ (m0 + βH ) (45)
[(1 − α2 )V02 · (m0 + βH ) − 2ζσs ws ( φ1 ws H + 2φ2 H 2 )]

then the implicit expression of plating thickness H is obtained 2 2 + ex

1 [2ζσs φ ( 1 ws H +φ2 H )] m
H= ⋅ 2 2 2 1+ ex
− 0 (46)
1 βξ [(1 −α )V0[2ζσ ⋅ ( ms0(+φβ −
H ) 2ζσ w (
φ
2 )] 2+w exH + 2 φ H )] β
1 w s H + φ 2 H
s s 1 s 2 m 0
H= · − (46)
βξ [(1 − α2 )V 2 · (m0 + βH ) − 2ζσs ws ( φ1 ws H + 2φ2 H 2 )]1+ex β
1 0
where β H = ρ LH ( B + L d ) is a small amount relative to the initial mass m0 of the ice
16
where βH = ρLH
floe. Therefore, ( B + Ld ) is a small amount relative to the initial mass m0 offormula the ice
6 this can be ignored and removed in Equation (46). The theoretical
of the
floe. plating thickness
Therefore, this can beHignored
can be and obtained
removed as expressed
in Equation in (46).
Equation (47). According
The theoretical to
formula
Equation
of (47), thickness
the plating the numericalH cansolution
be obtainedof the design’s
as expressed thickness for the ship
in Equation (47). plate can be
According
calculated.
to Equation (47), the numerical solution of the design’s thickness for the ship plate can
be calculated. 2 2 + ex
1 [2ζσs φ ( 1 w s H +φ2 H )] m
H = ⋅ 2 2+ex − 0 (47)
1βξ [(1 −α2[)2ζσ V0 m
2 ( φ w H + φ H )]
s − 1 2ζσ
s ( 1 w s H + 2φ2 H )] − β
ws2φ
2 1 + ex m
0
H= · 0 s (47)
βξ [(1 − α2 )V 2 m0 − 2ζσs ws ( φ1 ws H + 2φ2 H 2 )]1+ex β
0

4. Plating-Thickness
4. Plating-Thickness Design
Design Cases
Cases
4.1. Plating-Thickness Design Procedure
4.1. Procedure
Based on
Based onthetheabove
abovedesign
designformula
formula forfor plating
plating thickness,
thickness, thethe design
design procedure
procedure for
for the
plating thickness
the plating thicknessof the vertical-side
of the vertical-sideplate of of
plate a polar
a polarship
shipunder
undericeicefloe
floeimpact
impact isis given,
as
as shown in inFigure
Figure12.12.InIn order
order to calculate
to calculate thethe thickness
thickness of side
of the the side
plate,plate, the related
the related input
input parameters
parameters of ice–structure
of ice–structure impact impact
should should be provided
be provided according
according to ship
to the the ship
type, type,
ice
ice class,
class, thethe impact
impact location
location andand
the the ice condition
ice condition in the
in the navigation
navigation region,
region, andand
thenthen
the the
im-
impact velocity
pact velocity V0 V 0 and
and thethe allowable-permanent
allowable-permanent set set wsthe
ws of of the
shipship should
should be determined
be determined ac-
according to the actual service condition. Finally, the above parameters
cording to the actual service condition. Finally, the above parameters are substituted are substituted
into
into the plating-thickness
the plating-thickness design
design formula
formula and and the minimum
the minimum designed
designed plating
plating thickness
thickness is
is ob-
obtained
tained byby numerical
numerical solution.
solution.

Figure 12.
Figure 12. A diagram to introduce
introduce the
the plating-thickness
plating-thickness design
design procedure.
procedure.

This
This section
section considers
considers thethe head-on
head-on impact
impact scenario
scenario withwith aa typical
typical side structure
structure ofof an
an
ice-strengthened ship and an ice floe as an example to illustrate the design
ice-strengthened ship and an ice floe as an example to illustrate the design procedure. The procedure. The
side
side structure
structure of
of the
the midship
midship is is transversely
transversely framed,
framed, with
with aa framing
framing spacing
spacing ofof 0.6
0.6 m
m and
and
aa plate
plate height of 1.2 m. The material of the ship plate is selected as polar cryogenic steel,
height of 1.2 m. The material of the ship plate is selected as polar cryogenic steel,
and
and its
its material
material parameters
parameters are are shown
shown in in Table
Table 5.5. The
The mass
mass of of ice
ice floes
floes affects
affects thethe total
total
energy
energy input
input in
in the
the impact
impact system.
system. Most
Most ofof the
the ice
ice floes
floes inin the
the navigation
navigation ice
ice area
area applied
applied
in this paper
in this paper are
arethin
thinfirst-year
first-yearice,ice, and
and thethe mass
mass rangerange is assumed
is assumed as 1000~30,000
as 1000~30,000 kg.
kg. The
The geometry of the ice feature is very important for an ice–structure impact
geometry of the ice feature is very important for an ice–structure impact scenario. In order scenario.
to simplify the theoretical analysis of the ice–structure interaction in the impact process, a
typical wedge-shape of ice floe is chosen and used in the analysis as shown in Figure 4.
The geometric parameters of wedge-shaped ice mainly include ice thickness and front-
end angle. In this paper, the ice thickness is 0.74 m and the front-end angle is 120°. The
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2024, 12, 233 16 of 27

In order to simplify the theoretical analysis of the ice–structure interaction in the17impact

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2024, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW of 29
process, a typical wedge-shape of ice floe is chosen and used in the analysis as shown in
Figure 4. The geometric parameters of wedge-shaped ice mainly include ice thickness and
front-end angle. In this paper, the ice thickness is 0.74 m and the front-end angle is 120◦ .
− 0.5
= 1.7
PThe P= A 1.7A described in Section
−0.5 described 2.3 and
in Section 2.3obtained from the
and obtained DNV
from rules rules
the DNV is adopted in this
is adopted in
section.
this section.
The
Thedimensionless
dimensionlessallowable-permanent
allowable-permanentset setparameter
parameterCCwwisisused
usedtotorepresent
representthe
the
allowable plastic deformation degree of the ship plate, which is defined as
allowable plastic deformation degree of the ship plate, which is defined as followsfollows

ws E
s
C = s E
w (48)
Cw w= b σ (48)
b σss
where
wherebbisisthe
theshort
shortside
sidelength
lengthof ofthe
thepanel.
panel.InIngeneral,
general,the
thevalue
valuerange
rangefor
forthe
theallowable-
allowable-
permanent set w s of the plate is 0~b/50 [29]. For different frame structures, the dimension
permanent set ws of the plate is 0~b/50 [29]. For different frame structures, the dimension
parameter
parameterdefinitions
definitions in in the
the corresponding designformulas
corresponding design formulasof ofthe
theplate
platewidth
widthasasshown
shownin
inFigure
Figure13.
13.InInthis
thissection,
section,ititisistransversely
transverselyframed,
framed,so so bb == LL =
= 600
600 mm. Accordingto
mm. According tothe
the
material parameters and the allowable-permanent set range, the range of
material parameters and the allowable-permanent set range, the range of Cw is determined Cw is determined

totobe
be0.1~0.5.
0.1~0.5.

