Dive into Visual Arts: A Module in AH 4 Reading Visual Arts | 1

Lesson 2.1 Introduction to Art and Visual Arts

One of our goal is to clearly define what is visual arts, but defining art is said to be elusive
(Sachant, Blood, LeMieux, & Tekippe)

Artist: Joachim von Sandrart;

engraving by Johann Jakob von
Sandrart
Author: User “Fae”
Source: Wikimedia Commons
License: Public Domain

Figure 1 Figure 5. Zeuxis conceding defeat: “I have deceived the birds, but Parhassios has deceived Zeuxis.”

So we should look on the historic development of the idea of art, its used on
communication, its significant form as well as the artworld.

The ancient Greek‘s definition of art as mimesis, or imitation of the real world, appears in the
myth of Zeuxis and Parhassios, rival painters from ancient Greece in the late fifth century BCE
who competed for the title of greatest artist.

Figure 5. is about Zeuxis who painted a bowl of grapes that was so lifelike that birds
came down to peck at the image of fruit. Parhassios was unimpressed with this achievement.
When viewing Parhassios‘s work, Zeuxis, on his part, asked that the curtain over the painting be
drawn back so he could see his rival‘s work more clearly. Parhassios declared himself the victor
because the curtain was the painting, and while Zeuxis fooled the birds with his work,
Parhassios fooled a thinking human being—a much more difficult feat.

The ancient Greeks felt that the visual artist‘s goal was to copy visual experience. This
approach appears in the realism of ancient Greek sculpture and pottery. We must sadly note
that, due to the action of time and weather, no paintings from ancient Greek artists exist today.
We can only surmise their quality based on tales such as that of Zeuxis and Parhassios, the
obvious skill in ancient Greek sculpture, and in drawings that survive on ancient Greek pottery.

But, this definition of art as ―copying reality‖ has a problem, though. Jackson Pollock
(1912-1956, SA), a leader in the New York School of the 1950‘s, intentionally did not copy
existing objects in his art. While painting these works, Pollock and his fellow artists would
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consciously avoid making marks or passages that resembled recognizable objects. They
succeeded at making artwork that did not copy anything, thus demonstrating that the ancient
Greek view of art as mimesis—simple copying—does not sufficiently define art.

A later attempt at defining art comes from the nineteenth-century Russian author Leo
Tolstoy. Tolstoy wrote on many subjects and is the author of the great novel War and Peace
(1869). He was also an art theorist. He proposed that art is the communication of feeling,
stating, ―Art is a human activity consisting in this, that one man consciously by means of certain
external signs, hands on to others feelings he has lived through, and that others are infected by
these feelings and also experience them.‖

This also may scope the concept of a more primitive artworks, like cave paintings and
paintings thru the skin of animals or plants, on the first glance we can say it is art but becomes
more utilitarian than art, since it is become a communication pathway from one civilization to the
next.

Likewise, this definition fails because it is impossible to confirm that the feelings of the
artist have been successfully conveyed to another person. Further, suppose an artist created a
work of art that no one else ever saw. Since no feeling had been communicated through it,
would it still be a work of art? The work did not ―hand on to others‖ anything at all because it
was never seen. Therefore, it would fail as art according to Tolstoy‘s definition.

To address these limitations of existing definitions of art, in 1913 English art critic Clive
Bell proposed that art is significant form, or the ―quality that brings us aesthetic pleasure.‖ Bell
stated, ―to appreciate a work of art we need bring with us nothing but a sense of form and color.‖
In Bell‘s view, the term ―form‖ simply means line, shape, mass, as well as color. Significant
form is the collection of those elements that rises to the level of your awareness and gives you
noticeable pleasure in its beauty. Unfortunately, aesthetics, pleasure in the beauty and
appreciation of art, are impossible to measure or reliably define. What brings aesthetic pleasure
to one person may not affect another. Aesthetic pleasure exists only in the viewer, not in the
object. Thus, significant form is purely subjective. While Clive Bell did advance the debate about
art by moving it away from requiring strict representation, his definition gets us no closer to
understanding what does or does not qualify as an art object.

