CHAPTER EIGHT

Fold and mechanism

of folding

Lecturer:
Elias A. MSc (Engineering geologist) 1
CHAPTER CONTENTS

1. Fold Morphology
2. Description of Fold Shapes
3. Classification of Folds
4. Poly-phase Folding and interference of folds
5. Mechanisms of Folding
6. Controlling Factors of Folding

2
FOLD GEOMETRY
A fold is a structure produced when an originally planar surface is bent or curved as a
result of deformation. Folds are expressions of a ductile type of deformation that
produced more gradual and more continuous changes in a rock layer both in its attitudes
and internally as the rock accommodates strain by changing in shape.

3
FOLD ANATOMY
1. Fold hinge- part of a folded layer where there is maximum curvature
2. Fold limb- part of a folded layer between hinges
3. Inflection point- maximum slope on a limb (of an upright fold), often midway between
hinges; it is a point separating concave curvature in one direction from concave curvature
in the opposite direction.
4. Inter-limb angle- the smallest angle between two limbs
5. Fold axis- an imaginary line along the fold hinge
6. Fold axial plane- an imaginary plane that bisects the angle between limbs
7. Fold axial surface- a plane that passes through the hinge lines of successive layers
8. Fold median surface- a surface defined by joining adjacent inflection points
9. Fold enveloping surface- a surface which is either tangential to the fold hinges of small
(second-order parasitic) folds or passes through the inflection points of the folded layer
10. Fold profile- the shape of a fold projected on a plane normal to a fold axis
11. Fold amplitude/ Fold Height- the height measured from the hinge point to the median
surface
12. Fold wavelength- the distance between adjacent hinge lines
13. Fold width - the distance between the inflection points
14. Fold crest- the highest point of a fold
15. Fold trough- the lowest point of a fold
4
Interlimb angle of a fold

5
Anatomy of a fold
6
7
 Wavelength, amplitude and arc length of a fold
in profile section

Enveloping surface and median surface of a fold

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 SHAPE OF FOLDS
Definitions
1a) Antiform: a fold with a convex side upward;
b) Anticline is a fold with the old units at the core;
c) Anticlinorium is a large anticlinal fold containing smaller second-order
fold;
d) Synform anticline: an anticline with a synformal shape.
2a) Synform: a fold with a convex side downward;
b) syncline is a fold with the young units at the core
c) Synclinorium is a large synclinal fold containing smaller second-order folds
d) Antiform syncline: a syncline with an antiformal shape.
3a) Neutral fold: a fold with a convex side neither upward nor downward. It
could be recumbent or overturned fold
b) Recumbent fold: a fold with horizontal axial plane. 9
1. Antiform, Anticline, Anticlinorium,
Synform Anticline
2. Synform, Syncline, Synclinorium,
Antiform Syncline

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Recumbent fold

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 Anticline fold
Kink fold

Recumbent fold

Anticline fold 12
4.Parallel Folds:- are folds that maintain constant layer thickness
throughout the folded surface.
Folds in which the thickness of the layer, measured normal to the bed is
constant.
However thickness parallel to the axial plane is not constant.

4. Parallel fold
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5) Similar folds: folded layers having similar hinges (same inter-limb angles) with
thickness parallel to the axial plane is constant.
Such folds have true thickness (orthogonal thickness) larger in the hinge than in the
limb.
A supratenuous fold is one in which the hinge thickness is less than the limb
thickness.

5.Similar fold

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Field photographs.
(a) Parallel fold.
(b) Similar-type fold.
(c) Supratenuous fold.

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6a) Chevron folds/Angular folds: folds with angular hinges or closures.
usually limbs have equal length and are symmetrical.
b) Kink folds: folds with sharp angular hinges and planar limbs;
folds are often asymmetrical.

6.Chevron/Kink Folds [Angular Folds]

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 Conjugate kink fold with angular hinge zones
and straight fold limbs formed by the
development of kink bands

Parasitic folds well

developed in one limb of a
fold

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 7a) Harmonic folds: folds with axial planes which are continuous
across a number of layers.
b) Disharmonic folds: when the axial planes are not continuous from
one layer to the next.
c) Poly-harmonic folds: harmonic multilayer folds with different
wavelengths. The enveloping surface of the small wavelength folds is
harmonic with the large ones.

