CH 5. Fault Systems

CHAPTER FIVE
FAULTS SYSTEMS
 Fault anatomy and Fault geometry;

 Classification of faults: ►Normal, Strike-Slip and Reverse
faults;
 Recognition and Description of Faults;
 Dynamic Analysis and Mechanism of Faulting
Lecturer:
Elias A. MSc (Engineering geologist) compiled by: Elias A. WU
1
compiled by: Elias A. WU 2
• The thickness of a fault plane is also variable ranging from tens of metres to
microscopic scales.
• If the fault is so small that it is visible under a microscope only, it is called a
micro-fault.
• Faults are excellent examples of brittle deformation of rocks.
• Rubbing of two blocks of rocks on or near the surface of the earth produces
crushed rock material and breccia that occur along the fault surface.
• Such faults are formed on or very near the surface of the earth.
• Fault zones are also formed at deep crustal levels where rocks deform by
ductile deformation processes.
• Under such conditions, shear displacement is associated with the formation

of mylonites and several ductile deformation features along zones called
ductile shear zones.
Scale of Faults
• The range of size for faults is from:
– microscopic, mm scale (10-3 m), to
– thousands of kilometer (106 m)
• (regional, lithospheric)
• A fault is called a shear fracture if its dimensions

are smaller than one meter

• Listric (shovel shaped) fault:
The dip of the fault varies with depth.
• Small scale listric normal faulting caused by

gravity sliding. The faults becomes
horizontal at depth.
FAULT ANATOMY AND GEOMETRY

Fault anatomy Mylonite vs. Cataclasite
Fault rocks with depth
Change in fault character with depth for a steeply dipping fault.

Note the change in fault zone width and types of structures with depth.

Fault anatomy

Fault anatomy

Fault breccia is a fault rock that
consists of large fragments of rock in a
fine-grained matrix. It is incohesive
Fault breccia

•Fault Melt (Pseudotachylyte): due to friction

Fault damage zone

Drag fold
Mylonite: a mylonite is a foliated and usually lineated rock that shows evidence for strong ductile
deformation and normally contains rounded porphyroclasts and lithic fragments of similar composition to
minerals in the matrix.
15
compiled by: Elias A. WU
STYLE OF FAULTING
 The style of faulting is an indicator of
rock deformation and reflects the type of
forces pushing or pulling on the region.
 The style of faulting that is a reflection
of the relative size of the different forces
- in particular is the relative size of the
vertical to the horizontal forces.
(d) Anastomosing – numerous branching irregular traces
Fault Zone Shear Zone

Fault geometry
Parts of the Fault
• Fault plane: Surface that the movement has
taken place within the fault. On this surface
the dip and strike of the fault is measured.
• Hanging wall: The rock mass resting on the
fault plane.
• Footwall: The rock mass beneath the fault
plane.
• Slip: Describes the movement parallel to the
fault plane.
• Dip slip: Describes the up and down movement
parallel to the dip direction of the fault.
• Strike slip: Applies where movement is parallel
to strike of the fault plane.
• Oblique slip: Is a combination of strike slip and
dip slip.
• Net slip (true displacement): Is the total
amount of motion measured parallel to the
direction of motion.
• Fault line or fault trace is the line formed by the
intersection of a fault with the ground surface compiled by: Elias A. WU
17
Fault Geometry
• Faulting is a complex process and the variety of faults that exists is
large.
• We will consider a simplified but general fault classification based on
the geometry of faulting, which we describe by specifying three
angular measurements: dip, strike, and slip.
1. Dip
Dip is the angle that describes the steepness of the fault surface.
This angle is measured from Earth's surface, or a plane parallel to
Earth's surface.
The dip of a horizontal fault is zero (usually specified in degrees: 0°),
and the dip of a vertical fault is 90°.

Fault Geometry
2. Strike
• The strike is an angle used to specify the orientation of the fault and
measured clockwise from north.
• For example, a strike of 0° or 180° indicates a fault that is oriented in
a north-south direction, 90° or 270° indicates east-west oriented
structure.