One definition of art widely held today was first promoted in the 1960s by American
philosophers George Dickie and Arthur Danto, and is called the institutional theory of art, or the
―Artworld‖ theory. In the simplest version of this theory, art is an object or set of conditions that
has been designated as art by a “person or persons acting on behalf of the artworld,” and the
artworld is a ―complex field of forces‖ that determine what is and is not art. Unfortunately, this
definition gets us no further along because it is not about art at all! Instead, it is about who has
the power to define art, which is a political issue, not an aesthetic one.

Power of defining what is art and what is not an art is very visible until today, that there
should be someone (could be an authority, or someone with educational background, or
someone held by the public) to verify that something is an art. In the case of Visual arts, to
make something considered to be an art, the artist puts its art in different platform and let the
society decide if this is an art. Somewhat this was very democratic, and lessen the monopoly of
 Dive into Visual Arts: A Module in AH 4 Reading Visual Arts | 3

art by the authorities. But the problem is the lacking of uniform or standard definition of art by
the public, where the public just consider art if they can understand (communication), or if it is
beautiful in their perspectives (significant form, or aesthetical)

We need both art and science to exist in the world. From our earliest age, we both
observe the world and do things to change it. We are all both scientists and artists. Every
human activity has both a science (observation) and an art (expression) to it. Anyone who has
participated in the discipline of Yoga, for example, can see that even something as simple as
breathing has both an art and a science to it.

This definition of art covers the wide variety of objects that we see in museums, on
social media, or even in our daily walk to work. But this definition of art is not enough.

The bigger question is: what art is worthy of our attention, and how do we know when we
have found it? Ultimately, each of us must answer that question for ourselves. But we do have
help if we want it. People who have made a disciplined study of art can offer ideas about what
art is important and why. Due to the importance of respecting the individual, the decision about
what art is best must belong to the individual. We ask only that the student understand the ideas
as presented. (Sachant, Blood, LeMieux, & Tekippe)

As a non-verbal source of information, the visual arts – distinct from the verbal and
literary arts – carry their potential mainly through perceptual means, without resort to
dictionaries and formalized grammar. Both the viewer and the artist-as-creator are engaged in
making ‗sense‘ of visual images, of things observed that do not carry clearly defined ways of
interpretation. (Jamieson)

Figure 2: Threefold aspects of Visual Arts (Jamieson)

This these threefold aspects of visual art demonstrate that engagement with art practice
and viewing offers a rich base for the engagement of mind.

The artist-as-creator has the mental and physical task of arranging the parts that make
up a whole(presentation), that later becomes an offering of perspective for the viewer. For the
artist-as-creator, making the art no matter what medium he or she is using, is a process of mind,
4 | E.Bediones and E. Razon

and thus it is an intellectual activity. Despite the lack of a formalized grammar, such as that
which underpins verbal language, as viewers we are constantly called upon to process
information of a non-verbal kind. As sentient beings, our connection with things outside our
bodies is primarily perceptual. It is not confined to cultural codes of interpretation. Although it
must be admitted that cultural influences bear upon perception in many ways, e.g. focusing and
interpreting (Jamieson).

Meanwhile presentation, as an offering to the visual sense, art can be seen to possess
the possibility of carrying information on three different levels. Firstly, the aesthetic, the form
there before the eye; secondly, as an icon, the ability to stand as a metaphor and thereby to
migrate into the verbal register; and thirdly, as representation, bringing to mind, by virtue of
likeness, a mental picture of place, thing or person. This uniqueness, which is not given to the
verbal, can be understood as an essential contribution to the place of art, not only as a material
manifestation but also as a challenge to the viewer‘s powers of perception and conception.
Seen in this light, art matters because it can call into play a wider scope of representation and
interpretation than that which is given by the verbal (Jamieson).

