Fybsc Pract Protocol

Practical No.
01
Aim: Study of life cycle of Spirogyra

Spirogyra (spiro = coiled and gyra = curved).
Occurrence:
This is very common free floating fresh water alga found in fresh water pools, Lakes, etc,
in abundance. This is also known as 'pond silk' or „water silk'. The filaments are slimy in
nature because of the presence of mucilaginous substance around them.
External Features and Cell Structure:

1. The filaments are unbranched and consist of the cylindrical cells arranged end to end.
2. The cell wall of the filament is usually two layered. The outermost layer consists of
pectic substances and the layer just outside the protoplast consists of cellulose.
3. Each cell is cylindrical and several times longer than its breadth.
4. The cells are uni-nucleate. The nucleus is usually situated in the centre of the cell and
connected by cytoplasmic strands to the dense cytoplasm of the peripheral region.
5. There is a big central vacuole.
6. The chloroplasts are spiral and band like. They may be serrated or smooth at their
margins.
7. The number of chloroplasts ranges from 1-14 in different species.
8. Many pyrenoids are found in each ribbon-like chloroplast. (Fig. 1.1.A & B)
Reproduction:
 Vegetative: By fragmentation.
 Sexual:
1) Sexual reproduction takes place by special gametes called 'aplanogametes'.
2) Sexual process is known as 'aplano-gamy'.
3) Motile gametes always lacking.
4) Aplanogamy takes place by conjugation, which may be 'scalariform' or 'lateral'.
5) In each cell, a single aplanogamete is produced which moves in the other cell through
a conjugation tube in amoeboid fashion.
6) The species may be homothallic or heterothallic.
7) Lateral conjugation takes place in homothallic species.
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F. Y. B. Sc. (Sem.-I and II) Practical Handbook of Botany (BO-113)
8) In scalariform conjugation, the aplanogametes of two filaments unite whereas in
lateral conjugation the aplanogametes of two adjacent cells of the same filament
unite.
Scalariform Conjugation: (Fig. 1.2)
9) This is found in most of species.
10) Two filaments taking part in conjugation lie side by side.
11) The outgrowths are given out from the lateral walls of the opposite cells of the
filaments.
12) The outgrowths of opposite cells touch each other, the wall of contact dissolves and a
tubular passage is formed.
13) This tubular passage is called 'conjugation tube'.
14) A single aplanogamete develops in each cell.
15) The aplanogametes formed in the cells of the one filament pass into the opposite cells
of the other filament through conjugation tubes in amoeboid fashion.
16) The transferring aplanogametes are considered male gametes and the receiving
aplanogametes are female gametes.
17) A single thick-walled zygospore develops in each cell of the female filament.
Lateral conjugation: (Fig. 1.3)
This type of conjugation is found occasionally and in homothallic species.
18) Here the aplanogametes of the adjacent cells of the same filament unite.
19) At the septum a tube like structure develops and through this opening the contents of
one cell pass into the other.
20) The empty cells are considered as male gametangia and the cells with zygotes as
female gametaogia.
21) The zygotes are found in alternate cells.
22) The zygote is dark-coloured and thick walled.
Identification and Systematic Position:

 Plant Group: Algae
(i) Chlorophyll bearing organisms.
(ii) Unicellular sex organs of multicellular ones in which every cell forms a gamete.
(iii) Autotrophic mod of nutrition,
(iv) Cellulosic cell wall.
 Class: Chlorophycae
(i) Chlorophyll present within chloroplasts.
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(ii) Photosynthetic food product is starch.
(iii) Usually Pyrenoids present within chloroplasts.
 Order: Conjugales (Zygnematales)
(i) Exclusively fresh water forms.
(ii) The forms are unicellular or multicellular filamentous. In filamentous forms the
cells are arranged end to end.
(iii) The filaments are unbranched.
(iv) The chloroplasts may be spiral, axial or satellite ribbon shaped.
(v) Sexual reproduction takes place by means of aplanogametes. Motile gametes
absent.
(vi) Union of gametes takes place by conjugation through conjugation tubes.
 Family: Zygnemataceae
(i) Unbranched filaments.
(ii) Uninucleate cylindrical cells. The cells contain either one to several spiral ribbon
like chloroplasts, or a single axial laminate chloroplast, or two satellites axial
chloroplasts.
(iii) Sexual reproduction by conjugation.
 Genus: Spirogyra
(i) The cell contains one to several spiral ribbon-like chloroplasts.
(ii) Sexual reproduction by conjugation of aplanogamete.
Pyrenoids
B
Fig. 1.1 Spirogyra: A. Filament & B. Cell Structure
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Protrusions
Fig. 1.2 Spirogyra: A to D Stages in Scalariform Conjugation.
Fig. 1.3: Lateral Conjugation in Spirogyra: A-C Indirect lateral Conjugation

D-E Direct Lateral Conjugation.
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4
Practical No. 02
Aim: Study of Life Cycle of Agaricus.

Occurrence:
Agaricus is a terrestrial saprophytic fungus. Usually found during the rainy season. These
fungi are commonly known as mushrooms. The term Agaricus, in itself means gilled
mushroom.
The commonly cultivated mushroom is Agaricus bisporus, generally sold as white-button
mushroom in the grocery stores. It is sometimes found in nature on heaps of manure and
garden waste.
Reproduction:
Reproduction in Agaricus takes place by vegetative, asexual and sexual means.
1. Vegetative reproduction:
The edible mushrooms are propagated by vegetative methods.
2. Asexual reproduction:
Agaricus is not commonly propagated by asexual means. This type of reproduction
takes place only by the formation of chlamydospores.
3. Sexual reproduction
A primary requirement for sexual reproduction to happen is the acquirement of two
opposite strains (+ and -). The germination of basidiospores of two different strains
results in the formation of primary mycelia, which act as male and female sex organs.
The mononucleate protoplasts of the two mating types fuse (somatogamy), resulting
in the formation of a dikaryotic, heterokaryotic secondary mycelium, which later on
develops into the basidiocarp.
The process of sexual reproduction occurs in three steps:
a. Plasmogamy:
It is the first step in the sexual reproduction of Agaricus. The vegetative hyphae with
uninucleate haploid cells from mycelia of opposite strains (heterothallic) or from the
same mycelium (homothallic) come into contact and fuse. Each of such fusion results
into a bi-nucleate (dikaryotic) cell. The dikaryotic cell, by successive divisions, gives
rise to the bi-nucleate or dikaryotic mycelium. This dikaryotic mycelium is perennial
and produces the characteristic fruiting body of the mushroom year after year.
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The dikaryotic mycelium is perennial and remains underground. Under favourable
environmental conditions, it develops fruiting bodies. (Fig. 2.1.A to C)
b. Karyogamy:
Karyogamy is the fusion between two nuclei. The fusion of two haploid nuclei of the
dikaryon to form a diploid nucleus occurs later, usually after the formation of
basidiocarp. Karyogamy occurs in a young basidium formed on a basidiocarp.
c. Meiosis:
After karyogamy, the diploid nucleus of the zygote inside the basidium undergoes
meiosis resulting in the formation of four haploid mononucleate basidiospores.
1. External structure of a mature basidiocarp: (Fig. 2.1.C)
The mature fruiting body or basidiocarp is an umbrella-shaped structure,
distinguishable into two parts: a broad cap or pileus and a long hefty stipe.
a) Pileus: The pileus or cap occupies the distal end of the stipe. The undersurface of the
cap usually contains about 300-600 radially arranged gills, hanging downwards. The
entire gill surface remains enveloped by a fertile layer, called as hymenium. (Fig.
2.2.A & B)
b) Stipe: The stipe is cylindrical, fleshy and about 3-10 cm in height and 1-1.8 cm in
diameter. It is usually creamy white or light pink in colour. It contains the annulus
towards the upper end below the pileus.
2. Dispersal of basidiospores:
The spores remain within the basidium until physically dispersed. Once the
basidiospores are mature, a liquid droplet known as hilar droplet appears at the hilar
junction lifting the basidiospore at its top. This liquid drop gradually enlarges up to
one-fifth of the size of the spore. With this the spores are shot away from sterigmata
in a rapid succession. Basidia release basidiospores.
3. Germination of basidiospores:
Once the basidiospores are released from the basidiocarp, they fall on the ground.
Under favourable environmental conditions, each basidiospore germinates by
producing a germ tube. This marks the beginning of a new life cycle. The germinating
basidiospore eventually develops into a monokaryotic primary mycelium, which can
be of (+) or (-) strain, depending upon the strain of basidiospore. The primary mycelia
with single haploid nuclei soon transform into dikaryotic secondary mycelia by
somatogamy and the process continues. (Fig. 2.3. B)
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 Systematic position:
Division : Eumycota
Sub-division : Basidiomycotina
Class : Hymenomycotina
Sub-class : Holobasidiomycetidae
Order : Agaricales
Family : Agaricaceae
Genus : Agaricus
Species : bisporus
Fig. 2.1: Agaricus: A) Monokaryotic hypa (Mycelium), B) Dikaryotic hypa, and

C) A fruiting body of Agaricus.
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Fig. 2.2: T. S Pileus of Agaricus, B) Pileus cut lengthwise to show gills hanging from the
under surface and radiating towards the stipe.
Fig. 2.3: Agaricus: Structure of gill, A) Vertical Section of gill,

B) Various stages in the development of basidium
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Practical No. 03
Aim: Study of Life Cycle of Riccia.

 Riccia: Thallus Characters: (Fig. 3.1)
1. The plant body is thalloid, dorsiventral, prostrate and ribbon-like.
2. A rosette is formed due to repeated dichotomies of the thalli.
3. The thallus is linear to wedge shaped with an apical notch at the apex and thickened
midrib in the sagittal axis. On the dorsal side, the midrib is traversed by a mid-dorsal
groove.
4. On the ventral side, scales and rhizoids are present. The scales are present at the
margins. The rhizoids arise from the midrib region.
5. Each scale is violet coloured, multicellular and one celled thick.
6. Rhizoids are of two types-
(i) Smooth walled: The smooth walled rhizoids have inner smooth walls.
(ii) Tuberculate: The tuberculate rhizoids produce tuber-like or peg-like outgrowths on
their inner wall which project into the lumen of the rhizoids.
7. Sex organs are present in the mid-dorsal groove and are embedded in the thallus.
The sporophytes, however, may be seen as black dots, when mature, under the
dissecting microscope.
V.S. of thallus:
1. The thallus is boat-shaped in a vertical transverse section. (Fig. 3.2)
2. It is thick in the midrib region and gradually become thin out towards the margins.
3. The thallus is dorsiventrally differentiated into an upper green photosynthetic region
and a lower colorless storage region.
4. The lower epidermis bounds the storage region on the lower side and bears the usual
two types of rhizoids (smooth walled and tuberculate) in the centre.
5. The storage region consists of compactly arranged parenchyma. These cells contain
starch.
6. The photosynthetic region consists of vertical rows of unbranched assimilatory
filaments, separated by narrow air chambers. The cells of the filaments are barrel-
shaped and each possesses numerous chloroplasts.
7. The air chambers open to the outside through simple air pores which are the
intercellular spaces between the upper epidermal cells.
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8. The uppermost cells of the assimilatory filaments are somewhat large. They lack
chloroplasts and are thus colorless. These form an ill-defined upper epidermis.
9. On the two margins of the boat shaped section, violet coloured scales are present.
Structure of antheridium:
1. The antheridium is present inside a cavity called antheridial chamber which opens
outside by antheridial pore.
2. The antheridial chamber with antheridium lies embedded partly in the tissue of the
photosynthetic region and partly in the tissue of the storage region.
3. A mature antheridium consists of a small stalk and a globular or club-shaped body.
4. The stalk is short and few celled. The body is composed of a central mass of either
androcytes or antherozoids, surrounded by a single layer of sterile jacket. The cells of
the jacket are tangentially elongated. (Fig. 3.3.A)
Structure of archegonium:
1. The thallus is monoecious and both the sex organs are situated in the mid-dorsal
grove.
2. A nearly mature archegonium is flask-shaped.
3. Archegonium is shortly stalked and consists of a broad venter and a long neck.
4. Wall of the venter is one celled. The venter has one venter canal cell and an egg cell.
5. The neck consists of 6 vertical rows of cells and is 6-9 cells in height. It possesses 4
neck canal cells.
6. The neck is surrounded by four cover cells.
7. Before fertilization, all the axial cells except the egg cell degenerate and the cover
cells spread open to facilitate the entry of antherozoids. (Fig. 3.3.B)
Structure of sporophyte:
1. The sporophyte is embedded in the tissue of the thallus. It is present in the venter of
fertilized archegonium. (Fig. 3.4)
2. Sporophyte is represented only by the capsule, foot and seta being absent.
3. The young capsule has a jacket layer and a 2-layered calyptra, derived from venter.
4. The mature sporophyte has spore tetrads arranged tetrahedrally (except R. pearsonii).
These remain surrounded only by outer layer of calyptra, the inner layer of calyptra
and the jacket disintegrates.
5. The spores are discharged only after the disintegration of the thallus.
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6. Each spore consists of spore wall, enclosed within a rich cytoplasm and a nucleus.
7. The spore wall is three layered. The outermost layer is the exosporium which is thin
and cutinized. The middle mesosporium is thick and the innermost endosporium is
thin and homogenous. The entire spore wall is irregularly thickened and folded.
Classification:
Division: Bryophyta.
(1) True roots absent.
(2) True vascular strands absent.
Class: Hepaticopsida.
(1) Mostly thalloid.
(2) Rhizoids without septa.
(3) Chloroplasts without pyrenoids.
(4) No columella in capsule.
Order: Marchantiales.
(1) Scales present.
(2) Two types of rhizoids present.
(3) Air chambers and air pores present.
Family: Ricciaceae.
(1) Air pores are simple.
(2) Sex organs are present in the mid-dorsal groove.
(3) Sporophyte composed only of capsule, foot and seta being absent.
Genus: Riccia.
(1) Scales on the margins.
(2) Assimilatory filaments are unbranched and vertical.
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Fig. 3.1: Riccia thallus RHIZOIDS
Fig. 3.2: Riccia V.S. of Thallus
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Fig. 3.3: Riccia A. Antheridium in Antheridial Chamber, B. Single Antheridium &

C. Archegonium.
Fig. 3.4: Riccia V.T. S. Structure of Mature Sporophyte.
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Practical No. 04
Aim: Study of Forms of Lichens: Crustose, Foliose and Fruiticose.

Lichen appears to be a single plant but is formed due to intimate association of two
different plants, one of which is a fungus and the other an alga. The fungal component of
lichen is known as „mycobiont’ and the algal component is called as ‘phycobiont’. They
grow slowly and hence their food requirements are rather low. The water and minerals
are absorbed by capillary action through certain hyphae. Organic food is manufactured
by the autotrophic alga. This food diffuses from algal cells to the saprophytic fungus. The
fungus in a lichen body secretes enzymes. These are responsible for increasing the
permeability of the algal cells, which diffuse out sugars and other substances from their
cell walls for the benefit of the fungus. Fungus provides protection, water and minerals to
algae. Both partners are benefited means ‘Symbiotic relationship’.
1. Crustose :
These occur as incrustations on rocks or form thin closely adherent growth on bark.
They are so closely attached to the substratum on their undersurface that they cannot
be removed from it entirely without injuring the thallus. The thallus may be partially
or wholly imbedded so that sometimes only fruiting bodies are visible above the
surface of the substratum. E.g.: Graphis, Leconora, Rhizocarpon, Lecidia. (Fig. 4.1)
2. Foliose :
These are flat and leaf-like and apparently look like dried thalli of liverworts (flat and
lobed).The margins are irregular and they are attached to the substratum of certain
points by means of central outgrowths called rhizines. Rhizines are formed from the
fungal hyphae. (Fig. 4.2)
E.g.: Parmelia, Physcia, Peltidea, Gyrophora etc.
3. Fruticose :
The thallus is slender and much branched. The branches may be cylindrical to ribbon
shaped. The thallus grows either erect or hanging from rocky areas, leaves and
branches of trees. It is attached to the substratum by a basal disc, which is formed by
compactly placed fungal hyphae. It has no differentiation into upper and lower
surfaces. Fruiting bodies called apothecia are well developed.
4. E.g.: Usnea, Cladonia, Evernia etc. (Fig. 4.3)
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Apothecium
Fig. 4.1: Crustose Lichen Fig. 4.1: Foliose Lichen
Fig. 4.3: Fruticose Lichen.
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Practical No. 5
Aim: To cultivate edible mushrooms like oyster mushrooms.
Mushrooms are also called „white vegetables‟ or „boneless vegetarian meat‟. Agaricus
bisporus, Pleurotus ostreatus, P. sajor-caju, Volvariella vovacea etc. are common edible
mushrooms.
Pleurotus ostreatus, the oyster mushroom (Dhingri) is tropical edible mushroom belongs
to basidiomycetes. The systematic approach of Dhingri cultivation was undertaken in
1974. The oyster mushroom is considered a medicinal mushroom, since it contains statins
such as. The oyster mushroom is one of the more commonly sought wild mushrooms,
though it can also be cultivated on straw and other media. The mushroom has a broad, fan
or oyster-shaped cap spanning 5–25 cm growing laterally. The flesh is white, firm, and
wavy and varies in thickness due to stipe arrangement. The gills are white to cream, and
descend on the stalk.
Procedure:
1. Preparation of pure culture of Pleurotus
2. Preparation or procurement of spawn
3. Substrate preparation
4. Spawning of substrate
5. Crop management
1. Preparation of pure culture of Pleurotus:

 Requirements:
Inoculum is fruiting body of Pleurotus.
 Glassware's:
Petri plates, test tubes, conical flasks, glass rod.
 Other requirements:
Non- absorbent cotton, Aluminum foil, Autoclave, laminar fresh air flow cabinet.
 Chemicals:
Glucose, Agar-Agar powder, Distilled water, alcohol etc.
 Procedure:
1) Petri plate glass roads and other glass wares were sterilized at 15lb pressure for 20
minutes at 120°C in autoclave.
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2) Pleurotus ostreatus was taken as inoculums:
 Preparation of PDA (Potato Dextrose Agar):
 Composition of PDA:
1) Boil 250gms of peeled potato till they become soft.
2) Filter through muslin cloth and the filtrate is taken.
3) To this filtrate 20gms of Agar and 20gms of dextrose sugar is added and mixed well.
4) Above mixture is taken in conical flask and flask is sterilize at 15lb pressure for 20
minutes after plugging the mouth of conical flask with cotton and aluminum foil.
5) After autoclaving the medium is passed in previously sterilized petriplates.
6) The petriplates are inoculated with inoculums pieces of fruiting body under aseptic
condition i.e. in laminar fresh air flow cabinet.
2. Spawn preparation: (Fig. 5.1)
A pure culture of Pleurotus sp. is needed for inoculation on sterilized substrate. It
takes 10-15 days for mycelial growth on cereal grains. It has been reported that jawar
and bajra grains are superior over wheat grains.
 Procedure:
1) Grains are boiled with equal volume of water. Due to boiling grains become soft.
2) The grains are spread on blotting paper so as to remove excess water.
3) 2% CaCO3 powder is added to the grains and mixed uniformly. CaCO3 helps to
maintain the pH and also absorb excess water.
4) The mixture is then filled in a wide mouth bottle or polythene bag and plug tightly, it
is then sterilized in the autoclave at 15 lb pressure for 20 min.
5) After sterilization, the bottle is allowed to cool down completely and then bottle or
bag was inoculated with the pure culture in laminar fresh air flow cabinet.
6) After 15 days the grains get covered with white mycelium and then it is termed as
spawn. Spawn is generally supply in glass bottle or polythene bag.
3. Substrate preparation:
Oyster mushroom can be cultivated on a large number of agro-wastes rich in cellulose
and lignin correlated with more yield. These include straw of paddy, wheat and ragi,
stalk and leaves of maize, millets and cotton, used citronella leaf, sugarcane bagasse,
saw dust, jute and cotton waste, dehulled corncobs, pea nut shells, dried grasses,
sunflower stalks, used tea leaf waste, discarded waste paper etc.
 Method of Cultivation:
1) A polythene bag of 45×30 cm is taken.
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2) The cut straw of about 2kg was so placed in water for 12 hours. The straw is then
drained off for about 30 min to 1 hour and is dipped in hot water for about 30min.
3) The straw is taken out from the hot water and it is kept for cooling.
4) Straw is filled in polythene bag approximately 1kg in each bag.
5) The spawn of Pleurotus is mixed in between and it is spread properly.
6) The mouth of polythene bag is tied with the help of thread and polythene bag kept at
room temp at about 20C to 30 C for the development.
7) After 15 to 20 days the entire straw gets covered by mycelium of Pleurotus which
appear pure cottony white.
8) The polythene bags then are cut along the side without disturbing the mycelium.
Water is sprinkled on the bed twice a day, to maintain humidity. After 10 to 15 days.
Fruiting bodies start appearing and about 500 gms to 2 kgs yield was collected from
one bed.
4. Crop Management:
a. Incubation:
Spawned bags, trays or boxes are arranged in a dark cropping room on raised
platforms or shelves for mycelium colonization on the substrate. Although mycelium
can grow from 10C to 33 C, but the optimum temperature for spawn running lies
between 22C to 26C.
b. Fruiting: (Fig. 5.2)
When the mycelium has fully colonized the substrate, the fungus is ready for fruiting.
Frequent spraying of water is required in the cropping room depending upon the
atmospheric humidity. Fruit body produced under humid conditions (85-90%) is
bigger with less dry matter while those developed at 65-70% relative humidity are
small with high dry matter.
c. Harvesting and Yield:
The right time for picking can be judged by the shape and size of the fruiting bodies.
The fruit bodies should be harvested before spore release, by twisting so that the stubs
are not left on the beds (straw).
 Flowchart for mushroom cultivation:
Preparation of pure culture of Pleurotus by using PDA
↓
Spawn preparation by using wheat grains
↓
Substrate preparation by using various agro-wastes
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↓
Actual cultivation of mushroom by using spawn
↓
Introduced in cut and boiled wheat straw in a plastic bag
↓
Incubation for development of mycelium
↓
Fruiting after opening of the bag with fully developed mycelium
↓
Harvesting and Yield
Food value of Pleurotus:
 Pleurotus ostreatus is rich in Vitamin C and B complex and the protein content varies
between 20 to 35%. It has most of the mineral salts required by the human body.
 The niacin content is about ten times higher than any other vegetables.
 The folic acid present in oyster mushrooms helps to cure anemia. It is suitable for
people with hyper-tension, obesity and diabetes due to its low sodium: potassium
ratio, starch, fat and calorific value.
 Alkaline ash and high fibre content makes them suitable for consumption for those
having hyperacidity and constipation.
 It contains lovastatin which works to reduce cholesterol. A polycyclic aromatic
compound pleurotin has been isolated from P. griseus which possess antibiotic
properties.
Value added products:
 Value added products from mushroom are a promising enterprise. Mushroom being
highly perishable forces the producer to preserve and process it. Preservation is
essential to make it available throughout the year to retain maximum nutrients,
texture and flavor and to increase its per capita consumption in developing countries.
 The value added products cater to the protein and micronutrient requirement and
enable the population to live a healthy life.
 Presently, the mushroom products available are bakery products (biscuits, bread, and
cakes), pickles, chutneys, nuggets, papads and fast food items like burgers, cutlets
and pizza etc.
 Mushroom pickle: mushroom preserved in salt and Oilcut mushroom, add spices,
tamarind juice and salt, topping with oil packing and storage.
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 Mushroom jams and sweets: Graded mushrooms, grinding and extracting juice with
fibre, adding sugar and preparing traditional sweets.
Fig. 5.1: Spawn of Mushroom
Fig.5.2: Emerging Fruiting Bodies of Pleurotus Mushroom
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Practical No. 06
Aim: Writing a botany field visit report.
1. Concise: For day trips, reports should be between 2-4 pages to allow for drawings
and/or graphics. For longer trips, more than 6-10 pages to include a more detailed
discussion.
2. Drawings and Photographs: are encouraged. Drawings should be black ink or dark
pencil on white paper. Photographs should be simple in composition and with lots of
contrast (tonal range from very dark to very light).
3. Common Names: are variable and will depend on the dialect used in the plant‟s
location. Common names go first, with scientific names following in parentheses:
Basilan apitong (Dipterocarpus eurynchus).
4. Scientific Names: can be provided later if you are unsure as long as it is clear Which
plant is being discussed? For unsure species, use Genus sp., for E.g., Musa sp. for an
unknown species of a member of the banana family. The genus should be capitalized;
the species is all lower case: Musa sapientum. Both should be italicized or underlined.
5. Groups of Species: For a number of species within a group, name the group at the
beginning, then only the individual name afterwards. In a single paragraph, the
second citation of a genus name should be abbreviated to its first letter followed by a
period. Ex. Dipterocarpus eurynchus, D. grandiflorus and D. hasseltii.
6. General Tips: In addition to specific questions and directions provided by your
instructor, reports should include the location, date, and the reporter‟s name, address
and telephone and/or email address. You might also include weather, number of
people present and names. Record the name of your trip leader and classmates joining
the trip. Include an interesting story, observation, or interesting fact. We DON'T want
a list of plants you saw! Write about what you liked. Write about what other people
did. Write about relationships: between the plants, between plants and their habitat,
between plants and people.
The visit report to the forest can be written with the help of following points:
a. Acknowledgement, Index
b. Aim / purpose of the visit
c. Location / topography – latitude, longitude etc.
d. Soil types, pH, WHC etc.
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e. Climatic conditions of the area – temperature, humidity, rainfall and other related
factors
f. Forest type, various storeys / levels of plants observed in the forest / area, mosaics of
the ecosystem
g. Phytodiversity of the area with different associations, ground flora, abundance of
species, food plants for butterflies and other animals.
h. Threats to Mahabaleshwar (any) forest and environs, present scenario of the forest,
effects of disturbance etc.
i. Tourism – effects on forest / area, use of natural resources.
j. Ways to control ill effects of tourism on forests.
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22
Practical No. 07
Aim: To study the Inflorescence.

 Definition:
The mode of development and arrangement of flowers on peduncle / floral axis / main
axis is called Inflorescence.
The modified stem that bears flowers is called Peduncle.
Presence of flowers is a characteristic feature of angiosperms.
Based on Origin, Inflorescences are of Three Types:
1. Terminal Inflorescence:
Inflorescence developed from apices.
E.g: Crotolaria and Croton
2. Axillary Inflorescence:
Inflorescence formed in axils of leaves/branches.
E.g: Dolichos
3. Intercalary Inflorescence:
The inflorescence which is formed in the internodes. Intercalary inflorescence is
formed due to growth of the stem even after formation of inflorescence.
E.g: Callistemon
Based on Growth and Development of Peduncle, Inflorescences are of Three Types:
a) Racemose
b) Cymose
c) Special type
a) Racemose:
Racemose inflorescence shows indefinite growth of peduncle and on elongated
peduncle flowers are arranged acropetally or centripetally. If the peduncle is
condensed, the flowers are arranged in centripetal manner. The axis or peduncle is
unbranched forms simple and branched or compound inflorescences. Based on the
presence or absence of pedicel racemose inflorescences are of two types
i) Racemose with Pedicillate flowers:
If the flowers are attached to the peduncle with their stalks they are called Pedicillate
Flowers.
ii) Racemose with sessile flowers:
Flowers without pedicel are called Sessile.
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1. Raceme:
A simple, elongated, indeterminate inflorescence with stalked flowers. (Fig. 7.1)
E.g: Brassica, Crotalaria, Delphinium, Caesalpinia
The branched peduncle with each branch a simple raceme is called Panicle (or)
Compound Raceme.
E.g: Mangifera, Yucca, Peltophorum
2. Spike:
Usually unbranched, elongated, simple, indeterminate inflorescence whose flowers
are sessile. (Fig. 7.2)
E.g: Adhatoda, Piper, Amaranthus, Achyranthes, Polyanthus (Tuberose).
Compound spike inflorescence is found in Triticum, Oryza
3. Spadix:
In this peduncle is thick, long and fleshy and have small sessile and unisexual male
and female flowers covered with one or more green or colorful bracts known as
Spathe. (Fig. 7.3)
E.g.: Arum, Colocasia and Anthurium
The branched peduncle that bears spadix on each branch is called Compound Spadix.
Woody boat like bract protects the branched peduncle. Compound spadix of Coconut,
Areca nut each branch of the compound spadix is protected by a leathery coloured
bract.
E.g.: Compound Spadix of Musa paradisiaca and Cocos nucifera
4. Catkin (Amentum):
A pendent spike of unisexual flowers found only in woody plants. (Fig. 7.4)
E.g: Morus, Salix Acalypha, Casuarina, Acalypha
5. Umbel:
An inflorescence in which the flower stalks are of more or less equal length, arise
from the same point, like the ribs of an umbrella at the base of flower stalks, there is
whorl of bracts forming involucres. The peduncle in umbel is condensed and
unbranched (doesn't grow indefinitely) but it can be identified as racemose type by
Centripetal arrangements of flowers. (Fig. 7.5.A)
E.g.: Hydrocotyle asiatica, Allium cepa
An umbel with branched axis and the branches bearing the flowers, these are known
as umbellules. E.g: Coriandrum sativum, Daucus carota (Fig. 7.5.B)
6. Capitulum/ Head:
A dense inflorescence comprising an aggregation of usually sessile flowers
24
arranged on a convex receptacle formed by the axis and having one or more whorls of
bracts forming involucres. Head can be identified as racemose type by centripetal
arrangement / opening of florets. Receptacle is base of a flower, comprised of the
enlarged top of the stalk, which holds some or all the flower parts. In the Asteraceae
family the receptacle is formed from the enlarged top of the peduncle that holds many
small flowers i.e. florets. E.g: Helianthus, Tagetes, Tridax. (Fig. 7.6) Inflorescence
with branched axis and each branch is a head is called compound head.
E.g: Echinops, Sphaeranthus, Mimosa, Acacia
b) Cymose:
The peduncle always terminates due to the development of a flower at its apex in
cymose inflorescence. Single flowered lateral branches are seen in cymose. In
Cymose inflorescence, flowers are arranged either basipetal or centrifugal
arrangement. In Cymose inflorescence if the older flowers are at the center and
younger flowers at the periphery then it is called Centrifugal arrangement.
In Cymose inflorescences if the older flowers are at the top and younger flowers at
the bottom then it is called basipetal arrangement.
1. Solitary Cymose:
One flowered inflorescences are called Solitary cymes. The proof that solitary
inflorescence in Hibiscus is - Articulation on the stalk.
E.g: Hibiscus (axillary), Datura (terminal). (Fig. 7.7)
Simple cymes or cymule: In Cymule, the peduncle ends in a flower and only 2 lateral
branches are produced which are also ends in flowers. Thus three flowered
inflorescence is formed. Flowers are arranged in basipetal manner.
E.g.: Jasmine, Bougainvillea
2. Uniparous Cyme (Monochasial):
Cymose inflorescence in which the inflorescence axis terminates in to a flower and
produces only one branch from its basal bract which in turn also ends in a flower is
called Uniparous orMonochasial Cyme.This axis is called sympodial axis. Though it
looks like racemose, flowers are arranged opposite to bracts not in axils. Monochasial
Cyme is of two types. (Fig. 7.8)
a) Helicoid Cyme :
Uniparous cyme in which the lateral branches develop successively on same side,
evidently forming a sort of helix. (Fig. 7.9)
E.g.: Hamelia, Begonia, Juncus, Heliotropium
25
b) Scorpiod Cyme:
Uniparous cyme in which the lateral branches develop successively on alternate sides,
evidently forming a zigzag. (Fig. 7.10)
E.g.: Ranunculus, Solanum
3. Biparous Cyme (Dichasial):
The inflorescence in which the peduncle ends in a flower and 2 lateral branches are
produced and each branch in turn ends into a flower. (Fig. 7.11&12)
E.g.: Ipomoea, Clerodendron, Ixora, Mussaenda
4. Multiparous Cyme (Polychasial):
The peduncle ends in a flower and many lateral branches are produced and each
lateral branch produces many lateral branches. (Fig. 7.13)
E.g: Nerium, Calotropis
c) Special types of inflorescences:
Special inflorescences are due to modification and variation in opening of flowers.
1. Verticillaster (Verticel means False whorl):
Verticillaster made up of 2 Semi circles formed at opposite nodes. Each semicircle at
each node is made up of dichasial cyme with branches bearing scorpioid cymes.
Flowers are sessile or subsessile. The leaves in verticillaster sometimes appear as
bracts due to coming nearer of whorls.
E.g: Leucas, Leonotis, Ocimum
2. Hypanthodium:
Fruit like inflorescence is Hypanthodium. The fruit like structure is made up of fleshy
condensed peduncle. The receptacle is fleshy and forms hollow ball like structure
with an apical opening called as ostiole. Three types of flowers develop on the inner
surface of the receptacle. (Fig. 7.16)
Type of flowers in Ficus - 3 Kinds
Arrangement of 3 kinds of flowers in Ficus:
a) Male flowers near opening,
b) Sterile female gall flowers in the middle and
c) Female flowers at the base of the fruit like inflorescence.
The opening of flowers in Hypanthodium contains no definite order. (Fig. 7.15)
E.g: Ficus
3. Cyathium:
A single female flowered inflorescence of Euphorbiaceae is called Cyathium. The
flower like structure is made up of involucres of bracts. Male and Female flowers are
achlamydeous i.e. without Perianth. Each stamen in a cyathium is male flower. The
26
arrangement and opening of male flowers in cyathium is around single female flower
in scorpioid cyme and openin centrifugal manner. Extra floral, nectaries are also
found in Cyathium.The single female flower of cyathium has 3 carpels (tricarpillary)
syncarpous pistil. (Fig. 7.14)
E.g.: Poinsettia, Euphorbia.
Racemose Inflorescence Simple Raceme Spike

Fig. 7.1: Raceme
Fig. 7.2 Spike Fig. 7.3 Spadix
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Fig. 7.4 Catkin
Fig. 7.5. A: Simple Umbel Fig. 7.5. B: Compound Umbel
Fig.7.6.A: Entire Head or capitulum inflorescence, B: V.S. through Inflorescence

showing rays and disc Florets, C: Single rays Florets, D: Single disc Florets
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Fig.7.7: Solitary Cyme Fig. 7.8: Uniparous Cyme
Fig.7.9: Monochasial Helicoid Fig.7.10: Monochasial Scorpioid
Fig.7.11: Simple dichasium (Biparous) Fig.7.12: Compound dichasium
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Fig. 7.13: Polychasial Cyme (multiparous)
Fig. 7.14: Cyathium Fig. 7.15: Verticilliaster
Fig. 7.16: Hypanthodium
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30
Practical No. 08
STUDY OF FLOWER (PART-I)