A graphic representation of
the concept of strike and dip
of bedded rocks.
• A fault surface can be represented

either by its strike or dip direction
and dip, or by the dip and dip
azimuth.
• Note that both dip direction and dip

azimuth are both perpendicular to
the strike direction.

Fault Geometry
3. Slip
• Dip and strike describe the orientation of the fault, we also have to describe the direction
of motion across the fault.
• That is, which way did one side of the fault move with respect to the other. The
parameter that describes this motion is called the slip.
• The slip has two components, a "magnitude" which tells us how far the rocks moved,
and a direction (it's a vector).
• We usually specify the magnitude and direction separately.
• The magnitude of slip is simply how far the two sides of the fault moved relative to one
another; it's a distance (cm-m).
• The direction of slip is measured on the fault surface, and like the strike and dip, it is
specified as an angle.

Fault Geometry
Net Slip of fault
• The net slip of a fault is the magnitude and direction of relative
displacement on the fault plane between two previously contiguous
points (piercing points).
The net slip is a vector; it requires magnitude (e.g., in meters) and a

direction (trend/plunge)
It can be resolved into its components
We also need to define the sense of slip (or shear) to completely
define the net slip
• The net slip vector can be resolved into any
arbitrary pair of components, for example
– along the strike (strike-slip)
– along the dip (dip-slip)
– oblique to the strike (oblique-slip)
• This is the most common case!
• The components for the dip-slip (Geometrical

Parameters of a Fault)are:
– Heave: horizontal component of dip-slip
– Throw: vertical component of dip-slip
– Hade: The angle between a fault plane and the
vertical plane
Fault Geometry-net slip
a) Displacement or slip of a bed affected by a fault.

RQ dip-slip; PR strike-slip; PQ net-slip.
b) Triangular diagram showing the slip components
of the fault

Fault Geometry
Triangle formed by an
inclined fault together
with its heave and throw
Measuring Net Slip

• Need two previously contiguous points (piercing points) on the fault plane
• These two points (one on the hanging wall and the other on the footwall) are the
intersection of a so-called piercing line with the fault
• The piercing line, defined by intersection of two planes (e.g., two beddings,
fault and bedding), becomes broken after faulting
26
Slip Lineation
• Lineation on the fault plane that form parallel to the net slip, for at
least the last increment of slip
• Slip lineation forms parallel to the intersection of the fault plane and
the 13 plane
– The 13 plane, of course, is perpendicular to the 2, which lies

on the plane of the fault(s)
• The attitude of the slip lineation provides the attitude of latest slip
(trend/plunge)
• The sense of slip may be provided with shear indicators on the fault
surface
Rake and plunge of a fault.
(A) Rake is the angle that a line on the fault plane makes with a
horizontal line.
(B) Plunge is the angle that a line on the fault plane makes with the
horizontal plane
Fault Geometry at depth
• Listric fault:
– The dip of the fault varies with depth.
• Fault bend:
– Is where both the dip and strike of a fault
changes.
• Flat:
– A fault which is locally parallel to the bedding (in
the hanging wall or the footwall).
– A fault parallel to bedding in the hanging wall
may be across the bedding in the footwall, and
vice versa!
• Ramp: A fault which is locally across bedding
Figure. Listric fault, with rotating upper plate blocks and breakaway fault
Ramps/Flats before & after Thrusting
a) Cross section showing the
geometry of ramps and flats
along a thrust fault. The fault
geometry is shown prior to
displacement on the fault.
b) Segment AB is a hanging-wall flat on a

footwall flat. Segment BC is a hanging-
wall ramp on a footwall ramp. Segment
CD is a hanging-wall ramp on a footwall
flat, and segment DE is a hanging-wall flat
on a footwall flat.

Separation of a Fault
• Due to faulting, a bed is separated on either side of the fault plane.
• The term separation represents the displacement of a bed caused by
faulting.
• The separation can be measured in any desired direction.
 If the separation has occurred along the dip of the fault plane, it is
called dip separation (Fig.b) and is measured in a vertical section
perpendicular to the fault plane, and
 If it has occurred along the strike of the fault plane, it is called strike
separation (Fig. b) and is measured on the horizontal plane.