From this kind of approach we become aware of the limitations of judging art merely on
the basis of its creative potential, which, by the way, relies on the fact that it is less constrained
by rules than the verbal (which has an established grammar). Freed from highly restricted
conventions, (although it must be admitted that art as practice is not entirely free from
conventional forms of representation) art as a non-verbal form of representation lends itself
more readily to individual invention. (Jamieson)

Art matters because it is seen not as an „extra‟ but

as an extension of our sentient and mindful being.
We, as humans, are natural gatherer of information, and visual arts offers a glance of
enormous information triggering and guided by previous experiences or expectations.

In the 1980‘s, efforts to answer if visual arts contribute to cognition, Howard Gardner and
Elliot Eisner has point of views. In his multiple intelligence‘s theory, Gardner suggested that
each of the seven intelligences identified by his theory operates with a symbol system that is
uniquely its own, with many of these systems involving the arts. He suggested that a wider
representation of the various intelligences or symbol systems would widen the range of
cognitive abilities exercised, bringing a degree of balance to the curriculum. He criticized the
tendency of schools to focus on verbal and mathematical symbol systems while excluding those
offered by the arts (Efland, 2002).

Eisner, on the other hand, argued that the mind develops multiple forms of
representation through experience gained through the senses, with some grounded in visual
perception and others originating in auditory or tactile sources. If it were possible to convey
everything that humans wanted to express with one or two forms, the others would be
unnecessary or redundant. But since each of the arts offers unique ways of representing ideas
and feelings, which cannot be matched by other systems of representation, their presence can
 Dive into Visual Arts: A Module in AH 4 Reading Visual Arts | 5

be justified in terms of the cognitive abilities they nurture. Eisner‘s and Gardner‘s arguments
both were built upon the notion of nonredundance, the idea that the arts provide unique
opportunities for the development of the mind that are not available in other modalities. (Efland,
2002)

Lesson 2.2 Distinction of Fine Art

Anything that we can see can be considered as visual art, but that visual arts has distinction and
that includes the fine art.

The distinction between craft and art

is real and important. This distinction is
most understood as one based on the use
or end purpose of an object, or as an effect
of the material used. Clay, textiles, glass,
and jewelry were long considered the
province of craft, not art. If an object‘s
intended use was a part of daily living, then
it was generally thought to be the product of
craft, not fine art. But many objects
originally intended to be functional, such as
quilts, are now thought to qualify as fine art.

Anyone who has been exposed to

Figure 3 Quilt training in a craft such as carpentry or
plumbing recognizes that craft follows a
Artist: Lucy Mingo formula, that is, a set of rules that govern
Author: User “Billvolckening” not only how the work is to be conducted
Source: Wikimedia Commons
but also what the outcome of that work must
License: CC BY-SA 4.0
be. The level of craft is judged by how
closely the end product matches the pre-determined outcome. It is craft when we want a car
with wheels and a boat that is not sinking, or a house that stands upright. Fine art, on the other
hand, results from a free and open-ended exploration that does not depend on a pre-determined
formula for its outcome or validity. Its outcome is surprising and original. Almost all fine art
objects are a combination of some level both of craft and art. Art stands on craft but goes
beyond it. (Sachant, Blood, LeMieux, & Tekippe)
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Decorative Arts

When painting and sculpture were

placed in the new category of fine art, the
skilled activities they were formerly
associated with—textiles, ceramics,
metalwork, furniture making, and so on—
were grouped together under various
names, each of which suggested a
contrast with fine art. They were referred
to as decorative arts, suggesting that they
were primarily ornamental; applied arts,
suggesting that they were fundamentally
utilitarian; and even minor arts,

Figure 4. Tiered picnic box.