Aim: To study the flower with respect to calyx, corolla and perianth.
 Flower: (Fig. 8.1.1)
Modified shoot, essentially meant for reproduction of the plant.
The typical flower possesses the following four whorls in succession on the thalamus
i.e. Calyx, Corolla, Androecium and Gynoecium.
1. Calyx:
It is the outermost whorl in a flower. The individual member of it, are described as
Sepal. The sepals are mostly green in colour and protective in function. They protect
the inner lying whorls. Thus calyx is leaf-like both in structure and appearance but
not in function. Hence it is modified leaf. We can study the calyx using following
botanical terms:
a) Number of Sepals: 5 in Hibiscus, 4 in Catharanthus
b) Cohesion:
i) Polysepalous: Sepals are free. E.g.: Geranium, Polyalthia
ii) Gamosepalous: Sepals are fused. E.g.: Dianthus, Datura
c) Aestivation: The arrangement of floral parts in bud. (See in Corolla)
d) Duration of Calyx:
i) Caducous (Fugacious): Sepals falling off early or prematurely. E.g.: Poppy
ii) Deciduous: Falling off along with the petals just after fertilization. E.g.: Brassica
iii) Persistant: Remaining attached in the fruit also. E.g.: Solanum, Datura
There are two types:
a) Marcescent: A persistent calyx assuming a shrivelled dried up appearance.
E.g.: Guava, Tomato.
b) Accrescent: A persistent calyx growing in size along with the fruit.
E.g.: Physalis, Shorea, Brinjal
2. Corolla:
It is the second whorl of floral leaves in succession from outside. An Individual
member of this whorl is called a Petal. It is coloured other than green. It is most
attractive in appearance and function. It attracts the insects to favour cross pollination.
We can study the corolla using following botanical terms:
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a) Number of Petals: 5 in Hibiscus, 4 in Catharanthus
b) Cohesion:
i) Polypetalous: Petals are free. E.g.: Brassica
ii) Gamopetalous: Petals are fused. E.g.: Ipomoea, Datura
c) Aestivation: The arrangement of floral parts in bud. (Fig. 8.1.2)
i) Valvate: Petals meeting by the edges without overlapping. E.g.: Solanum
ii) Induplicate Valvate: A form of valvate in which the margins of the petals are folded
inwards on themselves. E.g.: Ipomoea
iii) Twisted (Contorted): One margin of the petal overlaps that of the next one and the
other margin is overlapped by the third one. E.g.: Hibiscus
iv) Imbricate: Out of the five petals one is internal, one external and the other three
partly internal, partly external. E.g: Callistemon, Caesalpinia
v) Quincuncial: A form of imbricate where there are five sepals, two internal, two
external and one partly internal, partly external. E.g.: Melia, Murraya
vi) Vexillary: Out of the five petals the posterior one is the largest and covers the two
lateral petals and the latter in their turn overlap the two anterior and smallest petals.
E.g.: Clitoria
d) Shape of the Corolla: (Fig. 8.1.3)
i) Cruciform: Four free petals arranged in the form of a cross and each differentiated
into a claw and a limb. E.g: Brassica
ii) Papillionaceous (Butterfly-like): A zygomorphic, polypetalous corolla withone
large posterior standard, two lateral wings and two innermost and smallest petals
apparently united, known as keels. E.g.: Pea, Clitorea
iii) Infundibuliform (Funnel-shaped): A gamopetalous corolla shaped like the funnel.
E.g.: Ipomoea, Petunia, Datura
iv) Bilabiate (Two-lipped): A zygomorphic, gamopetalous corolla divided intot wo lips-
upper and lower with mouth gaping wide open. E.g.: Ocimum, Leucas
v) Tubular: A gamopetalous corolla which is cylindrical or tube-like i.e. more or less
equally expanded from the base of the apex. E.g.: Sunflower
vi) Campanulate (Bell-shaped): Five fused petals forming a bell-shaped structure.
E.g.: Cuscuta, Cucurbita, Withania
e) Appendages of Corolla:
i) Spur: A tubular or sac-like projection from a bottom, as of a petal and usually
containing a nectar-secreting gland. E.g.: Delphinium, Impatiens
ii) Nectary: A nectar-secreting gland, often appearing as a protuberance, scale or pit.
32
E.g: Salvia
iii) Corona: Any appendages or extrusion that stands between the corolla and stamens or
on the corolla. E.g.: Asclepias, Calotropis (Staminalc orona), Passion flower
(Corolline corona),
3) Perianth:
Sometimes calyx and corolla are not distinguishable from one another and the outer
whorl is thus called perianth.
Tepal: One of the separate parts of perianth.
We can study the Perianth using following botanical terms:
a) Number of Tepals
b) Number of Whorls:
Mention the number of whorls, e.g. 6 tepals in two whorls of three each.
c) Cohesion:
i) Polyphyllous: Tepals are free. E.g.: Phyllanthus, Polygonum
ii) Gamophyllous: Tepals are fused. E.g.: Tuberose
d) Types of Tepals:
i) Sepaloid: Resembling a sepal. E.g.: Date palm
ii) Petaloid: Resembling a petal. E.g.: Asphodelus
e) Aestivation:
The arrangement of floral parts in bud. (As shown in Corolla)
1. Perfect Flower: A perfect flower has both male (stamen) and female (ovary)
reproductive organs on the same flower.
2. Imperfect Flower: An imperfect flower has both male (stamen) and female (ovary)
reproductive organs on the same flower, but not both.
3. Incomplete Flower: An incomplete flower is missing one of the four major parts of
the flower, the stamen, pistil, petals, or sepals.
4. Complete Flower: A complete flower has a stamen, pistil, petals, and sepals.
5. Actinomorphic: Most flowers are actinomorphic, meaning they can be divided into 3
or more identical sectors which are related to each other by rotation about the centre
of the flower. Typically, each sector might contain one tepal or one petal and one
sepal and so on. It may or may not be possible to divide the flower into symmetrical
halves by the same number of longitudinal planes passing through the axis.
Actinomorphic flowers are also called radially symmetrical or regular flowers.
6. Zygomorphic: Zygomorphic flowers can be divided by only a single plane into two
mirror-image halves, much like a yoke or a person's face. E.g. are orchids and the
33
flowers of most members of the Lamiales. Zygomorphic flowers generally have
petals of two more different shapes, sizes, and colors. E.g.: Clitoria ternatea.
7. Asymmetrical / Irregular: When the flower cannot be divided into two equal halves
from any plane, then it is called asymmetrical flower. E.g. Canna. (Fig. 8.1.4)
Figures:
Fig.8.1.1: Structure of typical Flower
A B C D E
Fig. 8.1.2: Types of Aestivation A. Valvate, B. Twisted, C. Embricate, D. Quincuncial, E.
Vexillary
34
Fig. 8.1.3: Forms of Corolla
Fig. 8.1.4: Symmetry of Flower- (A ) Actinomorphic (,B) Zygomorphic and

(C) Asymmetrical
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35
Practical No. 08
STUDY OF FLOWER (PART-II)

Aim: To study the flower with respect to androecium and gynoecium.
1. Androcium:
A third whorl of floral leaves, internal to the corolla, is called as androecium. The
individual member in this whorl is termed as Stamen. It possesses a cylindrical stalk-
like, slender part called Filament. At the apex of the filament are attached two bag-
like structures called Anther-lobes. A stamen which is a modified leaf can be
imagined. The filament is to be considered as a petiole. The lamina, with its margins,
is said to have been rolled up on the upper surface towards the mid-rib. Thus two
bags are said to have been produced. Hence a stamen is a modified leaf. Androecium
can be studied in following botanical terms:
a) Number of Stamens:
Mention the number of stamens E.g. 5 stamens. If the number of stamens is more than
the number of petals, then find out the number of whorls in which these are
distributed-in one whorl, two or more whorls or the number is indefinite.
b) Fertility:
Note if all the stamens are fertile or some of these are reduced to staminodes.
Staminode: A sterile stamen or a structure resembling stamen and born in staminal
part of the flower. E.g.: Stellaria, Canna
c) Cohesion of Stamens: (Fig. 8.2.1)
i) Polyandrous: Stamens free (anthers as well as filaments). E.g: Papaver
ii) Monadelphous: Stamens united in one group by connation of their filaments (anthers
being free). E.g: Hibiscus, Achyranthus, Abutilon.
iii) Diadelphous: Stamens united in two bundles by connation of their filaments (anther
being free). E.g: Pea, Clitorea
iv) Polyadelphous: Stamens united in many bundles by connation of their filaments
(anthers being free). E.g: Citrus, Bombax malbarica
v) Syngenecious: Stamens connate by their anthers (the filaments being free to form a
cylinder about the style, as in Compositae). E.g: Sonchus, Sunflower
vi) Synandrous: Stamens united throughout their whole length by both the filaments and
the anthers. E.g.: Cucurbita
36
d) Adhesion of Stamens: (Fig. 8.2.2)
i) Epipetalous: Stamens adhering to the corolla wholly or partially by their filaments
(anthers remaining free).E.g.: Ocimum, Solanum, Datura
ii) Epiphyllous: Stamens adhering to the perianth wholly or partially by their filaments
(anther remaining free). E.g.: Asphodelus, Tuberose
iii) Gynandrous: Stamens adhering to the carpels either throughout their whole length or
by their anthers only. E.g.: Calotropis
e) Sequence of Staminal Whorls:
If in more than one whorl then note whether the stamens of the outer whorl alternate
with the petals or opposite.
i) Diplostemonous: With the stamens in two alternating whorls and those of the outer
whorl alternate with the petals. E.g.: Murraya, Citrus
ii) Obdiplostemonous: With the stamens in two alternating whorls and those of the
outer whorl lying opposite the petals. E.g.: Geranium, Stellaria
f) Length of Filaments:
i) Didynamous: Out of the four stamens two are long and two short.
E.g: Ocimum, Adhatoda
ii) Tetradynamous: Out of the six stamens four inner are long and two outer short.
E.g: Brassica
g) Position of Stamens:
i) Inserted: Stamens shorter than the corolla tube remaining included within it.
E.g: Mussaenda, Tabernae montana, Catharanthus
ii) Exerted: Stamens longer than the corolla tube, protruding outwards.
E.g: Passion flower, Caesalpinia
h) Number of Chambers:
i) Dithecous: A two celled anther. E.g.: Citrus
ii) Monothecous: A one-celled anther. E.g.: Phyllanthus, Ricinus, Hibiscus
i) Attachment of Filament to Anther: (Fig. 8.2.3)
i) Basifixed (Innate): Filament attachment to the base of the anther.
E.g.: Brassica, Cassia
ii) Adnate: Filament running the whole length of the anther from the base to the apex.
E.g.: Michelia, Verbena
iii) Dorsifixed: Filament attached to the back of the other. E.g: Bauhinia, Citrus
iv) Versatile: Filament attached to the back of the anther at a point only, so that the latter
can swing freely. E.g.: Grasses, Eucalyptus, and Crinum
37
j) Types of Connectives:
A patch of tissue which joins the two anther lobes.
i) Discrete: When the connective is very small or absent. E.g.: Euphorbia
ii) Divaricate: When the connective develops in such a way that the two anther lobes
get separated from one another. E.g.: Tilia, Justicia gandarussa, Adhatoda
iii) Distractile: When the connective is very much elongated and placed more or less on
the filament separating the sterile and fertile lobes of the anther. E.g.: Salvia
iv) Appendiculate: When the connective is prolonged into a feathery appendix beyond
the anthers. E.g.: Nerium
k) Dehiscence of Anther:
i) Introrse: An anther dehiscing towards the centre of the flower. E.g.: Dianthus, Citrus
ii) Extrorse: An anther dehiscing towards the periphery of the flower. E.g.: Argemone.
2. Gynoecium: (Fig. 8.2.4)

The innermost whorl is called Gynoecium or Pistil. It is made up of a leaf-like
structure called a Carpel. A carpel is composed of an ovary, a style, and a stigma,
although some flowers have carpels without a distinct style. In origin, carpels are
leaves (megasporophylls) that have evolved to enclose the ovules. The term pistil is
sometimes used to refer to a single carpel or to several carpels fused together. We can
study the gynoecium using following botanical terms:
i) Number of Carpels:
i) Simple or monocarpellary gynoecium: When the gynoecium is made up of only
one carpel. E.g.: Pea
ii) Compound gynoecium: When the gynoecium is made up of two or more carpels.
1. Bicarpellary: With two carpels. E.g.: Datura, Brinjal
2. Tricarpellary: With three carpels. E.g.: Cucurbita
3. Tetracarpellary: With four carpels. E.g.: Datura
4. Pentacarpellary: With five carpels. E.g.: Melia, Hibiscus
5. Polycarpellary: With many carpels. E.g.: Papaver
iii) Cohesion of Carpels:
i) Apocarpous: A pistil of two or more carpels which are free.
E.g.: Clematis, Calotropis, and Annona
ii) Syncarpous: A pistil of two or more carpels which are fused.
E.g: Melia, Cucurbita, Sunflower
38
iv) Position of Ovary: (Fig. 8.2.5)
i) Superior: When the ovary occupies highest position on thalamus and stamens, petals
and sepals are successively inserted below it. E.g: Citrus, Stellaria, Solanum
ii) Semi-inferior: When the thalamus grows around the ovary to form a cup and bears
sepals, petals and stamens on the rim of the cup. E.g: Plum, Rose, Guava
iii) Inferior: When the thalamus completely covers the ovary getting fused with it and
bears sepals, petals and stamens on the top of the ovary. E.g: Coriandrum, Cucurbita.
v) Number of Locules: Chamber or compartment of ovary.
i) Unilocular: With one Chambers. E.g.: Stellaria, Pea, Clitorea
ii) Bilocular: With two Chambers. E.g.: Solanum, Datura
iii) Trilocular: With three Chambers. E.g.: Asphodelus, Onion
iv) Tetralocular: With four Chambers. E.g.: Ocimum
v) Pentalocular: With Five Chambers. E.g.: Geranium, Hibiscus
vi) Multilocular: With many chambers. E.g.: Citrus
vi) Number of Ovules: To find out the number of ovules in each locule, we have to take
transverse section (T.S.) of the ovary.
vii) Placentation: The pattern of attachment of an ovule to the ovary wall by the placenta
is called Placentation. (Fig. 8.2.6)
i) Marginal: Placentae developing along the junction of the two margins of the carpel
in monocarpellary and one chambered ovary. E.g.: Pea, Clitorea
ii) Axial: Plancentae bearing the ovules developed from the central axis of a compound
ovary, corresponding to the fused margins of carpels. E.g.: Citrus and Solanum.
iii) Parietal: Placentae bearing the ovules on the inner wall of the ovary and their
position correspond to the fused margins of carpels and number of plancetae is
equivalent to the number of carpels; the ovary is one chambered. E.g.: Cucumber
iv) Free-central: The ovules are borne on a central column without any septa, the ovary
is unilocular. E.g.: Stellaria, Loranthes
v) Basal: The ovules are a few, reduced to one and are borne at the base of the ovary,
the ovules when solitary often filling the cavity, the ovary is unilocular.
E.g.: Sonchus, Sunflower
vi) Superficial: Ovary is multilocular; carpels being numerous as in axile type but
placentae in this case develop all-round the inner surface of partition wall.
E.g.: Water lily
vii) Disc: present or absent
i) Terminal Style: A style lying in the same straight line with the ovary. E.g.: Hibiscus
ii) Lateral Style: A style which is seen to arise from the side of the ovary.
39
E.g.: Strawberry
iii) Gynobasic Style: A style arising from the depression in the centre of the ovary or
directly from thalamus. E.g.: Ocimum
iv) Stylopodium: When the base of the style is swollen to form a pad-like structure.
E.g: Coriandrum
i) Stigma: Terminal part of gynoecium that receives pollen grains.
ii) Capitate: Shaped like a cap. E.g: Cleome, Citrus
iii) Plumose: Feather-like stigma. E..: Grasses
iv) Discoid: Disc-shaped. E.g: Melia, Hibiscus
v) Dumb-bell shaped: Like a dumb-bell. E.g: Ipomoea fistulosa
vi) Linear: Long and narrow. E.g: Pea, Clitorea
vii) Radiate hood-like: A hood-like stigma with radiating septae. E.g.: Poppy
viii) Knob-like: Shaped like a knob. E.g: Cryptostegia, Justicia, Achyranthes
ix) Lamellate: Provide with many fan like blades. E.g: Mazus
x) Sticky: A stigma producing a sticky liquid for catching pollen grains. E.g: Cleome
viscosa.
Figures:
Fig. 8.2.1: Cohesion of stamens: (A) Monoadelphous, (B) Diadelphous,

(C) Polyadelphous, (D) Syngenesious and (E) Synandry
40
Fig. 8.2.2: Position of Staminal whorl with reference to Petals:

(A) Epipetalous, (B) Epiphyllous and (C) Gynostegium
Fig.8.2.3: Attachment of Filament to Anther
Fig. 8.2.4: Structure of typical Carpel
41
Fig. 8.2.5: A. Ovary superior, B & C. Ovary inferior and D. Ovary inferior
Fig. 8.2.6: Placentation: One to Five Chambered Ovaries
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42
Practical No. 09
STUDY OF FRUITS
Aim: Study of different types of fruits and seeds with suitable examples.
 Definition:
A fruit results from maturation and fertilization of one or more flowers, and the
gynoecium of the flower(s) forms all or part of the fruit.
 Development of fruit:
Inside the ovary / ovaries are one or more ovules where the megagametophyte contains
the egg cell. After double fertilization, these ovules become seeds. The zygote gives rise
to the embryo of the seed, and the endosperm mother cell gives rise to endosperm, a
nutritive tissue used by the embryo. As the ovules develop into seeds, the ovary begins to
ripen and the ovary wall, the pericarp, may become fleshy (as in berries or drupes), or
form a hard outer covering (as in nuts).
There are three general modes of fruit development:
 Apocarpous fruits develop from a single flower having one or more separate carpels,
and they are the simplest fruits.
 Syncarpous fruits develop from a single gynoecium having two or more carpels fused
together.
 Multiple fruits develop from many different flowers.
On this basis fruits are classified into three main groups as:
1. Simple fruits
2. Aggregate fruits / Etaerio
3. Composite or multiple fruits
1. Simple fruits:
Simple fruits can be either dry or fleshy, and result from the ripening of a simple or
compound ovary in a flower with only one carpel. Dry fruits may be either dehiscent
(opening to discharge seeds), or indehiscent (not opening to discharge seeds).
a) Simple, Dry, Indehiscent fruits
i) Achene:The fruit develops from polycarpellary syncarpous unilocular ovary. Pericarp
and testa are very close to each other surrounding a single seed but are separable. E.g.
Mirabilis, Amaranthus. (Fig. 1)
ii) Cypsela fruit: It is a small, single seeded dry fruit which develops from bicarpellary,
syncarpous inferior ovary. Pericarp and seed coat are free from each other. In these
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fruits a bunch of hair is attached with the fruit which is known as pappus. Pappus
helps in fruit dispersal. e.g.: Tridax (Tridax procumbens) (Fig.2)
b) Simple, Dry, Dehiscent fruits:
Legume: These fruits develop from monocarpellary, unilocular, superior ovary. It is
generally long and multi-seeded fruit. Dehiscence of fruit occurs at both sutures.
Dehiscence starts from apex and reaches to basal part. E.g. Pea (Pisum sativum),
Beans and ground nut. (Fig. 9.3)
c) Simple Fleshy fruits:
Pericarp is succulent, juicy at maturity, hence indehiscent.
i) Drupe: 1 to 2 seeded; pericarp is differentiated into three layers with stony endocarp,
hence called stone fruit. It has two types as –
I) Fleshy drupe: It develops from polycarpellary, syncarpous, superior ovary. Outer
layer of the fruit is epicarp, middle edible, fleshy is mesocarp, and endocarp is hard
and stony. E.g. Mango (Fig. 9.4)
II) Fibrous drupe: It develops from tricarpillary, syncarpous, superior ovary. Epicarp is
leathery, mesocarp is fibrous, and endocarp is hard and stony. Edible part is solid and
liquid endosperm. E.g. Coconut (Fig. 9.5)
III) Berry: The fruit develops from polycarpellary, syncarpous, superior or inferior,
multilocular gynoecium. It is 1- to many-seeded, pericarp is undifferentiated, placenta
forms flesh of the fruit in which seeds are embedded. E.g. Brinjal, Tomato, Guava
(Fig. 9.6).
2. Aggregate fruits:
These fruits develop from single flowers that have multiple carpels
(style+stigma+ovary) which are not joined together, i.e. each pistil contains one
carpel.
a) Etaerio of follicles: This fruit is an aggregation of follicles which develops from a
flower with apocarpous pistil. Each carpel develops to a many seeded follicle. All the
follicles are attached to thalamus. They dehisce by dorsal suture. e.g. Michelia,
Calatropis (Fig.9.7)
b) Etaerio of berries: This type of fruit is develops from polycarpellary apocarpous
ovaries. Each ovary develops into single fruitlet (Etaerio) and each ovule develops
into seed (berries). Berries become very fleshy and being crowded together on a
thick thalamus form a complex single fruit (Aggregate). The apices of berries
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fuse together forming something like a common rind. e.g. Annona squamosa
(Fig.9.8).
4) Composite or multiple fruits:
Formed by fusion of several separate pistils of several grouped flowers/ inflorescence.
Peduncle with accessory parts is involved in formation of fruit. Hence they are
pseudocarpic fruits.
a) Sorosis: In pineapple the peduncle of the spike, fertile bracts and perianth all become
thick and fleshy at maturity. Individual fruit is of achene type. E.g. Ananas sativus, in
jackfruit many sterile, elongated, spiny bracts in the spadix are present which produce
spiny rind of the fruit. Perianths of the individual flowers are thick and fleshy which
are edible. e.g. Artocarpus (Fig. 9.9)
b) Syconus: Hypanthodium inflorescence axis is in the form of thick, fleshy, cup shaped
receptacle. Many achenes are present inside it. Receptacle is edible. E.g. Ficus,
Anjeer (Fig. 9.10).
Figures:
Fig. 9.1: Achene Fig. 9.2: Cypsela Fig. 9.3: Legume
Fig. 9.4: Fleshy drupe Fig. 9.5: Fibrous drupe Fig. 9.6: Berry
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Fig. 9.7: Etaerio of follicle Fig. 9.8: Etaerio of Berries (A. External view & B. Fruit L.S.)
Fig. 9.9: Sorosis of jackfruit Fig. 9.10: Syconus of Anjeer
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Practical No. 10
DICOT ANATOMY
Aim: To study internal structure of Dicot Root and Stem.
Primary body of Angiospermic plant shows three distinct parts viz. root, stem and leaves.
Anatomy: study of internal structure is called anatomy. We shall consider the internal
structure of young dicot root and stem. This can be studied by taking thin transvers
Section (T.S.) of the plant parts.
T.S. of Young Dicot Root:

 Material:
Sunflower root
A transverse section of sunflower root shows following structures (Fig. 10.1)
1. Epidermal/ Piliferous layer:
Outermost, one cell thick layer made up of closely set thin walled parenchymatous
cells without stomata and cuticle. Some cells shows unicellular outgrowths called root
hairs and hence it is also called „piliferous layer‟. Root hair will be colourless, long,
usually unbranched outgrowth of epiblema.
2. Cortex:
It is a broad zone; made up of thin walled, loosely arranged, oval or spherical,
colorless parenchymatous cells storing starch.
3. Stele:
There is a single central stele. The stele shows following parts:
a) Endodermis:
It is a single layered, made up of closely set barrel shaped cells having casparian
thickenings. These are called „Passage Cells‟.
Function of endodermis: Lateral (centripetal) transportation of water towards the
stel.
b) Pericycle:
Single layered parenchymatous and located inner to the endodermis. It functions as
seat for origin of lateral roots. It plays role in the secondary growth in dicot roots.
c) Vascular tissues:
Xylem and phloem are the vascular tissues
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(i) Xylem:
2 to 8 radially arranged Xylem patches are present. Therefore, diarch to octarch.The
Xylem is exarch because protoxylem is towards periphery. Xylem is composed of
vessels, xylem sclerenchyma and xylem parenchyma. It conducts water and minerals;
gives mechanical strength.
(ii) Phloem:
2 to 8 radially but alternately arranged patches of Phloem are present. Phloem is
consists of sieve tubes, phloem sclerenchyma and phloem parenchyma.
Function: transport of food material.
d) Cambium: Absent, therefore closed.
e) Cojuctive tissues:
It is a parenchymatous tissue present or that lie between xylem and phloem patches
.Cells of conjuctive tissue become meristimatic during secondary growth.
f) Pith:
It is the central part of stele made up of thin walled, colourless, closely set
parenchymatous cells. Pith is very poorly developed or may even be absent as in
Gram.
g) Vascular Bundles:Vascular bundles are radial, closed endarch and polyarch.
T. S. Of Young Dicot Stem :
 Material:
Cucurbita stem, Sunflower or Parthenium stem.
A transverse section of sunflower stem shows following structures (Fig. 10.2)
1. Epidermis :
Single layered, made up of tubular, closely set parenchymatous cells having thin
cuticle, on their outer surfaces of outer walls. Epidermis is interrupted by few
stomata. In mesophytic plants, epidermis shows number of multicellular hairs called
trichomes. It functions as protection, gaseous exchange and transpiration through
stomata trichomes. It absorb moisture and hence protect plants against desiccation.
2. Hypodermis :
Located below the epidermis; it is few layered collenchymatous. Cells may show
chloroplastids or may sclerenchymatous. It gives mechanical strength.
4. Cortex :
It is broad zone found next to hypodermis on inner side; made up of thin walled
loosely arranged parenchymatous cells. It is differentiated into outer few layered
chlorenchymatous and inner colorless parenchymatous cells, storing starch.
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5. Stele :
There is a single central stele. It shows following layers.
a) Endodermis :
Single layered, made up of barrel shaped, closely set parenchymatous cells storing
starch. Endodermis may be circular ring like or wavy in outline. The cells of
endodermis show casparian thickenings along their radial and inner tangential walls.
b) Pericycle :
It is multilayered and differentiated into alternate sclerenchymatous and
parenchymatous patches. The portion of pericycle in front of phloem is crescent
shaped and sclerenchymatous. It is called HARD BAST. The remaining region is
parenchymatous. It functions as mechanical strength.
c) Vascular tissues :
The xylem and phloem tissues are present in the form of bundles or strands. Each one
is called Vascular bundle. There are few vascular bundles arranged in a ring. Both
xylem and phloem occur on the same radius side by side. Xylem is on the inner side
and phloem on outer side. Hence it is called conjoint and collateral.
d) Xylem:
It is endarch metaxylem shows reticulate and pitted lignin thickenings. Proptoxylem
shows annular or spiral pattern of lignin thickenings. Xylem is composed of vessels,
xylem sclerenchyma and xylem parenchyma. Conduction of water occurs through it.
e) Phloem:
It is composed of sieve tubes, companion cells and phloem parenchyma. Phloem
sclerenchyma is absent. It transports food from one place to other.
f) Cambium:
Between xylem and phloem patch is sandwiched, few layered cambial patch. As
cambium is present,vascular bundles are open. Plays role in secondary growth.
g) Medullary rays:
The parenchymatous tissues between vascular bundle constitute what is called
primary medullary rays. Its function is storage of food and lateral transport.
h) Pith: The central most regions is made up of colorless, parenchymatous cells that are
loosely arranged. It stores food. The vascular bundles are conjoint, collateral, endarch
and open.
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Fig. 10.1: T.S. of Dicot Root (Sunflower)
Fig. 10.2: T.S. of Dicot Stem T.S. of Dicot Stem (A sector

(Sunflower, Outline) enlarged)
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Practical No. 11
Aim: Study of internal primary structure of Monocotyledonous root and stem.

A. Monocot root (Maize):
A transverse section of Maize root shows following structures (Fig. 11.1)
1. Epiblema:
The outermost layer of the root is called as epiblema or rhizodermis. It is uniseriate
and composed of compact tubular cells having no intercellular space and stomata.
The tubular unicellular root hairs are present on this layer.
2. Cortex:
Immediately after epiblema there is a cortex region, it consists of parenchymatous
cells. The starch grains are abundantly present in this region. The sclerenchyma cells
are commonly found in the cortex of monocotyledons.
3. Endodermis:
The innermost layer of cortex is called as endodermis. It is composed of barrel shaped
compact cells having no intercellular spaces among them. The endodermal cells
possess casparian strips on their anticlinal wall.
4. Pericycle:
It is usually uniseriate and composed of thin walled parenchymatous cells. In
monocotyledons, the pericycle may be interrupted by differentiation of xylem and
phloem elements next to the endodermis.
5. Vascular tissue:
The vascular tissue consists of alternating strands of xylem and phloem. This is called
as radial vascular bundle. The phloem occurs in the form of strands near periphery of
vascular cylinder, below the pericycle. The xylem forms discrete strands, alternating
with phloem strands. The centre is occupied by large pith which may be
parenchymatous or sclerenchymatous. Bundles are numerous and referred as
polyarch.
B. Monocot stem (Maize)
A transverse section of Maize stem shows following structures (Fig.11.2)
1. Epidermis:
The epidermis consists of single layer of compact cells having no intercellular spaces
among them.
2. Hypodermis:
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Below the epidermis, usually two or three layers of sclerenchyma cells are present,
called as hypodermis. It gives mechanical strength to the stem.
3. Ground tissue system:
It consists of thin walled parenchyma cells having well defined intercellular spaces
among them. This tissue extends from below the sclerenchyma to the centre. It is not
differentiated into cortex, endodermis, pericycle and pith.
4. Vascular system:
It is composed of many collateral and closed vascular bundles scattered in the ground
tissue. The number of vascular bundle is more towards periphery than in the centre.
Comparatively the peripheral bundles are smaller in size than that of central bundles.
Each bundle is more or less surrounded by sheath which is more conspicuous towards
upper and lower sides. Usually xylem is Y-shaped and consists of pitted and bigger
vessels of metaxylem and smaller vessels of protoxylem. The pith is not marked out
in monocot stem.
Fig. 11.1: T.S. of Monocot Root (Maize)
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Fig. 11: T.S. of Monocot stem (Maize)
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Practical No. 12
Aim: Study of internal primary structure of dicotyledonous and monocotyledonous

leaf e.g. sunflower and maize.
T. S. of Young Dicot Leaf:

 Material:
Sunflower leaf.
1) Outline:
Flat, section is differentiated into mid rib flanked by arms. The side of leaf facing sun
is called upper side and the side facing away from the sun is lower side. (Fig. 12.1)
2) Arm:
It is multilayered region differentiated into the following layers.
a) Upper Epidermis:
It is single layered, made up of colorless, rectangular, closely set parenchymatous
cells with an outer layer of cuticle. Usually epidermal cells are without chloroplasts.
Upper epidermis may be interrupted by few stomata. The cells of upper epidermis
may also possess trichomes.
Function:
Protection of inner tissues from damage and infection.
Gaseous exchange and transpiration if stomata are present.
Through trichomes, it can absorb moisture and protect plant against desiccation.
b) Mesophyll:
It is a part present between upper and lower epidermis. When mesophyll is
differentiated, the leaf is described as dorsiventral. Mesophyll is differentiated into
two distinct layers viz., upper palisade and lower spongy.
c) Palisade layer:
It is located below the upper epidermis; made up of 1 to 2 layers of radially
elongated, closely set photosynthetic cells.
d) Spongy tissue:
It is located above the lower epidermis; made up of 2 to 3 layers of thin walled, oval
or spherical loosely arranged parenchymatous cells having few chloroplastids.
e) Lower epidermis:
It is the same as that of the upper epidermis. It is interrupted by stomata. The typical
stomatal apparatus shows two kidney shaped guard cells enclosing stoma.
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(i) Mid rib/mid vein:
It is multilayered and differentiated into following layers.
a) Upper epidermis:
Same as that of arm, however it does not show stomata.
b) Vascular bundle:
One to many bundles are embedded in the mesophyll tissue. Each vascular bundle is
conjoint, collateral and closed with xylem directing the upper epidermis. Each
vascular bundle has a parenchymatous bundle sheath.
c) Lower epidermis:
Same as that of the arm, however, it does not show stomata.
Fig. 1 Dicot Leaf (E.g. Sunflower)
C. Monocot leaf (Maize)

A transverse section of Maize leaf shows following structures (Fig. 12.2)
1. Epidermis:
The epidermis is found on both upper and lower surfaces of the leaf. The epidermal
layers are uniseriate and composed of more or less oval cells. The outer wall of the
epidermal cell is cuticularized. The upper epidermis is easily identified by presence of
xylem and bulliform or Motor cells towards it. Stomata are present on both sides.
Bulliform cells are in groups of 3 to 5 which reduce the rate of transpiration during
draught. Stomata consist of two dumb-bell shaped cells forming a small pore.
2. Mesophyll:
As the leaf is isobilateral, the mesophyll is not differentiated into palisade and spongy
tissue. It is composed of loosely arranged thin walled, isodiametric chlorophylls
spongy mesophyll cells having well developed intercellular spaces among them.
3. Vascular bundles:
The vascular bundles are collateral and closed as found in monocotyledonous stems.
Most of the bundles are small in size but fairly large bundles also occur at regular
intervals. The xylem is found towards upper side and phloem towards lower side in
the bundles. Usually each bundle remains surrounded by bundle sheath consisting
parenchyma cells. The cells of bundle sheath generally contain starch grains in them.
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Fig. 12.1: T. S. of Dicot Leaf (Sunflower)
Fig. 12.2: T.S. of Monocot Leaf (Maize)
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Section II
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Practical No. 01
Aim: Study of Nephrolepis (Sword Fern)
External Morphology:
1. The plant body is a sporophyte. It is differentiated into roots, rhizome and leaves.
2. The rhizome gives out adventitious roots from its underside. These adventitious roots
are small and branched. (Fig.1.1)
3. The stem is modified to rhizome. It is subterranean, short and erect. The rhizome
produces elongated slender stolons. Peltate scales cover the rhizome.
4. In N. tuberosa, rhizome bears tubers. These are reservoirs of carbohydrates and water.
5. The leaves are long, narrow, sub-coriaceous and unipinnate.
6. The pinnae are sessile or shortly petioled. They have a usually rounded or cordate
base. Each pinna has articulation with a pouch-like structure at the base.
7. The veins are prominent and the veinlets are branched with open ends. The tips of
veinlets are gland dotted and they extend up to the margins.
Fig.1.1: External morphology of Nephrolepis sporophyte
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Internal morphology:
A) T. S. of Rhizome
1. The outline of the section is almost biconvex. (Fig.1.2)
2. The section can be divided into epidermis, hypodermis, ground tissue and the stele.
3. Epidermis is the outermost single layer of thickly cuticularized parenchymatous cells.
4. Hypodermis that follows epidermis is made of a few sclerenchymatous layers.
5. Cortex rest of the tissue is called ground tissue. It is parenchymatous with numerous
starch grains in the cells.
6. Structure of the stele varies with the age of the rhizome.
(i) In the youngest part of rhizome, it is protostele.
(ii) In a few weeks old plant with a few leaves, the rhizome shows ectophloic
siphonostele.
(iii) The old part of rhizome shows adictyostele.
7. Dictyostele is made of two rings of meristeles, separated by two sclerenchymatous
bands.
8. Meristele has its own endodermis and pericycle. The centre is occupied with xylem
which is completely surrounded by phloem on all its sides.
Fig.1.2: T.S. of Nephrolepis rachis

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B) T. S. of rachis:
1. The section appears horse-shoe shaped. (Fig.1.3)
2. It shows epidermis, hypodermis, ground tissue and the stele.
3. Epidermis is made of single layer of thickly cuticularised cells.
4. Hypodermis lies below the epidermis. The cells are sclerenchymatous. It gives
mechanical support and strength.
5. Cortex is the parenchymatous region, made up of thin walled, loosely arranged cells
with intercellular spaces extending throughout the section is called ground tissue or
cortex. It acts reservoir of starch grains. Stele is situated in the ground tissue which is
U-shaped or horse-shoe shaped stele.
6. Single layered endodermis surrounds the stele followed by a few layered pericycles.
7. Vascular bundle is conjoint, concentric and amphicribal or hadrocentric as Xylem is
surrounded by phloem on all sides. Xylem is exarch, C-shaped or Comma –shaped
and consists of tracheids and xylem parenchyma. Vessels are absent. Phloem is made
up of sieve cells and phloem parenchyma. Sieve tubes and companion cells are
absent.
8. The structure of the stele differs at various levels of rachis:
(i) In younger parts, there is a single U-shaped stele
(ii) Little above the base, the U-breaks at the bottom, thereby producing two steles
(iii) In mature parts, dissection of the stele results in many meristeles.
Fig. 1.3: T. S. of Nepherolepis rhizome; a) Diagrammatic and b) Enlarged section
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C) Structure of Sporophyll:
1. Nephrolepis is a sporophyte. It reproduces asexually by the formation of
spores.
2. At maturity, some of the leaflets or pinna produces reproductive bodies in the
form of sori on ventral (lower) surface of the leaflets. Such a leaf producing
leaflets with sori or fertile pinnae is called as sporophyll. (Fig. 1.4.a&b)
3. Sori (sorus) are a group of asexual reproductive bodies develop in two rows
on the ventral surface of the pinna along the margins.
4. Sori develop on one of the vein endings of the forked vein, which is towards
the apex. (Fig. 1.4.c)
5. They are light green to brown in colour.
Fig. 1.4 a & b. Position of sori on leaflet and c. single sorus
D) T. S. of Pinna or leaflet passing through sorus:

1. T.S. of pinna or leaflet shows upper epidermis, mesophyll, lower epidermis
and sorus. (Fig. 1.5)
2. Upper epidermis is made up of single layered compactly arranged
chlorenchymatous cells.
3. On the inner side, multilayered, loosely arranged spongy mesophyll tissues
with intercellular spaces are present.
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4. Lower epidermis is also made up of single layered compactly arranged
chlorenchymatous cells with presence of sorus at the vein ending. Stomata are
also present.
5. Sorus consists of placenta, sporangia and indusium.
6. In each sorus, sporangia are developed on cushion like outgrowth of
parenchymatous cells, called as placenta and covered by a membrane structure
called indusium.
7. Sporangia are present on either side of the placenta.
8. Placenta provides nourishment to the developing sporangia.
9. Indusium is kidney - shaped in surface view. It covers and protects the
sporangia.
Fig. 1.5: T.S. of Pinna or Leaflet passing through sorus
E) Structure of Sporangium:
1. The sporangia are asexual reproductive structures. (Fig. 1.6)
2. Each sporangium consists of basal stalk and upper capsule.
3. The Stalk is multicellular, long, slender and made up of 2-3 vertical thick walled
cells.
4. The capsule is oval, biconvex and disc-like structure.
5. The wall of the capsule is made up of a single layered flat thin walled cells.
6. Along the periphery, it shows distinct incomplete ring of cells, which is vertically
placed, known as Annulus.
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7. Cells of the annulus are thick and brown along the inner tangential and radial
walls, whereas outer wall is slightly thin.
8. On one side of the capsule, the annulus is replaced by large size, thin walled
transversely arranged elongated cells.
9. At maturity, sporangium opens through these cells forming the stomium.
10. At young stage, sporangium contains sixteen diploid (2n) spore mother cells.
11. At maturity, each spore mother cell undergoes reduction division (meiosis)
forming spore tetrad or four haploid (n) spores.
12. Therefore, each sporangium contains 64 haploid spores. All spores are of same
type, therefore Nephrolepis is homosporous.
13. Spores liberated outside the sporangium through the stomium.
14. Each spore is more or less kidney shaped, slightly flattened, dark brown in colour.
15. It is made up of two layers, outer layer is thick brown known as exosporium and
inner layer is thin, called as endosporium.
Fig. 1.6: Sporangium, Spore mother cells and Spores
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Systematic position:
Division: Pteridophyta.
(1) Plant body differentiated into stem, root and leaves.
(2) A definite vascular strand present.
Sub-division: Pteropsida.
(1) Vascular cylinder siphonostele/dictyostele
(2) Plants macrophyllous with large leaf gaps.
(3) Leaves bear sporangia in sori.
(4) Gametophytes small, green and free-living.
Class: Leptosporangiatae.
(1) Sporangial wall one-celled thick.
(2) Number of spores per sporangium definite.
Order: Filicales.
(1) Mixed sori.
Family: Polypodiaceae.
(1) Annulus of sporangium vertical.
(2) Each sporangium with 32- 64 spores.
Genus: Nephrolepis.
(1) Leaves unipinnate with articulate or pouch like base.
(2) Sori distinct and enclosed by individual indusium,
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Practical No. 02
Aim: Study of Life cycle of Cycas.
Morphololgy of the plant:

Plant body is diploid (2n) sporophyte differentiated into an underground root
system, which is distinguished into an erect stem and a crown of leaves.
A) External Morphology:
1. Root: Primary normal tap root system is short-lived and is replaced by large, fleshy,
persistent, branched adventitious roots arising from the base of the stem.
2. Coralloid roots: Some of the lateral branches grow horizontally in the soil and
become apogeotropic. They have numerous lenticels on their surface. These roots
frequently get infected with bacteria, fungi and BGA or cyanobacteria. The infection
leads to distortion of their original shape. The infected roots forms repeated dichotomy
and become a mass of tubercles which apparently look like corals. These are called
coralloid roots. Due to presence of BGA in association with coralloid roots, they are
acting as nitrogen fixing organs.
3. Stem: The young stem is almost tuberous but when grows old, it becomes thick,
columnar and unbranched (Branching is rare and is caused due to injury, etc.). The
trunk is covered by persistent leaf bases. (Fig.2.1.A)
4. Leaves: The stem bears a terminal group of leaves which are dimorphic (i.e. of two
types): (Fig.2.1.B)
(i) Foliage leaves (green assimilatory fronds) and
(ii) Scale leaves (brown and hairy).
These leaves alternate with one another.
5. Foliage Leaves: Young foliage leaves are circinately coiled and are covered with
ramenta (hairs). Mature leaves are large, spirally arranged and unipinnately compound.
Each leaf has about 80-100 pairs of leaflets/pinnae that are closely arranged, opposite
to one another on the rachis with a decurrent base. Each leaflet/pinna is sessile,
elongated, tough, leathery and entire with a definite midrib but no lateral veins. The
leaves posses a very long rachis with a short petiole. The base of the petiole is
provided with two rows of small stiff spines.
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6. Scale leaves: are small, dry, simple, triangular in shape, brown with aborted lamina
and covered with hairs or ramenta. These leaves cover the apex and young developing
foliage leaves. Scales are also persistent, like leaf bases.
7. Reproductive organs: Cycas is dioecious and, as such, bears terminally, either male
cone or female reproductive structures called as megasporophylls.
8. Male cone: The male cone is oval or conical shaped, very large (40-80 cm in length),
borne terminally at the apex of the stem and the further growth of the stem continues
by axillary bud (developed at the base of the cone) which pushes the male cone on one
side. The branching in Cycas stem is thus referred to as sympodial.
9. Megasporophyll: The female reproductive structures are also called as
Megasporophylls, developing in place of foliage leaves. It is not organized into a
definite cone. They arise at the apex of the stem spirally and acropetally forming a
loose crown. The megasporophylls are pinnate in nature and are covered with brown
ramenta. Hence, they are considered as modified foliage leaves. The vegetative apex
continues to grow as usual.
A B C
Fig. 2.1 A. External Morphology of Cycas Sporophyte, B. Leaf, C. Coralloid roots
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B) Internal Morphology:
T. S. of leaflet / pinna:
The leaflet shows a distinct midrib and the wings. (Fig. 2.2)
1. Midrib: is swollen, while wings on the lateral sides are narrower and flattened, (i) In
C. revoluta midrib is less projected than in C. circinalis, where it is much projected
on the upper side. (ii) Margins of wings are revolute in C. revoluta, and C. beddomei
while they are straight in C. circinalis, C. rumphii, C. pectinata and C. siamensis.
2. Upper epidermis is present on the upper side. It is thickly cuticularized and single
layered.
3. Hypodermis is present below the epidermis. It is sclerenchymatous. (i) In C. revoluta,
hypodermis is present in the midrib (near both upper and lower epidermis) and wings
(below the upper epidermis). (ii) In C. circinalis, hypodermis in the midrib region is
present on both the sides (upper and lower) while in the wings, it occupies only the
corners, being absent from rest of wings.
4. Mesophyll lies below the hypodermis and is well developed. It is differentiated into
upper palisade layers and lower spongy parenchyma. (i) In C. revoluta, palisade is
present beneath the hypodermis, both in the midrib and the wings. (ii) In C. circinalis
palisade is absent from the midrib region.
5. Spongy parenchyma with many intercellular spaces lies immediately above the lower
epidermis.
6. Transfusion tissue. On either side of the centripetal metaxylem of mid rib bundle and
somewhat connected with it, are present two tracheid like cells transfusion tissue.
7. Accessory transfusion tissue. Between the palisade and spongy parenchyma cells,
there are 3 or 4 layers of tracheid-like, long colourless cells which run transversely
from the midrib to near the margin of the lamina. This is known as accessory
transfusion tissue. It is connected with the xylem of the vascularbundle of midrib
through the transfusion tissue.
8. Lower epidermis bounds the leaflet from lower side. It is thickly cuticularized and
single layered. Sunken stomata are found in the lower epidermis in the midrib region.
9. Stomata are very much sunken in the lower epidermis in C. revoluta, while they are
not so much sunken in C. circinalis.
10. Midrib bundle. In middle of the swollen portion representing the midrib lies a single
vascular bundle surrounded by parenchymatous tissue (with calcium oxalate crystals).
Vascular bundle has a definite and thickened, parenchymatous bundle sheath.
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11. The vascular bundle is similar in all respects to that found in the upper region of the
rachis. It is conjoint, collateral, and diploxylic.
12. Phloem lies towards the abaxial (lower) side. In between xylem and phloem,
cambium is present.
13. Xylem: It shows a large, triangular patch of centripetal xylem and two small groups
of centripetal protoxylem.
Distinguishing features:
1. Lateral veins are absent.
2. Thickly cuticularized upper and lower epidermis. Sunken stomata in lower epidermis.
4. Presence of transfusion tissue.
5. Diploxylic nature of vascular bundle.
Fig. 2.2 T.S. of Leaflet/Pinna of Cycas

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External features of male cone (Microsporophyll):
1. The male cone is terminal, shortly stalked, brown coloured, compact, large and oval or
conical in shape and consists of a central cone axis around which numerous
microsporophylls are spirally arranged. (Since the male cone terminates the growth of
the apex of male plant, a lateral bud later grows and takes over the continuation of
growth of apex). The male plant thus shows sympodial growth).
2. The outer covering of the male cone is formed by closely set sterile ends of the
microsporophylls usually possessing up-curved apices, apophysis. (Fig. 2.3.A)
L.S. of the male cone:

1. The L.S. shows stalk and the cone. (Fig. 2.3.B)
2. Male cone is attached at the apex of the plant by a stout and broad stalk.
3. The cone itself consists of a central cone axis with many microsporophylls.
4. Each microsporophyll is attached to the cone axis. The part of microsporophylls away
from the axis is up-curved and is called apophysis.
5. The upper surface of the microsporophyll is sterile.
6. The lower surface of the microsporophyll is fertile and bears many microsporangia in
groups (sori).
7. Microsporophylls in the middle part of the cone are largest and get gradually smaller
towards the base and the apex.
8. A single microsporophyll is woody, more or less horizontally flattened and triangular
structure. (Fig. 2.3.C)
9. It is differentiated into a fertile and sterile part. Fertile part is wedge-shaped and is
expanded distally from a narrow point of attachment. Sterile part is the distal part of
the microsporophyll which tapers into an upcurved apophysis.
10. Lower (abaxial) surface of the fertile part of the microsporophyll bears
microsporangia in groups of 3-4, forming definite sori. (Fig. 2.4.A&B)
11. Microsporangia are arranged in sori around central papilla. Sporangia show radial
lines of dehiscence. Many hairs are distributed on this surface mixed with sporangia.
12. The section shows microsporangia attached to the abaxial (lower) surface by their
short stalks.
13. A mature microsporangium has three layered wall. The outermost layer is thick and
cutinized, termed as exothecium. The remaining inner layers are thin and are
collectively known as endothecium and enclose a tapetum. (Fig. 2.3.C)
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14. Numerous microspores remain enclosed inside the wall of the microsporangium.
15. In the microsporophyll are present many mucilage ducts, regularly scattered, among
the rounded mesophyll-like cells forming the tissue of the sporophyll.
A B C
Fig.2.3. Cycas A. Male cone, B. L.S. of Male cone and C. Microsporophyll
Fig.2.4. Cycas A. Microsporophyll, B. T.S. of Microsporophyll, C. Microsporangia

and D. Microspore
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External features of female cone (Megasporophyll):
1. Female reproductive body consists of megasporphylls arranged spirally and arising in
acropetal succession on the stem.
2. Megasporophylls appear as a rosette or a crown, leaving the apical meristem
unaffected to grow further. A crown of megasporophyll is formed each year.
Numerically they are more than the leaves. (Fig. 2.5)
3. They leave their persistent bases on the stem.
4. Each megasporophyll is leaf-like and densely covered with brown hairs. It varies in
size from 6 to 12 inches.
5. Each megasporophyll is distinguished into a proximal (lower) petiole, a middle ovule
bearing portion and a distal (upper) pinnately dissected sterile part.
6. The nature of upper sterile part varies with species. (i) In C. revoluta, the upper part is
very much dissected, forming many pinnae, (ii) In C. rumphii, the upper part bears
only short spines which represent reduced pinnae, (iii) In C. circinalis, the pinnate
character is altogether absent and upper part shows only dentate or serrate margins.
7. The middle portion of sporophyll bears ovules which are borne in two rows, one on
either side. The ovules of the two rows may be opposite or alternate.
8. Ovules are generally yellow or orange or dark green coloured, shortly stalked, oval and
smooth. Number and size of the ovules differ from species to species. (i) In
C.revoluta, ovules are many and orange coloured, (ii) In C. circinalis also, they are
numerous, but these are dark green and attain a large size, (iii) In C. siamensis, the
number of ovules is reduced to only two and (iv) In C. thouarsii, the ovules become
still larger and may be that they are the largest ovules in the plant kingdom.
9. All the ovules do not develop fully. Some of those which remain small, unpollinated
and finally aborts.
Fig.2.5 Cycas Megasporophylls
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L.S. of mature ovule:
1. The section shows that the ovule is orthotropous. Cycas ovule is the largest ovule
among the plant kingdom. (Fig. 2.6.A)
2. It is unitegmic (possesses a single integument). The integument is very thick. It
remains fused with the nucellus except for the nucellar beak leaving a small and
narrow micropyle.
3. The integument consists of three distinct layers-an outer fleshy layer, middle stony
layer and an inner fleshy layer. The outer and inner fleshy layers are supplied with
vascular strands but the middle stony layer receives no vascular supply.
4. The nucellus lies just below the integument and forms a nucellar beak in the region of
the micropyle.
5. A few cells of this nucellar beak dissolve themselves and form a pollen chamber that
lies in the tissue in the central region of the beak.
6. Female gametophyte. The innermost region of the ovule is filled with the tissue of
female gametophyte, wherein lie two archegonia, situated opposite the pollen
chamber.
7. Archegonial chamber: Just above the archegonia is the archegonial chamber.
8. Micropyle: The orange coloured, fleshy ovules are oval in shape and each shows a
small point at the distal end which represents the remnant of the micropyle.
L. S. of seed:
1. It shows seed coat, nucellus, embryo and the female gametophyte. (Fig. 2.6.B)
2. Seed coat consists of sarcotesta (from outer fleshy layer of integument), and middle
sclerotesta (from middle stony layer). The inner fleshy layer of the integument appears
as thin and papery structure in the seed.
3. Nucellus is papery and is situated inside the seed coat.
4. Endosperm and female gametophyte form the inner part of seed.
5. A straight embryo remains embedded in the endosperm. It has two unequl cotyledons.
A B
Fig.2.6 Cycas A. L.S. of Ovule and B. L.S.Aof Seed
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Systematic position:
Division: Gymnosperms.
(1) Absence of vessels.
(2) Ovules naked.
(3) Seeds attached with woody scales.
(4) Scales generally form a cone.
Class: Cycadopsida.
(1) Wood manoxylic.
(2) Large frond-like leaves.
(3) Seeds with radial symmetry.
Order: Cycadales
(1) Plants woody, stem unbranched.
(2) Wood manoxylic.
(3) Presence of mucilage canals.
(4) Leaf trace diploxylic.
(5) Ovules orthotropous.
(6) Sperm with band of flagella.
Family: Cycadaceae
(1) Leaves with circinate vernation.
(2) Presence of coralloid roots and entophytic blue green algae.
(3) Megasporophylls foliar.
Genus: Cycas.
(1) Two types of leaves.
(2) Foliage leaves pinnately compound, coordinately coiled when young.
(3) Presence of transfusion tissue and diploxylic vascular bundle in leaf.
(4) Secondary xylem in stem monoxylic.
(5) Two types of roots.
(6) Vascular bundles arranged in an inverted omega-shaped manner in the rachis.
(7) Male cone large and single.
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Practical No. 03
Aim: Study of utilization and economic importance of Pteridophyta and

