TOURISM PLATFORMS ADAPTANCY PLATFORM
A platform is a common theme shared by
each batch of studies on tourism.
A platform is very similar to the concept
of paradigm (perspective or set of ideas),
which is a way of looking at the nature of
something, identifying the issues which are
most important to consider, and thinking of
ways to solve those issues.
THE FIRST FOUR PLATFORMS
ENUMERATED COME FROM JAFARI
(1999), WHILE THE LAST ONE IS CITED
FROM TODES (2011)
1. Advocacy platform
2. Cautionary platform
3. Adaptancy platform
4. Knowledge-based platform
5. Social justice platform
ADVOCACY PLATFORM
Tourism is a “clean industry” because it
does not produce smoke that pollutes the
environment.
Tourism also revitalizes cultural traditions
The world is able to maintain peace
through mutual understanding that is
created by tourism.
The end result of this advocacy is mass
tourism. Theories that are related to this
platform are modernization theory and
trickle-down theory.
CAUTIONARY PLATFORM
Views tourism as a bad thing and
decries the negative effects of mass
tourism that the advocacy platform has
engendered. Critics of mass tourism view
tourism as creating dependency and
leakages the sap the wealth of the
country.
Acknowledges that mass tourism has
negative impacts but these can be
minimized or avoided with “alternative
tourism” (Jafari 1999), which refers to low-
volume low impact form of tourism-
antithesis of mass tourism.
KNOWLEDGE-BASED PLATFORM
Views tourism from holistic perspective;
not just from the impacts and forms but
in terms of the underlying structures and
functions. This platform supports a critical
analysis of tourism and is not inclined to
labeling certain forms of tourism.
SOCIAL JUSTICE PLATFORM
Embraces “participatory process
involving open dialogue; inclusivity,
resource distribution, equity, equality,
pro-poor planning; gender sensitivity;
responsiveness to diversity”
TOURISM DEVELOPMENT THEORIES
ADVOCACY PLATFORM
Laissez Faire Theory
Laissez Faire (French for “leave it be”)
theory assumes that an industry, such as
tourism, will function best when it is left
solely to market forces. This is also known
as liberal economic theory.
Modernization Theory
as applied to tourism assumes that tourism
contributes to the economic progress
and transformation of “traditional”
societies in modern ones. Tourism
improves the standard of living of the
residents through transfer of technology,
improvement of t knowledge and skills, and
the adoption of “Western culture”.
Trickle–Down Theory
Related to modernization theory is the
trickle-down theory. This theory assumes
that any form of economic growth will
lead to the improvement of the living
conditions of all. Everyone benefits from
tourism growth from the hotel manager to
the cigarette vendor.
Neoliberal Theory
Neoliberal theory of development posits that
the economy functions best when there
is minimal government intervention.
Unlike laissez faire where there is virtually
no control from government, neoliberalism
accepts the idea of government regulation
but rejects government competing with the
private sector by being a business operator
itself.
CAUTIONARY THEORIES
Dependency Theory
states that tourism can actually worsen
the plight of “Third World” countries
because the “First World” countries
exploit and siphon off the resources of
the latter. Tourism is seen as creating
dependencies by the “periphery”
(developing nations) on the “core”
(developed countries).
Irridex Model
Doxey’s Irritation Index model (Irridex
model) is a theory about the social
impacts of tourism. It states that
resident’s attitudes toward tourism will
deteriorate over the destination life cycle
as the negative consequences of tourism
intensify.
APPROACHES TO TOURISM PLANNING
AND DEVELOPMENT
NO PLANNING
Many destinations start out with no
tourism planning at all. Planning may not
be seen as necessary when the place
has underdeveloped supply and demand,
or where visitation rates are so small as to
not perceive any impact from it.
AD-HOC PLANNING
is planning only as the need arises, such
as planning in preparation for a town fiesta
or when an important visitor is coming.
Ad-hoc planning is related to issue-based
planning, which is planning driven by
issues that emerge from time to time and
the search for solutions to those issues
INTEGRATED TOURISM PLANNING
is when tourism is developed and
planned as an integrated system within
itself and as part of an overall tourism plan
and total development patterns in an area.
An example of integrated planning is
provided in the National Tourism
Development Plan (NTDP).
BOOSTERIST APPROACH
Boosterism sees tourism as a positive
force for economic growth. Its primary
goal is to maximize tourism revenues
through mass tourism.
The main strategies are to expand tourism
physical capacity and conduct heavy
international promotion campaigns.
(Product-led or market-led, State-led,
industry-led or shared enterprise between
public and private sector.)