7. a) Harmonic fold

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Harmonic folds

Disharmonic folds

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7. b) Disharmonic folds

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7.c) Poly harmonic fold
8a) Conjugate folds/ Double-hinged folds: pairs of apparently related
folds that have axial surfaces inclined to one another at a high angle &
they intersect in a line parallel to the fold axis.
b) Box folds: conjugate folds having an approximately rectangular cross
section.
c) Polyclinal folds: folds with axial surfaces of several orientations
usually more than two but broadly it may include conjugate and box
folds.

8.a,b & c)
conjugate ,box
and polycilinal
fold c 21
Polyclinal folds

Photograph showing box folds

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9) Isoclinal folds: folds in which the two limbs dip at equal angles in
the same direction, that is, folds with parallel limbs.

Asymmetric isoclinal fold

9. Isoclinal fold
Zero inter limb angle

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10) Monoclinal folds/ : flexure resulting from a sudden increase in the
dip of beds to a near vertical position, followed by a flattening to the
original dip without a change in the direction of dip.

10.Monocline,fold

Horizontal-minor fold

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11) Convolute folds: folds which
have markedly curvilinear axial
surfaces; the term is also used
for folds resembling
disharmonic or conjugate with
complex hinge zones.

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12) Ptygmatic folds: tight folds with lobate forms in which the
limbs usually fold back on themselves so that the inter-limb angle
has a negative value.
Note : type of ptygmatic folds in which both limbs are overturned called Fan
folds.

Ptygmatic folds 26
13) Intrafolial folds/ Root less Intrafolial folds: isolated and tight
fold closures in rocks that are otherwise not obviously folded.

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14a) Drag folds/Parasitic folds/: small subsidiary folds that develop in
incompetent layers due to bedding-plane slip during the process of folding.
b) Congruous folds: minor folds or drag folds with plunge direction and
amount conforming to that of a major fold structure. They are harmonic
c) Incongruous folds: minor folds or parasitic folds with attitude not
conforming to that of a major fold structure. They are not harmonic

14.Drag/Parasitic/folds:

 Congrous folds: -
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(a) M-fold developed in a sandstone layer. (b) Z-fold developed in strongly layered calcareous
rocks.

Order of folds. The trace of a large (first order) fold

has been shown (by red dashes).
On its limbs, two more sets of folds—second order
and third order—are developed. The second-order
folds here are Z, and third-order are S

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15a) Cylindrical fold(s): fold(s) which has the same shape in the profile plane at all
points along the fold axis (i.e. they have linear hinges) and whose profile is essentially
semi-circular.
b) Non-Cylindrical fold(s): fold(s) with varying profile shape along the fold axis.

A non-cylindrical fold

A cylindrical fold 30
 FOLD CLASSIFICATION
Folds are categorised or classified according to any one of the
following criteria:

1. base on Fold attitude

Upright
Plunging
Overturned (Inclined),
Reclined
Vertical, and
Recumbent folds
2. based on their Inter-limb angle
Gentle,
Open,
Close,
Tight,
Isoclinal and
Ptygmatic (fan) folds
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3. based on Fold amplitude and shape
Box folds,
Curved double-hinged folds,
Semi-ellipses, Parabolas,
Semi-chevron folds, and
Chevron /Kink/ folds
4. based on Fold cylindrcity
Cylindrical folds,
Cylindrical isoclines,
Isoclinal folds,
Isoclinal domes,
Domical folds and
Non-cylindrical folds
5. based on Dip isogon pattern
Class 1A,
Class 1B (Parallel folds),
Class 1C,
Class 2 (Similar folds) and
Class 3
6. Based on based on axial angle
 Thickened fold
 Parallel fold
 supratenuous fold
 Irregular fold 32
1. Fold attitude
• Because of the manner in which “hinge line” and “axial surface” are
defined, the hinge line of a fold must lie within the fold’s axial surface.
• Generally the fold attitude is described in terms of the attitude of axial
plane and the attitude of fold axis (or hinge line).
Fold name Attitude of axial plane Attitude of fold axis
Upright vertical Horizontal
Vertical vertical vertical

Reclined inclined inclined

Overturned inclined horizontal

Plunging vertical inclined

Recumbent Horizontal Horizontal

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Look the fig .
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35
Diagram used for describing fold
on the base of the geometric
interrelation ship of axial surface
and hinge line .