Figure13.
Figure Vertical-side
13.Vertical-side structure
structure withwith different
different frame
frame configurations:
configurations: (a) transversely
(a) transversely framedframed
struc-
structure; (b) longitudinally framed structure.
ture; (b) longitudinally framed structure.

Therefore,according
Therefore, accordingto tothe
theabove
aboveparameters
parametersand
andthe
thedamage
damagecoefficient
coefficientωωof
ofthe
theice
ice
is 0.6, the impact velocity is 2.25 m/s and the coefficient of restitution α is taken as 0.1.
is 0.6, the impact velocity is 2.25 m/s and the coefficient of restitution α is taken as 0.1. TheThe
allowable-permanent set parameter C is 0.3. According to Equation (47), the design value
allowable-permanent set parameter Cwwis 0.3. According to Equation (47), the design value
of plating thickness is 18.3 mm.
of plating thickness is 18.3 mm.
4.2. Design Curves under Different Design Parameters and Cases
4.2. Design Curves under Different Design Parameters and Cases
In this section, the head-on impact scenario with the typical side structure of an
In this section,ship
ice-strengthened the and
head-on
an iceimpact
floe isscenario
selectedwith the typical
to design side structure
the plating thickness,of and
an ice-
the
strengthened
plating-thickness design curves under different working conditions are given. Theplat-
ship and an ice floe is selected to design the plating thickness, and the side
ing-thickness
structure of thedesign curves
midship under
with different working conditions
transversely-framing spacing of are 0.6 given. The sideand
m is selected, struc-
the
ture of the midship with transversely-framing spacing of 0.6 m is selected, and
aspect ratio of the plate is 2. The ship plate is made of polar cryogenic steel material, and the the aspect
ratio of the
material plate is 2.are
parameters The shipin
shown plate
Tableis5.made of polar
The range for cryogenic
the ice floesteel
massmaterial, and the
is 1000~30,000 kg,
material
the damageparameters are shown
coefficient ω of iceinisTable 5. The
0.6, the rangerange for the velocity
of impact ice floe mass
is 3~8ism/s,
1000~30,000
and the
kg, the damage
coefficient coefficientαωofofice
of restitution iceisis0.1.
0.6,The
the range of impact
following section velocity is 3~8
will give the m/s,
H-Vand the
0 design
coefficient of restitution α of ice is 0.1. The following section will
curves under different cases and some parameter-influence analysis for the designed give the H-V 0 design
curves
platingunder different cases and some parameter-influence analysis for the designed plat-
thickness.
ing thickness.
4.2.1. Case 1. Different Ice Strengths (P–A Curves)
4.2.1. Case
In this1.condition,
Different Ice
theStrengths
ice mass m (P–A Curves)
0 is taken as 15,000 kg, the ice thickness h is taken as
0.74In
m,this
the condition,
front-end angle is taken
the iceθ mass m0 is 120◦ and
astaken the allowable-permanent
as 15,000 kg, the ice thicknessseth isparameter
taken as
Cw is
0.74 m,taken as 0.3. angle θ is taken as 120° and the allowable-permanent set parameter
the front-end
The P–A
Cw is taken relationship is generally obtained by fitting the experimental data, which is a
as 0.3.
macroscopic
The P–A characterization of the mechanical
relationship is generally obtained properties of ice
by fitting the materials and
experimental haswhich
data, different
is
aapplicable
macroscopicconditions. A series of
characterization P–Amechanical
of the relationships are summarized
properties in Tableand
of ice materials 6. has dif-
ferent applicable conditions. A series of P–A relationships are summarized in Table 6.
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2024, 12, 233 17 of 27

Table 6. P–A relationships (the units of P and A are MPa and m2 , respectively).

Equation
Source P–A Relationship Descriptions
Number
The data are derived from the measurement data
of the Norströmsgrund lighthouse colliding with
Timco and Sudom
Eq. a P = 0.88A−0.57 ( A > 0.1 m2 ) the ice floe. The lighthouse is a cylindrical concrete
(2013) [43]
structure with a diameter of 7.58 m at the water
line. The ice average thickness is 0.42 m.
It is suitable for the mid-side structure of a ship
DNV rules [2] Eq. b P = CA−0.5 ( A ≤ 1.0m2 ) with ice class of ICE-05 and ICE-10 when the value
range of C is 1.4~1.95.
The majority of the data points were obtained from
the Molikpaq caisson structure from interactions
Timco and Sudom with first-year sea ice. Molikpaq consists of a
Eq. c P = 1.9A−0.37 ( A > 0.1 m2 )
(2013) [43] continuous steel annulus on which sits a
self-contained deck structure. The core of the
annulus was filled with sand.
The data were derived from the collision of the
Ritch et al. (2008) [7] Eq. d P = 3.5A−0.56 (0.12 < A < 2.4 m2 ) Terry Fox icebreaker with the B14 and B17 icebergs.
The B 14 mass is 1900 t and the B 17 mass is 8500 t.
The data were derived from a combination of
medium scale impact tests, dedicated ship
API RP 2N [45] Eq. e P = 8.1A−0.5 ( A ≤ 19 m2 ) ramming tests and measurements taken from ice
load panels on the Molikpaq. Most of the ice is
multi-year ice.
Masterson and
Eq. f P = 4.0A−0.5 ( A ≤ 1.0 m2 ) First-year ice and more temperature areas.
Frederking (2007) [41]
On the basis of Eq. e, the data from ship-ramming
ISO 19906 [46] Eq. g P = 7.4A−0.7 (0.1 <A ≤ 10 m2 ) tests were deleted, and the Molikpaq data 1985 to
1986 were added. Multi-year ice was used.
Masterson and The original ice pressures were used for the design
Eq. h P = 5.11A−0.4 (1 <A ≤ 10 m2 )
Frederking (2007) [41] of the Molikpaq platform. Multi-year ice was used.

