TM30 - Improved Life Cycle Performance of MV Systems (2003)

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Improved life cycle performance
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of mechanical ventilation systems
The Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers

222 Balham High Road, London SW12 9BS
CIBSE TM30: 2003
+44 (0) 20 8675 5211
www.cibse.org
Improved life cycle performance
of mechanical ventilation systems
CIBSE TM30: 2003
The Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers

222 Balham High Road, London SW12 9BS
The rights of publication or translation are reserved.
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retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means
without the prior permission of the Institution.
©February 2003 The Chartered Institution of Building Services
Engineers London
Registered charity number 278104
ISBN 1 903287 36 7
This document is based on the best knowledge available at the

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Note from the publisher:

This publication is primarily intended to provide guidance to
those responsible for the design, installation, commissioning,
operation and maintenance of building services. It is not
intended to be exhaustive or definitive and it will be necessary
for users of the guidance given to exercise their own
professional judgement when deciding whether to abide by or
depart from it.
Layout and typesetting by CIBSE Publications
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Foreword
This publication reports the results of a Partners in Innovation project that explored ways
of improving the life cycle performance of mechanical ventilation systems. The work was
based on a range of desk analyses, case studies and laboratory measurements. The results
suggest that there are significant opportunities to reduce whole life cost through revised
design criteria and alternative equipment selections.
Performance standards for air conditioning and mechanical ventilation systems have been
introduced with the 2002 edition of the Approved Documents of Part L of the Building
Regulations. This document demonstrates how the required levels of ventilation system
performance can be achieved and, indeed, bettered. Such improvements can be taken in
terms of reduced energy costs and associated carbon emissions, or can be used to trade off
with other aspects of the building design whilst still achieving reasonable overall
performance.
Steve Irving
Chairman, TM30 Task Group
Acknowledgements
The work leading to the production of this publication was carried out as a Partners in
Innovation project co-ordinated by Faber Maunsell. The funding provided by the DTI is
gratefully acknowledged. The contributions of the other project partners are also
gratefully acknowledged.
The project partners were as follows: Faber Maunsell Ltd, Building Research
Establishment Ltd, CIBSE, Flakt Woods Ltd, Gilberts (Blackpool) Ltd, Hotchkiss
Ductwork Ltd, Brook Crompton, Meica Services Ltd, NG Bailey & Co. Ltd, TermoDeck
Ltd, Trox (UK) Ltd, Sheppard Robson.
The authors thank the CIBSE referees for their thorough review of the draft document
and gratefully acknowledge the constructive comments that they made.
This document is published with the consent of the Department of Trade and Industry,
but the views expressed are not necessarily accepted or endorsed by the Department.
TM30 Task Group

S Irving (Faber Maunsell Ltd) (chairman)
D Braham (Termodeck)
D Butler (Building Research Establishment Ltd)
H Davies (CIBSE)
P Grigg (Building Research Establishment Ltd)
G Henderson (on behalf of DTI)
D Henighan (Brook Crompton)
R Keenan (Sheppard Robson)
I Kinghorn (Flakt Woods Ltd)
S Law (Faber Maunsell Ltd)
J Mawdsley (Gilberts (Blackpool) Ltd)
C Palfrey (Trox (UK) Ltd)
K Richardson (Hotchkiss Ductwork Ltd)
K Sargeant (NG Bailey & Co. Ltd)
K Shenstone (Meica Services Ltd)
G Smith (Flakt Woods Ltd)
F Tarada (Trox (UK) Ltd)
A Wilson (Faber Maunsell Ltd)
Principal authors
S Irving (Faber Maunsell Ltd)
S Law (Faber Maunsell Ltd)
Editor
Ken Butcher
CIBSE Editorial Manager

Ken Butcher
CIBSE Research Manager

Hywel Davies
CIBSE Publishing Manager

Jacqueline Balian
Note from the publisher

This publication is primarily intended to provide guidance to those responsible for the
design, installation, commissioning, operation and maintenance of building services. It is
not intended to be exhaustive or definitive and it will be necessary for users of the guidance
given to exercise their own professional judgement when deciding whether to abide by or
depart from it.
Contents
1 Introduction 1
1.1 General 1
1.2 Drivers for whole-life costing 2
1.3 Elements of whole-life cost 2
2 Design issues 7
2.1 Specific fan power 7
2.2 Filtration standards 7
2.3 Silencer performance 7
2.4 Heat recovery 8
2.5 Air handling unit (AHU) 8
2.6 Duct sizing 8
2.7 Duct leakage 9
3 Whole-life cost impact of system components 9

3.1 Ductwork 9
3.2 Ductwork components 13
3.3 Air handling unit 14
3.4 Heat recovery 17
4 Design checklist 19
4.1 Design sequence 19
4.2 Detailed design checklist 19
References 20
Appendix A1: Worked example using spreadsheet tool 21
Appendix A2: Basis of ‘T-method’ of duct sizing 24
Index 26
1
Improved life cycle performance of mechanical

ventilation systems
is implicit that the projected costs are to achieve defined levels
1 Introduction of performance, including reliability, safety and availability.’
Whole-life costing involves an analysis of trade-off. It

1.1 General seeks to optimise the balance between changes in initial
costs and operating costs over the working life of the
This publication reviews the opportunities for reducing system. There is no universal answer as to where the
the whole-life cost (WLC) of mechanical ventilation optimum design solution lies. The solution giving mini-
systems through better design and specification. It mum whole-life cost will vary depending on the layout of
reviews the elements that contribute to the whole-life cost, the ventilation system, space constraints, operating hours
and discusses the relative impact of these aspects of the and the prevailing energy prices.
design, and the way their importance might change over
time. An important part of the publication is a method- Simple pay back period* has often been used as a means of
ology for assessing whole-life cost, which attempts to assessing the cost effectiveness of an investment in
address all the issues in a systematic way, and to identify building services equipment. Whole-life costing is differ-
the interactions between elements of the whole-life cost. ent in that it recognises the time value of money and
therefore discounts future costs and benefits back to the
Although this document concentrates on mechanical present (the net present value). It also tends to be more
ventilation, other strategies are available and in some comprehensive in its approach by including in the pro-
situations may offer a more cost-effective solution. CIBSE jected cost flows such items as future replacement costs
Guide B2(1) gives guidance on how to select the most and residual values or liabilities at the end of the service
appropriate ventilation strategy. life.
The systems considered in this document incorporate an 1.1.2 Contents of TM30

air handling unit (pre-heater, pre- and main filter,
optional heat recovery, heater and cooler batteries, supply This first section considers general issues, with section 2
and extract fans and silencers), plus supply and extract exploring in more detail the design issues that have to be
ductwork systems. Figure 1 illustrates the type of air addressed. Section 3 considers how alternative selections
handling unit considered. can be assembled into an overall system design that can
minimise the life-time cost of ownership and operation.
Although this publication describes an approach to design
that may not be familiar to all, it is felt that adoption of As the document proceeds, the detail becomes greater and
these techniques will not add significantly to design costs more specialised. Section 1 should be relevant and under-
(other than, perhaps, during initial familiarisation with standable by all members of the design team — client,
the methods). The approach to design will perhaps be architect, cost consultant, facilities manager as well as the
different, but total design effort should be similar, with a engineering designer, the installing contractor and the
better end-product for the client. equipment manufacturers. Section 2 covers general design
issues and introduces some of the topics that are treated in
1.1.1 Whole-life costing considerable detail in section 3. As such, section 2 may be
of wider interest, but section 3 is very much targeted at the
specialist. Section 2 reviews many of the trade-offs that
Whole-life costing is defined(2) as:
have to be considered by the design team and client.
‘… an economic assessment considering all agreed projected Reducing energy demand and cost is mainly achieved
significant and relevant cost flows over a period of analysis
expressed in monetary value. It can be defined as the present * The increase in the capital cost of a more efficient component divided by
value of the total cost of an asset over the period of analysis. It the savings in its operating cost, both relative to a reference component.
+ + –
Figure 1 Schematic of typical air

handling unit
2 Improved life cycle performance of mechanical ventilation systems
through larger and more expensive components. The final proportions of carbon emissions for a standard air-
selection will be influenced by the constraints of the conditioned office building. It shows that the carbon
particular design, and such issues as the way operating emissions from fans and pumps are second only to those
costs are split between the developer and tenant. for heating and hot water in this type of building. As by
far the greater proportion of this element is from
Section 4 is a design checklist outlining a general mechanical ventilation, any improvements in the energy
approach to achieving a system design with minimum demand for ventilation can have a significant impact on
whole-life cost. Although intended mainly for the engine- overall emissions. Such improvement will have an even
ering designer, it highlights the issues that need to be greater impact on operating costs, since fans and pumps
discussed with the other design team members as part of represent the single largest annual energy cost of all the
an integrated approach. end uses in an air conditioned building.
A consequence of the government’s commitment to

1.2 Drivers for whole-life costing whole-life costing is the increased use of private finance
initiatives (PFIs) as a means of procurement. This process
Over recent years, there has been an increased drive to requires the PFI contractor to have robust tools whereby
consider whole-life costing as the basis of design(3). whole-life cost can be evaluated and, equally importantly,
Indeed, it is now a requirement of public sector whereby the sensitivity of the whole-life cost to variations
purchasers that they move to whole-life cost based in the individual cost elements can be assessed. Another
procurement(4). The government’s main policy drivers for important aspect of testing sensitivity is to understand
the construction industry are generating this impetus for how potential changes in the use of the building might
whole-life costing. impact on the relative whole-life cost ranking of different
— Current industry improvement initiatives(5) aim to design and specification choices.
improve the quality/cost ratio of UK construction
in a way that respects the interests of all the Another important aspect is the requirements of the 2002
stakeholders on both the demand and supply side edition of Part L of the Building Regulations(7). For the
of the procurement process. Whole-life costing is a first time, this lays down requirements for air condition-
process whereby the true asset-value can be ing and mechanical ventilation systems. Approved
assessed over its service life, and where judge- Document L2(8) provides the designer with guidance on
ments are not distorted by a short-term view about how to achieve an appropriate overall performance
reducing initial capital cost. standard through balancing the efficiency of the building
envelope, the cooling equipment, the mechanical venti-
— Sustainable construction incorporates the need for lation system and the control strategy. Achieving a cost-
a profitable and competitive industry as part of its effective improvement in ventilation system efficiency
wider perspective, but also recognises the impor- allows the design team the opportunity to take this as a
tant impact of construction on the environment benefit in overall performance, or if there are difficult site-
and the wider needs of society. Mechanical specific circumstances, to enable a relaxation in the
ventilation has an important impact on these performance of other elements of the design while still
wider strands of the sustainability agenda. achieving a satisfactory overall performance.
Effective ventilation is needed to provide appro-
priate amounts of outside air to ensure reasonable
health and comfort for building occupants. In 1.3 Elements of whole-life cost
achieving this objective, mechanical ventilation
can consume a significant proportion of the
building’s energy budget. In this section, the individual elements that make up the
life cycle cost of a mechanical ventilation system are
reviewed, and the inter-relationships between the
Figure 2, based on data in Energy Consumption Guide
elements discussed.
ECON19: Energy use in offices(6), shows the relative
10
1.3.1 Capital costs
9 Heating
Carbon emissions / kg(C)·m–2 per annum
Cooling Initial capital costs are traditionally the only element

8 considered by the design team when assessing the
Fans and pumps
appropriateness of a design. This is often the consequence
7 Lighting of the split responsibility between ownership and tenancy,
6 Office equipment where one organisation is responsible for financing
construction and another meets the cost of operating the
5 building. However, the implementation of the forth-
coming European Directive on the energy performance of
4
buildings will increasingly make the tenant aware of the
3 relative operating costs of different properties available on
the market. The Directive requires that: ‘when buildings
2 are constructed, sold or rented out, an energy performance
certificate is made available by the owner to the
1
prospective buyer or tenant’. This will raise the level of
0 awareness of energy costs. Figure 3 indicates that for a
Typical Good practice range of systems examined (see Table 1), over a typical 15-
Figure 2 Carbon emissions from office buildings year life of an air-handling system, the discounted energy
Introduction 3
Ductwork AHU Energy 1.3.2 Service life and replacement costs