Japan, late 17th century. Wood, black

lacquer, gold hiramaki-e, silver powder, and
shell; 103⁄4 X 103⁄4 X 15". The British
Museum, London.

suggesting that they were inherently less

important. (Getlein, 2010)

Contemporary Art

Artist: Yayoi Kusama

Image via Wikipedia
 Dive into Visual Arts: A Module in AH 4 Reading Visual Arts | 7

Figure 5 I pray with all of my love for tulips, installation view at National Museum of Art, Osaka

There is no dominant definition of contemporary art. But the kown definition is as ―art
that has been and continues to be created during our lifetime. (Pantelić, 2016)‖ The term
demands respect from the beginning and its first word, contemporary, it almost seems to
suggest that you must know what it is without having to ask. God forbid you did, because maybe
then you will not be considered as someone who's in touch with what is going on.
Meanwhile WalkerArt.org noted that,

The answer is simple: contemporary art is art made today by living artists. As such, it reflects the
complex issues that shape our diverse, global, and rapidly changing world. Through their work, many
contemporary artists explore personal or cultural identity, offer critiques of social and institutional
structures, or even attempt to redefine art itself. In the process, they often raise difficult or thought-
provoking questions without providing easy answers. Curiosity, an open mind, and a commitment to
dialogue and debate are the best tools with which to approach a work of contemporary art. (Walker Art,
n.d.)

We should understand that Contemporary art also aims to understand the present, but
the present itself is now more fragmented and shape-shifting. In this setting, the works produced
can only reference the vastness of the variety on offer and since the category demands one be
aware of the world around them, the issues questioned are just like the wind. They are there
and they influence how we see and relate to the world but the next minute, something new
comes up and the focus shifts. With this, some new and redefined contemporary artwork
awakes.
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Lesson 3.1 Subjects and Their Uses in Art

In any forms of art, be it a painting, a dance, sculpture, music or architecture – there is
always a subject that serves as a representation of the artwork.
Subject refers to what an artwork is all about. It is varied because it pertains to anything
such as person, object, scene or event portrayed in an art.

Iconography and its significance

An iconography is a particular type of image used by an artist to convey particular
meaning. It is the traditional or conventional images or symbols with a subject and especially a
religious or legendary subject. It may also mean a particular depiction of a subject in terms of
the image content, like the number of figures used and their placing and gestures.
An example is the image of a lamb which represents Christ or the dove which represents
the Holy Spirit from the Christian religious paintings. However, in the iconography of classical
myth the dove may suggest any
woman like the goddess
Aphrodite or Athena. Hence, the
meaning of particular images can
depend on context.
In the early twentieth
century, some scholars
elaborated the practice of
identification and classification of
motifs in images using
iconography
to Figure 6The Good and Evil Angels by
William Blake
understand
meaning.

Different Kinds of Subject in Arts

1. Narrative Art
 This kind of art tells a story as a sequence of events or as a moment in an ongoing
story. This was very evident during the medieval period in the Christian tradition. The
Byzantine artists and the church itself depicted biblical scenes as a narrative.
 Dive into Visual Arts: A Module in AH 4 Reading Visual Arts | 9

Figure 7 Diana and Callisto by Peter Paul

Rubens

2. Nudism
 The art of nudism started way
back from the upper Paleolithic
period showing the image of
fertility deities. But the idea of
nudism became popular during
the early Greek time, wherein
almost all of their sculptural
figure were all done in the nude.
 Nude art is a work of art wherein
its primary subject is the
unclothed human body. Nude
figure is a tradition in Western
Art which was used to express
the ideals of male and female
beauty.
 In the modern art, the subject
usually a female figure is not
merely copied from nature, but
transformed into an aesthetic
object without significant
utilitarian, commercial or Figure 8 Adam and Eve by Albrecht Durer
decorative purposes.
 The modern and contemporary artists are no longer interested in the ideals of the
past, but confront the viewers with all sexuality and discomfort that is expressed by
an unclothed body.
 The judgment of whether this work is artistic or pornographic is ultimately subjective
and has changed through history.
10 | E.Bediones and E. Razon

3. Religious Art
 Religion has utilized the arts for its purposes,
usually for rituals and for teaching. Most of the
world‘s religions used arts for worship, for
preaching, to inspire feelings of devotion and to
convert non-believers.
 The Christian Church commissioned artists
and artisans to tell Christ‘s stories, the angels
and the saints in pictures like murals, paintings,
mosaics and the stained glass windows.
Biblical figures were sculpted and more
architectural structures were seen in churches,
basilicas, convents, mosques and monasteries.