• Separation caused
by a fault as
observed on a
geological map.
33
Geometrical Classification and systems of
faults

No. Classifications criteria Sub-criteria Name of the faults
1. 1. Based on attitude of fault a) Dip fault
b) Strike fault
relative to adjacent beds c) Oblique fault
d) Bedding fault
Based on translational 2. Based on slip of fault plane i.

ii.
Dip slip fault
Strike slip fault
movement iii. Oblique slip fault
3. Based on relative movement of beds 1) Normal fault
2) Reverse fault
3) Trust fault
4. Based on dip of faults a.
b.
Low-angle fault
High angle fault
c. Vertical fault
d. Horizontal fault
2. Based on rotational
Scissor fault
movement
3. Geometrical 1)
2)
Parallel faults
Step /master faults
3) Synthetic faults
classification of 4) Antithetic faults
5) Graben or rift fault
Based on fault faults 6) Horst
associations 7) Radial fault
8) Peripheral faults
9) En echelon faults
4. Based on orientation of a. Normal fault
b. Trust/reverse fault
stress axes (Anderson’s c. Strike slip fault
Theory)
5. I. Flat faults
II. Vertical faults
III. Pure dip slip fault
Based on slip on fault IV. Pure strike slip fault
V. Oblique fault -- dip slip
planes dominated fault & Strike
slip fault dominated fault
Based on rotational movement
A scissor fault is one in which the displacement occurs across a
point, called hinge, such that the displacement on both sides of
the hinge is reversed
scissor fault

Classification of faults on the basis of dip angle
On the basis of the dip angle fault has the following types
1. High angle fault
2. Low angle and horizontal angle fault A moderate-angle fault
3. Vertical angle
Horizontal fault
low-angle fault
A vertical fault
37
Classification of faults on the basis of fault pattern/associations
On the basis of pattern faults are classified into the following types:
1) Parallel faults
2) Step faults
3) Synthetic faults
4) Antithetic faults
5) Graben or rift fault
6) Horst
7) Radial fault
8) Peripheral faults
9) En echelon faults
Horst and graben structure.

Parallel faults
(b) Antithetic faults given by

a set of smaller faults that
are perpendicular to the
main fault FF.
Step faults
(a) Synthetic faults given by a set of

smaller faults that are parallel to the
main fault or master fault FF.
Half graben
Peripheral faults Radial faults
En echelon faults
A few nearly parallel faults
overlap each other

• Classification of faults on the basis of altitude of fault relative to the altitude of
the adjacent rocks/formation
• It can be classified as
1. Dip fault
2. Strike fault
3. Bedding fault
4. Oblique fault
Dip fault
Strike fault
Geometrical Classification of fault
for our class we are focus on the
Classification of faults on the basis of
slip of fault plane /net slip

Classification of faults on the basis of net slip/fault plane
1. Dip-slip Faults
• Dip-slip - Motion is along the dip
– High-angle ( >60o)
– Intermediate angle (30o-60o)
– Low-angle <30o)
• Two types of dip-slip: Normal and Reverse
1.1. Normal fault - If the relative motion of the hanging wall block is
down-dip on the fault
• Is caused by extension
• Forms horst and graben
– Example: MER

Dip-slip Faults
1.2. Reverse fault, if the
motion of the hanging wall
block is up-dip on the fault.
• Caused by contraction
• e.g., faults in
subduction zones
Thrust is a low-angle
reverse fault
• e.g. The Andes, Western
South America