100
Even in the limited perspective of construction costs, the
Percentage of total capital and
whole-life energy costs / %
80 capital cost of the plant is only half of the story. Capital

cost should always be considered in tandem with expected
service life costs of the components. Typical data for the
60 service life of fans and ductwork is given in the CIBSE’s
Guide to ownership, operation and maintenance of building
40 services(10). More detailed information is available in the
Building Services Component Life Manual(11). This includes
20
information on the operational factors that can influence
anticipated service life.
0 If the service life of the equipment (or component) is
AHU AHU AHU AHU AHU AHU AHU AHU AHU AHU
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 greater than the required life of the installation, then there
Figure 3 Breakdown of capital cost and whole-life energy cost for a
will be a residual asset value at the end of the life of the
number of case study systems installation that is unlikely to be realisable, and so the
asset will be scrapped. That does not mean that such a
Table 1 Schedule of case study systems scenario is necessarily inappropriate since coupled with
Reference Flowrate Static pressure that longer service life may be a higher level of operating
(Figure 3) / m3·s–1 / Pa efficiency that may more than pay for itself through
AHU 1 0.67 282 reduced running cost or reduced maintenance require-
AHU 2 3.71 495 ments.
AHU 3 0.82 290
AHU 4 8.98 420 Conversely, if the service life is less than the required life
AHU 5 10.07 425
of the installation, then the cost of replacement needs to
AHU 6 10.56 529 be factored into the analysis. Such replacement costs need
AHU 7 22.80 756 to account not just for the purchase and installation costs
AHU 8 21.80 600 of replacement equipment, but also the cost of any
disruption to the use of the building whilst the work is
AHU 9 3.10 175
AHU 10 3.10 208
being carried out. It is not an unknown outcome that by
AHU 11 3.00 197 designing down to a budget and ‘shoehorning’ equipment
AHU 12 3.00 197 into a small plant room, the ease of implementation of
future replacements (as well as on-going routine main-
cost is typically about 40% of the life cycle cost. The tenance) can be severely compromised.
capital cost is split approximately two to one between the
ductwork and the air handling unit (AHU). Related to the issues of service life and the life of the
installation is the concept of ‘ensured life’. This recognises
Bearing in mind that the real operating cost of the system that the service life of a piece of equipment represents
is greater than that shown in Figure 3 (because main- some form of average or typical life. In cases where
tenance has not been included), the traditional emphasis replacement costs are high, ensured life may be more
on capital cost is perhaps disproportionate. The figure also important in order to improve the level of confidence that
suggests that, since the AHU cost is typically about 20% of the component will not fail before the whole installation
the life cycle cost but often represents the greater has completed its full years of service. Proper maintenance
proportion of the system pressure drop, greater invest- regimes are an important element in ensuring that equip-
ment in the central plant may be the best route to reduced ment achieves its required service life.
life cycle costs. Clearly, the longer the system life, the
more pronounced this effect would become. Since the As part of this consideration of service life and replace-
capital costs associated with the ventilation system is the ment cost, the designer needs to consider carefully the use
biggest single elemental cost (approximately one third of of the building and how this might change. It is common
the total building services costs(9)), then the impact of for the use of a building or part of a building to change
improved specification of ventilation plant and com- significantly with time. In such cases, a long service life
ponents can be significant. component may not be a suitable choice unless it is
sufficiently adaptable to be re-configured as part of a new
This general discussion also highlights the need for a system set-up. Another factor that might be borne in mind
holistic view of the system design. The ductwork design is that replacement does provide the opportunity for
imposes an external resistance on the AHU, but it is the upgrading the specification, either in terms of operating
components associated with the AHU that actually efficiency or service provision.
consume the energy to drive the fans and to provide
heating and cooling. This suggests that one approach to service life might be to
consider different service lives for different elements of
When specifying the AHU, consideration might be given to the system; perhaps a long service life for central plant
the additional benefits of the enhanced capital allowances and main risers but a shorter life for floor distribution and
(ECAs) that are available for certain high efficiency terminal devices that may be subject to more frequent fit-
components (e.g. high efficiency motors and variable out changes.
speed drives). The list of components qualifying for ECAs
is updated from time to time, and this should be checked This illustrates the fact that there is no universal answer
by going to the ECA website (www.eca.gov.uk). to what constitutes an appropriate service life. It is
probably true that investing in better quality and higher savings in ductwork material cost alone by switching to a
efficiency products that can deliver a longer service life consistent right-handed strategy for connecting the
and/or lower maintenance is usually worthwhile in whole- ductwork to the fan coil units. As well as generating this
life terms. However, this is not always true. This high- material cost saving, there were further benefits in co-
lights the need for an assessment methodology, applied ordination, procurement and re-use of the units following
consistently, which can be used to investigate a range of client changes.
scenarios (see 1.3.12).
Part L of the Building Regulations(7) requires proper
To illustrate this point, data from one particular private commissioning of M&E plant, and Approved Document
finance initiative (PFI) scheme has suggested that by L2(8) makes it clear that effective commissioning starts at
improving the specification of an AHU to improve efficien- the design and specification stages. In the context of this
cy and to reduce replacement frequency, significant publication, CIBSE Commissioning Code A: Air
reductions in whole-life cost could be obtained. In this distribution systems(12) is particularly relevant. Such com-
example, the final AHU selection included a number of missioning is very important in ensuring that the system
features designed to reduce running costs. These included meets the required design objectives in terms of service
selecting a larger size from the available options to reduce provision and operating efficiency.
pressure drops, and the inclusion of energy efficiency
measures such as inverters and heat recovery exchangers. At present it is very difficult to correlate the quality of
Detailed aspects of the design were also assessed. For commissioning and/or maintenance with service life or
example, flat belts for the pulleys were specified, as they operating efficiency.
have longer service life than conventional V-belts, but are
also more efficient (97.3% as opposed to 94.9% in this
example). The net result of these changes in specification 1.3.5 Disposal costs
was that the decrease in whole-life cost was nearly sixty
times greater than the increase in initial capital cost. The greater awareness of environmental issues is begin-
ning to impact on the ownership costs associated with
1.3.3 Life of the installation disposing of an item at the end of its working life. As an
indication of this trend, there is now a European
This is an important element of life cycle analysis, because Directive(13) that places a requirement on the automotive
it dictates the number of times the individual elements industry to meet the majority of the costs of taking back a
will have to be replaced during the required operating life vehicle at the end of its working life (the so-called ‘end-of-
of the system. It also influences the balance between total life vehicle’). If this trend continues, the overcost associat-
capital cost (i.e. initial plus replacement) and recurring ed with premature replacement as a result of a new fit-out
costs, such as energy and maintenance. The installation will encourage the adoption of either more flexible but
life may be a contractual period over which a whole-life higher cost components, or very low cost, short life, ‘plug
cost is evaluated, such as that committed to by a PFI and play’ components.
contractor.
1.3.6 Energy costs
1.3.4 Installation and commissioning costs
The efficient use of energy has been a major theme of
Installation and commissioning represent an important exhortation and encouragement for many years. The
part of the initial costs of any system. Selection of introduction of the climate change levy and enhanced
components that facilitate installation and subsequent capital allowances are two recent fiscal measures that have
commissioning may involve higher catalogue prices, but offered more direct encouragement. Part L(7) is now
the cost and quality of the completed installation may be bringing a wider range of building services systems under
substantially improved. Off-site fabrication and pre- the control of the Building Regulations. This includes the
assembly are elements of this approach. energy efficiency of ventilation systems, and Approved
Document L2(8) gives guidance on minimum standards.
The main benefits of pre-fabrication are: The increasing emphasis on the need to control carbon
dioxide emissions is likely to further increase the pressure
— reduced overall construction time
to improve operating efficiency.
— increased on-site productivity
— reduced overcrowding on site and minimised One of the reasons why energy has been given such scant
impact on other trades attention in practice is that over the past few years, energy
prices in general and electricity prices in particular have
— guaranteed factory standards of quality fallen in real terms. At the time of writing, gas prices are
— reduced on-site material wastage starting to rise and the investment required to provide the
commitment to increased renewable energy supplies are
— simplified preparation of installation drawings both likely to result in increased prices over the longer
— simplified site ordering through reduced number term. Experience with previous environmentally-driven
of parts legislation and levies is that they are only likely to go in
one direction. All these factors suggest that energy prices
— reducing the impact of skilled labour shortages. are now as low as they are ever likely to be, and design for
reduced energy costs is likely to receive greater attention
Careful planning of ductwork layout and its integration in the future. Section 1.3.10 shows how significant future
with other equipment can also generate substantial changes in energy price might be in establishing whole-
benefits. A recent fit-out project demonstrated 10–15% life cost.
Introduction 5
1.3.7 Environmental cost of carbon 700

emissions Glass fibre
600
Synthetic fibre
It has been recognised for some time that the free market 500
Pressure loss / Pa
does not reflect the real cost of using energy, since the cost
of fuel does not include the costs associated with the 400
environmental damage associated with the burning of
fossil fuels. A recent DEFRA publication(14) gives recom- 300
mendations on the indirect costs of carbon emissions (the
so-called ‘social’ costs). This allows the true cost of energy 200
consumption to be determined for policy appraisal
purposes. The report recommends a price of £70 per tonne 100
of carbon (tonneC) at 2000 prices, with a sensitivity range
0
of £35–140 per tonneC. In the first round of carbon 0 200 400 600 800
trading, the agreed price was in fact considerably higher Dust retention / g
than the top end of this sensitivity range.
Figure 4 Pressure drop and dust retention for glass fibre and synthetic
filter media
Taking the carbon emission factor for electricity as
0.113 kgC·(kW·h)–1 (as given in Approved Document fan energy, or in a reduction in ventilation supply rate
L2(8)), the £70 per tonneC social cost of carbon amounts to with consequent decline in indoor air quality.
an additional 0.8 p/kW·h. The value of carbon agreed at
the first round of carbon trading was about 2.8 times the Another important element of maintenance is ductwork
recommended social cost, suggesting that if the real cost hygiene and cleaning. This requires adequate provision
of carbon emissions was added to the purchase price, costs for inspection and access. CIBSE TM26: Hygienic
could increase by over 2 p/kW·h of electricity. Such maintenance of office ventilation ductwork(15) and other
changes in unit cost would have a very significant impact documents(16–18) provide useful information on this
on cost benefit analysis. subject. This aspect also highlights the need for an
integrated approach to the design. This is illustrated by a
1.3.8 Maintenance costs real example of an uncoordinated approach to AHU specifi-
cation and the selection of the type and placement of a
humidifier. This resulted in the filter medium being
Various maintenance strategies are available, ranging from continually wetted, with the consequent potential dangers
scheduled maintenance, through condition-based of mould growth, damage to the filter medium and loss of
maintenance to ‘run to failure’. The relative advantages performance.
and disadvantages of these alternative approaches are
discussed in the CIBSE’s Guide to ownership, operation and
maintenance of building services(10). Maintenance is a cost, 1.3.9 Availability and reliability
but failure to maintain can shorten the service life of
components and reduce operating efficiency. Under-
maintenance is therefore a false economy, although the An important element of system specification should be
impact of the level of maintenance on service life and the required levels of availability (i.e. the percentage of
operating efficiency is difficult to quantify at present. total hours that the system is required to operate) and the
reliability (i.e. the percentage of required operating hours
that the system is working satisfactorily). These are
There is one important element of the life cycle cost of a quality measures that give an indication of how well the
ventilation system that can be quantified, namely filter system will be able to serve its purpose. If a system
replacement period. The frequency with which the requires to be taken out of service for a major maintenance
medium is replaced has two direct impacts on operating overhaul that takes longer to complete than the allowable
cost. system downtime, that system is failing to meet its design
— the cost of the medium itself, the labour cost requirements. Similarly, in some situations it might be
associated with the filter change and the disposal acceptable to have a limited number of hours of system
cost of the spent filter failure, but in mission-critical systems (e.g. operating
theatres, dealing rooms etc.) high reliability is expected.
— the energy costs associated with the increasing This might require the provision of separate ‘running’ and
pressure drop across the medium; as the filter ‘stand-by’ components; such duplication will represent a
captures dust, the pressure drop increases as significant increase in capital costs but the extra
indicated in Figure 4 for two different types of investment may be considered worthwhile to prevent a
filter media. loss of service.
The period over which the filter media should be changed

will depend on the number of hours per day that the 1.3.10 Discount rates
system operates, the quality of the external air and the
limiting pressure drop (usually between 200–350 Pa In order to bring future costs to today’s values, it is
depending on the standard of the filter). Figure 4 shows conventional financial practice to use present worth
how the pressure drop typically varies with loading for escalation factors (PWEFs). The PWEF is determined from
two types of filter media. Above the limiting pressure the equation 1 and is based on standard discounted cash
drop, the pressure loss across the filter increases quite flow techniques. Figure 5 gives a range of values for PWEF
rapidly. This will either result in significant increases in for different discount rates and analysis periods.
1.3.11 Sensitivities
Present worth escalation factor (PWEF)
17
20 years The previous discussion has highlighted that some of the
15
15 years factors that influence whole-life cost are subject to
10 years
uncertainty. This is another reason why emphasis has
13
traditionally been placed on initial cost, because much
11 greater confidence can be placed on the estimates.
However, as suggested by Figure 3, significant whole-life
9 cost benefits can be achieved by examining these other
cost elements. A sensible final decision should be based on
7
an understanding of the sensitivities of the designs to
5
realistic scenarios about future trends in, for example,
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 energy prices. Hence the importance of a consistently
Discount rate / % applied assessment methodology.
Figure 5 Relationship between PWEF and discount rate
1.3.12 Assessment methodology
(1 + r)n –1
PWEF = ————— (1) The previous sub-sections have summarised the issues
r (1 + r)n that need to be accounted for in arriving at a prediction of
whole-life cost for a mechanical ventilation system. As
part of the project activities on which this publication is
where n is the discount period (years) and r is the discount based, a prototype spreadsheet tool was developed which
rate (%/100) might act as a template for those who wish to develop the
technique further. The Microsoft® Excel workbook can
The Treasury discount rate is traditionally around 6%, be downloaded from the ‘research’ area of the CIBSE
but industry and commerce may use higher discount rates website (www.cibse.org). A worked example using this
to reflect their expected return on capital investment. It is spreadsheet is included as Appendix A1.
also government practice to discount the value of
environmental benefits (see 1.3.7) at a lower rate, perhaps The prototype tool allows the user to specify the system
as low as 3%. This is because the environmental benefits operating hours (10 hours per day or continuous). Then,
accrue over a much longer time scale (e.g. 50–100 years). for four cases, the following parameters can be varied
The lower the discount rate, the greater weight is given to individually or in combination:
energy and maintenance costs which occur in the future.
Figure 5 shows that changing the discount rate from 6 to — Face velocity through the AHU: used to calculate
3.5% would, over a 15-year service life, increase the PWEF the pressure drop through the AHU based on
from 9.7 to 11.5, increasing the relative impact of fuel correlations taken from manufacturers’ catalogue
costs by nearly 20%. data.
— Heat recovery efficiency, with an option to bypass
To account for future inflation in the cost of fuel, the
the device if the unit is in cooling mode.
discount rate used in equation 1 can be revised as shown
in equation 2. Note that the inflation rate for fuel is the — Frequency of filter changes (pre- and main) and
absolute value, and the revised discount rate can therefore the limiting pressure drop at the time of change:
be negative if the inflation rate is greater than the used to determine the average pressure drop across
discount rate. the filter.
— Pre-heater set point: to allow a pre-heater to
(1 + r) protect the coils and the heat recovery device. The
r′ = ——— – 1 (2) temperature into the AHU is therefore either this
(1 + i) set-point or the ambient temperature, whichever is
the greater.
where r′ is the revised discount rate (%/100) and i is the
Present worth escalation factor (PWEF)
inflation rate for fuel (%/100). 30