4. Personification and allegory

 Talking about personification means talking
about allegory because texts and images
which are considered allegories often contain
personifications.
 Personification art is attaching human
attributes to a non-human object. It occurs Figure 9 Christ of St. John of the Cross by Salvador Dali
when a thing or abstraction is represented as a
person.
 Allegory in art is when the subject of the artwork or the elements that form the
composition, is used to symbolize a spiritual or moral meaning such as love, life,
death, etc.
 Allegorical or symbolic scenes were depicted by the Greco-Roman Gods in the West
who stood for ideals like love, desire or violence.
 Dive into Visual Arts: A Module in AH 4 Reading Visual Arts | 11

Figure 10 Personification Art Liberty Leading the

People by Eugene Delacroix

Figure 11 Allegory Art An Allegory of Man, Unknown

artist

5. Genre
 Artists have always shown a deep concern and interest about life around them. Their
observations of people
going about their usual
ways and performing
their daily tasks were
mostly shown in their
paintings. Examples of
these are candle
vendors, cockfighters,
children at play, etc.
These are called genre
paintings.
 Genre refers to works
whose subject is
everyday life that is
mostly seen in rural life.
This is usually being
portrayed by some
naturalistic-realistic
painters like Fernando
Amorsolo who loved to
paint life in the
province.

Figure 12 Pounding Rice by Vicente Manansala

6. Portraiture
 Portrait is a painting of a human figure
maybe the face, a bust figure or full figure.
It may show a single person or a group of
people standing, sitting or in motion.
 Portraits are commonly used to mark
milestones in people‘s lives. Occasions like
baptisms, wedding and graduations are
some of the events people pose for their
portraits.

Figure 13 Mona Lisa by

Leonardo da Vinci
12 | E.Bediones and E. Razon

7. Nature
 Artists have always
been fascinated with
their natural and
physical environment,
consisting of
seascapes, landscapes
and cityscapes.
Seascape is applied to
works that show
marine life, water forms
and sailing ships and
boats. On the other
hand, landscape
depicts sceneries on
land like mountain,

forest, trees, garden, Figure 14Bridge in the Autumn Forest by Olha Vyacheslavovna
Darchuk
etc. while cityscape
shows urban life.

8. Still Life
 Still life refers to any inanimate objects usually arranged in an indoor setting. It is a
work whose forms are
arranged deliberately
like a basket of fruits, a
bunch of flowers,
dishes of food on a
table, musical
instruments, etc. The
goodness of having a
still life as a subject is
its availability and
capability to be
organized. The artists
usually arrange the
objects to show
particular human
 Dive into Visual Arts: A Module in AH 4 Reading Visual Arts | 13

interests and activities.

Figure 15 Basket of Fruit by Caravaggio

9. rotest Art
 It is an art whose subject conveys strong hesitance to something, maybe satirical in
nature.
 This art as a form of disagreement was used by the artists of the early medieval
period in expressing
their discontentment
and disapproval against
the tyranny of Rome.
Early Christian art was
done secretly because
the Roman empire was
bent at consolidating
rules under an
emperor.
 In the modern days,
people fighting for their
rights made effigies,
placards and streamers
to raise their voice in Figure 16 Protest Art by Emory Douglas
protest.

10. Fantasy Art

 Fantasy art is an art of
imagination, since the
subject drawn here are
far from reality. It
suggests the strange,
the irrational and the
absurd. There can be
no limits imposed on
an artist‘s imagination
for it can go beyond the
real and the possible.

Figure 17 Fantasy Art by Nestor

Ossandon
14 | E.Bediones and E. Razon

11. Abstract and Non-Objective Art

 Abstract art is just the same as Non-Objective art in the sense that both do not
present descriptions, stories or references to identifiable objects or symbols. They
depart from what is
present in real life by
stripping down to visual
elements such as lines,
shapes and colors to
translates a particular
feeling, emotion and
even concept.
 The artist simplifies and
reorganizes objects and
elements according to
his artistic expressions. Figure 18 Squares with Concentric Circle by Wassily Kandinsky
The original objects can
be rarely identified unless the artist has named them in his title.