gymnosperms
Pteridophyta:
The pteridophytes are an economically important group of plants. Some of them are
1. Horticultural use:
Pteridophytes are used in the horticulture. The different species of Selaginella are
grown as the garden plants. Nephrloepis is most commonly growing as horticultural
plant in the garden.
2. Ornamental value:
The leaves of Ruhmora adiantiformisis also called as florist‟s fern; resists wilting,
therefore they are used in the cut flower arrangements.
3. Handicraft preparation:
Some of the ferns are used in handicrafts; petioles of certain ferns are used for
making basketry and bracelets.
4. Dye preparation:
Pteridium leaves are used for making the green dye.
5. Industrial use:
Club mosses are used as a dry industrial lubricant since its microscopic spore contains
non-volatile oils.
6. Use in forensic laboratory:
The spores are also used as flash powder in photography and finger print powder in
forensic investigation.
7. Source of food:
Some pteridophytes are consumed as food. Sporocarp of Marsilea are rich in starch
and eaten for their nutritive value as food.
8. Source of biofertilizer:
Azolla, is used as bio-fertilizer, since it is playing important role in fixation of
atmospheric nitrogen. On the lower surface of Azolla, some cyanobacteria are living
symbiotically and are involved in conversion on atmospheric nitrogen to nitrate.
9. Weeds:
Some of the members of pteridophytes are noxious aquatic weed ferns like Salvinia,
and Pteridium.
10. Drugs:
Rhizome and petiole of Dryopteris yield an anthelminthic drug. Adiantum phillippens
has been found to be very effective in the treatment of chest complaints.
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A B
C D
Fig.3.1 A & B Food; C & D Medicine and E for Garden
Gymnosperms:
1. Ornamental value:
A number of gymnosperms are grown as ornamental plants, e.g., Cycas, Araucaria,
Thuja, Pinus, Zamia etc.
2. Food Value:
i. „Sago‟ starch is obtained from pith and cortex of stem of C. revolute, C. rumphi
etc.
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ii. „Seed starch‟ obtained from seeds of Cycas rumphii, Dioon edule etc. It is
prepared into flour and cooked before eating.
iii. Seeds of Pinus gerardiana (chilgoza) are edible.
iv. „Kaffir bread‟ is prepared from the stem pith of Encephalartos.
v. Young leaves of Cycas are cooked as vegetables.
3. Medicinal value:
i. Ephedrine (alkaloid) extracted from Ephedra used in treating asthma, cough, cold,
bronchitis etc.
ii. Tincture of Ephedra is a cardiac stimulant.
iii. The juice extracted from young leaves of Cycas revoluta is used for curing blood
vomiting and flatulence.
4. Industrial use:
i. Gum- Cycas gum used as adhesive, antidote for snake bites and using malignant
ulcers.
ii. Tannins – Tannins extracted from bark of Araucaria, Pinus, Sequoia etc. used in
leather industry.
iii. Canada balsam – It is turpentine obtained from Abies balsamea and used as a
mounting medium in biological preparations.
iv. Amber (fossil resin) – obtained from Pinus succinifera. Wood of Pinus is used for
doors, poles, beams, railway wagon flooring etc.
v. Plywood prepared from Podocarpus.
vi. Papers like newsprints, writing and printing papers are being prepared from the
wood pulp of Pinus, Picea, Abeis, and Gnetum etc.
vii. The leaves of cycads are used for preparing baskets, mats, hats, brooms etc.
viii. The fibres obtained from the leaves of Cycas and Macrozamia are used for
stuffing pillows and making mattresses.
5. Source of oil:
i. Oils extracted from seeds of C. revoluta, Macrozamia reidlei, Pinus cembra and
Cephalotaxus drupacea are used as edible oils.
ii. Red cedar wood oil extracted from the heart wood of Juniperus virginiana is used
for cleaning microscopic preparations and for oil immersion lenses.
iii. Oils obtained from Cedrus deodara, Ciyptomeria japonica and Cupressus serm-
perivirens are used in preparations of perfumes.
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Fig: 3.2 Garden
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77
Practical No. 04
Aim: Study of comparative account of Dicotyledonous and Monocotyledonous

plants.
 What is Monocotyledon?
Monocotyledons (Liliopsida) are a class of flowering plants, including more than
75000 species. They are mostly herbaceous. The name of the class comes from the
structure of the seeds, which have one cotyledon, with a terminal position.
 What is Dicotyledon?
Dicotyledons (Magnoliopsida) are a class of flowering plants, which includes more
than 175000 plant species – from annual plants to trees. The Dicotyledons are
distinguished by the presence of two lateral cotyledons in each seed.
 Differences between Monocotyledon and Dicotyledon:

PARAMETER MONOCOTYLEDONS DICOTYLEDONS
The seed having embryo with
The seed having embryo with two
only one cotyledon are called as
Definition cotyledons are called as dicots and
monocots, and the plant is called
plant is called as dicotyledons.
as monocotyledons.
Monocots are mostly Dicots are both herbaceous as well
Habit
herbaceous. as woody.
Develops from radical of the Develops from radical of the
embryo, but soon dies. embryo.
Due death to the main root
Tap root system present with
developed from radical,
primary, secondary and tertiary root
adventitious or fibrous root
branches.
Roots system is formed.
Adventitious or fibrous roots are Tap root system is deeply growing
shallow growing in the soil. in the soil.
Internally, vascular bundles are Internally, vascular bundles are
radial with Polyarch (many) radial with Diarch to Octarch (2 –
xylem strands. 8) xylem strands.
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Stems are un-branched. Stems are branched.
Nodes and internodes are Nodes and internodes are not
distinctly present. distinct and therefore, absent.
Vascular bundles are conjoint,
Vascular bundles are conjoint,
collateral and closed (CCC)
collateral, and open (CCO) type.
type.
Cambium is absent. Cambium is present.
Stem
Secondary growth is absent, Secondary growth is present,
therefore no increase in girth or therefore, increase in girth or
diameter of stem. diameter of stem.
Vascular bundles in stems are Vascular bundles in stems are
scattered throughout. arranged in a ring-like pattern.
Xylems are “Y” shaped with
presence of lysigenous / water Xylem is endarch type.
cavity.
Leaves are isobilateral. Leaves are dorsiventral.
Parallel venation is present. (side Reticulate venation present. (Side
veins are parallel to midrib or veins forms the network like
main vein). structure)
Two types of mesophyll tissues, i.e.
Only one type of mesophyll
compactly arranged elongated
tissue i.e. loosely arranged
Leaves palisade mesophyll tissues and
spongy mesophyll tissues are
loosely arranged spongy mesophyll
present.
tissues are present.
Stomata are less in number on
Stomata are more or less equal
upper epidermis and more in
in number on both the surfaces.
number on lower epidermis.
Stomata bears kidney or bean Stomata bears dumbbell shaped
shaped guard cells. guard cells.
The flower parts are present in The flower parts are present in
Flowers
multiples of three. multiples of four or five.
Pollen tube contain single pore Pollen tube has three or more pore
Pollen
or furrow (monocolpate). or furrow (tricolpate).
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Seed Embryo is with one cotyledon. Embryo is with two cotyledons.

Seed Generally hypogeal (below the Generally epigeal (above the
germination ground) germination occurs. ground) germination occurs.
Maize, Sugarcane, banana tree,
Sunflower, Mint, lettuce, tomato,
grass, daffodils, palm, ginger,
Examples legumes which include beans,
grains which include wheat, rice,
lentils, pea and peanuts.
corn, millets.
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80
Practical No. 05
Aim: Study of utilization and economic importance of Angiosperms with reference

to food, fodder, fiber, medicine and horticulture.
Angiosperms are most evolved plants on the earth. They have been utilized as one
of the richest resources by the human being to fulfill the basic as well as applied needs of
the life. Besides, due to their cultivation, conservation, and protection, angiosperms are
diversely utilized as the raw material for all agriculture based industries. Some of the
angiosperms are discussed here as Resources.
A) Food:F
Many plants or plant parts are utilized as food. They contain essential nutrients such
as carbohydrates, fats, minerals, calcium, protein, amino acids, vitamins etc. There are
around 2,000 plant species which are cultivated for food. Plants provide food in the form
of root vegetables (potatoes and carrots), bulbs (onion), leaf vegetables (spinach and
lettuce), inflorescence vegetables (cabbage and broccoli), different edible fruits (lemon,
apple, guava), seeds (cereals, legumes, nuts) etc. E.g: Spinach.
Common name: Spinach

Botanical name: Spinacia oleracea L.
Family: Amarantaceae
Plant part used: leaves
Spinach is an edible flowering plant. It is an annual plant (rarely biennial), which

grows to a height of up to 30 cm. The leaves are alternate, simple, and variable in size
with larger leaves at the base of the plant and small leaves higher on the flowering stem.
The flowers are inconspicuous, maturing into a small, hard, dry, lumpy fruit cluster
containing several seeds.
 Uses:
1. Spinach has a high nutritional value and is extremely rich in antioxidants, especially
when fresh, steamed, or quickly boiled.
2. It is a rich source of vitamin A, vitamin C, vitamin E, vitamin K, magnesium,
manganese, vitamin B2, calcium, potassium, vitamin B6, folic acid, copper, protein,
phosphorus, zinc, and omega-3 fatty acids.
3. Polyglutamyl folate (vitamin B9 or folic acid) is a vital constituent of cells, and
spinach is a good source of folic acid.
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Fig. 5.1: Spinach (Spinacia oleracea, L.)

B) Fodder:
In agriculture, fodder or animal feed is any foodstuff that is used specifically to feed
domesticated livestock such as cattle, goats, sheep, horses, chickens and pigs. It includes
hay, straw, silage, compressed and polluted feeds, oils and mixed rations, and also
sprouted grains and legumes. E.g. Alfalafa.
Common name: Alfalafa / Lucerne grass

Botanical name: Medicago sativa L.
Family: Fabaceae
Plant part used: stems and leaves.
The plant grows upto 1 metre. It has purple flowers. Like other legumes, its root
nodules contain bacteria, Sinorhizobium meliloti, with the ability to fix nitrogen.
Therefore, this plant is used as a rich source of dietary protein for the cattle.
 Uses:
1. Alfalfa is widely grown throughout the world as forage for cattle and is most often
harvested as hay, but can also be made into silage, grazed, or fed as green chop.
2. Its primary use is as feed for dairy cattle, and secondarily for beef cattle, horses,
sheep, and goats.
Fig. 5.2: Alfalfa (Medicago sativa, L.)
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C) Fiber:
It is a class of materials that are continuous filaments or are in discrete elongated
pieces, similar to lengths of thread. They are very important in the biology of both plants
and animals for holding tissues together. It is a soft, staple fiber that grows around the
seeds of the cotton plant. The fiber consists of nearly pure cellulose, a natural polymer.
The cellulose is arranged in a way that gives cotton fibers a high degree of strength,
durability, and absorbency. Each fiber is made up of twenty to thirty layers of cellulose
coiled in a neat series of natural springs. e.g. Cotton.
Common name: cotton

Botanical name: Gossypium hirsutum L.
Family: Malvaceae
Plant part used: fruits.
 Uses:
1. Cotton is used to make a number of textile products. These include terrycloth, used to
make highly absorbent bath towels and robes; denim, mattresses, etc.
2. It is also used in preparation of fishnets, coffee filters, tents gunpowder, cotton paper,
and in bookbinding.
Fig. 5.3: Cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.)
D) Medicine:
Plants containing secondary metabolites are considered as the active principles for
therapeutic uses. Every plant has medicinal value. From the ancient time, plants have
been utilized as the richest source of medicine by Ayurveda. These active compounds are
stored by the plants in various parts and they are synthesized at specific developmental
stage of the plant. E.g. Amla.
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Common name: Amla.

Botanical name: Emblica officinalis L. OR Phyllanthus emblica L.
Family: Phyllanthaceae
Plant part used: fruits.
Plant is a perennial, deciduous tree; grow up to 10-15 m. The branches bear two
regular rows of simple, stipulate leaves; pinnately compound with numerous leaflets. The
fruit is green at first changing to light yellow or brick red in colour. There is great
variation in size and taste of the raw fruit.
 Uses:
1. Key Active Constituents of fruit: Emblicanin A and B, Puniglucanin, Pedunculagin,
2-keto-gluconolactone (Vitamin-C equivalents), Ellagic acid, Hexahydroxy-diphenic
acid and conjugates.
2. The pulpy portion of fruit, dried and free from the nuts contains: Gallic acid, tannin,
sugar, gum, albumin, crude cellulose, mineral matter and moisture.
3. Its uses include as laxative, eye wash, appetite stimulant, restorative tonic and to treat
anorexia, indigestion, diarrhea, anemia and jaundice.
4. It is also used in the preparations of chyawanprash.
Fig. 5.4: Fruits of Amla (Emblica officinalis L.) and Amla juice
84
E) Horticulture:
Horticulture is part of plant agriculture which is concerned with the cultivation of
garden crops including fruits, vegetables, ornamental plants, spices, medicinal plants and
aromatic plants.
 Importance of fruits in human diet:
Human body requires vitamins, minerals, proteins, energy etc. for its health. All these
are supplied by horticultural crops. Fruits and vegetables are the chief sources of
vitamins, minerals, carbohydrates, fats, proteins etc. are recognized as protective
foods as they are necessary for the maintenance of human health. E.g. Mango, Guava.
 Entertainment:
Roaming in the gardens, orchards or places well planted with flowerbeds etc. gives
mental piece to the persons. One enjoys fresh air and natural beauty, sheds of tension
making him fresh. E.g. Rose, Gerbera, Carnation.
 Medicines:
The parts like stem, leaf, flowers, roots and even the fruits of horticulture plants are
used to make drugs, chemicals, insecticides, germicides etc. e.g. rose water is used to
cure eyes ailments. Similarly saffron is important ingredient of many medicines.
 Aesthetic value and religious importance:
Mango leaves, wood, banana leaves etc. are used for religious functions.
Fig. Amla (Emblica officinalis L.)
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85
Practical No. 06
Writing a botany field visit report
1. Concise:
For day trips, reports should be between 2-4 pages to allow for drawings and/or
graphics. For longer trips, more than 6-10 pages to include a more detailed
discussion.
2. Drawings and Photographs:
Drawings and photographs are encouraged. Drawings should be black ink or dark
pencil on white paper. Photographs should be simple in composition and with lots of
contrast (tonal range from very dark to very light).
3. Common Names:
Common names are variable and will depend on the dialect used in the plant‟s
location. Common names go first, with scientific names following in parentheses:
Basilan apitong (Dipterocarpus eurynchus).
4. Scientific Names:
Scientific names can be provided later if you are unsure as long as it is clear which
plant is being discussed. For unsure species, use Genus sp., for E.g., Musa sp. for an
unknown species of a member of the banana family. The genus should be capitalized;
the species is all lower case: Musa sapientum. Both should be italicized or underlined.
5. Groups Of Species:
For a number of species within a group, name the group at the beginning, then only
the individual name afterwards. In a single paragraph, the second citation of a genus
name should be abbreviated to its first letter followed by a period.
Ex. Dipterocarpus eurynchus, D. grandiflorus and D. hasseltii.
6. General Tips:
In addition to specific questions and directions provided by your instructor, reports
should include the location, date, and the reporter‟s name, address and telephone
and/or email address. You might also include weather, number of people present and
names. Record the name of your trip leader and classmates joining the trip. Include an
interesting story, observation, or interesting fact. We don't want a list of plants you
saw! Write about what you liked. Write about what other people did. Write about
86
relationships: between the plants, between plants and their habitat, between plants and
people.
The visit report to the forest can be written with the help of following points:
a. Acknowledgement, Index
b. Aim / purpose of the visit
c. Location / topography – latitude, longitude etc.
d. Soil types, pH, WHC etc.
e. Climatic conditions of the area – temperature, humidity, rainfall and other related
factors
f. Forest type, various storeys / levels of plants observed in the forest / area, mosaics of
the ecosystem
g. Phytodiversity of the area with different associations, ground flora, abundance of
species, food plants for butterflies and other animals
h. Threats to Mahabaleshwar (any) forest and environs, present scenario of the forest,
effects of disturbance etc.
i. Tourism – effects on forest / area, use of natural resources
j. Ways to control ill effects of tourism on forests
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87
Practical No. 07
Aim: To observe characteristic features of prokaryotic and Eukaryotic plant cell.
Only two types of cells that exist on Earth are Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
There are several differences between the two, but the biggest difference between them is
presence of distinct nucleus containing the cell's genetic material in eukaryotic cells,
whereas, prokaryotic cells don't have a nucleus and have free-floating genetic material.
No. Prokaryotic Cell Eukaryotic Cell

1 Pro means „old‟ and karyon means Eu means „new‟ and karyon means
„nucleus‟. This is a primitive cell „nucleus‟. This is complex and advanced
organization which is present in bacteria cell organization present in plants and
and blue green algae. animals.
2 Prokaryotic cells are smaller in size Eukaryotic cells are comparatively
(0.5–3 µ). larger in size (2-100 µ).
3 Always unicellular. Mostly multicellular.
4 Motility by grid rotating flagellum. Motility by flexible waving cilia or
flagella.
5 Cell wall is present and comprised of Usually cell wall is present in plant cells
peptidoglycan or mucopeptide and fungus and comprised of cellulose
(polysaccharide). (polysaccharide). In animals cell wall is
absent.
6 Respiratory enzymes present in cell Respiratory enzymes present in
membrane. mitochondria.
7 Well-defined nucleus is absent, rather A well-defined nucleus is present
'nucleoid' is present which is an open enclosed within nuclear memebrane.
region containing DNA.
8 Plasma membrane is simple. Plasma membrane is complex, made up
of lipid-protein-lipid layer.
9 Membrane bound cell organelles are Membrane bound cell organelles are
absent. Present and plays specific role.
10 Mitochondria absent. Mitochondria present.
11 Chloroplast absent or scattered in Chloroplast present in plant cell and
cyotoplasm. absent in animal cells.
12 Endoplasmic reticulum is absent. Endoplasmic reticulum is present.
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No. Prokaryotic Cell Eukaryotic Cell