3%
The impact of different levels of fuel inflation are shown 25
in Figure 6 for an installation life of 15 years and discount 6%
20
rates of 3%, 6% and 10%.
10%
15
Since even with zero fuel inflation, discounted energy
costs are approximately 40% of the whole-life cost of the 10
system (see 1.3.1), it is clear that fuel inflation could
significantly influence whole-life costs. For example, an 5
increase in fuel inflation from 0% to 5% would increase
the PWEF by over 40% for a discount rate of 6%. This 0
would result in the energy cost representing more than –8 –4 0 +4 +8 +12
half of the whole-life cost. Given the likelihood of future Fuel inflation rate / %
increases in fuel prices (see 1.3.6), this potential impact Figure 6 Impact of fuel inflation on PWEF for discount rates of 3%, 6%
should not be ignored. and 10%
Design issues 7
— Return air temperature from the occupied zone: flowrate, and so there is no SFP benefit in compromising
used to establish the amount of heat available for on ventilation standards. The SFP is based on the design
recovery. flowrate but, if there are significant variations in venti-
lation demand, major reductions in energy consumption
— Off-unit supply temperature: used to determine
can be achieved via demand control ventilation strategies.
how much heat can be recovered and how much
has to be supplied by the heating or cooling coil,
based on an example weather year for SE England. ADL(8) sets a target SFP of 2 W/(litre·s–1) for systems in
new buildings, but this is relaxed to 3 W/(litre·s–1) for new
— Supply and extract fan efficiencies. or refurbished systems installed in existing buildings,
— External pressures on the supply and exhaust sides where there is less design flexibility. However, as detailed
of the AHU, representing the losses in the distri- in later sections, such SFPs should not be seen as the
bution ductwork. ultimate target. Much better standards are achievable and
can generate significant benefits, especially where system
— Seasonal efficiency of the boiler and the seasonal ‘hours run’ are long. Indeed, The ADL guidance given
coefficient of performance (COP) of the chiller: above represents the performance standards for building
used to calculate the energy cost for heating and work carried out in England and Wales. In Scotland, the
cooling coil demands. requirements are set out in Technical Standards(19), where
the ‘deemed to satisfy’ provisions for certain building
— Equipment and maintenance costs.
classes is to achieve a SFP of 1.5 W/(litre·s–1). Consequently
— The analysis period, discount rate, inflation rates designers need to pay special attention to which set of
for energy and maintenance. standards apply and design accordingly.
2.2 Filtration standards

2 Design issues
A detailed discussion of filter performance and selection is
In order to set the following analysis of ventilation system given in CIBSE Guide B2: Ventilation and air
design into context, it is necessary briefly to review conditioning(1). In a typical system, the filtration will be
current good practice. This has been done to indicate the achieved by a pre-filter (EU3) followed by a main filter
range of options available in terms of product selection (EU7). As the filter collects dust, the pressure drop across
and specification, and how design choices might impact the pre-filter will increase from an initial value of about
upon the whole-life cost. 50 Pa up to about 200–250 Pa, when it should be replaced.
Similarly, the pressure drop across the main filter will rise
from 100 Pa to 250–350 Pa. Using the data shown in
2.1 Specific fan power Figure 4, it is possible to calculate the average pressure
drop across a filter medium over its working life
Specific fan power (SFP) is an overall measure of the depending on the replacement pressure drop. This is
energy efficiency of a ventilation system. Approved shown in Table 2 for an EU7 filter.
Document L(8) (ADL) defines SFP as:
Table 2 Average pressure loss across filter
‘the sum of the design total circuit-watts, including all losses
as function of final pressure drop
through switchgear and controls such as inverters, of all fans
that supply air and exhaust it back to outdoors (i.e., the sum of Filter type Final pressure drop
supply and extract fans), divided by the design ventilation rate / Pa
through the building’.
250 350
This measure of performance takes into account the Synthetic fibre 106 129
pressure losses through all the components (air handling Glass fibre 162 190
plant, ductwork, dampers and terminals), and the efficien-
cy of the fan, drive and motor assembly.
In component terms, the specific fan power is given by the This indicates that different specification of filter media
following expression: and a less frequent replacement period can lead to an
almost doubling of the average pressure drop over the
filter (from 106 to 190 Pa). Taking typical values for fan,
Qs Ptot drive and motor efficiencies would indicate that this issue
SFP = ——————————–– (3) (just in relation to the main filter) could affect the system
ηfan ηdrive ηmotor (1000 Qs) SFP by more than 0.1 W/(litre·s–1). A similar philosophy
applied to the pre-filter might deliver additional benefits.
where SFP is the specific fan power (W/(litre·s–1)), Qs is the
flowrate through the system (m3·s–1), Ptot is the sum of the
total pressure developed by the supply and extract fans 2.3 Silencer performance
(Pa) and ηfan , ηdrive , ηmotor are the fractional efficiencies of
the fan, fan drive and fan motor, respectively. The pressure drop of a silencer is dependent on its length
and the flow velocity. In the range of sizes commercially
It can be seen that SFP is improved by reducing the system available in air handling units, the range of pressure drops
pressure losses and by improving the component efficien- can vary from about 20 up to 75 Pa. The lower pressure
cies. Since the flowrate appears in both numerator and drops are achieved by having longer silencers with larger
denominator, SFP is largely independent of design airways, but this obviously involves a space premium.
Although perhaps not so significant as the filter options, it about 1.4 m·s–1. The larger size obviously has implications
is important to appreciate that other choices can make the for capital cost, footprint area and weight, all issues that
required acoustic performance of the silencer less need to be carefully evaluated. However, the potential
demanding. For example, if pressure drops are reduced, reduction in 234 Pa for the supply side only is equivalent
then it might be possible to move to axial fans, which have to a reduction in specific fan power of 0.3 or more.
reduced noise levels at the lower frequency part of the
spectrum, which are the ones that are difficult to
attenuate. The benefit would be enhanced if slower speed 2.6 Duct sizing
fans could be utilised.
Conventional design practice is to size ductwork with a
pressure gradient of around 1 Pa·m–1 for low-velocity
2.4 Heat recovery systems, and up to 8 Pa·m–1 for high-velocity systems(20).
In reality, the requirements of Building Regulations
CIBSE Guide B2(1) gives details of a range of heat recovery Part L(7) are likely to mean that high velocity ductwork
devices. Efficiencies can vary from 50 to 90%, with becomes impossible to specify, except for very short
accompanying airside pressure drops ranging from 25 to lengths of duct (perhaps, for example, vertical risers).
500 Pa. Interestingly, improved effectiveness is often
associated with reduced air-side pressure drop. This In most ductwork systems, the pressure loss associated
benefit comes at an increase in capital cost but, as Figure 7 with the fittings (bends, tees, control dampers etc.) is of
shows, the variations in performance are quite significant. greater significance than the friction losses in straight
The data are taken from Guide B2 and show typical ductwork. Figure 9 shows the distribution of pressure loss
efficiencies and typical pressure drops for a range of heat in the ductwork system (external to the AHU) for a number
recovery devices. of case study systems. The ‘component loss’ is made up of
intake louvres and grilles/diffusers, whose size and
As indicated in section 3.4, the increased trend to full pressure drop is largely independent of the duct size.
fresh air systems should encourage wider use of heat
recovery. Figure 7 shows how significant the selection of These figures highlight the importance of specifying ‘easy’
device type can be on energy recovery and fan power. fittings if pressure drops are to be reduced. The impact of
this choice can be illustrated by the variation in pressure
loss coefficient with radius ratio for a 90º bend, as shown
2.5 Air handling unit (AHU) in Figure 10. The addition of internal turning vanes can
reduce the loss coefficient of a bend by a factor of four
without taking up any more space in the building.
In most cases, filters, coils, fans etc. come as pre-packaged
Increasing the radius ratio from 0.5 to 1.5 can deliver
air handling units. Figure 8 indicates the variation in
further significant improvements, albeit at the expense of
component pressure drop when selecting different
a bit more space. This may be an issue in restricted areas
standard configurations from a single manufacturer’s
like risers but may be less of a problem for horizontal
catalogue. In this example, four different units were
bends in ceiling voids.
available to meet the required flow rate of 5 m3·s–1. The
different configurations represent different face velocities
The longer the radius ratio of the bend, the greater the
through the unit — the lower the velocity, the lower the
cost of the fitting. The cost differential is likely to be
pressure drop but the bigger and more expensive the unit.
greater for circular ductwork since the fabrication cost of
‘specials’ is much greater than for rectangular ductwork.
The reduced pressure drop is, in this case, associated with
larger sized units, where the flow velocity through the
600
main heating coil of the AHU is reduced from about 2.8 to
Cooler
Efficiency / % Pressure drop / Pa Heater
500
Heat recovery
Regenerator Main filter
400 Pre-filter
Pressure drop / Pa
Pre-heater
Heat pipe
300
Thermal wheel
200
Run-around
100
Recuperator
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 Alternative selections from
Efficiency / % available catalogue options
Pressure drop / Pa Figure 8 Impact of alternative catalogue selections on AHU component
Figure 7 Relationship between effectiveness and pressure drop pressure drop
Whole-life cost impact of system components 9
Friction Fittings Components Table 3 HVCA recommended leakage classes

100
Class Maximum static Maximum Leakage coefficient
pressure / Pa velocity / m·s–1
Positive Negative
Proportion of pressure loss / %
80
A 500 500 10 0.027
B 1000 750 20 0.009
60
C 2000 750 40 0.003
40
tests carried out in continental Europe, the report of the
European Union SAVE-DUCT project(23) suggests that, in
20 practice, leakage rates may be up to three times greater
than that given by the relevant leakage class. This is
thought to be due to the use of in-situ duct sealing
0 techniques where the success of implementation is
AHU2 AHU3 AHU4 AHU6
critically dependent on the quality of the workmanship.
Figure 9 Distribution of pressure losses in duct run
If the leakage rates were in line with those required by the
class specification, there would be two important impacts
1·0 on the rest of the system. First, the margin on the AHU size
No vanes
0·9 need be only (say) 5% rather than 15%. Secondly, and
0·8 perhaps even more importantly, the impact of the leakage
Pressure loss coefficient
on commissioning and subsequent operational efficiency