2. Strike-slip Faults
• Strike slip fault - Both blocks move parallel to the strike of
the fault plane
– There is no hanging wall in this case!
– The net slip is pure strike-slip
• Oblique slip fault - The displacement vector is oblique to

both strike and dip
• The senses of both the dip slip (normal or reverse) and

strike slip (left- or right-lateral) are needed for a oblique-
slip fault compiled by: Elias A. WU 45
Strike-slip Faults
• Strike-slip - one block moves horizontally past another block:
– Are usually very long (100’s - 1000’s of km)
• NOTE:
– At a small scale, fault attitude may be constant
– At a larger scale, however, both the dip and/or strike of a fault
may change
46
Strike-Slip Faults - Types
1. Left-lateral (sinistral) strike slip fault
– To an observer standing on one block and looking
across the fault, the other block seems to have
moved to the left
2. Right-lateral (dextral) strike slip fault

– The block across the fault moved to the right of the
observer. e.g., San Andreas fault
3. Oblique-slip
– motion is oblique to dip and strike
– e.g., normal, left-lateral, right-lateral, reverse
Characteristics of strike slip faults
• Most SS faults are approximately planar and vertical at least
near the surface of the earth
• As a result, surface traces tend to be straight even across rugged
topography
• The topographically high side of a strike slip fault commonly
changes from one side to the other along the fault trace due to
-dip slip components
• juxtaposition of rocks that differ in resistance to erosion
• Horizontal separation

3.
4. 2.
3. 1.

The three types of faults

 Description of faults and, Fault system
• Faults typically do not occur in isolation, but rather are part of a

group of associated faults that develop during:
 The same interval of deformation and
 In response to the same regional stress field.
• Typically we can classify groups of related faults either by their
geometric arrangement or by their tectonic significance.
Note that A group of related faults is called a fault system.
• Here we’ll talk about the three tectonically defined types of fault
systems:
Normal fault system ,
Reverse /thrust/ fault system and
Strike-slip fault systems

Normal Fault Systems
• Causes extension or lengthening (thinning) of the earth’s crust

before the opening of a new ocean basin.
► Crustal thinning/crustal extension-
► Subsidence
► High Heat Flow and
► Rift Basins formation,
► Magmatism-are typical geological process which will
occurred along normal fault system.
Regional normal fault systems is formed along:
 Continental Rifts, which are belts in which the lithosphere is
undergoing extension; e.g. MER
 passive margins, which are continental margins that are not
currently plate margins; and
 Mid-ocean ridges.
Planar faults
•Planar, rotational normal faults occur above a basal detachment or a brittle- ductile transition.
They separate juxtaposed and tilted blocks without internal deformation.
•Both the faults and fault-blocks rotate simultaneously about an axis roughly parallel to the
strike of the faults (rigid body rotation resulting in domino or bookshelf faulting).
Domino faults are formed by parallel planar faults for which both bedding and faults
rotate.
Each fault block has its own half graben.
Each fault must have the same amount of displacement and tilting or there are space problems at
the bottom of the system (opening of voids).
Planar, rotational faults and blocks generally abut against transfer, scissors faults.
53
Main Geological structure's associated to normal fault system
Rift valley formation: trough shaped valley created by
faulting. They are often very large and made up of horsts and
grabens.
Horst - the block of rock thrown up between normal faults as a result
of tensional forces.
Graben - is the down thrown block of land between two normal
faults. This results in a distinct scarp on either side. They often occur
in association with horsts.
Horst and Grabens are an indication that there have been tensional
forces and crustal stretching in the area.
Half-graben - When a normal fault has a curved fault plane where the dip
decreases with depth, often the down-dropped block will rotate. The resultant
topographic feature is known as a half-graben. It is referred to as a half graben
because it is bounded by only one fault (normal grabens are bounded by two faults).
54
Horst and graben structure picture
• Half-graben picture, result of listric fault plane

1.2.1. Reverse /trust/fault system
• Reverse fault systems are commonly arrays of thrust faults that
form to accommodate large regional shortening.
• Reverse dip >45◦ and trust dip< 45◦
• Displacement varies from the order of millimeters to thousands
of kilometers
• Thrust fault systems are commonly occurred along:
 The margins of convergent plate boundaries and
 In collisional orogeny.
• In such tectonic settings, thrusting occurs in conjunction with
formation of folds, resulting in tectonic provinces called fold-
thrust belts.
• Typically, the numerous thrusts in a fold-thrust belt merge at depth
with a shallowly dipping detachment.