Upright fold 36
37
38
 3. Fold amplitude and Fold shape
 Six basic fold shapes are recognize as follows:

A. box fold- seems box

B. curved double hinged fold- fold having double hinges

C. semi-ellipses – the shapes of the fold seems like ellipse

D. parabolas- the shape of the fold like a parabola

E. semi-chevron folds- folds having sharp hinge

F. chevron folds – folds having very tight sharp hinge

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 Fold amplitude
Fold shape

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 4.Fold cylindrcity
• The following fold types can be classified based on cylindercity.
 As we mentioned before cylindercity is highly related to the linearity
of the hinge lines .

i. Cylindrical folds,
ii. Cylindrical isoclines,
iii. Isoclinal folds,
iv. Isoclinal domes,
v. Domical folds and
vi. Non-cylindrical folds

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 Look the figure : This classification scheme illustrates the gradual change in shape from
unfolded surface (planes ,P) through an ideal cylindrical isoclinal folds(Q) to an ideal
isoclinal domes (R) ; from journal of structural geology 1979.united kingdom.

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 5. Dip Isogon Patterns
On the profile section of the fold it is possible to determine points on
the folded surface which have the same slope. By joining points of the
same slope on adjacent surfaces, we obtain lines of equal slope known
as dip isogons (Elliott, 1965). The inclination of the isogons reflects the
variation in the slope of adjacent surfaces.
• The following rules govern the interpretation of dip isogons: if the
isogons are traced from the outer arc of a fold to the inner arc of that
fold, i.e. towards the concavity of the surface, then:

a) If the isogons dip towards the axial trace (converging dip isogons),
the mean curvature of the outer arc is less than that of the inner arc.
b) If the isogons are parallel to the axial trace (parallel dip isogons), the
mean curvatures of the outer arc and inner arc are equal.
c) If the isogons dip away from the axial trace (diverging dip isogons),
the mean curvature of the outer arc is greater than that of the inner
arc.
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• Based on the comparison of curvature changes on adjacent surfaces in
the folded layer- there are three fundamental classes of folds
(providing that the maximum curvature occurs at the hinge zone where
slope is zero and that the curvature reaches a zero value at the inflection
points where slope is maximum):

Class 1 Curvature of the inner arc is greater than that of the outer arc
• Dip isogons are convergent.
• Thickness parallel to the axial surface (T) is less at the hinge than
at the limb (Th<Tl)
• It has three subclasses based on the nature of the orthogonal
thickness (t)
Subclass 1A Strongly convergent dip isogons, tl > th
Subclass 1B Moderately convergent dip isogons, t is constant (tl = th);
they are also called parallel folds
Subclass 1C Weakly convergent dip isogons, tl < th
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• Class 2 Curvature of the inner arc is the same as the outer arc
• Dip isogons are parallel
• T is constant through the fold (Th=Tl), hence similar folds
• t is larger at the hinge than at the limb (th> tl)

• Class 3 Curvature of the inner arc is less than that of the outer arc
• Dip isogons are divergent
• T is less at the limb than at the hinge (Th> Tl )
• t is larger at the hinge than at the limb (th> tl)

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 Dip isogons (Th<Tl) (tl = th)
tl < th

tl > th

(Th=Tl), (Th> Tl )
(th> tl) (th> tl)

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6. Based on axial angle

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 Poly-phase folding and interference of folds

• A region that has experienced more than one episode of deformation

may show complex fold interference patterns in the field and on a
geologic map.
• Consider the simple case shown in Figure below.
1. The first generation of folding, F1, produced folds with east–
west-striking axial surfaces (Fig. a).
2. The second generation of folding, F2, produced folds with
north–south-striking axial surfaces (Fig. b).
 It is clear that the east–west axial surfaces, S1, developed before the
north–south axial surfaces, S2, because the S1 traces have been folded
while the S2 traces are straight.