0·7
might be reduced. If the fan is oversized by 10% or so as a
0·6 result of excessive leakage assumptions, the process of fan
0·5
1 vane
commissioning might result in the fan operating at a
0·4 different point on its characteristic, perhaps at reduced
efficiency (see 3.3.5).
0·3
2 vanes
0·2
0·1
0 3 Whole-life cost impact of
0 0·5 1 1·5 2
Radius ratio system components
Figure 10 Impact of bend form on pressure loss
Having reviewed the current design practice in section 2,
this section explores the life cycle impact of a range of
CIBSE Guide B3: Ductwork(21) contains detailed guidance design options in more detail. Section 3 is targeted
on ductwork design. principally at the designer and specifier of ventilation
systems. Detailed mathematical treatments are provided
in Appendix A2. These are provided for those who want to
2.7 Duct leakage understand the detail and perhaps to develop their own
analysis tools.
Current design practice makes allowances for leakage in
ductwork, typically in the region of 10 to 15%. DW144(22)
gives three general classifications for ductwork in terms of 3.1 Ductwork
air leakage performance as given in Table 3. The leakage
from the ductwork, QL , must be less than that allowed by The traditional methods of duct sizing (e.g. constant
the leakage class as estimated by the following equation: friction, static regain) do not take account of life cycle cost
directly, but rely on the traditional design criteria (e.g.
QL = ξ ∆P0.65 (4) Pa·m–1, limiting velocities etc.) to arrive at a reasonably
economic design. ASHRAE Handbook: Fundamentals(24)
where QL is the leakage from the ductwork (litre·s–1·m–2) describes an alternative sizing strategy based on life-cycle
and ξ is the leakage coefficient, see Table 3. analysis, the so-called ‘T-method’. In the following
paragraphs, this approach is used and further extended to
As a general guideline, DW144 recommends class C for include the impact of bends.
use in plant rooms and risers where the static pressure
differential is highest, class B for main floor distribution, Appendix A2 shows how an equation may be derived
and class A for the final run-outs in the ceiling void. which relates the duct diameter to the whole-life cost. The
duct diameter that gives the minimum whole-life cost
Analysis of a number of case studies suggests that if the (Dopt) is given by:
leakage classifications were met in practice, then even
with the Class A specification, leakage would be only of
the order of 5% except for very small systems, where it  8 Q3 Z ρ   ( 4 N ξ D + 5 λ L) 
Dopt 6 =  3 2    (5)
would tend to increase. On the basis of a number of field  10 π   ( Sd π L + N α β e β D 
where Dopt is the optimum duct diameter for minimum final connections may be sub-optimal unless local velocity
whole-life cost (m), Q is the airflow through the length of criteria for noise control act to reduce velocities below
ductwork (m3·s–1), Z is the life-cycle factor (see Appendix those determined by conventional friction gradients. As
A2, equation A2.9), ρ is the air density (kg·m–3), N is the would be expected, the longer the operating hours, the
number of bends in the section of duct, ξ is the loss lower should be the design friction gradient to give
coefficient for each bend in the section of duct, D is the minimum whole-life cost.
hydraulic friction diameter (m), λ is the friction factor, L
is the duct length (m), Sd is the unit duct cost as installed The same data are expressed in velocity terms in
(£·m–2), α and β are constants that relate the cost of a bend Figure 12. This suggests that a velocity range of 6–9 m3·s–1
to its diameter. would be most appropriate, depending on the annual
operating hours. This illustrates that the normal limit for
The optimal diameter to satisfy equation 5 can be low velocity ductwork of 6 m·s–1 is about optimal for
determined numerically (e.g. using the ‘goal seek’ extended hours of operation. When sizing to static
function in Microsoft® Excel). A very important factor is friction, this velocity limit is the controlling sizing
the length of duct between each bend, and this is used as criterion for ducts carrying flows greater than about
the x-axis in Figures 11 and 12. For these graphs, the 0.8 m3·s–1, and reducing the design friction gradient will
following assumptions have been made not influence the selected duct size.
— duct surface roughness = 0.09 mm
In order to show the sensitivity of the results, Figure 13
— combined fan/drive/motor efficiency = 0.8 shows the whole-life cost for the case of 5 metres between
bends. What is interesting is that, at the smaller flow rates,
— energy costs are 5 p/kW·h, with demand charges of oversizing the ducts does not result in a very significant
12 £/kW increase in whole-life cost but under-sizing results in a
— discount period = 20 years rapid increase.
— discount rate = 6% In reality, duct design is usually carried out on the basis of
— cost of ductwork = £35/m2 a combination of friction gradient and velocity criteria. To
illustrate the effects of such combined criteria, Figure 14
— loss coefficient of each bend = 0.25. shows the friction gradient as a function of flow rate for
five different criteria:
Figure 11 shows the friction gradient that gives the
minimum whole-life cost for six different scenarios, i.e. — economic optimum for 3000 hours
flowrates of 1, 5 and 10 m3·s–1 for annual operating times — economic optimum for 8760 hours
of 3000 and 8760 hours (continuous operation).
— friction gradient at velocity of 6 m·s–1
Analysis of a number of case studies suggested that — friction gradient at velocity of 9 m·s–1
5 metres per bend is typical for the index run. In reality,
there will be additional fittings in the duct run (tees, — friction gradient at velocity of 15 m·s–1.
dampers etc.), and so an equivalent of 5 metres per bend
should be considered the maximum value that is likely to Note that the graph is plotted on log–log axes.
be found in practice. Figure 11 therefore suggests that in
the majority of cases, the conventional friction gradient is The important trend to note is how the three velocity lines
too high and a figure significantly below 1 Pa·m–1 would correlate with the two economic optimum lines. For
be more appropriate except at low flow rates and/or short example, the 6 m·s–1 line follows the 8760 hour optimum
operating hours. However, sizing procedures usually line very closely, as does the 9 m·s–1 and the 3000 hour
combine friction gradient and velocity limit criteria. In line. This suggests that a combined design criterion of
low velocity systems, the velocity criterion will control the 6 m·s–1 and 1 Pa·m–1 would give close to optimal diameters
sizing at larger duct sizes. It is therefore in high velocity for a 24-hour operation system and for those diameters
or small capacity systems that conventional design criteria above about 0.5 m (corresponding to a flowrate of
are likely to deliver sub-optimal solutions. Indeed, even in 1 m3·s–1). Below this size, when the 1 Pa·m–1 criterion
large capacity low velocity systems, the sub-branches and would be the significant one, it would give solutions that
3·5 12·0
Optimum friction gradient / Pa·m–1
3·0 10·0
Optimum velocity / m·s–1
2·5 Running hours (h) and

8·0
flowrate (m3·s–1)
2·0 3000, 1 8760, 1
3000, 5 8760, 5 6·0
1·5 3000, 10 8760, 10
Running hours (h) and
4·0 flowrate (m3·s–1)
1·0
3000, 1 8760, 1
2·0 3000, 5 8760, 5
0·5 3000, 10 8760, 10
0·0 0·0
0 5 10 15 20 25 0 5 10 15 20 25
Metres of duct per bend Metres of duct per bend
Figure 11 Optimum friction gradient Figure 12 Optimum duct velocities
1000 100·0
3000 h Velocity = 9 m·s–1
Friction gradient / Pa·m–1

900 Running hours (h) and
flowrate (m3·s–1) 8760 h Velocity = 15 m·s–1
800 Velocity = 6 m·s–1
3000, 1 8760, 1
10·0
Whole-life cost / £·m–1
3000, 10 8760, 10
700
600
500
1·0
400
300
200 0·1
0·1 1·0 10·0
100 Flowrate / m3·s–1
0 Figure 14 Relationship between friction gradient and flow
0 0·5 1·0 1·5 2·0 2·5
Duct diameter / m
180
Figure 13 Variation of whole-life cost with duct diameter
Percentage of whole-life costs / %

Pressure loss and velocity
160 1 Pa·m–1, 6 m·s–1
were sub-optimal. For a reduced number of operating 2·5 Pa·m–1, 8 m·s–1
hours, the traditional design criteria are somewhat away 140
0·5 Pa·m–1, 2 m·s–1
from optimal throughout the size range. But what is very
apparent is that a high velocity system is a long way away 120
from optimal irrespective of operating hours.
100
Another interesting point from the above is that a
constant velocity design criterion would give results that 80
very closely follow the economic optimum sizes. This is to
be expected since, for a given flow rate, size and hence cost 60
is directly related to velocity. Similarly, since fitting losses AHU AHU AHU AHU AHU AHU AHU AHU
5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
dominate in ductwork, pressure loss (and hence fan
power) is directly related to the velocity, since the Figure 15 Detailed assessments of whole-life cost
pressure loss coefficient itself is independent of velocity.
It should be stressed that the above graphs are based on the hours. It should also be noted that reducing the ductwork
particular set of assumptions about costs and discount rates pressure losses will also impact on the capital cost of the
detailed in the previous analysis, and so the numbers presented AHU. This means an overall optimisation is required, and
are not universal truths. However, the analysis does provide the so those designers wishing to apply these life-cycle
designer with the tools by which practical design criteria can be techniques should familiarise themselves with the
developed on a case-by-case basis. techniques outlined in Appendix A1.
In order to check the robustness of these conclusions, the 3.1.4 Alternative ductwork strategies
results were compared with some case studies, where
detailed cost assessments had been made. Each case study As well as improving life cycle cost by alternative design
system had been sized against three different sets of criteria, different approaches to duct installation have
design criteria: been explored to see if they might offer life cycle benefits.
— 6 m·s–1 and 1 Pa·m–1: typical of current low
velocity design practice. 3.1.4.1 Parallel circular ducts
— 8 m·s–1 and 2.5 Pa·m–1: to minimise capital costs
The concept of parallel ductwork involves the use of
— 2 m·s–1 and 0.5 Pa·m–1: to minimise energy costs. multiple parallel circular ducts of the same diameter in
place of a single larger duct (typically rectangular). Using
Comparison with Figure 14 suggests that the second of the parallel ducts allows for the standardisation of duct sizes
above three criteria most closely follows the 3000 hour and fittings, which reduces the range of duct components
economic optimum. The results below demonstrate the to be purchased. This would result in the use of a larger
outcome of the detailed cost assessments by showing the number of similar specification components, which could
ratio of the whole-life cost to that of the system designed produce cost savings by the economies of scale. The use of
to conventional criteria. Figure 15 indicates that in nearly circular ductwork can produce cost savings for the
all cases, the minimum whole-life cost is indeed associated following reasons:
with the second of the above criteria. Where this is not the — Circular spiral wound ducts are easier to fit as they
case, it is within 5% of the minimum. What is very clear is can be manufactured with pre-fitted gaskets which
that design criteria to deliver lower duct velocities will reduce both leakage and installation time.
tend to increase the whole-life cost of the ductwork design
significantly when using typical cost data based on 2002 — Circular ducts are generally available in longer
prices. Higher fuel prices caused by fuel inflation or lengths of 3 or 6 m, whereas rectangular ducts are
environmental taxes will justify the use of lower duct limited to 2 to 3 m, which can reduce installation
velocities, particularly for systems with long running time for long straight runs.
— As circular ducts do not use flanges for con- calculated, as shown in Figure 16 for duct aspect ratios of
nections, cut sections can be re-used therefore 1:1 (square), 1:2, 1:4 and 1:8.
reducing wastage.
— Circular ductwork requires less material to The graph indicates that for the higher aspect ratio ducts
fabricate than rectangular ductwork for equivalent likely to be found in ceiling voids etc., multiple circular
hydraulic diameters, and should result in lower ducts can have a lower surface area than a single rect-
material cost. angular duct. As shown in Appendix A2, Figure A2.1, the
— The use of multiple parallel ducts could allow a cost of circular duct per unit surface area is comparable or
lower depth in the ceiling void. This type of cheaper than for square rectangular ductwork for the duct
design technique could be used to good effect in depths of 400 mm and less that are likely to exist in a
steel framed buildings where ductwork can be ceiling void. Figure 16 has been based on the assumption
integrated into the beam instead of running that the friction factor would be the same in the multiple
beneath it. This is achieved by designing holes circular duct as in the single rectangular duct. In reality,
into the web of the beam to allow ducts to pass the friction factor will increase a little in the multiple
through. This will require careful co-ordination ducts because of the lower Reynolds number and the
with the structural engineer. The depth of clear higher relative roughness. Consequently, the trends
space required in the ceiling is around 450 mm for suggested in Figure 16 are likely to be a little optimistic
fan coil/induction units(25). Reducing the ceiling but, even so, the cost of using multiple ducts may not
void depth by 400 mm could reduce the overall represent a significant overhead provided it is limited to
building height by around 10–15%, which could two or three ducts in parallel. With the other benefits and
produce a saving of around 5–7% in the potential cost savings mentioned earlier in the section,
construction cost(26). Data from Spon’s Mechanical this approach may have some merit.
and Electrical Services Price Book 2001(27) gives unit
costs for low-rise air conditioned offices at
between 800 and 1080 £/m2, which would equate 3.1.4.2 Supply and/or extract plenums
to savings of around 40 to 50 £/m2 from reducing
the ceiling void height.
The analysis of typical ductwork systems suggests that the
cost of the ductwork is higher than the discounted cost of
Set against these savings in installation cost and the
the fan energy. One way of reducing the cost of the
building cost would be the possible increased cost of the
ductwork would be to eliminate the need for sections of
ductwork itself. To compare the unit cost of single
the duct system by using pressurised floor plenums. In a
rectangular ductwork against multiple parallel ductwork,
typical design, air supplied by the AHU is ducted into risers
the concept of a hydraulic diameter needs to be con-
at a moderately high velocity (around 6 to 8 m·s–1) and
sidered. At equivalent hydraulic diameters and equal
then into ceiling voids, where the air is divided into sub-
mean velocities, circular, square, and rectangular ducts
branches to terminate at diffusers. The velocity in the
would have essentially the same flow resistance.
final run-outs tends to be around 4 m·s–1 or less for
acoustic reasons. Previous analysis has shown that the
The equivalent diameter of a rectangular duct is given velocity that yields minimum life-cycle cost is in the
by(20): region of 6 to 9 m·s–1. The final distribution ductwork is
 32 w 3 h 3 
0.2 sub-optimal in terms of the balance between capital costs
De =  2  (6) and fan energy. The final run-outs are therefore the most
 π ( w + h)  expensive part of the distribution network, and so signifi-
cant savings could be achieved if the supply ductwork can
be replaced with a plenum, usually in the floor void. The
where De is the equivalent diameter (m), w is the width of idea of using a plenum can be extended to the extract
the rectangular duct (m), h is the height of the rectangular ductwork by using the ceiling void as an extract plenum.
duct (m). An alternative is to use the floor void for both supply and
extract by way of baffles to create supply and extract zones,
Assuming a constant friction factor, the required diameter but this reduces the flexibility of the system to adapt to
(Dp) of each of n parallel circular ducts to give the same changes in the zoning of the occupied space (i.e. changing
pressure drop as a single rectangular duct can be from open plan to cellular zones).
determined from:
16 (Q n)
2
L 16 Q 2 L (7) 3·0
λ 0.5 ρ 2 4 = λ 0.5 ρ
π De π 2 Dp4 Aspect ratio
Ratio of surface areas
De Dp 2·5
1:1 1:4
2·0 1:2 1:8
This gives a relationship between De and DP , which can 1·5
then be substituted back into equation 6 to obtain the
following expression for DP: 1·0
0.2 0·5
 32 w 3 h 3 
Dp =  2 2  (8) 0
 π n ( w + h)  0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Number of parallel ducts
Using this relationship, the relative surface area of n Figure 16 Ratio of surface areas for multiple circular ducts compared to
parallel circular ducts and a single rectangular duct can be a rectangular duct of different aspect ratios
Based on published price data(27), the typical cost of the air analysis presented here highlights the potential for such
supply and extract ductwork is around 42 to 64 £/m2 for systems.
offices. Around 50 to 60% of this cost can be attributed to
the floor-based ductwork. Therefore using a plenum
system could result in a cost saving of around 20 to 3.2 Ductwork components
30 £/m2. Some of this saving may need to be offset against
the additional care needed to effectively seal the plenum
and any special arrangements needed to ensure effective 3.2.1 Duct fittings
cleaning to maintain system hygiene.
Mention has already been made of the significance of the
losses associated with duct fittings (see 2.6).
3.1.4.3 Local extract
Another way of reducing ductwork costs is to eliminate 3.2.2 Dampers and control devices
the extract ductwork completely by utilising local room-
based exhaust systems. There are three problems with this There are two issues that should be noted in this context.
approach. — It has been conventional practice to assume a
— The lost potential for air-to-air heat recovery: this certain pressure loss for an open control damper
has to be offset against the capital cost savings and (e.g. 10 Pa) as part of a fan sizing exercise. This
the fan energy savings associated with eliminating may be appropriate for conventional sizing
the extract ductwork. Analysis suggests that in criteria, but as designers explore alternative
most cases this is likely to increase overall energy strategies, the changing pattern of duct sizes may
consumption, particularly for deeper plan build- mean that such an assumption becomes invalid. In
ings. However, if the building has a low thermal reality, open control dampers follow a constant
balance point so that cooling is required much of loss coefficient characteristic (i.e. pressure drop
the year, then the penalty associated with losing inversely proportional to the fourth power of the
the potential for heat recovery is reduced. diameter). Consequently a control damper should
be included in the analysis in the form of a loss
— Although such an approach may deliver whole-life coefficient in the same way as a bend or tee would
cost savings, it might be argued that the approach be.
is not consistent with the need to reduce carbon
emissions. — Most designers include regular changes in section
size along a run of take-offs. Feedback from
— The aesthetics of local floor-by-floor extracts. This ductwork contractors suggests that installation
might be accommodated using powered cill venti- costs are reduced if fittings are smaller and if there
lator systems. Usually these use low efficiency is greater repeatability. For example, for a
tangential fans, but performance could be ‘dropper’ from a roof top plant room, maintaining
improved by using shaded pole motors or high a constant diameter across all floors can save
efficiency DC motors. significant installation costs. This allows each tee
piece to be identical, not only reducing the
Another approach would be to extract via the facade requirement to fabricate ‘special’ items, but also
system, essentially using cavity ventilation to provide the assisting pre-fabrication. The argument that this
extract ductwork. This would allow heat recovery at the might make commissioning more complex
facade itself by modulating the temperature gradient (because static pressures would not be constant at
across the facade module. There would also be the option each floor take-off) is less of a problem in lower
of an air-to-air heat recovery unit connected to the cavity velocity ductwork, since the change in velocity
exhaust system. Figure 17 shows the effects that appro- pressure across a take-off is much less.
priate cavity ventilation can have on a glazed facade
system. A system-operated mechanical constant volume device
installed in the ductwork could also be used to facilitate
The design of such facades is a specialist subject, and the commissioning process. Such devices can be set using
particular care is needed over such issues as condensation, a factory-calibrated scale to control the design volume
acoustic performance, fire spread etc. However, the simple independently of the system pressure and thus duct sizing
method. Such devices typically require an additional 50 Pa
100 on the index run of the system, but can reduce commis-
Unventilated cavity sioning time. Use of circular or rectangular constant
volume devices enable changes to the system to be made
Heat loss or gain / W·m–2
80
Ventilated cavity without resizing or re-commissioning existing runs.
60
3.2.3 Terminal devices
40
Figure 18 shows the pressure loss characteristics of a range
of diffuser types based on a particular manufacturer’s
20
catalogue data. These devices vary considerably in terms
of the method of delivery, (e.g. point of delivery, throw,
0 and exit velocity). For the majority of applications the
Winter loss Summer gain data do not indicate a significant difference in pressure
Figure 17 Impact of cavity ventilation on design heat flows drops across the devices. Terminal devices generally have
pressure drops in the region of 30 Pa for noise levels less size and hence capital and running costs of the
than NC35. This is only a small fraction of typical system ventilation plant.
pressure drops, and so terminal selection does not have a
significant effect on the overall pressure drop for a system. Traditionally, the application of displacement ventilation
has been limited to areas with modest cooling loads, but
However, selecting alternative ventilation strategies recent work suggests increased cooling demand
(displacement against mixed flow) will affect ventilation (≈ 50 W·m–2) can be achieved using large surface area
effectiveness, and thereby might influence required diffusers without compromising the energy efficiency
ventilation rate. CIBSE Guide A: Environmental design(28) benefits or ‘free cooling’ opportunities of displacement
suggests that the required ventilation rate for the same ventilation. However, sedentary occupants may experience
degree of air quality can vary substantially, depending on some thermal discomfort if they are close to such diffusers
the particular configuration of the supply and exhaust (e.g. within 1 to 2 m)(29).
position, as shown in Figure 19. This indicates the range
of typical ventilation effectiveness for systems supplying
air at a temperature cooler than the room air. Displace- 3.3 Air handling unit
ment ventilation systems supply at low level and extract at
high level. Mixing systems usually have a high level
3.3.1 Selection options
supply but can extract at high or low level. The lower two
bars on the chart shows how the location of the extract
As discussed in section 2.5, air handling unit (AHU)
position impacts on effectiveness.
performance is often characterised by the specific fan
power (SFP). A parametric analysis was carried out to
This raises an important general issue as far as whole-life determine how the SFP of an air handling unit varies with
costing is concerned. The improved ventilation effective- unit size, configuration and duty. Most manufacturers are
ness of displacement ventilation can be exploited in one of able to provide a range of unit sizes to suit a given duty
two ways (all else, e.g. thermal comfort, being equal): and configuration. Increasing the unit size for a given
— leave the fresh air supply rate unchanged and take duty will reduce the face velocity across components
the benefit of improved effectiveness as an within the air handling unit, which results in lower
improvement in indoor air quality (IAQ), thereby pressure losses and hence lower SFP.
improving the value of the scheme
Generally it was found that there is a strong relationship
— reduce the fresh air rate to achieve the same IAQ as between SFP and the face velocity. Sample data for a
with a mixing ventilation system, but reducing the typical air handling unit* are shown in Figure 20, and
demonstrate how for a given face velocity the SFP can vary
1·4 significantly depending on the duty. This variation is due
Square 4-way
(600 mm) to units with a higher duty having higher fan/motor
1·2 efficiencies.
Circular
(610 mm diameter)
Flow rate / m3·s–1
1·0 Using the sample configuration, the relationship between