The influence of ice strength on plating-thickness design will be examined by taking

the P–A relationship within DNV rules as an example. The P–A relationship of ice obtained
from the DNV rules [2] is expressed as

P = CA−0.5 ( A ≤ 1.0 m2 ) (49)

where C is the parameter related to the ice strength and the ice belt region, C = 0.58FA σice .
σice is nominal ice strength and FA is the coefficient related to the ice belt, and, where A is
the contact area between the ice and the ship plate. In general, FA is 0.6 for a midship area.
For ships with ice classes of ICE-05 and ICE-10, the nominal strength σice is 4.2 MPa and
5.6 MPa, respectively. Therefore, the value range of the parameter C corresponding to the
ICE-05 and ICE-10 ice classes is 1.4~1.95.
According to Equations (2) and (3), the impact force and ice dissipation energy of the
ice floe at different C values can be obtained, and these are used to evaluate the ice-material
strength during local ice crushing. Figure 14a shows the relationship between the impact
force and the ice-crushing length under different C values. The impact force reflects the
magnitude of ice-impact loading, and the impact force increases with the increase of C
value under the same ice-crushing length. Figure 14b shows the relationship between the
ice dissipation energy and the ice-crushing length under different C values. It is seen that
when the ice floe with different C values reaches the same crushing length, the larger the C
 J.Mar.
Mar.Sci.
Sci.Eng.
Eng.2024, 12,x233
2024,12, 1918 of2927
J.J.Mar. Sci. Eng. 2024, 12, FORPEER
x FOR PEERREVIEW
REVIEW 19 ofof 29

value and the ice dissipation energy. In summary, the ice strength characterized by the P–A
theP–A
the P–Arelationship
relationshipcorresponding
correspondingtotodifferent
differentCCvalues
valuesincreases
increaseswith
withthe
theincrease
increaseof
ofCC
relationship corresponding to different C values increases with the increase of C value.
value.
value.

(a)
(a) (b)
(b)
Figure14.
Figure 14. Theimpact
impactforce
forceand
and dissipatedenergy
energy of ice underdifferent
different C valuesduring
during impact
Figure 14.The
The impact force anddissipated
dissipated energyofoficeiceunder
under differentC Cvalues
values duringimpact
impact
againstthe
against theice-crushing
ice-crushinglength.
length.(a)
(a)Impact
Impactforce;
force;(b)
(b)Dissipated
Dissipatedenergy.
energy.
against the ice-crushing length. (a) Impact force; (b) Dissipated energy.

Figure
Figure
Figure15 15 shows
15shows
showsthe the design
thedesign
designcurves curves
curvesof of plating
ofplating thickness
platingthickness
thicknessunderunder different
differentCCCvalues
underdifferent values
valuesin in
in
DNV
DNV rules.
DNVrules. It can
rules.It Itcan be found
canbebefound
foundthat that with
thatwith the
withthe increase
theincrease of impact
increaseofofimpact velocity,
impactvelocity,
velocity,thethe designed
thedesigned plating
designedplating
plating
thickness
thickness gradually
thicknessgradually
gradually increases.
increases.
increases. ItItisis due
Itdue
is duetothat
to that
to thatwhen
when whentheimpact
the impact
the velocity
impact increases,
velocity
velocity theice-
increases,
increases, the ice-
the
impact
ice-impact
impact loading
loading loadingwill increase,
will increase,
will increase, resulting
resulting resultingin that
in that the designed
in the
that designed
the designed plating
plating
plating thickness. The de-
thickness.
thickness. The de-
The
signed
designed
signed plating
platingplatingthickness
thickness
thickness isismore
more
is more sensitive
sensitive
sensitive totothethe determination
to determination
the determination ofice
of ice strength.
ofstrength.
ice strength.Thede-
The de-
The
signed
designed plating thickness
plating thicknessincreases increases with the
with icethestrength
ice increasing
strength
signed plating thickness increases with the ice strength increasing when the impact veloc- when
increasing the
whenimpact
the veloc-
impact
ity
ity isisthe
velocitythesame.
same.
is the TheThereason
same. reason
The reasonisisthat
thatis under thesame
that under
under the same impact
the impact
same working
impact
working condition,
working theice
condition,
condition, the ice
thefloe
floeice
with larger
floelarger
with ice
with larger strength is
ice strength
ice strength not
is not easy easy
is not to occur
to easy deformation
occurtodeformation
occur deformation or damage,
or damage, so
or damage,the energy
so the energy so the absorp-
energy
absorp-
tion owingto
absorption
tion owing toowing
icedamage
ice damage
to icewill will
damage decrease,
decrease, will andandthen
decrease,thenthe the
and plastic-strain energyof
then the plastic-strain
plastic-strain energy ofthe
the shipplate
energy
ship plate
of the
under ice impact will increase so that the required designed plating thickness is larger. IfIf
under
ship ice
plate impact
under will
ice increase
impact so
will that
increasethe required
so that designed
the required plating
designed thickness
platingis larger.
thickness
the parameter
is parameter
the larger. If theCCtakes
takesaalarger
parameter larger valuein
C value
takes ainlarger
structural
structuralvalue design, whichmeans
in structural
design, which meansthat
design, that theice-impact
which
the ice-impact
means that
loading
the due
ice-impact to the chosen
loading due larger
to the ice strength
chosen larger is larger,
ice the
strength
loading due to the chosen larger ice strength is larger, the designed plating thickness re- designed
is larger, plating
the thickness
designed re-
plating
quired
thickness will be much
required
quired will be much greater. greater.
will be much greater.

Figure15.
Figure
Figure Plate
15.Plate
15. Plate thickness
thickness
thickness designcurves
design
design curves
curves of
ofof theDNV
the
the DNV P–Arelationship.
DNVP–A
P–A relationship.
relationship.