• At a crustal scale, major thrust faults are listric; but
in detail, where thrusts cut upwards through sequences of
contrasting strata, they have a stair-step profile, with
 Flats following weak horizons and
 Ramps cutting across beds.
• Ramp-flat geometries generally develop best in sequences
of well-stratified sedimentary rock.
• As it is the case with normal fault systems, faults in a
thrust-fault system tend to comprise relay or parallel arrays.
• An imbricate fan of thrust faults: consists of thrusts that
either intersect the ground surface or die out up dip.
• A duplex consists of thrusts faults: that span the interval
of rock between a higher-level detachment called a roof
thrust and a lower level detachment called a floor thrust.
 Reverse/trust fault systems.
a) Imbricate fan in thrust system. (b) Duplex system with horses in between the
floor and roof thrusts. compiled by: Elias A. WU 58
Reverse/Trust faults
 A hanging wall block above a low angle thrust is called a
thrust sheet or nappe ( sheet in French)
 A thrust sheet that has moved a large distance and is
geologically out of place is an allochton and the rocks in it
allochtonous.
 A large region of rock that has not been moved and is close
to its original location, such as the basement rocks in the
footwall block of a thrust is an autochton and the rocks
within it authochtonous.

 Klippe :- A closed outcrop of
a thrust sheet isolated from
the main mass by erosion is
called klippe (outlier)
 Window:- A closed outcrop

of the substratum of a thrust
sheet framed on all sides by
the thrust surface is known as
window(inlier)

Strike-Slip Fault Systems
• Strike-slip fault systems occur at transform boundaries,

which are boundaries where two plates slide past one
another without the creation or sub-duction of lithosphere;
• They can also occur within plates and as components of
convergent orogeny.
• Major continental strike-slip fault systems are complicated
structures.
• We have already explored several associated structures of
regional strike-slip faults.
• Typically, they splay into many separate faults in the near
surface, which, in cross section, resembles the head of a
flower.
Flower Structure of strike slip faults
Development of a Pull-Apart Basin (Transtension):-
A right lateral -right stepping or left lateral-left stepping fault will produce extension on
bend zone causes large scale pull apart movement by produce normal fault on this
zone. Pull- apart may also underlain by flower structures(negative flower structure) .
The fault associated with these structure combination of Normal and Strike slip faults .
62
Normal (-) Flower Structure - Tulip

A right lateral- left stepping or left lateral-right stepping fault will produce shortening on the
bend zone causes uplift or push up with development of flower or palm tree structures by
produce reverse fault on this zone.
Similarly push apart may also contain flower structures(Positive flower structure). The fault
associated with this structure combination of reverse and strike slip faults.

Reverse (+) Flower Structure - Palm
 The formation of a (positive) flower

structure from strike-slip fault system
 The symbols x and . indicate motion

away and toward an observer,
respectively.
Summary of Flower Structures - Palms & Tulips
Palm
Tulip

Recognition of faults

Evidence of Faulting- Recognition of faults
• Recognition of fault in the field can divided into three group:-
 I) geological evidences, II) Fault plane evidences, III) Physiographic evidences.
A. Geological evidences:- The most important geological evidences of faulting are:-
1. Offset of rock unit:- Displacement of rock bed, dyke, vein, etc. Occurs on
opposite site of a fault.
Offset of quartz vein
2. Repetition and omission of strata:- In a traverse line, the outcrop of a bed repeated
in cyclic order or it may disappear. Such repetition or omission of bed often establishes
a fault.
3. Stratigraphic sequence:- The normal stratigraphic sequence of a region may
disturbed by faulting. When older strata occur above younger strata, this type
disturbance is mainly done by thrust fault. compiled by: Elias A. WU 68
Effects of faulting on geologic or stratigraphic units: Omission and
repetition of strata
Disturbed Stratigraphic sequence

B) Fault plane evidences or structural features
Fault plane evidences or structural features