whole-life cost and face velocity/SFP is shown in Figure 21,
0·8 for an 08:00 to 18:00 working day (Monday to Friday) and
Swirl a 15-year service life. The whole-life costs are calculated
(630 mm) from the capital cost of the air handling unit, and the
0·6
discounted fan energy cost (using a discount rate of 5%).
0·4 The results indicate that the optimum SFP is between 1.5
and 2.0. The optimum is not so clear at lower flow rates
because of the linear scale. However, for the 1 m3·s–1 unit,
0·2 Slot diffuser minimum whole-life cost occurs at an SFP of 2.03, and is
(5 slots per metre)
0 * Air handling unit with supply and extract, pre-heat coil, filters, heating
0 10 20 30 40 50
coil, cooling coil, and external static pressure of 500 Pa and 300 Pa for
Total pressure / Pa supply and extract respectively
Figure 18 Pressure loss characteristics of terminal devices
3·5
Specific fan power / (kW/(m3·s–1))
Displacement
3·0
2·5
Mixing (high/low)
2·0
Flow rate
Mixing (high/high) 1·5 10 m3·s–1 2 m3·s–1
5 m3·s–1 1 m3·s–1
1·0
1 1·5 2·0 2·5 3·0 3·5 4·0 4·5
0 0·5 1 1·5 Face velocity / m·s–1
Ventilation effectiveness Figure 20 Typical relationship between specific fan power and face
Figure 19 Ventilation effectiveness velocity for a range of duties
9% lower than the unit with an SFP of 2.9. For continuous base case was taken as an AHU unit with a face velocity of
operation, analysis shows that the optimum SFP is 2 m·s–1 and an external pressure of 400 Pa. The three
consistently around 1.6–1.8. Increases to the service life options represent the situation where the external pressure
would also tend to increase the benefit of lower SFP. has increased in increments of 50 Pa and the AHU face
velocity reduced to give a same overall target SFP of 1.7.
The detailed figures on which Figure 21 is based show The changes in whole-life cost are shown in Figure 23.
that air handling units of smaller duties have a slightly
lower optimum face velocity and SFP. This is due in part As the options progress, the capital cost of the AHU
to differences in fan/motor efficiencies with size, but is increases and the ductwork cost decreases. Because in this
mainly due to the variation in the unit cost of air handling case the options have been constrained to give the same
units (i.e. unit cost in terms of flow rate, £/(m3·s–1)). SFP (and hence energy cost), the optimum configuration of
Typically the unit cost reduces with increasing size/flow option 1 is merely a reflection of the relative capital costs
rate, but eventually levels off to a reference value. This is of the AHU and the ductwork. This will, of course, vary on
shown in Figure 22, which plots the unit cost (relative to a job-by-job basis.
the reference value), as a function of flow rate for a
particular manufacturer. At 0.5 m3·s–1, the unit cost is over
3.5 times the reference cost, while at 2 m3·s–1 it is only 3.3.3 AHU bypass options
50% higher and, for flow rates greater than 4 m3·s–1, the
unit cost levels off around the reference value (around Means of reducing AHU pressure drop at part load
£2200 per m3·s–1). conditions have been explored. Cooling of ventilation air
is generally not required for all of the year and, in many
3.3.2 Overall optimisation buildings, is only required in warm weather. The resis-
tance to air flow caused by having a cooling coil in an AHU
The previous discussion has looked at the life cycle causes an increase in fan power and, therefore, electrical
assessment of the ductwork system and then the AHU as energy consumption. Bypassing air around the coil when
separate elements. In reality, the two are strongly coupled, cooling is not needed reduces fan energy consumption.
since the ductwork provides the external resistance that
the AHU fan has to overcome. The optimum whole-life cost Figure 24 shows two possible forms of coil bypass arrange-
for the ductwork may result in somewhat higher external ment. The external bypass duct could be suitable as a
resistances for the AHU than assumed in the above retrofit option for existing systems and thus may have
analyses, thereby increasing the specific fan power of the considerable potential for replication. The proportion of
unit. the air that can be bypassed depends on the required
cooling coil duty and, in practice, would need to be
The prototype spreadsheet tool referred to in section controlled by a motorised damper in the bypass duct. This
1.3.12 can be used to arrive at an overall optimisation. The damper could also be used to control the heat flow from
60 11700
Flow rate
11600
Whole-life cost per unit
50
flow rate / (£/(m3·s–1))
10 m3·s–1 2 m3·s–1
Whole life cost / £(k)
5 m3·s–1 1 m3·s–1 11500

40
11400
30 11300
11200
20
11100
10 11000
10900
0 Base Option 1 Option 2 Option 3
1 2 3 4 caseof whole-life cost
Figure 23 Optimisation
Specific fan power / (kW/(m3·s–1))
Figure 21 Life cycle cost for 2600 operating hours

Bypass
400 +
Relative unit cost of AHU / %
350 –
300
250 (a) internal bypass duct
200
Bypass
150
100
50 – +
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
(b) external bypass duct (retrofit possibility)
Figure 22 Plot of unit cost of AHU (per volume flow rate) as a function of
flow rate Figure 24 Possible bypass duct configurations
8 40 100
7 35 Flow rate 2 m3·s–1 8 m3·s–1
Fan energy savings / %

Fan energy saving (%) 90
6 30
Fan power / kW
3 –1 3 –1
1 m ·s 4 m ·s 16 m3·s–1
Motor efficiency / %
5 25 80
4 20
3 15 70
Fan power without bypass
2 10
60
1 5
Fan power with coil bypass
0 0 50
0 0·2 0·4 0·6 0·8 1·0 1·2
40
Figure 25 Pressure drop and fan power reductions from coil bypass 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Fan static pressure / Pa
Figure 26 Plot of efficiency against static pressure for axial fans
the coil instead of using a three-port bypass mixing valve
on the chilled water side of the coil.
100
The concept was tested in a special test rig and the results
90
are shown in Figure 25, which also shows a curve for fan
Fan efficiency / %
energy savings. It can be seen that the savings vary from 80
over 30% at low speed to approximately 15% at full speed.
The measurements were in close agreement with pre- 70
dicted energy saving based on an analysis of component
pressure loss data. 60 Flow rate 1 m3·s–1
3 –1
2 m ·s 4 m3·s–1
Clearly, the purpose of bypassing of the coil is to reduce 50
8 m3·s–1 16 m3·s–1
AHU pressure drop, and so the unit must be fitted with an
appropriate fan control device (e.g. variable speed) to take 40
4000 200
600 800 1000 1200
advantage of this potential.
Fan static pressure / Pa
Figure 27 Plot of efficiency against static pressure for centrifugal fans
3.3.4 AHU component options
By making different selections from standard catalogue are more efficient at higher static pressures. This suggests
options, the previous section has shown how significant that as system pressure drops reduce with improvements
savings in the whole-life cost of an AHU can be achieved. in specific fan power, there may be a move to greater use
However, further improvements might be achieved by of axial or plug fans.
alternative specifications of individual components (see
case study described in 1.3.1). These options are reviewed The catalogue data also suggest that axial fans generate
here to indicate possible future trends. higher noise levels than centrifugal, although this tends to
be at the higher frequencies, which are easier to attenuate.
3.3.4.1 Fans
3.3.4.2 Motors
The efficiency for axial fans typically ranges from 50% to
perhaps 85%, while that for centrifugal fans ranges from The primary type of motor used in fan applications is the
50% to 90%. There is a significant overlap in the AC induction (squirrel cage) motor. These are robust,
efficiencies of both types of fans, but centrifugal fans are inexpensive and require little maintenance. With the
generally more efficient than axial fans. A consideration is backing of the European Commission, manufacturers
that while axial fans are nearly always directly driven, representing the producers of 80% of the European
giving a transmission efficiency of 100%, centrifugal fans production of standard motors have agreed to establish
tend to be belt-driven with a transmission efficiency of efficiency bands for standard motors (see Figure 28).
around 90% to 95% (flat belts offering better transmission These standards apply to AC induction motors in the
efficiency than V-belts). This means that the combined power range of 1.1 to 90 W. The motor efficiency data
fan/drive efficiency is comparable between the two types taken from an AHU manufacturer’s catalogue is super-
of fan. imposed on the efficiency bands, which suggests that
efficiency improvements could be achieved in the smaller
Figure 26 shows the variation of efficiency with static units through specifying a more efficient motor.
pressure for a typical axial fan for a range of flow rates.
Figure 27 gives the corresponding data for a centrifugal To improve the motor efficiency further would require the
fan. It should be noted that each curve is not the use of brushless DC motors, which have maximum
characteristic of an individual fan. Rather, it is the efficiencies of 95% to 97%. Although AC induction motors
representation of a number of selections at a given flow can achieve similar efficiencies at higher power ratings,
rate that give the optimum fan efficiency at a variety of the efficiency of brushless DC motors is consistently high
static pressures. across the range of ratings. The main consideration is that
the cost of a brushless DC motor is typically twice that of
The graphs indicate that a range of axial fans has higher an AC induction motor. However, DC control devices are
efficiency at lower static pressures, while centrifugal fans only around 60% of the cost of AC speed controllers.
100
95 Fan curves
for varying C
Motor efficiency / %
fan speed D
Pressure (arbitrary units)
90 B
A
85
EFF 1 (4 pole)
80 EFF 1 (2 pole) Actual system