It can
can be
be seen
seen from
from Figure
Figure 1616 that
that the
the designed
designed plating
plating thickness
thicknessof of different
differentP–A P–A
ItItcan be seen from Figure 16 that the designed plating thickness of different P–A
relationships
relationshipsincreaseincrease
increasewith with
withthe the increase
theincrease
increaseof of velocity.
ofvelocity.
velocity.AndAndtheAnd the plating-thickness
theplating-thickness
plating-thicknessdesign design
designval-
val-
relationships
values
ues of of different
different P–A P–A relationships
relationships areare
shownshown in in Table
Table A1 A1
in in Appendix
Appendix A.1.A.The
Thedesign’s
design’s
ues of different P–A relationships are shown in Table A1 in Appendix A.1. The design’s
thicknessesbased
thicknesses basedononthe the
P–AP–A relationship
relationship from
from (Eq.(Eq. area) aresmallest
the smallest compared to
thicknesses based on the P–A relationship from (Eq. a)a)are the
the compared
smallest compared tothose
to those
those
basedon based
onother on
otherP–A other P–A relationships.
P–Arelationships.
relationships.This ThisisisdueThis
dueto is
tothe due to
theoriginal the
originaltest original
testdata test
datafor
forthedata
theP–A for the
P–Arelation- P–A
relation-
based
relationships
ships from from
(Eq. a) (Eq.were
that a) that were measured
measured from thefrom
ice the ice
floe floe impact
impact on the on theconcrete
fixed fixed concrete
Nor-
ships from (Eq. a) that were measured from the ice floe impact on the fixed concrete Nor-
strömsgrundlighthouse
strömsgrund lighthouse[43], [43],and
andthetherelative
relativeimpact
impactvelocity
velocitybetween
betweenthetheice
icefloe
floeand
andthethe
J.J.Mar.
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Norströmsgrund
fixed lighthouse islighthouse
very small[43], and thetorelative
compared impact
the impact velocity
velocity between impact,
of ship–ice the ice floe
whichand
the fixed
leads to a lighthouse is very small
smaller ice-impact compared
loading. The P–A to the impact velocity
relationship from (Eq.of ship–ice impact,for
b) is suitable which
the
leads to astructure
mid-side smaller of ice-impact
a ship with loading. classP–A
an ice The relationship
of ICE-05 or ICE-10 from (Eq. the
when b) is suitable
value of C foris
the mid-side structure of a ship with an ice class of ICE-05 or
1.7 when following the DNV rules. According to the P–A relationship from (Eq. c), its ICE-10 when the value of
C is 1.7 when following the DNV rules. According to the P–A relationship
plating thickness is close to that of the P–A relationship from (Eq. b). The test data for the from (Eq. c),
its plating
P–A thickness
relationship fromis(Eq.
close to that
c) were of the P–A
measured from relationship
first-year-ice from (Eq. on
impacts b). the
The test data
Molikpaq
for the P–A
platform relationship
caisson structurefrom (Eq. Molikpaq,
[43]. The c) were measured from first-year-ice
which consists of a continuous impacts on the
steel annu-
Molikpaq platform caisson structure [43]. The Molikpaq, which consists
lus, is similar to the side structure of ship and the first-year-ice condition belongs to the of a continuous
steel annulus,
low-ice is similar to
class. Therefore, the
the siderelationship
P–A structure offrom
ship and
(Eq.the first-year-ice
c) could condition
be applied to guidebelongs
the
to the low-ice class. Therefore, the P–A relationship from (Eq. c)
plating-thickness design of ice-strengthened ships navigating in first-year-ice floe regions. could be applied to
guide the plating-thickness design of ice-strengthened ships navigating
The design’s thicknesses based on the P–A relationship from (Eq. d) are larger than those in first-year-ice floe
regions.
based on The design’s
the P–A thicknesses
relationship based
from (Eq.on
b).the P–A relationship
Because the measured fromdata
(Eq.was
d) are
fromlarger than
a colli-
those based on the P–A relationship from (Eq. b). Because the
sion between the Terry Fox icebreaker and B 14 and B 17 glacier ice (mass of 1900 t and measured data was from
a collision between the Terry Fox icebreaker and B 14 and B 17 glacier ice (mass of 1900 t
8500 t, respectively) [7], the mass and ice strength of glacier ice is larger than for ice within
and 8500 t, respectively) [7], the mass and ice strength of glacier ice is larger than for ice
low-ice-class conditions. According to the P–A relationships from (Eq. e, Eq. f, Eq. g and
within low-ice-class conditions. According to the P–A relationships from (Eq. e, Eq. f, Eq. g
Eq. h), their design thicknesses are larger than those based on the P–A relationship from
and Eq. h), their design thicknesses are larger than those based on the P–A relationship
(Eq. b). This is due to the original test data of the four P–A relationships having been
from (Eq. b). This is due to the original test data of the four P–A relationships having been
mostly measured from the fixed structure Molikpaq platform being subjected to ice floe
mostly measured from the fixed structure Molikpaq platform being subjected to ice floe
impact [41], and the ice-impact loading is larger than the force of ship–ice impact. Among
impact [41], and the ice-impact loading is larger than the force of ship–ice impact. Among
them, the thicknesses based on P–A relationships from (Eq. f) are the smallest, since the
them, the thicknesses based on P–A relationships from (Eq. f) are the smallest, since the test
test data was from first-year-ice impact; however, the date of the other three was from
data was from first-year-ice impact; however, the date of the other three was from impact
impact with multi-year ice that has higher strength than first-year ice. From the above
with multi-year ice that has higher strength than first-year ice. From the above analysis, it
analysis, it can be seen that P–A relationships from (Eq. b and Eq. c) can be used to guide
can be seen that P–A relationships from (Eq. b and Eq. c) can be used to guide the structural
the structural
design design of ice-strengthened
of ice-strengthened ships with iceships with
classes PC6 iceand
classes
PC7.PC6 and PC7.

Figure16.
Figure Plating-thicknessdesign
16.Plating-thickness designcurves
curvesofofdifferent P–Arelationships.
differentP–A relationships.

4.2.2.Case
4.2.2. Case2.2.Different
DifferentAllowable-Permanent
Allowable-PermanentSet SetParameters
ParametersCC w
w
In the elastic-plastic design method, the determination of
In the elastic-plastic design method, the determination of the the allowable-permanent
allowable-permanent set
parameter is related to the residual bearing capacity, safety, flatness and work performance
set parameter is related to the residual bearing capacity, safety, flatness and work perfor-
of ship structures. According to references [29,30], the value range of allowable-permanent
mance of ship structures. According to references [29,30], the value range of allowable-
set ws of the plate is 0~b/50, and the allowable-permanent-set parameter Cw ranges from
permanent set ws of the plate is 0~b/50, and the allowable-permanent-set parameter Cw
0.1~0.5. Under these conditions, the ice mass m is taken as 15,000 kg, the ice thickness h
ranges from 0.1~0.5. Under these conditions, the◦0ice mass m0 is taken as 15,000 kg, the ice
is taken as 0.74 m, the front-end angle θ is 120 and the P–A relationship is taken as the
thickness h is taken as 0.74 m, the front-end angle θ is 120° and the P–A relationship is
formula from DNV rules: P = 1.7A−0.5 .
taken as the formula from DNV rules: P = 1 . 7 A −0 .5 .
Figure 17 shows the plating-thickness design curves of different values for allowable-
Figure 17 shows the plating-thickness design curves of different values for allowable-
permanent-set parameter Cw . It can be seen that the designed plating thickness of different
permanent-set parameter Cw. It can be seen that the designed plating thickness of different
allowable-permanent set Cw values increases with an increase in velocity, and different
allowable-permanent set Cw values
design curves are approximately increases
parallel. Thewith an thickness
plating increase in velocity, to
is sensitive andthedifferent
determi-
design
nation of the allowable-permanent set, and the plating thickness increases with the
curves are approximately parallel. The plating thickness is sensitive to deter-
a decrease
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2024, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 21 of 29