 Folds modified by a later fold phase are known as refolded folds and
the resulting patterns are referred to as fold interference patterns.
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Fig. Superposition of folding (map view).
a) First generation of folding (F1). S1 is the axial-surface trace of the F1 folds; the
symbols show the F1 parasitic folds.
b) Map pattern after two generations of folding (F1 and F2). S2 is the axial-surface
trace of the F2 folds, and double-headed arrows denote F2 parasitic folds.

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 POLYPHASE FOLDING
 Various fold interference patterns can occur, depending on the initial
orientation of the F1 fold hinge and its axial surface relative to the F2
fold.

Four basic interference patterns are recognized from the

superimposition of folds
I. Type 0 Redundant folding

II. Type 1 Dome and basin (or ‘Egg-box’) pattern

III. Type 2 Dome-crescent (or ‘mushroom’) pattern

IV. Type 3 Refolding (or convergent-divergent) pattern

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Dome and-basin

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 Dome and-basin

mushroom-shaped

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 mushroom-shaped Refolded fold’ pattern

Fig. Four basic patterns resulting from the superposition of folds. In

each case the orientation of the F2 fold is the same, superimposed
on variously oriented F1 folds. After Ramsey (1967) 53
54
55
Type 1 Dome- and- basin
interference pattern

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 F2

F1
Type 2 dome-crescent-mushroom interference pattern
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Type 3 convergent-divergent interference pattern 58
 MECHANISMS OF FOLDING
• Several fold mechanisms have been identified (Fig 15-4a), including
bending, buckling, and passive (ductile) flow. These mechanisms may
be accompanied by the kinematic phenomena of flexural slip and
flexural flow.

The following are the most common mechanism of folding :

1. Buckling/Bending [Neutral Surface Folding]
2. Flexural-Slip Folding [Layer-parallel Slip]
3. Flexural-Flow Folding [Layer-parallel Flow, Flexural-Shear Folding]
4. Kink Folding
5. Passive –Flow Folding [Oblique Shear Folding]

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Fig 1

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1.Bending and Buckling
Rock layers may be subjected to bending (Fig 15-8),
a mechanism that involves application of force across
layers. Generally, it produces folds that are very
gentle with large inter-limb angle.
In rocks subjected to bending, layers are bent like an
elastic beam that has been supported at the ends and
loaded in the middle (Fig 15-8).

61
The various ways of application of bending
force(s) on an iron bar. The resultant geometry
(folds) formed has been shown in
each case

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 Folds form by buckling where force is applied parallel to layering in rocks and the
easiest direction of relief is normal to the direction of force application (Fig 15-9).
 Flexural slip commonly accompanies buckling at low T and P, whereas buckling of
a stiff layer embedded in a less-stiff medium may occur at higher T and P without
flexural slip.
 The result at low T is sinusoidal parallel and parallel-concentric folds.

•At high T, other mechanisms such as flexural flow

may accompany buckling to produce similar-like
folds.
 Buckling is commonly preceded by layer-
parallel shortening. The layers are shortened
laterally and thickened perpendicular to
layering and to the direction of applied stress.

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2. Flexural Slip
It involves layer-parallel slip between successive layers deformed by buckling or some
other mechanisms. Layers play a dominant role in folding of most rocks at the low T
and P found at shallow depths in the Earth. For layers to maintain constant thickness
during folding of a mass of uniformly layered strong rocks- such as thickly bedded
carbonate or sandstone- they must slip past one another (Fig 15-5).

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65
3. Flexural Flow
A layered sequence is said to deform by flexural flow if some layers flow ductility
while others remain brittle and buckle. Flexural flow requires moderate-to-high
ductility contrast between layers

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67
4. Kink Folding
This process forms folds of the kink band or chevron type which typically have
straight limbs and sharp hinges. The geometry is controlled by the rotation of sets of
layers which remain planar between the kink planes, whereas rapid changes of
orientation take place along the kink planes.