PRODUCT-LED DEVELOPMENT
“Build it and they will come”. Product-led
approach suggests that the key to
successful tourism program is to provide
infrastructure, facilities, and amenities to
tourists.
SPATIAL PLANNING APPROACH
is a type of product-led tourism
planning, but on the wider scale. It is
focused on “destination layout and
design” and breaks down tourism into
spatial units such as gateways (main
access point, such as an airport),
communities, access, routes, attraction
complexes
Gunn and Var (2002, in Chaisawat n.d.)
identifies three spatial units in tourism.
1. Site scale refers to planning at the level
of individual tourism property like hotel,
resort, or restaurant.
2. Destination scale is the planning of
tourism in a community and its
surrounding areas.
3. Regional scale is planning at the level of
province, region, or country.
DEMAND-LED APPROACH
“Know the customer and satisfy them”.
Demand-led approach is akin to Kotler’s
marketing orientation. Demand-led
approach is important for two reasons.
 First is we need to design the tourism
product around the market, and
 Second, demand projections serve as
the basis for expansion of the physical
capacity of the destination.
BUREAUCRATIC/GOVERNMENT-LED
APPROACH
Bureaucratic approach puts the
Government at the center of planning
and development. It is the primary and
multi-tasking actor. Government may use
various types of instruments to promote
tourism- advocacy, money, action, and
laws.
TWO TYPES OF BUREAUCRATIC
APPROACHES
1. Central planning approach is where
the national-level agencies carry out all
functions related to tourism planning
and development.
2. Devolved planning approach is where
local government units assume control
of tourism planning and development
for their respective jurisdictions.
MIDDLE PATH APPROACH (BHUTAN
MODEL)
The opposite of boosterism is low
volume, high-yield tourism, which
Scheyvens (2007) called the “middle path
approach” of Bhutan where strict controls
are imposed on the types and volume of
tourism to maximize revenue but minimize
the adverse effects of tourism religion,
culture, and environment.
ENVIRONMENTAL APPROACH
Environmental approach works best when
the place being considered for tourism
development is endowed with natural
attractions of outstanding beauty; remote;
beyond the reach of commercial electric and
water services; or protected by laws, such
as protected areas and ancestral domains
of indigenous people.
Carrying Capacity is one of the most
important concepts in environmental
planning. Carrying capacity is defined as
“the minimum number people that may
visit a tourist destination at the same
time, without causing destruction of the
physical, economic, socio-cultural
environment, and an unacceptable
decrease in the quality of visitors
satisfaction”
Limits of Acceptable Change (LAC) is
another useful concept in tourism planning.
The LAC approach attempts to delimit the
conditions that are deemed ideal for an
area and sets up management strategies to
achieve the conditions.
ECOTOURISM APPROACH
It is defined by the DOT (2002) as “a form
of sustainable tourism within a natural
and cultural heritage area where The fair trade movement is “a response to
community participation, protection and the failure of conventional trade to
management of natural resources, culture deliver sustainable livelihoods and
and indigenous knowledge and practices, development opportunities to people in
environmental education and ethics, as well the poorest countries of the world”
as economic benefits are fostered and
Fair trade is a trading partnership, based
pursued for the enrichment of host
on dialogue, transparency and
communities and satisfaction of visitors.
respect,that seeks greater equity in
SOCIAL APPROACH international trade.
Social approaches to tourism planning SUSTAINABLE TOURISM APPROACH
emphasize the role of stakeholders in the
Tourism should be developed without
tourism planning process. It is concerned
damaging natural or cultural resources
with directing the benefit and control of
so that those will come after us may also
resources toward the community and other
have the opportunity to enjoy them.
vulnerable groups.
Sustainable tourism development is
PARTICIPATORY/STAKEHOLDER
supported by the triple bottom line of
APPROACH
environmental conservation, social
puts people at the center of the planning justice, and economic viability.
process. It is an approach in which each
We can also call it Equity, Environment,
relevant stakeholder has a say in the
Economy. It is a form of tourism that
deliberation and decision-making process.
respects local culture, protects nature, and
COMMUNITY-BASED TOURISM advocates social responsibility and fair
commerce.
is “tourism that is owned and/or
managed by communities and intended
to deliver wider community benefit”
(Armstrong 2012). The core idea of CBT is
allowing a community to have control over a
tourism enterprise.
Community-based tourism is an example of
transactive planning approach, which is
“based on social learning theory and
transactive (interpersonal) interaction.
PRO-POOR APPROACH
Pro-poor tourism (PPT) is defined as
“tourism that generates net benefits for
the poor” (Ashley, Roe, & Goodwin 2001).
In this approach, “the needs of the poor are
prioritized over externally-oriented growth
imperatives”
FAIR TRADE TOURISM