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2024, 12, 233 20 of 27

mination of the allowable-permanent set, and the plating thickness increases with a de-
crease
in Cw . in Cw.isThis
This dueistodue
the to thethat
fact factwhen
that when the allowable-permanent
the allowable-permanent set gradually
set gradually de-
decreases,
creases,
the designthe criteria
design criteria of design
of plastic plastic method
design method
is closeristocloser to thedesign
the elastic elastic criteria,
design criteria,
and the
and the designed
designed plating thickness
plating thickness becomesbecomes increasingly
increasingly conservative.
conservative. Table A2Table A2 in Ap-A
in Appendix
pendix
shows A.2 shows plating-thickness
plating-thickness design valuesdesign values of
of different different
values of Cvalues
w . of Cw.

Figure
Figure17.
17.Plating-thickness
Plating-thicknessdesign
designcurves
curvesof
ofdifferent
differentvalues
valuesfor
forallowable-permanent
allowable-permanentset
setCCww. .

4.2.3.Case
4.2.3. Case3.3.Influences
Influencesof ofIce
IceShapes
Shapes(θ, (θ,h)h)andandImpact
ImpactEnergyEnergy
For different
For differentice ice shapes,
shapes,the theP–A P–Arelationship
relationshipisisbased basedon onthetheformula
formulaof ofthe
the DNV
DNV
rules: P = 1.7A− 0−.5 0.5 , and the allowable-permanent-set parameter Cw is 0.3. When exploring
rules: P = 1 .7 A , and the allowable-permanent-set parameter C w is 0.3. When exploring
the influence of ice thickness, the ice front-end angle θ is 120◦ . According to the DNV
the influence of ice thickness, the ice front-end angle θ is 120°. According to the DNV rules
rules [2], the ice thickness range of ice classes ICE-05 and ICE-10 is 0.5~1.0 m. The ice
[2], the ice thickness range of ice classes ICE-05 and ICE-10 is 0.5~1.0 m. The ice mass
mass increases proportionally with the ice thickness, m0 = (h/0.74) · 15000 kg. When
angle, 0the (ice thickness
increases
exploringproportionally
the influence ofwith the the ice thickness,
ice front-end
m = h / 0.74) ⋅15000 h iskg. When
0.74 m, theexploring
ice mass
the influence
is 15,000 kg andof the
theice
icefront-end
front-endangle, angle theθ isice thickness
taken ◦
as 60 ,h90 ◦
is 0.74 ◦
, 120m,orthe ◦
150ice. mass is 15,000
kg and the ice18front-end
Figure shows the angle θ is taken
design curves asfor60°,different
90°, 120°ice or 150°.
shapes. It can be seen from
FigureFigure
18a 18 shows
that, withthethedesign
increase curves
of the forfront-end
differentangle,ice shapes. It can be
the plating seen from
thickness Figure
gradually
18a that, with the increase of the front-end angle, the plating thickness
increases. Figure 19a demonstrates that the plating thickness increases parabolically with gradually increases.
Figure 19a demonstrates
this angle and the fittingthat the plating
formula is H = 1.56θ 3 −increases
thickness 7θ 2 + 15.17θ
parabolically
+ 12.59. with Duringthisthe
angle
ice-
3 2
impact
and the process,
fitting formula H = 1.56
with anisincrease inθthe − 7front-end
θ + 15.17θ + 12.59
angle, the. energy
Duringabsorption
the ice-impact due to ice
pro-
crushing
cess, with will become in
an increase smaller, so the plate
the front-end angle, will absorb
the energy more impact energy
absorption due to and generate
ice crushing
greater
will becomeplastic deformation,
smaller, so the plateas indicated
will absorb in Ref.more [28]. Therefore,
impact energy inand
the structural design
generate greater
the ice with a larger angle is selected as the most dangerous
plastic deformation, as indicated in Ref. [28]. Therefore, in the structural design the condition to obtain a much
ice
more secure plating thickness. And the plating-thickness
with a larger angle is selected as the most dangerous condition to obtain a much more design values of different ice
front-end angles are illustrated in Table A3 in Appendix
secure plating thickness. And the plating-thickness design values of different ice front-
θ A. Figure 18b shows that the
plating
end thickness
angles increasesinwith
θ are illustrated Table anA3increase
in Appendixin the velocity
A.3. Figure at different
18b shows icethat
thicknesses.
the platingIt
can be seen
thickness from Figure
increases with an 19b that the
increase inplating
the velocitythickness increases
at different ice parabolically
thicknesses. Itwith can the
be
increase of ice thickness, and the fitting formula is H = − 9.95h 2 + 24.76h + 15.06. Table A4
seen from Figure 19b that the plating thickness increases parabolically with the increase
inice
of Appendix
thickness, A shows
and the the plating-thickness
fitting formula is Hdesign = − 9.95values underh different
h 2 + 24.76 A4 in Ap-h.
ice thicknesses
+ 15.06 . Table
pendix A.3 shows the plating-thickness design values under different ice thicknesses h.an-
To explore the influence of impact energy, the ice thickness h is 0.74 m, the front-end
gle θ is 120◦ , the range of ice mass is 1000~30,000 kg, the range of impact velocity is 3~8 m/s
and the P–A relationship (P = 1.7A−0.5 ) is used in the calculation. Figure 20a demonstrates
that the plating thickness for different masses increases with increasing velocity. And the
plating-thickness design values under different ice masses m0 are demonstrated in Table A5
in Appendix A. It can be seen from Figure 20b that the plating thickness of different impact
velocities increase with increasing ice mass. According to the design curves for plating
thickness in Figure 20a,b, the design curve for plating thickness using initial impact energy
is obtained as illustrated in Figure 20c.
J.J.J.Mar.
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29
21 of 27

(a) (b)
Figure 18. Plating-thickness design curves of different ice shapes. (a) Design curves for different ice
front-end angles; (b) Design curves for different ice thickness.