EFF 2 (2/4 pole) characteristic
75 Assumed system
1·1 2·2 4 7·5 15 22 37 55 90
characteristic after
Motor power rating / kW adding margins
Figure 28 Energy efficiency rating for standard motors
Flow rate (arbitrary units)
Brushless DC motors also have the benefit of greater Figure 29 Impact of margins on operating point
controllability and have potentially more versatile
speed/torque characteristics, factors that may provide calculations with an added margin for flow and pressure
greater flexibility in fan design. uncertainties. The difference between points A and B is
the unnecessary margin.
3.3.4.3 Silencers
When running the fan at the design speed, the operating
Silencers do not represent a major component of AHU point will be point D. The commissioning process will
pressure drop (typically about 50 Pa). Consequently even then adjust the fan to deliver the required system volumes.
major reductions in the silencer pressure drop will not This will be done through a combination of damper
deliver much improvement in overall AHU performance, at and/or fan speed adjustments. Damper control is wasteful
least in energy terms. Improvement is most likely to come of energy, since it will result in the operating point
from active silencers(30). moving to point C. The vertical distance between A and C
is the pressure loss across the damper. Added to this
3.3.4.4 Filters wasteful pressure drop is the potential loss in efficiency as
the fan moves away from its optimum operating point,
Filters represent a much more significant pressure drop, which would have been point B. Commissioning through
and perhaps as important is the fact that the pressure drop fan speed control will allow the fan to operate at a lower
is continuously varying as the filter load increases to the speed, resulting in reduced power consumption (power is
point where the filter needs to be replaced. This has proportional to the cube of the fan speed). Lower fan
implications for commissioning and control (see 3.3.5). speeds will also reduce noise and vibration levels, and the
lower operating load may reduce maintenance require-
ments.
A step-change in performance for typical ventilation
systems is likely to come from the use of electrostatic
filters. Catalogue data suggest that the pressure drop for a Analysis of commissioning data relative to the fan
typical electrostatic filter will vary between 50 and 100 Pa specification suggests that the ‘as-commissioned’ oper-
depending on the velocity through the unit. At the face ating point can be significantly different to that specified,
velocities typical of those considered in this document, especially in respect of fan static pressure. In nearly all
the likely typical pressure drop is about 60 Pa, compared cases, the commissioned static pressure was at least 100 Pa
with an average of 250–400 Pa for a typical fabric filter lower than that specified, but this was for a clean filter
installation, giving a power saving of about 280 W/(m3·s–1). situation. The fan will have to move its operating point by
There is a parasitic power loss associated with charging 100–200 Pa as the filter load increases, and this point
the filter plates which, again based on the catalogue data, should be borne in mind when selecting the fan. Even for
is approximately 55 W/(m3·s–1). Additional savings accrue a constant volume system, the fan will have to move
from the fact that there are no replacement media or spent around its characteristic to accommodate changing filter
media disposal costs, but capital costs are significantly pressure drop, and so the shape of the efficiency curve
greater. over this range is quite important in overall performance
terms.
3.3.5 Design margins and commissioning
An important issue relative to specification and operating 3.4 Heat recovery

performance is that of design margins. Conventional
practice adds separate margins for duct leakage and design
uncertainty. If these margins are not required in practice, Based on catalogue data, the addition of a heat exchanger
then the actual system characteristic will differ from that would typically increase the SFP by between 0.2 and 0.4
assumed for the fan selection as indicated in Figure 29. (for face velocities of around 2 m·s–1), while the capital
Point A is the actual system operating point. Point B cost of the air handling unit would be increased by around
represents the selected fan duty derived from the design 50%.
Using the CIBSE Example Weather Year for SE England
Discounted whole-life cost / (£/m2)

(Kew)(31)*, energy costs were calculated using the 20
following data: With heat
18 recovery
— SFP of mechanical ventilation system of 16
2 kW/(m3·s–1), without heat recovery. (Note: to Without heat
satisfy Approved Document L2(8) guidance, the 14
recovery
designer would have to show that the additional 12
carbon emissions due to the increased fan power
10
were compensated by the reduced heating
demand). 8
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000
— Heat exchanger incurs an increase in the SFP of Unit cost / (£/(m3·s–1))
0.2 kW/(m3·s–1).
Figure 30 Comparison of discounted whole-life cost with and without
— Heat exchanger has a sensible efficiency of 75%, heat recovery (08:00 to 18:00 working week (Monday to Friday),
with no latent heat recovery. discount period 20 years)
— Supply air at 18 ºC, extract air at 20 ºC during the

heating season. In reality, the extract air temper-
ature may well be higher than this, especially with 30
air handling luminaires and if a displacement
ventilation strategy is employed. Consequently, 25
Analysis period / years

the potential for heat recovery may well be higher
than that suggested below. Equally, if the fresh air 20
supply temperature is lower (e.g. in a fan coil
system), the driving force for heat recovery will 15
increase still further, although the amount of heat
10
required to be recovered will reduce.
— Electricity cost of 0.05 £/kW·h and gas cost of 5
0.01 £/kW·h (typical of 2002 prices).
0
— Boiler efficiency of 80%; chiller COP of 3. 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
AHU unit cost / £/(m3·s–1))
— Discount rate of 5%.
Figure 31 Threshold unit cost for air handling units as a function of
Assuming typical fresh air rates of 12 litre·s–1 per person discount period (08:00 to 18:00 working week (Monday to Friday),
and an occupancy density of 10 m2 per person, the fresh discount period 20 years)
air supply rate in terms of unit floor area would be
1.2 litre·s–1·m–2. The annual energy cost per unit floor area
(for heating plus cooling plus fan power) to supply
conditioned air at 18 ºC at 1.2 litre·s–1·m–2 is given in
Table 4.
effective when the unit cost of the air handling unit is
Table 4 Annual energy costs with and without below a certain threshold. This threshold will vary
heat recovery depending on the precise details of the air handling
system, operating regime and fuel prices. The assessment
Heat recovery Annual energy cost / (£/m2)
methodology described in section 1.3.12 can be used to
10-hour day Continuous establish this threshold for the specific case under
Present 0.64 2.33 consideration.
Not present 0.42 1.41
Using the assumptions already stated, the break-even
threshold for various discount periods is shown in Figure
31 for an 08:00 to 18:00, Monday to Friday, working week.
For heat recovery to be cost effective the unit cost of the
basic AHU (excluding the heat recovery unit) would have
Heat recovery will be cost effective only if the additional to be less than the threshold value. It is worth noting that
cost of the heat recovery device is less than the reduction the threshold value is significantly greater for 24-hour
in the discounted whole-life energy cost. As previously operation. For a 10-year discount period the threshold
stated, the addition of heat recovery typically increases the cost is around 12 000 £/(m3·s–1). This would suggest that
capital cost of an air handling unit by 50%. The heat recovery is nearly always cost effective for systems
discounted whole-life cost (per unit floor area) with and with 24-hour operation. Note that in this analysis, no
without heat recovery is shown in Figure 30 as a function account has been taken for the potential reduction in
of the unit cost of the air handling unit. (The unit cost is boiler capacity consequent upon the installation of heat
for the AHU without the heat recovery device, although the recovery. This benefit would further improve the cost
discounted whole-life cost includes the additional cost of effectiveness argument.
the heat recovery device for the ‘with heat recovery’ line.)
The results indicate that heat recovery is only cost The above analysis is an example of the way in which the
methodology described in 1.3.12 can be used to develop a
* The spreadsheet described in Appendix A1 uses the CIBSE Test detailed insight into AHU selection to deliver minimum
Reference Year for the London area (Bracknell/Heathrow) whole-life cost.
4 Design checklist — Step 7: Consider the design margins added for

pressure and flow uncertainties, especially in
relation to leakage. The changes in fan efficiency
over the envelope defined by the design margins
4.1 Design sequence should also be checked.
In summary, the following sequence is suggested as an — Step 8: If required, use an optimisation tool similar
appropriate basis for designing a system for minimum to the spreadsheet referred to in section 1.3.12.
whole-life cost. Where relevant, the appropriate This could also be used to test the sensitivity of
interactions with the rest of the design team are indicated. the design to changes in energy cost, fuel inflation
etc.
— Step 1: In conjunction with the client, establish
the design parameters (system life, flow rates,
filtration standards, operating hours etc.). Also 4.2 Detailed design checklist
establish the economic criteria (discount rates,
energy costs taking account of any negotiated There follows a list of more detailed checkpoints that the
tariffs etc.). designer may wish to consider.
— Step 2: Approved Document L(8) suggests that a — Consider demand-controlled ventilation to prevent
specific fan power (SFP) no greater than over-ventilation and wasted energy at times of
2 W/(litre·s–1) is an appropriate performance reduced occupancy. This will require an efficient
standard. (In Scotland, Part J of the Technical form of volume control device (e.g. speed control)
Standards(19) limits the SFP to 1.5 W/(litre·s–1).) to be specified.
This can be the starting point for the design
development. — Consider the required service life of the various
parts of the system (see 1.3.2). Extended service
— Step 3: Using a face velocity of 2 m·s–1 through the life may be appropriate for those parts of the
AHU , determine the pressure drop through the system where replacement will be disruptive or
unit. This can be done by reference to manu- costly. Reduced service life may be appropriate for
facturers’ catalogue data, or by reference to the parts subject to frequent fit-out change.
general correlations given in the spreadsheet
discussed in 1.3.12. — Consider the type of filter media to be used, as this
will influence system pressure drop and filter
— Step 4: Check whether the unit cost of the AHU is replacement cost. Determine the appropriate
such that heat recovery is likely to be cost effective pressure drop at which the filter media should be
(see Figure 31, revised as necessary for specific replaced, and include a pressure sensor to notify
energy cost scenarios, ventilation supply when the filter should be changed (see 1.3.8 and
temperatures etc.). If so, include the additional 2.2).
pressure drop through the heat recovery device
(supply and return), and hence establish the — Consider the different types of heat recovery
pressure available to drive the air through the device, bearing in mind their different perfor-
distribution ductwork whilst keeping within the mance and cost characteristics (see 2.4). Higher
target SFP (adjusted as necessary to account for the efficiency systems are likely to be increasingly
carbon savings due to heat recovery). In beneficial with more extended operating hours.
conjunction with the architect and structural — Consider bypass arrangements in the AHU to
engineer, check the space and weight implications minimise pressure drop at various times of the
of the selected AHU. year (e.g. bypassing the heat recovery during
summer and/or bypassing the cooling coil during
— Step 5: Use the methodology outlined in section
winter, see 3.3.3). This approach will also require a
3.1.2 to develop economically optimal design
system of efficient volume / pressure regulation.
criteria for the ductwork system, using the
established values for energy cost, test discount — Consider the motor/drive arrangement to achieve
rates, system life etc. Size the supply and extract maximum efficiency (see 3.3.4.1 and 3.3.4.2). Not
ductwork to this criterion and see if the external only will this reduce fan energy demand, it will
pressures imposed on the AHU are within the reduce the heat pick-up through the AHU and
limits derived from step 4. Liaise with the thereby reduce cooling energy demand.
architect and structural engineer over riser space,
— Review the duct sizing criteria in relation to the
ceiling void depths and the possibility of integrat-
ed structural/services zones. anticipated system run-hours to ensure that these
are consistent with minimising whole-life cost (see
— Step 6: If the ductwork pressure drop is too high, 3.1.3).
explore the sensitivity of the whole-life cost of the — Consider the leakage classes specified for the
AHU to reduced face velocity. Usually, this is a very
various sections of ductwork (plant room, risers
shallow minimum, and so small reductions in face and horizontal distribution). Check that the
velocity (down to about 1.5 or so) will not
specified margins on flow uncertainty are consis-
substantially increase AHU whole-life cost, but may
tent with these specified leakage classes.
reduce AHU pressure drop, increasing the pressure
available for the distribution ductwork but — Consider the form and layout of the ductwork,
maintaining the target SFP limit. Check that the especially for the final parts of the system where
increased sizes do not cause a clash with the majority of the installation costs are incurred
architectural or structural constraints. (see 1.3.4, 2.6, 3.1.4.1 to 3.1.4.3, and 3.2.2).
References 16 Guide to good practice — Cleanliness of ventilation systems HVCA