Kinking- the fold is produced by

the rotation of a set of layers on
either side of a kink-plane.

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• Kink bands are asymmetric structures where the deformation is essentially
confined to the material within the kink band, whereas chevron folds are more
symmetrical and continuous.
 Kink bands usually occur in conjugate pairs or sets but to achieve maximum
shortening by kinking, the whole length of the layers must be involved in the
folding.

Chevron fold- if the layers Conjugate kink bands

maintain a constant thickness,
gaps occur at the hinges

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5. Passive Flow/ Oblique-Shear/ Folding
Passive flow involves uniform ductile flow of an entire rock mass, with layering
(bedding, foliation, or gneissic banding) serving only as a strain marker (fig 15-23).
If passive-flow folds are to form, there must be little or no ductility contrast between
layers, even if the composition differs markedly, and there must be flow across the
layering.

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Passive Flow fold

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 Controlling Factors of Fold Geometry
1. Composition and rheological properties of the competent layer
2. Change in rheological properties of the layer as P-T change during
folding
3. Nature of the less competent matrix
4. Competence contrast (viscosity ratio) between the layer and the
matrix
5. Mechanical properties of the interface between competent layers
(welded or detached)
6. Thickness of the competent layer
7. Thickness contrast between the competent and the incompetent layers
8. Presence (or absence) of multi-layer sequence
9. Orientation of the layer (with respect to the strain ellipse)
10.Magnitude of stress and scale of folding

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1.Thickness of the competent layer

• The r/ship b/n layer thickness and wavelength can be easily

demonstrated by studying natural folds of layer of the same
composition and varying thickness in a ductile matrix of constant
composition.
• Note the thickest layer shows large wavelength; and therefore there
is a linear r/s b/n log layer thickness and log layer wavelength.

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 (2) Thickness contrast between the competent and the incompetent
layers

 Changes in fold shape due to change in the proportion of competent

layer thickness d1 to incompetent layer thickness d2 (as given by
n=d2/d1).

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3.Competence contrast (viscosity ratio) between the layer and the matrix
Buckling of layers of d/t thickness or properties is one of the commonest causes of
disharmonic folding.
Disharmonic folding produced by a number of layers of d/t viscosity (µ1-µ5) and d/t
thickness in a ductile matrix of much lower viscosity (µ6).

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5.Presence of multi-layer sequence

• The layer has to be sufficiently far apart for their wave forms not to
interfere; otherwise a layer wavelength may be superimposed on a
smaller one as shown in the figure.
• Buckle folds of different wavelength may be superimposed if the
layers are close enough to interfere.

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6) Orientation of the layer Magnitude of stress

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Significance of Folds
Academic Significance
• Folds are common deformation structures in rocks. Their presence implies that the
rocks were subjected to compressional forces at the time of their deformation.
• Folds are formed due to active role of rock layers (excepting passive folds).
Occurrence of folds thus implies that the original rocks had a layered pattern.
• Small-scale folds are believed to represent some large scale structure in an area. As
such, even if a large-scale fold is not exposed or is not visible in the field, one may
get an idea of the larger fold, e.g. attitude, orientation of the beds and axial plane
and nature and type of the fold.
• If folds with different geometries are present in an area, it is possible, though not
always, that the area had undergone changing pattern of the directions of
compressional forces.
• Folds, if studied along a traverse of an area, give an idea of regional structure of
rocks of the area.
• Shape of folds often gives an idea of their occurrence in different parts of an
orogenic belt.

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Economic Significance
• Folds are considered as repository to a variety of economic mineral
deposits.
• Since folds are formed under a specific system of stresses,
mineralizing fluids also follow the directions of mass movement.
Thus, a systematic analysis of stress pattern through the study of folds
can give an idea of the trajectory of mineralizing fluids, if any.
• Petroleum and natural gas tend to be systematically (density-wise)
located in different parts of a large anticline. This is also sometimes
called as the anticlinal theory of localization of petroleum and gas.
• CH 8. Foliation and Lineation in Rocks.pptx
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