(a)
(a) (b)
(b)
Figure 18.18.
Figure
Figure 18. Plating-thickness
Plating-thickness design
Plating-thickness
design curvescurves
design
curves of different
of different ice shapes.
shapes.
of different
ice (a) Design
Design
ice shapes.
(a) curves
(a)curves
Designforcurves
for different ice
forice
different different ice
front-end angles;
front-end angles; (b) Design curves
(b) Design curves for
for different
different ice
ice thickness.
thickness.
front-end angles; (b) Design curves for different ice thickness.

(a) (b)
Figure 19. The influence of ice shape (θ, h) on plating thickness. (a) H–θ curve when V0 = 6 m/s. (b)
H–h curve when V0 = 6 m/s.

To explore the influence of impact energy, the ice thickness h is 0.74 m, the front-end
angle θ is 120°, the range of ice mass is 1000~30,000 kg, the range of impact velocity is 3~8
m/s and the P–A relationship ( P = 1.7 A−0.5 ) is used in the calculation. Figure 20a demon-
strates that the plating thickness for different masses increases with increasing velocity.
And the plating-thickness design values under different ice masses m0 are demonstrated
in Table A5 in Appendix (a)
A.3. It can be seen from Figure 20b that (b) the plating thickness of
(a) (b)
different impact velocities increase with increasing ice mass. According to the design
Figure 19.
Figure 19. The
The influence
influence of ice
of ice shape
shape (θ, h)
(θ, h)20a,b,
on plating
on plating design
thickness. (a)
(a) H–θ
H–θ curve when V00 == 66 m/s.
m/s. (b)
curves
Figure for19.
plating
The thickness
influence ofinice
Figure
shape on thickness.
(θ, h)the platingcurve for curve
thickness. when
plating V
thickness
(a) H–θ curve (b)
using
when V 0 = 6 m/s.
H–h curve
H–h curve when
when VV00 == 66 m/s.
m/s.
initial impact energy is
(b) H–h curve when V 0 = 6 m/s.obtained as illustrated in Figure 20c.
To explore
To explore thethe influence
influence ofof impact
impact energy,energy, the the ice
ice thickness
thickness hh is
is 0.74
0.74 m,
m, the
the front-end
front-end
angle θ
angle θ is
is 120°,
120°, the
the range
range ofof ice
ice mass
mass is is 1000~30,000
1000~30,000 kg, kg, the
the range
range of
of impact
impact velocity
velocity is
is 3~8
3~8
m/s and
m/s and thethe P–A relationship (( PP == 11..77 AA−−00..55 )) is
P–A relationship is used
used in
in the
the calculation.
calculation. Figure
Figure 20a
20a demon-
demon-
strates that
strates that the
the plating
plating thickness
thickness forfor different
different masses masses increases
increases with
with increasing
increasing velocity.
velocity.
And the
And the plating-thickness
plating-thickness design
design values
values under under different
different ice
ice masses
masses m m00 are
are demonstrated
demonstrated
in Table
in Table A5A5 inin Appendix
Appendix A.3. A.3. It
It can
can bebe seen
seen from from Figure
Figure 20b
20b that
that the
the plating
plating thickness
thickness of
of
different impact
different impact velocities
velocities increase
increase with with increasingincreasing ice ice mass.
mass. According
According to to the
the design
design
curves for
curves for plating
plating thickness
thickness in in Figure
Figure 20a,b,
20a,b, the the design
design curve
curve for
for plating
plating thickness
thickness using
using
initial impact energy is obtained as illustrated
initial impact energy is obtained as illustrated in Figure 20c. in Figure 20c.
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2024, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 23 of 29

(a) (b)

(a)
(a) (b)
(b)

(c)
Figure
Figure20. 20.
Plating-thickness designdesign
Plating-thickness curves for different
curves ice masses,ice
for different impact velocities
masses, impact andvelocities
impact en-and impact
ergies. (a) Design curves for different masses; (b) design curves for different velocities and (c) design
energies. (a) Design curves for different masses; (b) design curves for different velocities and
curves for different impact energies.
(c) design curves for different impact energies.
4.2.4. Case 4. Comparison of Plating-Thickness Designs for Ice Impact and Rigid-Mass
Impact
In this case, the ice mass is 15,000 kg, the ice thickness is 0.74 m, the front-end angle
is 120°, the P–A relationship ( P = 1 . 7 A −0 .5 ) obtained from the DNV rules is chosen, and the
coefficient of restitution of ice is 0.1. In order to explore the influence of the length of the
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2024, 12, 233 22 of 27

4.2.4. Case 4. Comparison of Plating-Thickness Designs for Ice Impact and

Rigid-Mass Impact
In this case, the ice mass is 15,000 kg, the ice thickness is 0.74 m, the front-end angle is
120◦ , the P–A relationship (P = 1.7A−0.5 ) obtained from the DNV rules is chosen, and the
coefficient of restitution of ice is 0.1. In order to explore the influence of the length of the
middle plastic hinge line (Ld = ωh) on the plating-thickness design, a damage coefficient
ω of ice are selected from 0.5~1.0. For rigid-mass impact, the mass of the rigid impactor
is 15,000 kg, the impactor height is 0.74 m, and the coefficient of restitution of the rigid
impactor is 0.5. The allowable-permanent-set parameter Cw under ice for rigid-mass impact
is taken as 0.3.
Figure 21 shows the comparison of plating-thickness design curves for ice floe im-
pact and rigid-mass impact under the same impact conditions. It can be found that the
designed plating thickness for ice impact and rigid-mass impact increases with increasing
impact velocity. The plating thickness designed for rigid-mass impact is much larger than
that designed for ice impact. The structural dimension design applied for rigid-mass
impact is too conservative. Therefore, the influence of ice damage on plating-thickness
design should be considered in the structural design of polar ships subjected to ice floe
impact. Under ice impact, the length of the middle plastic hinge line of the ship plate is
Ld = ωh (ω is a constant). Figure 21 shows the plating-thickness design curves for different
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2024, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 24 of 29
hinge line lengths. Figure 22 demonstrates that the designed plating thickness
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2024, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW
gradu-
24 of 29
ally decreases with increasing middle plastic hinge line length and the fitting formula is
H = −7.93L2d − 0.46Ld + 29.71.