TR17 (London: Heating and Ventilating Contractors
1 Ventilation and air-conditioning CIBSE Guide B2 (London: Association)
Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers) (2001)
17 Ventilation system hygiene BSRIA Facilities Management
2 BS ISO 15686: Buildings and constructed assets. Service life
Specification FM01/97 (Bracknell: Building Services Research
planning: Part 5: (draft) Whole-life costing (London: British and Information Association) (1997)
Standards Institution) (to be published)
18 General ventilation in the workplace HSE Guidance for
3 Whole-life costing: a client’s guide (London: Construction Clients Employers HSG 202 (London: HSE Books) (2000)
Forum) (2000)
19 Technical standards for compliance with the Building Standards
4 Whole-life costs Construction Procurement Guidance No. 7
(Scotland) Regulations 1990 (as amended) (Edinburgh: The
(London: Office of Government Commerce) (2000)
Scottish Executive) (2001)
5 Rethinking Construction: The report of the Construction Task Force
to the Deputy Prime Minister, John Prescott, on the scope for 20 Reference data CIBSE Guide C (London: Chartered Institution
improving the quality and efficiency of UK construction (London: of Building Services Engineers) (2001)
Department of Trade and Industry) (1998) 21 Ductwork CIBSE Guide B3 (London: Chartered Institution of
(www.cst.gov.uk/construction/rethink/report) Building Services Engineers) (2002)
6 Energy use in offices Energy Consumption Guide ECON 19
22 Specifications for sheet metal ductwork HVCA DW144 (London:
(Garston: Energy Efficiency Best Practice Programme) (1998)
Heating and Ventilating Contractors Association) (1998)
7 The Building Regulations 2000 Statutory Instrument 2000
23 Improving ductwork — a time for tighter air distribution systems
No. 2531 (as amended) (London: Her Majesty’s Stationery
Office) (2000) AIVC TP 1999/4 (Coventry: Air Infiltration and Ventilation
Centre) (1999)
8 Conservation of fuel and power in buildings other than dwellings The
Building Regulations 2000 Approved Document L2 (London: 24 Fundamentals ASHRAE Handbook (Atlanta: American Society
Stationary Office) (2001) of Heating, Refrigeration and Air-conditioning Engineers)
(2001)
9 The Little Black Book — Property Cost Benchmarks (London:
Franklin + Andrews Group) (2000) 25 Rules of Thumb BSRIA TN 17/95 (Bracknell: Building Services
Research and Information Association) (1995)
10 Guide to ownership, operation and maintenance of building services
(London: Chartered Institution of Building Services 26 CPD module: Underfloor air conditioning Building Serv. J 23
Engineers) (2000) (1) January 2001
11 Building Services Component Life Manual (Oxford: Blackwell 27 Spon’s Mechanical and Electrical Services Price Book 2001
Science) (2001) (London: Taylor & Francis) (2001)
12 Air distribution systems Commissioning Code CCA (London: 28 Environmental design CIBSE Guide A (London: Chartered
Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers) (1996) Institution of Building Services Engineers) (1999)
13 Directive 2000/53/EC of the European Parliament and of the
29 Butler D JG, Swainson M and Perry A Free cooling with
Council of 18 September 2000 on end-of-life vehicles Official
displacement ventilation BRE Information Paper IP6/02
Journal L269 (21.10.2000) (Brussels: European Commission)
(Garston: Building Research Establishment) (2002)
(2000)
14 Estimating the social cost of carbon emissions Government 30 Noise and vibration control for HVAC CIBSE Guide B5
Economic Service Working Paper 140 (London: Department (London: Chartered Institution of Building Services
for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs) (2002) Engineers) (2002)
15 Hygienic maintenance of ventilation ductwork CIBSE TM26 31 Letherman K and Wei F M Condensed statistics on the CIBS
(London: Chartered Institution of Building Services Example Weather Year — Kew Building Serv. Eng. Res. Technol.
Engineers) (2000) 1 (3) 157–159 (1980)
Appendix A1: Worked example set by the user. The data used for determining the
relationship between pressure loss and face velocity is
using spreadsheet tool provided in the ‘pressure loss curves’ worksheet for
information only.
A1.1 Introduction
A1.2 Using the spreadsheet
This appendix illustrates the use of the tool described in
section 1.3.12. The spreadsheet was created in Microsoft®
Excel 2000. It may be downloaded from the ‘research’ area Unless the user already has energy consumption costs, the
of the CIBSE website (www.cibse.org). The spreadsheet user should start by going to the ‘generic model’
consists of three worksheets: worksheet. The parameters available are explained as
follows:
— whole-life costs
— Operating profile: 0 for 08:00 to 18:00 operation
— generic model Monday to Friday, or 1 for continuous operation
— pressure loss curves.
— Face velocity: velocity of airflow across components
(m·s–1)
The ‘whole-life costs’ worksheet calculates the net present
value (NPV) costs for up to four mechanical ventilation — Pre-heat set point: the AHU is assumed to have a pre-
options (see Figure A1.1). The ‘whole-life costs’ worksheet heat coil, (typically set to 5 ºC), to pre-heat the air
allows the user to input the assessment criteria, capital before it reaches the filters or heat exchanger. Note
costs and running costs. that pre-heat can be avoided for thermal wheels.
Fuel costs can be calculated from the ‘generic model’ — Heat exchanger: the user can specify the sensible
worksheet (see Figure A1.2) and updated to the ‘whole-life efficiency of a heat recovery device. If no heat
costs’ worksheet. The ‘generic model’ worksheet is based recovery is required, the user can input 0 and the
on an air handling unit (AHU) supplying full fresh air with spreadsheet will ignore the associated pressure
extract. The fuel costs are based on per unit of flow rate loss. For the base case option, the user has two
(supplied and extracted in kW/(m3·s–1) or W/(litre·s–1)). cells to input, the first determines if the heat
The energy costs are based on ambient conditions taken exchanger is bypassed when heat recovery is not
from the CIBSE Test Reference Year for the London area. required (i.e. bypass when ambient temperature is
The ‘generic model’ is able to determine pressure drops greater than the heating set point temperature, no
across components as a function of face velocities (m·s–1) recovery of cooling energy).
A B C D E F G H I J K
1
2 LIFE CYCLE COSTING
3
4 ASSESSMENT CRITERIA ENERGY COSTS
5 Analysis period (years) : 10 Gas (p/kWh) : 1
6 Discount rate (%) : 6 Electricity (p/kWh) : 5 NPV input
7 Inflation rate for energy (%) : 0 Other fuel costs (p/Unit) parameters
8 Inflation rate for maintenance (%) : 0 Title - : 0 and unit
9 fuel costs
10 Base Option 1 Option 2 Option 3
11 FIRST COST
12 Equipment cost (£/m3/s) : 2000 3000 2200 3300
13 Installation costs (£/m3/s) : 0 0 0 0 8000
14 Additional costs (£/m3/s) : 0 0 0 0 Capital costs
15 for AHU
16 7000
17 ENERGY CONSUMPTION
18 Annual gas consumption (kWh/m3/s) : 24533 3143 24533 3143 6000
19 Annual electricity consumption (kWh/m3/s) : 4444 5184 4170 4625
20 Annual consumption, other (Units/m3/s) : 0 0 0 0 Fuel costs
5000 from 'generic
21
22 MAINTENANCE COSTS model'
23 Total annual maintenance costs (£/m3/s) : 100 100 100 100 4000
24 Intermittent maintenance costs (£/m3/s) : 0 0 0 0
25 Frequency (years) : 0 0 0 0 3000
26 Main filter replacement (£/m3/s) : 35.0 35.0 35.0 35.0
27 Frequency (years) : 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 Filter
28 Pre filter replacement (£/m3/s) : 20.0 20.0 20.0 20.0 2000 replacement
29 Frequency (years) : 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 costs
30 1000
31
32
CALCULATED COSTS (£/m3/s) 0
33 Base Results of
34 Total first cost : 2000.00 3000.00 2200.00 3300.00
35 Annual energy consumption : 467.52 290.65 453.83 262.69 NPV analysis
36 Annual maintenance cost : 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00
37 Total discounted energy costs : 3440.99 2139.23 3340.26 1933.39
38 Total discounted maintenance costs : 1557.59 1557.59 1557.59 1557.59
39
40 Whole life cost : 6998.58 6996.82 7097.85 6790.97
41
42
Figure A1.1 Screen image of whole-life cost spreadsheet tool
— Pre-filter and main filter: allows the user to define 2

the final pressure across the filter at which it is 3
4 Generic model of mechanical ventilation system
replaced and the interval between replacements 5
(in years). The final pressures are typically 150 Pa 6 Base case
for pre-filters and 250 Pa for main filters. The 7
8 Operating profile 0
replacement intervals for options 1 to 3, are 9
calculated relative to the value set for the base case 10 Face velocity (m/s) 2
option. 11
12 Pre-heat set point (°C) 5
— Cooling and heating coil: the user can specify the set 13
14 Heat exchanger efficiency (%) 1 0
point temperatures of the cooling and heating 15
coils. Note that the cooling set point should be 16 Pre-filter 0.5 150
equal to or greater than the heating set point. 17
18 Main filter 0.5 250
— Supply and extract ductwork: allows the user to 19
20 Cooling coil set point (°C) 18
specify the pressure loss of the supply and extract 21
ductwork used in calculating the overall specific 22 Heating coil set point (°C) 18
fan power (SFP) of the system. 23
24 Supply fan efficiency (%) 75
— Supply and extract fan efficiency: the combined fan 25
26 Supply ductwork (Pa) 500
and motor drive efficiencies used in calculating 27
the overall specific fan power (SFP) of the system. 28 Extract ductwork (Pa) 250
29
— Extract temperature: this specifies the temperature 30 Extract fan efficiency (%) 60
31
of the extract air, used in calculating the energy 32 Extract temperature (°C) 20
recovery when using a heat exchanger. 33
34
— Annual energy consumption: the user is able to 35 Overall SFP (kW/m3/s) 1.51
specify the efficiency of the boiler system and the 36
37 Annual energy consumption (kWh)
coefficient of performance of the chiller system. 38
39 Boiler 80 24533
40
41 Chiller 3 524
A1.3 Worked example 42
43 Total electricity 4444
This example looks at the effect on whole-life cost of 44
45
varying the face velocity through the AHU, and also the
Figure A1.2 Worked example for the base case option using the ‘generic
benefits of adding heat recovery. model’ worksheet
Beginning with the ‘generic model’ worksheet, set the

operating profile to 0 (08:00 to 18:00 Monday to Friday),
and input the same parameters as shown in Figure A1.2.
The input parameters describe an AHU with pre-heat to the data are as follows. Analysis period of 10 years,
5 ºC, supply air at 18 ºC, and no heat recovery. The face discount rate of 6%, gas at 1 p/kW·h and electricity at
velocity is set to 2 m·s–1, the supply and extract fan 5 p/kW·h.
efficiencies are 75% and 60% respectively. The supply and
extract ductwork have pressure losses of 500 Pa and The capital cost for the AHU options are:
250 Pa respectively. The efficiency of the boiler system is
80% and the COP of the chiller system is 3. — Base case (no heat recovery; face velocity 2 m·s–1):
£2000
For comparison, under options 1, 2 and 3 set the face
velocity and heat exchanger parameters as shown in Table — Option 1 (as base case but with heat recovery):
A1.1. Option 1 has the addition of heat recovery, option 2 £3000
has a lower face velocity and option 3 has both heat — Option 2 (as base case but with face velocity of
recovery and reduced face velocity. 1.5 m·s–1): £2200
To compare the net present value (NPV) cost for the four — Option 3 (with heat recovery and face velocity of
options, click on the command button labelled ‘Update 1.5 m·s–1): £3300
WLC’ to update the energy consumption figures to the
‘whole-life costs’ worksheet. The cost parameters should The results for the parameters used are summarised in the
then be input on the whole-life cost sheet. In the example, graph shown in Figure A1.3, which indicates that for a
08:00 to 18:00 operating profile the difference between
Table A1.1 Options for worked example whole-life costs are small.
Parameter Value
Changing the operating profile to continuous operation
Base case Option 1 Option 2 Option 3 would produce the results shown in Figure A1.4, which
Face velocity (m·s–1) 2.0 2.0 1.5 1.5 shows that using heat recovery can make a significant
Pre-heat set point (°C) 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0
reduction to the whole-life costs. (Note that after making
any changes to the ‘generic model’ worksheet, the user
Heat exchanger 0 75 0 75 needs to click on ‘Update WLC’ for the data to be updated
efficiency (%) to the ‘whole-life costs’ worksheet).
8000 18000
First cost Operating cost First cost Operating cost
7000 16000
14000
6000
Whole life cost / £

Whole life cost / £
12000
5000
10000
4000
8000
3000
6000
2000
4000
1000 2000
0 0
Base Option 1 Option 2 Option 3 Base Option 1 Option 2 Option 3
Figure A1.3 Comparison of whole-life cost for 08:00 to 18:00 (Monday Figure A1.4 Comparison of whole-life cost for continuous operation
to Friday) operation
Appendix A2: Basis of the ‘T-method’ λL  ρV

2
of duct sizing
Ptot = 
 D
+ ∑ C
 2
(A2.4)
ASHRAE Handbook: Fundamentals(24) describes an

where λ is the friction coefficient, L is the duct length (m),
alternative sizing strategy, called the ‘T-method’, based on
D is the hydraulic friction diameter (m), Σ C is the sum of
life-cycle analysis. The T-method considers both initial
the dynamic loss coefficients for duct fittings within duct
system cost and the present worth of the energy cost, and
section, ρ is the air density (kg·m–3) and V is the flow
is represented by equation A2.1. (Note that the ‘space cost’
velocity (m·s–1).
of ductwork is not accounted for within this analysis. This
is an important factor which may, in practice, shift the
design emphasis towards reducing the size of ductwork The energy cost over the system life is then calculated
rather than reducing system pressure loss in order to from the product of the annual energy cost and the present
minimise energy consumption.) worth escalation factor. Thus the discounted lifetime
energy costs can be determined by combining the above
E = (Ep × PWEF) + Es (A2.1) equations, and substituting (4 Q/π D2) for the velocity,
resulting in the following expression:
where E is the present worth owning and operating cost
8 Q3 ρ  λ L ( Ed + Ec T ) PWEF
∑ C
(£), Ep is the annual energy cost (£), PWEF is the present
EpL =  +
worth escalation factor (see 1.3.9) and Es is the initial cost 1000 π 2 D 4  D η
of the installed ductwork (£).
(A2.5)
In the ASHRAE analysis, the fan energy only looks at the
impact of frictional losses in straight ductwork. In the where EpL is the discounted lifetime energy costs (£) and
following sections, this is extended to include the impact PWEF is the present worth escalation factor (see 1.3.9).
of bends.
A2.2 Capital costs of ductwork