1. Displacement of linear or planar structures
2. Slickensides/Slickenlines
3. Fault breccia/gouge
4. Polishing and grooving
5. Mylonite
6. Shear zone
7. Associated fractures
8. Drag of layers adjacent to fault
9. Juxtaposition of dissimilar rock types
10.Silicification and Mineralization
11.Drape fold
B) Fault Plane Evidences / structural features cont..:-
 Fault plane contain some structures which are found associated with faults.
Most important evidences are :-

Feather joints:- Feather joint are the tension joint formed due to fault movement,
and is found in the fault plane.
 These joint intersect the fault plane at an acute angle. This acute angle points
towards the direction of movement along fault plane.

Slickensides and Slickenlines :-The movement of
one block against another block result polishing and
grooving of fault surfaces. These grooved and
striations are called slickensides.
Slickensides are useful to knowing the direction of
the last movement on a fault surface.
This also indicate the direction of the net slip on the
fault plane.
Slickenlines are linear scratches developed on a
fault surface.
Slickensides
Slickensides
Slickenlines or slip lineation

72
Drag:- This structure found in the fault zone. The end of strata may bend up and down
formed due to frictional resistance of the bed on the fault plane.
For normal dip slip fault the hanging wall dragging up and the foot wall dragging down.
Drag folds (within the rectangle) associated with a

high angle fault in the Krol Group near Nainital,
Kumaun Lesser Himalaya, India
Drag of layers adjacent to fault

73
Fault Breccia and Gouge
Fault Breccia
• Along some faults the rocks are highly fracture or
crushed to angular fragment.
• Angular grains are embedded in a finely grounded
rock are called “faulted breccia”.
• Secondary mineral such as quartz, calcite, or some
pyrite fill the open space of faulted breccia.
• Faulted breccia are crushed again by faulting it
may be ground to fine clay like powder called
“Gouge”. The gouge is frequently polished and
striated by fault movement.
Fault gouge
Displacement of linear or planar structure Polishing and grooving
Drape fold (Fig.) is a flexure or open fold

of the sedimentary layers that conforms
to the surface geometry or configuration
developed due to the presence of an
underneath fault.
A drape fold is thus a fault-related fold.

Juxtaposing or dissimilar layer
Quartz Mylonite
Mylonite showing well-developed

augens and boudins of quartzo-
feldspathic material.
76
Silicification and Mineralization:-
• Fault are basically fracture they often act as
a channel way of moving solution.
• The solution may replace the country rock
with quartz grain in called silicification.
• Fault plane also act as passages for
mineralizing solution and many mineral
deposit are formed in the fault plane is
called mineralization.
Silicification is commonly considered as an evidence for the

presence of a fault. In addition to silica, some other minerals may
also be deposited along faults, thus adding mineralization as an
additional criterion.
Silicification and brecciation occurring together

along a fault FF (shown by yellow dashes)
C) Physiographic Evidences/geomorphic features
Physiographic Evidences/geomorphic features
1.Fault scrap
2.Fault line scrap
3.Triangular facets
4.Alignment of facets
5. Increase of stream gradients at the fault line/plane
6.Hanging valleys
7.Aligned springs and vegetation
8.Landslide
9.Displaced stream course
C) Physiographic Evidences
 The physiographic evidences are seen clearly from a distance or an
aerial photograph .
Fault Scrap:- A steep straight slope is called the scrap. It formed as a
result of faulting. It found only in those area where fault has been
geologically very recent. Fault scrape face in the direction of down
throw side.