Figure
Figure21.
Figure 21.Plating-thickness
21. Plating-thicknessdesign
Plating-thickness designcurves
design curves for
curvesfor iceice
forice impact
impact and
and
impact rigid-mass
rigid-mass
and impact
impact
rigid-mass under
under
impact the
the
under same
same
the same
impact
impact conditions.
conditions.
impact conditions.

Figure 22. H–Ld curve when V 0 = 6 m/s.

Figure22.
Figure 22.H–L curve when
H–Ldd curve when V00 = 6 m/s.

5.5.Conclusions
Conclusions
In this
In this paper,
paper, aa theoretical
theoretical model for the
the impact
impact response
response between
betweenthethevertical-side
vertical-side
plateof
plate of an
an ice-strengthened
ice-strengthened ship and an ice floe
floe is
is established.
established. The
Theplastic
plasticdeformation
deformationofof
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2024, 12, 233 23 of 27

5. Conclusions
In this paper, a theoretical model for the impact response between the vertical-side
plate of an ice-strengthened ship and an ice floe is established. The plastic deformation
of the ship plate under ice impact can be obtained based on the theoretical analytical
method presented here, which compared well with the experimental results. On this basis,
the thickness design formula of the ship plate under ice-impact loading based on the plastic
design criteria has been derived, and the plating-thickness design curves under different
design parameters or conditions are shown. The parameter-influence analysis on the designed
plating thickness is discussed. Some concluding remarks are summarized as follows:
When designing the plating thickness of an ice-strengthened ship subjected to ice floe
impact, the dimensionless allowable-permanent-set parameter Cw within the plastic design
approach needs to be determined according to the actual structural design requirements.
The designed plating thickness gradually decreases with increasing Cw . If the smaller value
of the allowable-permanent set is taken in the proposed plastic design approach, the design
criteria of plastic design method is closer to the elastic design criteria, and the designed
plating thickness becomes increasingly conservative.
The dynamic responses of the ship plate to ice impact and rigid-mass impact under the
same impact conditions are compared in this paper. The plastic deformation of the ship plate
with ice impact is much less than that with rigid-mass impact. This is due to the fact that the ice
will experience deformation and damage to absorb impact energy, and the energy absorption
of ice occupies a large proportion of impact energy during impact. The designed plating
thickness under rigid-mass impact is much larger than that under ice impact. Therefore, it
will be particularly conservative when using rigid-mass-impact loads instead of ice-impact
loads for structural design. It is necessary to consider the energy absorbed by ice damage for
the plating-thickness design of ice-strengthened ships subjected to ice floe impacts.
The ice contact pressure–area (P–A) relationship is widely used to assess the ice
strength during ship–ice impact. The design formula proposed to determine the plating
thickness under ice-impact loading is very sensitive to the P–A relationship of ice. Design
curves for plating thickness based on different P–A relationships obtained from polar-ship
design rules and reported empirical data are compared in this paper. For example, for
the P–A relationship (P = 0.88A−0.57 ) obtained from the measured data of the collision
between a fixed cylindrical concrete lighthouse structure and an ice floe, the ice strength
using this relationship in the impact process is relatively small, resulting in a designed
plating thickness that is small due to its low ice strength, which is not suitable for the
design of the plating thickness for ships under ice floe impact. For the P–A relationship
(P = 3.5A−0.56 ) obtained from the experimental data of the collision between a small
iceberg and an icebreaker, the iceberg strength is relatively high, which causes the designed
plating thickness to be large, which is not suitable for the plating-thickness plastic design of
an ice-strengthened ship of a low-ice class subject to ice floe impact. The P–A relationship
P = CA−0.5 (C = 1.4 ∼ 1.95) coming from DNV rules can be used to guide the structural
plastic design of polar ships of a low-ice class. Therefore, it is necessary to select the
appropriate P–A relationship according to the ice conditions in the navigation regions when
designing plating thickness.
Differing from the assumption of ice floe impact as rigid mass impact loading or local
uniformly distributed patch loading for structural plastic design, this paper directly uses an
ice-impact loading to carry out plastic design for ship-plate thickness, and it considers the
influence of ice damage and the inertia effect of ice impact on structural design. The research
in this paper provides a new method for the structural plastic design of ice-strengthened
ships of low-ice class.
In future research, the strain-rate-hardening effect and strain-hardening effect of
material should be considered in the proposed theoretical model. In addition, in this paper,
the plastic design formula for determining plating thickness is mainly suitable for simple
ice–plate impact scenarios. The plastic design method should be further developed for the
complex frame structure of polar ship under ice floe impacts.
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2024, 12, 233 24 of 27

Author Contributions: Writing—original draft preparation, M.M.; conceptualization, K.G.; writing—review

and editing, W.C.; methodology, L.Z.; formal analysis and investigation, Z.P. and S.Z. All authors
have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This work was financially supported by the project of National Natural Science Foundation
of China (Grant number: 12302481, 12202328) and the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central
Universities (WUT: 2022IVA175, 2023IV018h).
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Data are contained within the article.
Acknowledgments: The authors gratefully acknowledge the support from the project of National
Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant number: 12302481, 12202328) and the Fundamental
Research Funds for the Central Universities (WUT: 2022IVA175, 2023IV018h).
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Nomenclature
An , A Contact area and integral of the ship-plate-deformation area, respectively
a1 , a2 , a3 , b1 , b2 Constants related to plate size, ice height, and ice damage parameters
B Width of the ship plate
b Length of short side of the panel
C Parameter related to the ice strength and the ice belt region
Cw Allowable-permanent set parameter
E Young’s modulus of the plate material
EARF Energy-absorption reduction factor
E0 Initial total impact energy
EI Dissipated energy of the ice damage
Ep Plastic-strain energy or absorbed energy of the ship plate
Plastic-strain energy of the ship plate under ice impact and rigid-mass impact,
Epi , Eps
respectively
Er Rebound-kinetic energy in the rebound process
ex Constant
FA Coefficient related to the ice belt
Fm Maximum impact force
H Plating thickness
h Ice thickness
L Length of the ship plate
Ld Length of middle plastic hinge line
l Length of long side of the panel
lm Length of plastic hinge line
Ultimate plastic bending moment and ultimate plastic membrane force per unit
M0 , N0
length, respectively
Bending moment and membrane force of the plastic hinge line per unit length,
Mp , Np
respectively
m0 , mr Initial ice mass and residual mass after ice impact, respectively
P Average pressure of ice in the process of impact extrusion
P0 Pressure with a contact area of 1 m2
PDRF Plastic deformation reduction factor
s The number of plastic hinge lines
V0 Initial impact velocity of the ice floe and structure
V0 ′ Initial net impact velocity
V 0i ′ , V 0s ′ Initial net impact velocities under ice impact and rigid-mass impact, respectively
Vi Loss velocity parameter caused by ice damage
Vr Rebound velocity in the rebound process
w Plastic deformation of the plate
wc Plastic deformation at the center of the plate
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2024, 12, 233 25 of 27