13 Golgi apparatus is absent. Golgi apparatus is present.
14 Vacuoles are absent. Vacuoles are present.
15 Lysosomes and peroxisomes are absent. Lysosomes and peroxisomes are present.
16 Cytoskeleton is absent. Cytoskeleton is present.
17 DNA is circular, double stranded and DNA is linear, double stranded with
without histone proteins. histones and non-histones proteins to
construct chromatin (chromosomes).
18 Ribosome are small 70S type. Ribosomes are larger 80S type.
19 Cell division is simple by binary fission Cell division is complex and occurs by
(conjugation, transformation and meiosis and mitosis.
transduction).
20 Asexually reproduction is most Sexual reproduction is most common.
common.
21 Examples: Archaea, bacteria. Examples: Plants and animals.
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90
Practical No. 08
Aim: Study of various stages of mitosis by squash preparation method in onion root
tips.
Mitosis is a type of cell division which results in the formation of two daughter
cells. It is an equational division (chromosome are duplicated and distributed equally) in
which two daughter cells are formed. These cells are identical to the parent cells and have
the same number of chromosomes. Mitosis occurs in vegetative cells. Mitosis can be
observed in onion root tip by squash preparation method.
 Significance of mitosis:
1. It maintains qualitative and quantitative distribution of hereditary material into
daughter cells.
2. It maintains constancy of diploid number of chromosome in the species.
3. Mitosis results in growth and development of the organism.
4. Repair and replacement of dead cell is ensured by mitosis.
 Materials and methods:
 Plant material:
Fresh roots of Alium sepa (onion), should be collected during morning time (8 to 10
am). These root tips can be used directly or preserved in 1 part of acetic acid and 3
part of alcohol (for about 2 to 3 days).
 Chemicals:
1% acetocarmine, 1N HCl (Make the final volume of 100 ml by addition of 17 ml
concentrated HCl and distilled water) and 70% alcohol (70 ml absolute alcohol + 30
ml distilled water).
 Other requirement : microscope, slide, cover slip, watch glass, dropper, spirit lamp,
match box, blotting paper, needle, brush etc.
 Procedure for squash preparation:
1) Put the root tips in a mixture of one drop of 1N HCl and 9 drops of 2% acetocarmine
for1 min. (HCl treatment dissolves the middle lamella and cells get easily separated.
Besides, it allows better penetration of stain).
2) Wash the roots with distilled water at least for 2-3 times to remove the acid content.
3) Put the hydrolyzed root tips on the slide and add a drop of acetocarmine.
4) Cut the tip portion with sharp razor blade and discard remaining part. Tease the tip
portion with pin head.
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5) Warm the slide gently and put the coverslip on it. Invert the slide on a blotting paper
and apply uniform pressure on slide.
6) Observe the slide under microscope at low power and then at high power.
7) Observe the various stages of mitosis, and prepared the sketch for the stage observed
under microscope.
 Observations:
The slide can be observed for stages of mitosis mentioned below:
1. Prophase (Interphase, early prophase and late prophase)
2. Metaphase.
3. Anaphase
4. Telophase
5. Cytokinesis.
I] Interphase:
The following characteristics are seen.
1. This is a stage prior to actual mitotic cycle.
2. The cell appears to be inactive or in resting stage but is metabolically the most active.
DNA replication occurs during this period.
3. Nuclear membrane and nucleolus are very distinct.
4. Chromosomes are in the form of chromatin network and individual chromosomes
cannot be seen separately.
5. The chromosome appears double stranded i.e. made up of two chromatids.
II] Early prophase:
1. This is the first stage of mitosis which is observed under the microscope.
2. Nuclear membrane appears distinct.
3. Nucleolus is also seen clearly.
4. Chromosomes become coiled and shortened and more distinct.
III] Late prophase:
1. The nuclear membrane and nucleolus have partially or completely disappeared.
2. Each chromosome now begins to show chromatids, primary constriction,
secondary constriction and centromeres.
3. The equatorial region appears clearly in the center of the cell.
4. Chromosomes begin to move and gather near the equatorial plate.
5. Chromosomes are condensed and thus short and thick.
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6. Spindle fibers also begin to appear.
IV] Metaphase:
1) Nuclear membrane and nucleolus are disappeared (absent).
2) Centromeres of the chromosomes are arranged on equatorial plate and each is
attached to spindle fibers.
3) Centrioles are absent and hence aster is not formed in plant cells. This type of mitosis
is known as Anastral mitosis.
4) The spindle is made of fibers only. The absence of centrioles indicates that it is a
plant cell.
5) The chromosomes at metaphase are very distinct. Thus, number and morphology of
chromosome is studied at this stage. Each chromosome shows two chromatid
centromeres, primary constriction, euchromatic and heterochromatic regions,
chromomeres, etc.
V] Anaphase:
1. This stage is completed in a very small period of time.
2. The centromere of each chromosome gets split into two.
3. The chromosome also gets divided into two chromatids. Each chromatids now bears
one centromere.
4. The chromosome becomes shorter and thicker.
5. The separated chromatids are now pulled towards the opposite poles due to
contraction of spindle fibers.
6. During movement, each chromosome shows characteristic shape which is dependent
on the position of centromere.
VI] Telophase:
1. The chromosomes are present at both the poles of a parent cell.
2. The chromosomes increase in length and become thread-like. All the chromosomes
together form chromatin network and their individuality is now lost.
3. The groups of chromatin network at each are surrounded by nuclear membrane.
Nucleolus is also present.
4. Thus two fully formed nuclei, one at each pole are present in the parent cell.
5. Spindle fibers are absent.
VII] Cytokinesis:
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1. In this stage, cytoplasm divides into two. It results in the formation of two daughter
cells.
2. Division of the cytoplasm is due to formation of a cell plate in the equatorial region.
3. Cell plate formation begins in the centre of the cell and gradually progresses towards
the periphery.
4. This results in the formation of two daughter cells. Organelles are also present.
5. The number of chromosomes in each daughter cell is equal to the number present in
parent cell.
Fig.8.1: Various stages of mitosis

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94
Practical No. 09
Aim: Study of various stages of meiosis by smear preparation in Rhoeo or βcantia.

Meiosis is a reductional division that results in the formation of four haploid daughter
cell. Each cell has half the number of chromosomes to that of parent cell. The daughter
cells are genetically different from the parent cells. Meiosis is the characteristic of the
organism, which reproduces sexually. It retains the original number of the chromosomes
of sexually reproducing organism. Meiosis can be studied by smear preparation method.
 Materials and Methods:
 Plant material: Flower buds of Rhoeo (2n=12) or Tradescantia (2n = 12).
 Chemicals: 2% acetocarmine stain.
 Other requirement : microscope, slide, cover slip, watch glass, dropper, spirit lamp,
match box, blotting paper, needle, brush etc.
 Procedure for squash preparation:
1) Select a proper sized floral bud, put it on the slide and remove the floral parts with
needle so as to expose the white coloured anthers.
2) Put the anthers in a drop of 2% aceto-carmine and gently tap with a pin head to break
the anther wall and release the pollen mother cells (PMCs).
3) Put cover slips, remove the excess stain with a blotting paper, warm the slide on the
spirit lamp and uniformly press the slide.
4) Observe the slide under microscope, identify and sketch the different stages of
meiosis.
 Observations:
Following stages can be seen in different slides of meiosis:
Stages of Meiosis I:
A. Prophase I: stages of Prophase I = Leptotene, Zygotene, Pachytene, Diplotene,
Diakinesis.
B. Metaphase I
C. Anaphase I
D. Telophase I
Stages of Meiosis II:
A. Prophase II
B. Metaphase II
C. Anaphase II
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D. Telophase II
Stages of Meiosis I:
A. Prophase I: Prophase I can be observed into following stages:
I] Leptotene (Leptonema) of Prophase I:
The following characteristics are seen:
1. Nuclear membrane and nucleolus are intact.
2. Chromosomes are long thread-like structures. All the chromosomes are intertwined to
form chromatin network.
3. Chromosomes appear beaded due to chromomeres which are distinct at this stage.
4. All the chromosomes finally move towards one part of the nucleus. This stage is
known as synizesis or boquet formation.
5. Centrioles are not present. This indicates that it is a dividing plant cell.
II] Zygotene (Zygonena) of Prophase I:
1. Nuclear membrane and nucleolus are still very clear.
2. The major character of this stage is synapsis: pairing of homologous chromosomes.
3. Synaptonemal complex is formed as a result of synapsis. This complex is made of
two lateral elements and a central region which is bisected by a narrow central
component.
4. Synapsis can occur at more than on points along the length of the chromosome.
5. At each place a pair showing two chromatids is present.
III] Pachytene (Pachynema) of Prophase I:
1. Nucleolus and nuclear membrane arc distinct.
2. Chromosomes are thickened, coiled and thread-like.
3. Chromosomes are very closely coiled. Each chromosome shows its two chromatids.
A pair of homologous chromosomes which is intimately coiled upon one other shows
four chromatids together.
4. Pair of homologous chromosomes is called bivalent. It is made of four chromatids
and hence known as tetrad.
5. The stage is characterized by crossing over. It is the exchange of equal parts of
chromatids of two different but homologous chromosomes.
6. Nucleolus is distinctly attached to nucleolar organizing chromosome.
7. The length of the chromosome being more than that found at metaphase, the
chromosome at this stage is also used for the study of morphology.
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[IV] Diplotene (Diplonema) of Prophase I:
1. The nucleolus is disappearing while nuclear membrane is still intact.
2. The close and tight coiling of chromosomes becomes loose and chromosomes appear
more clear.
3. Homologous chromosomes still remain in contact at some points called chiasmata.
These are indicators of crossing over having been completed at these points.
4. Chromosomes shorten and thicken. These become still more distinct by the end of
this stage.
V] Diakinesis of Prophase I:
It shows following characters:
1. Nuclear membrane and nucleolus have completely disappeared.
2. Chromatids start separating, beginning from the centromeres towards the end. The
chiasmata thus open. This process is known as terminalization.
3. The chromosomes appear almost circular due to continued contraction.
4. Some of the pairs of homologous chromosomes still appear joined with one another.
B. Metaphase I:
The characters observed during Metaphase I are:
1. Nuclear membrane and nucleolus have completely disappeared.
2. Spindle formed by fibres is distinct.
3. Bivalents are arranged on the equatorial plate.
4. Each chromosome of a bivalent is attached to the spindle fibres by its centromeres.
5. Centromeres are arranged on both the sides of the equatorial region, almost at equal
distance.
C. Anaphase I:
The following are characteristics of this stage
1. Nuclear membrane and nucleolus are completely absent.
2. The chromosomes separate out of the pair of homologous chromosomes.
3. Spindle fibres contract and pull the centromeres along with the chromosome to
opposite poles.
4. This results in two haploid sets of chromosomes, one at each pole of the cell.
5. Each chromosome shows characteristic shape during movement.
D. Telophase I:
The stage shows following characteristics
1. Nuclear membrane and nucleolus have reappeared and are clearly seen.
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2. There are two nuclei one each at the poles of the cell.
3. Each daughter cell has half the number of chromosomes compared to the parent cell.
Chromosomes are thin and long. They are intermingled with one another to form a
network.
4. Spindle fibres arc totally absent.
Stages of Meiosis II:
A. Prophase II:
1. Nuclear membrane and nucleolus arc distinct in the early stages. In late prophase,
both these structures disappear gradually.
2. Chromosomes arc short and thick.
3. Each chromosome is made of two chromatids bound together by a centromeres.
4. The spindle fibres also begin to appear.
5. Chromosomes move towards the equatorial plate which is generally formed at right
angles to the plate formed during meiosis I.
B. Metaphase II:
It shows following characteristics
1. Nuclear membrane and nucleolus both are absent, having disappeared.
2. Spindle fibres are formed. These are organized into a spindle.
3. Spindle fibres are joined with centromeres of the chromosomes.
4. All the chromosomes are arranged on the. equatorial plate.
5. Each chromosome is made of two chromatids held together by centromeres.
C. Anaphase II:
This stage is characterized by the following
1. Nuclear membrane and nucleolus are absent.
2. Centromere that holds two chromatids splits. Each chromatid now has individual
centromeres.
3. Spindle fibers contract and each chromosome is now pulled to the opposite poles.
4. Chromatids (now called chromosomes) show characteristic shape during their
movement.
D. Telophase II:
The following are characteristic features of this stage:
1. Chromosomes are in the form of groups at each end of the parent cell.
2. Nuclear membrane reappears and surrounds the group of chromosomes. This results
in the formation of daughter nuclei at the opposite poles of the cells.
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3. Spindle fibers disappear completely.
Fig. 9.1: Various stages of meiosis.

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99
Practical No. 10
Aim: Estimation of Chlorophyll- 'a' and 'b' by spectrometric / calorimetric method

using suitable plant material.
 Principle:
Chlorophylls are the most important green pigments in plants for the photosynthetic
process. Higher plants contain Chl a, Chl b, accessory pigments and several additional
forms of chlorophyll. The Chl a and Chl b are the best known chlorophyll pigments most
commonly found in all autotrophic organisms except pigment containing bacteria. Both
Chl a and Chl b pigments are associated with light harvesting processes which are solely
responsible for photosynthesis in higher plants.
Chlorophyll concentration in leaves is an indicator of plant health. The
chlorophyll a:b ratio also indicates the developmental state of photosynthetic apparatus in
plants. It has a determinative role in growth and development of higher plants. The
chlorophyll content also indicates the photosynthetic capacity per unit area of the leaf that
determines the rate of photosynthesis in the plant.
Chlorophyll is extracted in 80% acetone and their absorbance at 663 nm and 645 nm
are read in a spectrophotometer /colorimeter. Using absorption coefficient, the amount of
chl a and chl b, as well as total chlorophyll content is calculated.
Requirements:
 Plant material: Fresh green plant material (e.g., spinach leaves).
 Chemicals: 80% chilled acetone and MgCO3.
 Instrument: UV-Visible Spectrophotometer or Colorimeter, Centrifuge.
 Miscellaneous: Mortar and pastel, glass tube, measuring cylinder, conical flask,
centrifuge tube, Whatman filter paper No.l, tube stand, Cuvette, black paper etc.
 Procedure:
The amount of chl 'a', chl 'b' and total chlorophyll is determined by the method
proposed by Anderson and Boardman (1964):
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1. Take known amount of fresh green plant material (1.0 gm) and wash the leaves
thoroughly with distilled water and blot them dry.
2. Then chopped and crush the material in mortar with pestle in presence of 5.0 ml 80%
acetone. Add a pinch of MgCO3 during homogenization to neutralize acids liberated
during crushing.
3. Filter the extract through Whatman filter paper No. 1 and collect the extract in
centrifuge tubes. Add 5.0 ml 80% acetone to the tube to make the final volume 10 ml.
4. Centrifuge the samples at 5000 rpm for 10 min. After centrifuge, collect the
supernatant in glass tube and discard the residue.
5. Make the final volume of each sample to 10 ml with the help of 80% acetone. Cover
the container of the solution with black paper for its protection against light.
6. Take the absorbance or Optical Density (O.D.) of the supernatant at 663 nm and 645
nm using UV-visible spectrophotometer or colorimeter.
7. To take the absorbance, set the wavelength at 663 nm and 645 nm on UV-visible
spectrophotometer or colorimeter.
8. Take 3 ml 80% acetone in a cuvette (as a blank) and adjust the reading to zero at 663
and 645 nm on spectrophotometer or colorimeter.
9. Then take the readings or absorbance of plant sample solutions at 663 and 645 nm for
chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b.
10. Note, if the sample reading go beyond 1, dilute the sample and take the absorbance.
Consider the dilution factor during calculation of chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, and
total chlorophyll content.
11. Express the value of chlorophyll „a‟, chlorophyll „b‟ and total chlorophyll content in
microgram / kilogram of fresh plant material.
 Calculations:
Amounts of chlorophyll 'a‟, chlorophyll 'b' and total chlorophyll are calculated
according to the following formulae:
Chl. 'a' (X) = (12.7 x OD at 663 nm) – (2.69 x OD at 645 nm) x V

W x 1000
Chl. 'b' (Y) = (22.9 x OD at 645 nm) – (4.68 x OD at 663 nm) x V

W x 1000
Total chl. (X + Y) = (22.9 x OD at 645 nm) – (4.68 x OD at 663 nm) x V

W x 1000
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Where,
OD = Optical density or absorbance.
V = Final volume of the supernatant in ml.
W = Fresh weight of the sample in gram.
 Results:
1. Chlorophyll “a” in given plant sample is =----------------
2. Chlorophyll “b” in given plant sample is =----------------
3. Total chlorophyll in given plant sample is =--------------
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102
Practical No. 11
Practical No. 11A – Plasmolysis experiment.
Aim: To study the process of Plasmolysis using suitable plant leaf peeling.
 Principle:
Passage of solvent molecules from the region of their higher concentration to the
region of their lower concentration through the semipermiable membrane, is called
Osmosis.
A cell when placed in a hypertonic solution (higher osmotic concentration), will lose
water by osmosis to the surrounding medium, is called as Exosmosis. Due to
exosmosis, shrinkage of protoplasm takes place.
A cell when placed in a hypotonic solution (lower osmotic concentration), will gain
water by osmosis from the surrounding medium, is called as Endosmosis. Due to
endosmosis, protoplasm becomes turgid.
When protoplast of the cell shrinks and recedes from the cell wall and will ultimately
comes to the center of the cell. This shrinkage of protoplasm from the cell wall due to
exosmosis by the influence of hypertonic solution is called Plasmolysis.
The stage at which the shrinkage of protoplasm begins from the cell wall is called
Incipient Plasmolysis.
The stage at which the shrinkage of protoplasm from the cell wall attains its highest
level, it is called as Evident Plasmolysis.
Plasmolysis is easily observed in the cells containing pigmented/coloured protoplast
since it can be visible under microscope.
 Requirements:
Plant Material: Fresh leaves of Tradescantia / Rhoeo OR any flower petals with
coloured sap.
Chemical: 1 Molar sucrose solution.
Miscellaneous: Microscopes, slides, coverslips, watch-glasses, blade, blotting paper,
beakers of 20 ml capacity.
 Procedure:
 A] Preparation of 1 M sucrose Stock solution:
1. Molar solution is the solution which contains gram moles of solutes in one liter of
solvent.
2. Molecular weight of sucrose is 342.2 g
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3. Therefore, for preparation of 1 Molar sucrose stock solution, dissolve 342.2 grams of
sucrose in distilled water and make the final volume to 1.0 liter.
4. This sucrose stock solution (1 M) will be used to prepare solutions of different molar
concentrations.
 B] Solutions preparation of different molar concentrations:

The sucrose solutions of different molar concentrations can be prepare by adding
appropriate quantity of sucrose stock solution (1 M) with proper volume of distilled
water as given below:
To prepare 100 ml final volume of different molar concentrations of sucrose
solutions following table should be used:
Sr. No. Concentration Volume of stock Volume of Final volume of

of sucrose solution to be distilled water to the sucrose
solution (M) taken (ml) be added solution
1 0.1 M 10 ml 90 ml
2 0.2 M 20 ml 80 ml
3 0.3 M 30 ml 70 ml 100 ml
4 0.4 M 40 ml 60 ml
5 0.5 M 50 ml 50 ml
The final volume of the solution may vary as per the requirement for the experiment.
The solutions should be prepare freshly and maintain in the conical flask or beaker
with cover.
 C] Study of Plasmolysis:
1. The lower surface of the leaf of Tradescantia or Rhoeo is violet coloured. The
epidermal cells contain coloured sap / protoplasm. Peel out a thin strip of size of 2
mm from the lower surface of leaf and observe under microscope. Note the turgid
cells with coloured cell sap.
2. Now add a 0.1 M sucrose solution through the sides of the cover slip. Follow the same
procedure for other molar concentrations.
3. After a few minutes, observe the slides under microscope and note down the effect of
the variable molar concentrations of sucrose solutions on the cell sap in terms of
shrinkage of coloured protoplasm from the cell wall.
4. Record the number of plasmolysed cells in each solution and calculate the percentage
of plasmolysed cells. Record the readings in following observation table.
5. The molar sucrose solution, in which more than 50% cells becomes plasmolysed, is
considered as hypertonic solution.
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Observation Table:
Sr. Concentration Total number Number of cells Percentage of
No. of sucrose of cells in field plasmolysed plasmolysed
solution (M) of vision cells
1 0.1 M
2 0.2 M
3 0.3 M
4 0.4 M
5 0.5 M
Result: Plasmolysis takes place at ---------- M sucrose solution.
Fig. 11.1: Process of plasmolysis in Rhoeo leaf.
Fig. 11.1.1: Diagramatic representation of plasmolysis
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Practical No. 11B – Curling experiment.
Aim: To demonstrate the phenomenon of tissue - tension caused due to osmosis by

using Arum Petiole.
 Principle:
The movement of solvent (water) molecules from a solution of higher water potential
(hypotonic solution) to the solution of lower water potential (hypertonic solution),
through the semipermiable membrane, is called Osmosis. Alternatively, it is a special
type of diffusion of water molecules through selectively permeable membrane.
The osmosis as a process is very important to the plant in the entry of water
through root hairs; distribution of water across the cell; turgidity of cell; opening and
closing of stoma etc.
 A cell/tissue when placed in a hypertonic solution (higher osmotic concentration), will
lose water by osmosis to the surrounding medium, is called as Exosmosis. Due to
exosmosis (water loss from the cell), shrinkage of protoplasm occurs and tissue
tension decreases. It results into no curling.
 A cell/tissue when placed in a hypotonic solution (lower osmotic concentration), will
gain water by osmosis from the surrounding medium, is called as Endosmosis. Due to
endosmosis (water gain by the cell), protoplasm becomes turgid and tissue tension
increases. It results into curling.
The magnitude of osmotic forces in plant cells and tissues can be estimated in
terms of solute potential (ΨS), which was formerly termed as „Osmotic Pressure‟. The
solute potential is expressed in bars with a negative sign.
 Requirements:
Plant Material: Fresh petiole of Arum leaf.
Chemical: 0.5 Molar sucrose solution.
Miscellaneous: Petriplates, sharp razor blade, distilled water, measuring cylinder.
 Procedure:
1. Take equal quantity (15 ml) of distilled water and 0.5 M sucrose solution in two
petriplates and label them.
2. Take, equal sized (4-5 cm length) two pieces of Arum petiole.
3. At the each end of both the pieces of petiole, make two vertical splits (cuts) of
about 1 cm length at right angles to each other by using sharp razor blade.
106
4. Place the two petiole pieces separately in each solution for 30 min., and observe
the changes in the split end portion of each piece.
Fig.11.2.1: Curling due to increase in Fig. 11.2.2: No curling due to decrease in

tissue tension caused by endosmosis tissue tension caused by exosmosis
 Observations:
1. In Distilled water:
The split parts or cut ends of petiole shows outward curling / spreading
of tissues due to formation of tissue tension. This is because, at the cut ends, the
inner cells absorb more water and become more turgid than the outer cells due to
endosmosis.
2. In 0.5 M sucrose solution:
The split parts or cut ends of petiole shows No curling / closing of tissues
due to loss of tissue tension. This is because, at the cut ends, the inner cells lost
more water and becomes flaccid due to exosmosis.
Conclusion:
Curling takes places in Arum leaf due to increase in tissue tension caused by
endosmosis.
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Practical No. 12
Aim: Isolation of genomic DNA from given plant material.

Principle: The mechanical breaking of the cells and the denaturation of the proteins
using SDS, urea, EDTA and phenol leads to the separation of nucleic acids from
proteins, polysaccharides etc. The DNA is precipitated using sodium acetate and
ethanol.
 Requirements:
 Plant material: Fresh healthy, tissue of cauliflower.
 Instruments: Cooling centrifuge, hot water bath, micropipette set, refrigerator, UV-
visible spectrophotometer.
 Chemicals:
1. Urea buffer: 8.0M urea, 0.35M NaCl, 0.05M Tris-HCl pH 7.5, 0.02M EDTA.
2. 20% SDS solution.
3. Tris saturated phenol: The distilled phenol is equilibrated with 1.0m Tris-HCl (pH
8.0) for 24 hrs and then store under 0.1M Tris-HCl (pH 8.0) in a brown bottle at
4OC.
4. Extraction buffer: To 85ml of urea buffer add 10ml of 20% SDS solution and 5ml of
Tris-saturated phenol.
5. Phenol-chloroform solution: To 3 parts of Tris-saturated phenol add 1 part of
Chloroform: Isoamyl alcohol (24:1). Prepare fresh.
6. TE buffer (Tris-EDTA buffer): 10mM Tris-HCl pH 8.0 + 1.0 mM EDTA.
7. 3.0M sodium acetate (pH 7.0 with glacial acetic acid).
 Preparation of chemicals:
1. Urea buffer: 200ml
1.0 M Urea : 96g
0.35 M NaCl : 4g 0.05M
Tris : 1.21g
20mM EDTA : 1.488g
Weigh and dissolve in 100ml DW. Adjust the volume 190ml with DW. Set the
pH 7.5 with concentrated HCl and then raise the volume to 200ml with DW.
2. 20% SDS: 5g SDS in 25ml DW.
3. TE buffer: 200ml
Dissolve 242mg Tris and 80mg EDTA in 190ml DW. Adjust the pH 8.0 with
con. HCl and then raise the volume to 200ml with DW.
108
4. 3M sodium acetate solution: 100ml
Dissolve 12.3g Sodium Acetate in 90ml DW. Adjust pH 7.0 with glacial acetic
acid and then make the final volume 100ml with DW.
5. Extraction buffer: 200ml
Mix 170 ml urea buffer, 20ml SDS and 10ml phenol solution equilibrated with
Tris buffer.
6. Chloroform: Isoamyl Alcohol Solution.
Mix 48ml of chloroform with 2ml of Isoamyl alcohol.
7. Phenol chloroform solution:
Mix 30ml of phenol solution equilibrated with Tris-buffer and 10ml of solution 6.
 Procedure for extraction of DNA:
1. Homogenize 1g of the plant material (cauliflower heads) in 8ml of the extraction
buffer. (Caution: handle carefully since the buffer contains Phenol.)
O
2. Stir gently and incubate at 65 C for 15 min.
3. To this, add equal volume of Phenol-Chloroform solution to remove proteins and
the pigments. Separate the phases by centrifuging at 4000 rpm for 15 min.
4. Remove upper aqueous phase and add equal volume of chloroform: isoamyl alcohol
mixture to it.
5. Separate the phases by centrifuging at 4000 rpm for 15 min.
6. Transfer the upper aqueous phase to another pre-chilled tube and keep it on ice-bath.
7. To this solution add 1/10th volume of 3M sodium acetate pH 7.0 and two volumes
of ethanol to precipitate the DNA.
8. Spool the DNA with a glass rod. Wash once with 70% ethanol, dry at room
temperature by inverting the tube containing the DNA.
9. Dissolve the pellet in a small volume of TE buffer.
10. Determine the quality and quantity of the DNA in a given sample with suitable
method.
 Estimation of DNA by diphenylamine method:
There are number of convenient calorimetric methods for the quantitative
estimation of nucleic acids. These methods are based on the formation of colour
products by nucleic acids with specific reagents. E.g. under acidic medium,
deoxyribose sugar in DNA reacts with diphenylamine to produce deep blue colour
while in the presence of hot acid, ribose sugar in RNA produces a green colour with
orcinol. The intensity of the colour formation depends on contents of nucleic acids,
which can be determined colorimetrically for the quantitative estimation of nucleic
acids.
109
 Principle:
DNA treated with diphenylamine under acidic conditions develops a
characteristic blue colour (a blue compound is formed in acidic solution;
deoxypentose is converted to highly reactive hydroxyl evulinyl aldehyde which
reacts with diphenylamine to give a blue complex). The absorbance is read at 595 nm
against blank and the content of DNA is determined with the help of the standard
curve.
 Requirements:
 Chemicals: Standard D.N.A.(Calf Thymus D.N.A or any other), Saline citrate
(0.15 M NaCl + 0.015 M tri-sodium citrate solution), Diphenylamine reagent (5 g
diphenylamine powder + 500 ml glacial acetic acid +13.75 ml of conc. H2S04)
 Glassware: Test tubes, beakers, glass rod, conical flask, measuring cylinders.
 Instruments: Spectrophotometer/colorimeter (595nm)
 Other requirements: Graph paper
 Procedure:
1. Dissolve 50 mg of standard DNA in 100 ml of standard saline citrate (0.5 mg
DNA/ml).
2. Take 1 ml, 2 ml and 3 ml of standard DNA solution in 3 test tubes respectively.
Add 2 ml, 1 ml and 0 ml of distilled water in the test tubes respectively to make
the total volume 3 ml. Prepare a separate blank of 3 ml distilled water.
3. Add 6 ml of diphenylamine reagent to each test tube, heat the test tubes in boiling
water bath for 10 minutes. Blue colour develops.
4. Read the absorbance of blue solution at 595 nm against the blank.
5. Plot a graph of the quantity of standard DNA (X-axis) and the absorbance (Y-
axis).
6. Take the DNA isolated from plant tissues. Dissolve in standard saline citrate.
Take I ml, 2 ml and 3 ml of the sample. Follow the same procedure as given
above. Read the absorbance for the unknown samples. Plot the readings on the
graph. Extrapolate and find the conc. of DNA in the samples.
 DNA Quantification and Quality Analysis
After isolation of DNA, quantification and analysis of quality are necessary to
ascertain the approximate quantity of DNA obtained and the suitability of DNA
sample for further analysis. This is important for many applications including
digestion of DNA by restriction enzymes or PCR amplification of target DNA. The
most commonly used methodologies for quantifying the amount of nucleic acid in a
110
preparation are: (i) gel electrophoresis; and (ii) spectrophotometric analysis. If the
sample amount is less, the former method is usually preferred.
A) Agarose Gel Electrophoresis for DNA Quantification and Quality Analysis:
This method of quantification is based on the ethidium bromide fluorescent
staining of DNA. Ethidium bromide is a fluorescent dye, which intercalates between
the stacked bases. The fluorescent yield of the dye:DNA complex is much greater than
the unbound dye. UV irradiation at 254 nm is absorbed by the DNA and transmitted to
the dye and the bound dye itself absorbs radiation at 302 nm and 366 nm. This energy
is retransmitted at 590 nm, the reddish-orange region of the visible spectrum.
In case of plant genomic DNA; the nucleic acids are electrophoretically separated
on a 0.7-0.8% agarose gel containing ethidium bromide at a final concentration of 0.5
g /ml. The quantity of DNA can be estimated by comparing the fluorescent yield of
the samples with a series of standards, for instance, lambda (λ) DNA at varying
known concentrations. This provides a very rapid and sensitive means of estimating
the nucleic acid concentration. A large number of samples with as little as 1-5ng of
DNA can be quantified. Besides quantification, it also provides the advantage of
analyzing the quality of the DNA preparation. Native DNA, which migrates as a tight
band of high molecular weight ( 40 kb), presence of RNA, and degraded/sheared
DNA, if any, can be visually identified on the gel.
 Procedure
1. Prepare a 0.8% agarose gel.
2. Add 1 µl of 6X gel loading dye to 2-3 µl of each DNA sample before loading the
wells of the gel. Addition of dye allows us to note the extent to which the samples
might have migrated during electrophoresis, so that it can be halted at an appropriate
stage.
3. Load at least 1 or 2 wells with uncut, good quality DNA or any previously
quantified DNA samples (50ng and 100ng) as molecular weight standards.
4. Run the submarine electrophoretic gel at 70V till the dye has migrated one-third of
the distance in the gel.
5. DNA can be visualized using a UV trans-illuminator and quantified in comparison
with the fluorescent yield of the standards.
B) Spectrophotometric Determination:
Analysis of UV absorption by the nucleotides provides a simple and accurate
estimation of the concentration of nucleic acids in a sample. Purines and pyrmidines
in nucleic acid show absorption maxima around 260nm (eg. dATP: 259nm; dCTP:
272nm; dTTP: 247nm) if the DNA sample is pure without significant contamination
111
from proteins or organic solvents. The ratio of OD260/OD280 should be determined to
assess the purity of the sample. This method is however limited by the quantity of
DNA and the purity of the preparation. Accurate analysis of the DNA preparation may
be impeded by the presence of impurities in the sample or if the amount of DNA is
too little. In the estimation of total genomic DNA, for example, the presence of RNA,
sheared DNA etc. could interfere with the accurate estimation of total high molecular
weight genomic DNA.
 Procedure
a. Take 1 ml TE buffer in a cuvette and calibrate the spectrophotometer at 260nm
as well as 280nm.
b. Add 10 µl of each DNA sample to 990µl TE (Tris-EDTA buffer) and mix well.
c. Use TE buffer as a blank in the other cuvette of the spectrophotometer.
d. Note the OD260 and OD280 values on spectrophotometer.
e. Calculate the OD260/OD280 ratio.
Comments:
i. A ratio between1.8-2.0 denotes that the absorption in the UV range is due to
nucleic acids.
ii. A ratio lower than 1.8 indicates the presence of proteins and/or other UV
absorbers.
iii. A ratio higher than 2.0 indicates that the samples may be contaminated with
chloroform or phenol. In either case (<1.8 or >2.0) it is advisable to re-
precipitate the DNA.
f. The amount of DNA can be quantified using the formula:
DNA concentration (µg/ml) = OD260 x 100 (dilution factor) x 50 µg/ml
1000
Spectrophotometric Conversions for Nucleic Acids:
1 A 260 of ds DNA = 50 µg/ml
1 A 260 of ss oligonucleotides = 33 µg/ml
1 A 260 of ss RNA = 40 µg/ml

112

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Practical No.

Aim: Study of life cycle of Spirogyra

External Features and Cell Structure:

Identification and Systematic Position:

Fig. 1.2 Spirogyra: A to D Stages in Scalariform Conjugation.

Fig. 1.3: Lateral Conjugation in Spirogyra: A-C Indirect lateral Conjugation

Aim: Study of Life Cycle of Agaricus.

Fig. 2.1: Agaricus: A) Monokaryotic hypa (Mycelium), B) Dikaryotic hypa, and

Fig. 2.3: Agaricus: Structure of gill, A) Vertical Section of gill,

Aim: Study of Life Cycle of Riccia.

Fig. 3.1: Riccia thallus RHIZOIDS

Fig. 3.2: Riccia V.S. of Thallus

Fig. 3.3: Riccia A. Antheridium in Antheridial Chamber, B. Single Antheridium &

Fig. 3.4: Riccia V.T. S. Structure of Mature Sporophyte.

Aim: Study of Forms of Lichens: Crustose, Foliose and Fruiticose.

Fig. 4.1: Crustose Lichen Fig. 4.1: Foliose Lichen

Fig. 4.3: Fruticose Lichen.

Aim: To cultivate edible mushrooms like oyster mushrooms.

1. Preparation of pure culture of Pleurotus:

Fig. 5.1: Spawn of Mushroom

Fig.5.2: Emerging Fruiting Bodies of Pleurotus Mushroom

Aim: Writing a botany field visit report.

Aim: To study the Inflorescence.

Racemose Inflorescence Simple Raceme Spike

Fig. 7.2 Spike Fig. 7.3 Spadix

Fig. 7.4 Catkin

Fig. 7.5. A: Simple Umbel Fig. 7.5. B: Compound Umbel

Fig.7.6.A: Entire Head or capitulum inflorescence, B: V.S. through Inflorescence

Fig.7.7: Solitary Cyme Fig. 7.8: Uniparous Cyme

Fig.7.9: Monochasial Helicoid Fig.7.10: Monochasial Scorpioid

Fig.7.11: Simple dichasium (Biparous) Fig.7.12: Compound dichasium

Fig. 7.13: Polychasial Cyme (multiparous)

Fig. 7.14: Cyathium Fig. 7.15: Verticilliaster

Fig. 7.16: Hypanthodium

STUDY OF FLOWER (PART-I)

Fig.8.1.1: Structure of typical Flower

Fig. 8.1.3: Forms of Corolla

Fig. 8.1.4: Symmetry of Flower- (A ) Actinomorphic (,B) Zygomorphic and

STUDY OF FLOWER (PART-II)

2. Gynoecium: (Fig. 8.2.4)

Fig. 8.2.1: Cohesion of stamens: (A) Monoadelphous, (B) Diadelphous,

Fig. 8.2.2: Position of Staminal whorl with reference to Petals:

Fig.8.2.3: Attachment of Filament to Anther

Fig. 8.2.4: Structure of typical Carpel

Fig. 8.2.6: Placentation: One to Five Chambered Ovaries

Fig. 9.1: Achene Fig. 9.2: Cypsela Fig. 9.3: Legume

Fig. 9.9: Sorosis of jackfruit Fig. 9.10: Syconus of Anjeer

T.S. of Young Dicot Root:

Fig. 10.1: T.S. of Dicot Root (Sunflower)

Fig. 10.2: T.S. of Dicot Stem T.S. of Dicot Stem (A sector

Aim: Study of internal primary structure of Monocotyledonous root and stem.

Fig. 11.1: T.S. of Monocot Root (Maize)

Fig. 11: T.S. of Monocot stem (Maize)

Aim: Study of internal primary structure of dicotyledonous and monocotyledonous

T. S. of Young Dicot Leaf:

C. Monocot leaf (Maize)

Fig. 12.1: T. S. of Dicot Leaf (Sunflower)

Fig. 12.2: T.S. of Monocot Leaf (Maize)

Aim: Study of Nephrolepis (Sword Fern)