Fault Scarp

Fault Line Scrap:- Fault frequently bring together resistant and non resistant
rock beds. A ridge may formed along a fault due to process of unequal erosion.
Such ridge are called the “fault line scrap.
.Effects on physiographic features: creation of fault

line scarps by differential erosion along a fault surface

Triangular facet
Sudden change in stream profile may

occur due to the presence of a normal
fault
Increase of stream gradients

82
DYNAMIC ANALYSIS AND
MECHANISM OF FAULT
(ANDERSON’S THEORY)

Dynamic Analysis and Mechanism of Faulting
Principal stresses and faults

• According to the Anderson theory of faulting, one
principal axis of stress is always perpendicular to the
earth surface (i.e., is vertical)
• Normal fault: 1 is vertical
• Reverse fault: 3 is vertical
• Strike-slip fault: 2 is vertical

Anderson Faulting Theory
• The surface of Earth is a principal plane of stress
(i.e., there is no shear stress along the surface of
Earth)
• The normal to the surface is therefore parallel to

one of the principal stresses (1, 2, 3)
• This means that one principal stress is vertical

while the other two are horizontal
85
• He thus considered three possibilities:
1) Maximum principal stress (σ1) is vertical and the

minimum (σ3) and intermediate (σ2) principal stresses are
horizontal.
2) Minimum principal stress (σ3) is vertical and the

maximum (σ1) and intermediate (σ2) principal stresses are
horizontal.
3) Maximum (σ1) and minimum (σ3) principal stresses are

horizontal and the intermediate (σ2) principal stress is
vertical. compiled by: Elias A. WU 87
Figure. Dynamic fault classification after Anderson that relates a fault to the ambient
lithospheric stress field. The orientation and displacement of a fault is controlled by the
orientation of the three principle main stresses. (A) If σ1 is vertical to the Earth’s surface, normal
faults form. In case of σ1 parallel to the Earth’s surface, (B) reverse or (C) strike-slip fault are
developed. With a vertical σ3 , reverse faults form, whereas a horizontal σ3 leads to the formation
of strike-slip faults.

STRESS AND REVERSE FAULTING

The Mohr envelopes.
(a) If the angle of friction (φ) remains constant, the Mohr envelope is a straight line.
(b) If φ is variable, the Mohr envelope is curved. In both the cases, the region within the envelope
represents the state of stable stress, while the one outside it represents the state of unstable stress

SIGNIFICANCE OF FAULTS
• Academic Significance: Analysis of faults helps indicate the directions of the forces that
have formed the faults. Since faults are anisotropies in rocks, their presence indicates that
the rock is mechanically weak. Study of faults therefore helps in selection of suitable rocks
and building materials for civil constructions and engineering projects.
• Presence of faults also throws light on the depth where the rocks have deformed and then
brought on to the surface of the earth by erosion or by some other processes.

• Economic Significance: Of all the structures in rocks, it is perhaps the faults that have
more economic significance than other structures.
 It is the sites for metallic mineralization, contain economic mineral deposits,
 sites for localization of petroleum and natural gas,
 groundwater is localized along faults and row of springs is developed along a fault line.
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CH 5. Fault Systems

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CHAPTER FIVE

 Fault anatomy and Fault geometry;

• Under such conditions, shear displacement is associated with the formation

– microscopic, mm scale (10-3 m), to

– thousands of kilometer (106 m)

• A fault is called a shear fracture if its dimensions

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• Small scale listric normal faulting caused by

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Change in fault character with depth for a steeply dipping fault.

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Fault Zone Shear Zone

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• A fault surface can be represented

• Note that both dip direction and dip

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The net slip is a vector; it requires magnitude (e.g., in meters) and a

• The components for the dip-slip (Geometrical

a) Displacement or slip of a bed affected by a fault.

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Measuring Net Slip

– The 13 plane, of course, is perpendicular to the 2, which lies

b) Segment AB is a hanging-wall flat on a

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Based on translational 2. Based on slip of fault plane i.

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Horst and graben structure.

(b) Antithetic faults given by

(a) Synthetic faults given by a set of

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– There is no hanging wall in this case!

– The net slip is pure strike-slip

• Oblique slip fault - The displacement vector is oblique to

• The senses of both the dip slip (normal or reverse) and

2. Right-lateral (dextral) strike slip fault

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• Faults typically do not occur in isolation, but rather are part of a

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• Causes extension or lengthening (thinning) of the earth’s crust

• Half-graben picture, result of listric fault plane

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