wm Maximum plastic deformation

wpi ,wps Plastic deformation of ice impact and rigid-mass impact, respectively
ws Allowable-permanent set
α Coefficient of restitution
αi , αs Coefficients of restitution of ice impact and rigid-mass impact, respectively
β Parameter related to linear density
δ, δm Ice-crushing length and final ice-crushing length, respectively
Dimensionless coefficients related to the dimensions of the ship plate and the
φ1 , φ2
length of the middle hinge line
η2 , γ Intermediate values
µ Unit area density of the plate
θ Front-end angle of the wedge-shaped ice
.
θm Relative angular velocity between adjacent rigid plates
ρ Density of the plate
σice Nominal ice strength
σs Yield strength of the plate material
ω Coefficient of ice damage along the height direction
ξ Coefficient related to P0 , m0 , h, θ and ex
ζ Value of square yield surface

Appendix A
The appendix gives the design values of plating thickness under different conditions.

Appenidx A.1. Case1. Infuences of the Ice Strengths (P–A Curves)

Table A1. Plating-thickness design values of different P–A relationships.

V 0 (m/s) 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0
P= 0.88A−0.57 16.5 17.6 18.5 19.3 20.1 20.8 21.4 22.1 22.7 23.2 23.8
P = 1.7A−0.5 21.1 22.5 23.8 24.9 26.0 27.0 27.9 28.8 29.7 30.5 31.2
P = 1.9A−0.37 21.0 22.6 24.1 25.5 26.8 28.0 29.1 30.2 31.2 32.2 33.1
P = 3.5A−0.56 28.6 30.4 31.9 33.4 34.7 35.9 37.0 38.1 39.1 40.1 41.0
P = 8.1A−0.5 37.0 39.6 41.9 44.0 45.9 47.7 49.4 50.9 52.4 53.8 55.1
P = 4.0A−0.5 29.0 30.9 32.7 34.3 35.7 37.1 38.4 39.6 40.7 41.8 42.9
P = 7.4A−0.7 42.7 44.9 46.8 48.5 50.0 51.4 52.6 53.8 54.9 55.9 56.9
P = 5.11A−0.4 29.9 32.1 34.1 36.0 37.7 39.4 40.9 42.3 43.7 45.0 46.3

Appenidx A.2. Case2. Influence of the Allowable-Permanent-Set Parameter Cw

Table A2. Plating-thickness design values of different values of Cw .

V 0 (m/s) 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0
Cw = 0.1 24.2 25.6 26.9 28.0 29.1 30. 1 31.0 31.9 32.8 33.6 34.3
Cw = 0.2 22.6 24.0 25.3 26.4 27.5 28.5 29.4 30.3 31.2 32.0 32.8
Cw = 0.3 21.1 22.5 23.8 24.9 26.0 27.0 27.9 28.8 29.7 30.5 31.2
Cw = 0.4 19.7 21.1 22.4 23.5 24.6 25.6 26.5 27.4 28.2 29.0 29.8
Cw = 0.5 18.4 19.8 21.0 22.2 23.3 24.2 25.2 26.1 26.9 27.7 28.5

Appenidx A.3. Case3. Influences of Ice Shapes (θ, h) and Impact Energy
Table A3. Plating-thickness design values of different ice front-end angles θ.

V 0 (m/s) 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0
θ= 60◦ 17.0 18.1 19.2 20.1 21.0 21.8 22.6 23.3 24.0 24.7 25.3
θ = 90◦ 18.4 19.8 21.0 22.2 23.3 24.2 25.2 26.1 26.9 27.7 28.5
θ = 120◦ 21.1 22.5 23.8 24.9 26.0 27.0 27.9 28.8 29.7 30.5 31.2
θ = 150◦ 24.4 26.0 27. 5 28.8 30.0 31.2 32.3 33.3 34.3 35.2 36.1
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2024, 12, 233 26 of 27

Table A4. Plating-thickness design values under different ice thicknesses h.

V 0 (m/s) 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0
h = 0.54 m 19.2 20.5 21.7 22.7 23.7 24.6 25.5 26.3 27.1 27.8 28.6
h = 0.64 m 20.2 21.6 22.8 23.9 25.0 25.9 26.8 27.7 28.5 29.3 30.0
h = 0.74 m 21.1 22.5 23.8 24.9 26.0 27.0 27.9 28.8 29.7 30.5 31.2
h = 0.84 m 21.8 23.2 24.5 25.7 26.8 27.9 28.8 29.7 30.6 31.4 32.2
h = 0.94 m 22.3 23.8 25.1 26.4 27.5 28.5 29.5 30.5 31.4 32.2 33.0
h = 1.04 m 22.7 24.2 25.6 26.8 28.0 29.0 30.1 31.0 31.9 32.8 33.6

Table A5. Plating-thickness design values under different ice masses m0 .

V 0 (m/s) 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0
m0 = 1000 kg 11.1 12.1 13.0 13.8 14.6 15.3 15.9 16.5 17.1 17.7 18.2
m0 = 5000 kg 16.6 17.8 18.9 19.9 20.8 21.6 22.4 23.2 23.9 24.6 25.2
m0 = 10,000 kg 19.4 20.7 21.9 23.0 24.0 24.9 25.8 26.6 27.4 28.2 28.9
m0 = 15,000 kg 21.1 22.5 23.8 24.9 26.0 27.0 27.9 28.8 29.7 30.5 31.2
m0 = 20,000 kg 22.4 23.8 25.2 26.4 27.5 28.6 29.5 30.5 31.4 32.2 33.0
m0 = 25,000 kg 23.4 24.9 26.3 27.6 28.7 29.8 30.8 31.8 32.7 33.6 34.4
m0 = 30,000 kg 24.3 25.9 27.3 28.6 29.8 30.9 32.0 32.9 33.9 34.8 35.6

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