A2.1 Annual energy costs
Sample unit cost for straight ductwork is provided in
Fan power is determined from the usual expression: Figure A2.1. These estimates of the initial cost of
ductwork are derived from Spon’s Mechanical and Electrical
Q Ptot Services Price Book 2001(27), where the cost is quoted in
W = ——— (A2.2) terms of a cost per unit surface area of duct and is given as
1000 η a function of the hydraulic diameter. The figure shows
that the majority of duct sizes have unit cost of between 30
where W is the fan power (kW), Q is the airflow through and 40 £/m2.
the length of ductwork (m3·s–1), Ptot is the total pressure
drop along the length of ductwork (Pa) and η is the As discussed in 2.6, the pressure loss in a real duct system
fractional combined fan/drive/motor efficiency. is dominated by the fittings, and so it is important to
include for their cost and pressure loss. Unfortunately,
The annual energy cost is made up of the unit cost and the reliable data on loss coefficients and cost relationships for
demand cost, both of which depend on the required fan such fittings is complex and/or difficult to obtain. Sample
power as shown by the following equation: unit costs for 90º segmented bends are provided in Figure
A2.2, again derived from Spon’s Mechanical and Electrical
Services Price Book 2001(27). This shows a non-linear
Q Ptot relationship between size and cost which can be
Ep = ——— (Ec T + Ed) (A2.3)
approximated by an exponential relationship of the form:
1000 η
where Ep is the annual energy cost, Ec is the unit energy Ef = α e(β D) (A2.6)
cost (£/kW·h), T is the system operating time per year (h)
and Ed is the energy demand cost (£/kW). where Ef is the cost of the fittings (£), and α and β are
constants.
The energy demand cost of electricity applies only to
maximum demand tariffs which, at the time of writing 100
(December 2002) is typically between 1.0 and 1.3 £/kVA 90 Circular
per month for the UK market. Thus the demand cost 80
Square
Unit cost / (£/m2)
would be between 12 and 15.6 £/kW p.a. This can be

70
compared with the energy consumption cost of between
150 to 438 £/kW p.a., based on 0.05 £/kW·h and annual 60
operating hours of 3000 and 8760 (continuous operation). 50
40
Total pressure drop (Ptot) is determined by equation A2.4.
This equation accounts for friction losses in straight 30
ductwork and the dynamic losses resulting from flow 20
disturbances caused by fittings. 0 0·2 0·4 0·6 0·8 1·0 1·2 1·4 1·6 1·8
Diameter / m
Figure A2.1 Unit cost of ductwork
Appendix A2: Basis of the ‘T-method’ of duct sizing 25
600 A2.3 Economic optimisation

500 Circular
Unit cost per bend / £
Square For circular duct sections, equations A2.5 and A2.7 can be
400 combined and re-arranged to give equation A2.8, which
represents the combined capital and lifetime energy cost
300 of the length of ductwork:
200
8 Q3 ρ  λ L
100
E= 
1000 π 2 D 4  D
+ ∑ C Z
0 + Sd π L D + N α e ( β D) (A2.8)
0 0·2 0·4 0·6 0·8 1·0 1·2 1·4 1·6
Diameter / m
Figure A2.2 Plot of installed unit cost against size for 90º segmented where Z is the life-cycle factor (see equation A2.9).
bends
The life-cycle factor is given by:
The initial cost of a run of circular ductwork and (Ed + Ec T) PWEF

associated bends can therefore be estimated from an Z = ——————––– (A2.9)
expression of the form: η
The summation of dynamic loss coefficients (Σ C) in

Es = Sd π D L + N α e(β D) (A2.7) equation A2.8 can be replaced with the term (N × ξ),
where ξ is the loss coefficient for each bend in the duct
section.
where Sd is the unit duct cost as installed (£/m2), L is the
duct length (m) and N is the number of bends in the duct Equation A2.8 can then be differentiated to establish the
run. duct diameter, Dopt that gives the minimum whole-life
cost as follows:
In reality, there would be additional fittings (e.g. a tee  8 Q3 Z ρ   4 N ξ D + 5 λ L 

6
Dopt = 3 2   (A2.10)
piece) and perhaps components (e.g. a damper) in each  10 π   Sd π L + N α β e ( β D) 
section of the duct run. However, because robust cost and
pressure loss data for such fittings and components are
not available, the effect of such fittings has been ignored. This equation may be solved numerically to give Dopt.
Index Electrostatic filters

Energy consumption
17
22
Operating profile
Optimum duct velocities
21
10
AC (alternating current) motors 16–17 Energy Consumption Guide 19 2 Optimum friction gradient 10
Air handling units 8, 14–17 Energy costs 2–3, 4–5 Optimum specific fan power 15
capital costs 3, 11, 15, 18 heat recovery 18
pressure drops 8, 15–16, 19 spreadsheet tool 21 Parallel circular ductwork 11–12
schematic 1 T-method of ductwork sizing 24 Pay back period 1
service life 4 — see also Carbon emissions; Fuel costs Performance certificates 2
Air leakage 9, 19 Energy efficiency 4–5, 17
Performance standards 2, 4, 7, 19
ASHRAE Handbook: Fundamentals 9, 24 — see also Specific fan power
Plenums 12–13
Aspect ratios 12 Energy performance certificates 2
Pre-filter 7, 22
Assessment methodology 6–7 Enhanced capital allowances (ECAs) 3, 4
Ensured life 3 Pre-heat set point 6–7, 21
Availability 5–6
Environmental costs 5 Prefabrication 4
Axial fans — see Fans
Extract systems 12–13, 22 Present worth escalation factors (PWEF) 5, 6,
Bends 8–9, 24–25 Extract temperature 7, 22 24
Building Regulations Approved Document L2 Pressure drops
2, 4, 7, 19 Facades 13 air handling units 8, 15–16, 19
Building Regulations, Part L 2, 4, 8 Face velocities bends 8–9
Building services component life manual 3 air handling units 8 coil bypassing 16
Building Standards (Scotland) Regulations specific fan power 14–15 dampers 13, 17
7, 19 spreadsheet parameters 6, 21, 22 diffusers 14
Bypassing coils 15–16, 19 Fan efficiencies 7, 16, 19, 22 ductwork 8–9, 11, 19, 24
Fans 16 fan selection 16
Capital costs 1, 2–3, 24–25 carbon emissions 2 filters 5, 7, 8, 17, 19
air handling units 3, 11, 15, 18 design margins 17 fittings 8
ductwork 3, 15, 24–25 duct leakage 9
heat recovery devices 8
Carbon emissions 2, 4, 5, 13 service life 3
silencers 7, 17
— see also Energy costs — see also Specific fan power
spreadsheet parameters 6, 7, 21
Cavity ventilation 13 Filters 5, 7, 8, 17, 19
spreadsheet parameters 6, 22 Private finance initiatives (PFI) 2, 4
Ceiling voids 12, 13, 19
Filtration standards 7 Pumps 2
Centrifugal fans — see Fans
CIBSE Commissioning Code A: Air distribution Fittings 8, 13, 24–25
systems 4 — see also Dampers Rectangular ductwork 9, 12
CIBSE Guide A: Environmental design 14 Floor voids 12–13 Reliability 5–6
CIBSE Guide B2: Ventilation and air conditioning Flow rates 10, 11 Replacement costs 3–4
1, 7, 8 Friction gradients 10, 11 Replacement of filters 5, 7, 17, 19
CIBSE Guide B3: Ductwork 9 Fuel costs 4–5, 6, 11, 21 Return air temperature 7, 22
CIBSE Technical Memorandum TM26:
Hygienic maintenance of office ventilation Guide to ownership, operation and maintenance of SAVE-DUCT project 9
ductwork 5 building services 3, 5 Seasonal efficiency 7, 22
Circular ductwork 9, 11–12 Sensitivities 2, 6, 10, 19
Cleaning — see Hygiene; Maintenance Heat recovery 8, 13, 17–18, 19 Service life 3–4, 19
Coils 15–16, 19, 22 efficiency 6, 21 Silencers 7–8, 17
Commissioning 9, 13, 17 spreadsheet parameters 21, 22
Sizing — see Ductwork, sizing
Commissioning costs 4 Heating coils 22
Social costs 5
Components 13–14, 16–17 High velocity ductwork 8, 10, 11
Specific fan power 7, 19
Constant volume devices 13 HVCA DW144: Specification for sheet metal
face velocity 14–15
Control devices 13 ductwork 9
Hydraulic diameters 12 fan selection 16
Cooling coils 15–16, 19, 22
Costs 4–5 Hygiene 5 heat exchangers 17–18
— see also Capital costs; Energy costs; Spreadsheet tool 6–7, 15, 19, 21–23
Fuel costs; Installation costs; Index run 10 Squirrel cage motors 16–17
Maintenance costs; Operating costs; Inflation 6, 11 Standards — see Filtration standards;
Replacement costs; Whole-life costing Initial costs — see Capital costs; Performance standards
Commissioning costs; Installation costs Supply systems 12–13, 22
Dampers 13, 17 Installation costs 4, 19 Supply temperature 7
DC (direct current) motors 16–17 Installation life 4
Demand-controlled ventilation 7, 19 T-method, ductwork sizing 9, 24–25
Design checklist 19 Leakage 9, 19 Technical standards for compliance with the
Design margins 17, 19 Local extract systems 13 Building Standards (Scotland) Regulations
Diffusers 14 1990 7, 19
Discount rates 5, 6 Main filter 7, 22 Terminal devices 14
Displacement ventilation 14 Maintenance 3
Threshold unit cost 18
Disposal costs 4 Maintenance costs 5, 7
Duct diameters 9–11, 12 Mixed flow 14
Velocities — see Face velocities; Flow rates;
Ductwork 8–14, 15, 19 Motors 16–17, 19
High velocity ductwork; Optimum duct
capital costs 3, 15, 24–25
hygiene 5 Net present value 1, 21, 22 velocities
layout 4, 19 Velocity criteria 10, 11
pressure drops 8–9, 11, 19, 24 Off-site fabrication 4 Ventilation strategies 14
service life 3 Office buildings 2, 12 — see also Demand-controlled ventilation
sizing 9–11, 19, 24–25 Operating costs 1, 2, 3 Voids 12–13, 19
spreadsheet parameters 22 — see also Energy costs; Maintenance
Electricity prices — see Fuel costs costs Whole-life costing 1–7

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cover spread 2 31/1/03 2:55 pm Page 1

Improved life cycle performance

The Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers

CIBSE TM30: 2003

The Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a

Registered charity number 278104

This document is based on the best knowledge available at the

Note from the publisher:

Layout and typesetting by CIBSE Publications

Printed in Great Britain by The Chameleon Press Ltd, Wandsworth

Printed on 100% recycled paper comprising at least 80%

TM30 Task Group

CIBSE Editorial Manager

CIBSE Research Manager

CIBSE Publishing Manager

Note from the publisher

3 Whole-life cost impact of system components 9

Appendix A1: Worked example using spreadsheet tool 21

Appendix A2: Basis of ‘T-method’ of duct sizing 24

Improved life cycle performance of mechanical

Whole-life costing involves an analysis of trade-off. It

The systems considered in this document incorporate an 1.1.2 Contents of TM30

Figure 1 Schematic of typical air

A consequence of the government’s commitment to

Cooling Initial capital costs are traditionally the only element

Ductwork AHU Energy 1.3.2 Service life and replacement costs

80 capital cost of the plant is only half of the story. Capital

1.3.7 Environmental cost of carbon 700

The period over which the filter media should be changed

inflation rate for fuel (%/100). 30

2.2 Filtration standards

Friction Fittings Components Table 3 HVCA recommended leakage classes

on commissioning and subsequent operational efficiency

2·5 Running hours (h) and

Friction gradient / Pa·m–1

Percentage of whole-life costs / %

1·0 Using the sample configuration, the relationship between

5 m3·s–1 1 m3·s–1 11500

Figure 21 Life cycle cost for 2600 operating hours

Fan energy savings / %

80 EFF 1 (2 pole) Actual system

An important issue relative to specification and operating 3.4 Heat recovery

Using the CIBSE Example Weather Year for SE England

Discounted whole-life cost / (£/m2)

— Supply air at 18 ºC, extract air at 20 ºC during the

Analysis period / years

4 Design checklist — Step 7: Consider the design margins added for

References 16 Guide to good practice — Cleanliness of ventilation systems HVCA

— Pre-filter and main filter: allows the user to define 2

Beginning with the ‘generic model’ worksheet, set the

Whole life cost / £

Appendix A2: Basis of the ‘T-method’ λL  ρV

ASHRAE Handbook: Fundamentals(24) describes an

A2.2 Capital costs of ductwork

would be between 12 and 15.6 £/kW p.a. This can be

600 A2.3 Economic optimisation

The initial cost of a run of circular ductwork and (Ed + Ec T) PWEF

The summation of dynamic loss coefficients (Σ C) in

In reality, there would be additional fittings (e.g. a tee  8 Q3 Z ρ   4 N ξ D + 5 λ L 

Index Electrostatic filters

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