Centrifugal compressor operation,

components and maintenance.

Supervised by/ DR.Eslam reda

Team members
‫عبدالرحمن عالء حسن‬ 19015917
‫بالل محمود يوسف‬ 19015526
‫نشأت حسام عبدالرحمن‬ 16012579
‫احمد السيد علي السيد‬ 19015194

Table of figures
Figure 1 Single-stage centrifugal compressor with integral step-up gearing. (Dresser-Rand Company,
Olean, N.Y.) .................................................................................................................................................... 7
Figure 2 Multistage centrifugal compressor in a petrochemical plant. (Elliott Company, Jeannette, Pa.) ... 7
Figure 3 balancing drum ............................................................................................................................. 12
Figure 4 axially split .................................................................................................................................... 13
Figure 5 Barrel split ..................................................................................................................................... 14
Figure 6 integrally geared............................................................................................................................ 15
Figure 7 compressor rotor .......................................................................................................................... 18
Figure 8 balancing disk ................................................................................................................................ 20
Figure 9 labyrinth seal ................................................................................................................................. 26
Figure 10 oil film seal .................................................................................................................................. 29
Figure 11 Mechanical seal ........................................................................................................................... 29
Figure 12 journal bearing ............................................................................................................................ 32
Figure 13 Parts of ball bearing .................................................................................................................... 34
Figure 14 dry seals...................................................................................................................................... 36
Figure 15 Magnetic bearing construction ................................................................................................... 37
Figure 16 effect of inlet temperature .......................................................................................................... 44
Figure 17 effect of inlet pressure ................................................................................................................ 45
Figure 18 effect of relative humidity ........................................................................................................... 46
Figure 19 cooling water temperature ......................................................................................................... 47
Figure 20 Shell and tube collar.................................................................................................................... 49
Figure 21 intercooler and after cooler ........................................................................................................ 49
Figure 22 lube oil system............................................................................................................................. 52
Figure 23 Fatigue stress............................................................................................................................... 69

1|Page
Table of Contents
Theory ........................................................................................................................................................... 4
FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS .......................................................................................................... 4
SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS ..................................................................................................... 4
IDEAL OR PERFECT GAS LAWS .................................................................................................................. 5
1.Boyle’s Law ............................................................................................................................................ 5
2.Charles’ Law ........................................................................................................................................... 5
3.Amonton’s Law ...................................................................................................................................... 5
Avogadro’s Law ......................................................................................................................................... 5
Perfect Gas Formula ................................................................................................................................. 5
CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR OVERVIEW .................................................................................................... 6
Classification of centrifugal compressors .................................................................................................... 8
1. Number of stages ................................................................................................................................. 8
2.Type ...................................................................................................................................................... 13
Major components ..................................................................................................................................... 18
Rotor ........................................................................................................................................................... 18
1. Impeller........................................................................................................................................... 19
2. Balancing drum ............................................................................................................................... 20
3.spacers ................................................................................................................................................. 21
4.Thrust disk............................................................................................................................................ 21
Stationary parts .......................................................................................................................................... 22
1. Casing or Housing ........................................................................................................................... 22
2. Diffuser and Volute......................................................................................................................... 22
3. Collector .......................................................................................................................................... 24
4.Impeller Blades .................................................................................................................................... 24
5.Inlet and Outlet Ports .......................................................................................................................... 24
Compressor seals........................................................................................................................................ 24
Bearings ...................................................................................................................................................... 30
ADVANCED SEALING AND BEARING SYSTEMS........................................................................................... 36
compressor performance............................................................................................................................ 38
Auxiliary components ................................................................................................................................ 48
1. Gas cooling...................................................................................................................................... 48
2. Removal of Solids and Liquids........................................................................................................ 50

2|Page
 3. Compressor Lubrication ................................................................................................................. 51
Troubleshooting.......................................................................................................................................... 56
1. Low compressor capacity ............................................................................................................... 56
2. High discharge temperature........................................................................................................... 56
3. Seal oil system ................................................................................................................................ 57
4. Lube oil system ............................................................................................................................... 57
5. surge................................................................................................................................................ 58
6. Bearing failure ................................................................................................................................ 68
Bearing Failure modes ............................................................................................................................ 73
Case studies ................................................................................................................................................ 75
Case 1 (AMOC SITE) ................................................................................................................................ 75
Case 2True Brinelling............................................................................................................................... 76
Case 3 Abrasive wear ............................................................................................................................. 77
Troubleshooting table ............................................................................................................................ 80
Compressor maintenance .......................................................................................................................... 81
1.Breakdown Maintenance .................................................................................................................... 81
2. Time-Based Maintenance .................................................................................................................. 81
3.Equipment Health Monitoring ............................................................................................................ 81
4. Reliability and Maintenance .......................................................................................................... 81
5. Asset Management Strategy .......................................................................................................... 82
Root cause failure analysis ......................................................................................................................... 82
API 617 ........................................................................................................................................................ 84
Figure 1—Centrifugal Compressor Performance Map—Illustration of Terms ........................................ 85
Low Temperature Service ....................................................................................................................... 85
Mounting Fixtures ................................................................................................................................... 88
References .................................................................................................................................................. 91

3|Page
Theory
Every compressor is made up of one or more basic elements. A single element, or a group of
elements in parallel, comprises a single-stage compressor. Many compression problems involve
conditions beyond the practical capability of a single compression stage. Too great a
compression ratio (absolute discharge pressure divided by absolute intake pressure) causes
excessive discharge temperature and other design problems. It therefore may become
necessary to combine elements or groups of elements in series to form a multistage unit, in
which there will be two or more steps of compression. The gas is frequently cooled between
stages to reduce the temperature and volume entering the following stage.

FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

The first law of thermodynamics states that energy cannot be created or destroyed during a process
(such as compression and delivery of a gas), although it may change from one form of energy to another.
In other words, whenever a quantity of one kind of energy disappears, an exactly equivalent total of
other kinds of energy must be produced.

SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

The second law of thermodynamics is more abstract and can be stated in several ways.
1. Heat cannot, of itself, pass from a colder to a hotter body.
2. Heat can be made to go from a body at lower temperature to one at higher temperature only
if external work is done.
3. The available energy of the isolated system decreases in all real processes.
4. Heat or energy (or water), of itself, will flow only downhill. Basically, these statements say
that energy exists at various levels and is available for use only if it can move from a higher to a
lower level.
In thermodynamics a measure of the unavailability of energy has been devised and is known as
entropy. It is defined by the differential equation
𝑄
𝑑𝑠 = 𝑑
𝑇

4|Page
IDEAL OR PERFECT GAS LAWS
An ideal or perfect gas is one to which the laws of Boyle, Charles, and Amonton apply. There are
no truly perfect gases, but these laws are used and corrected by compressibility factors based
on experimental data.

1.Boyle’s Law
At constant temperature the volume of an ideal gas varies inversely with the pressure. In
Symbols
𝑉2 𝑃1
= 𝑃2 𝑃2 𝑉2 = 𝑃1 𝑉1 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑉1

This is the isothermal law.

2.Charles’ Law
The volume of an ideal gas at constant pressure varies directly as the absolute temperature:
𝑉2 𝑇 𝑉2 𝑉
= 𝑇2 = 𝑇1 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑉1 1 𝑇2 1

3.Amonton’s Law
At constant volume the pressure of an ideal gas will vary directly with the absolute
temperature.
𝑃2 𝑇 𝑃2 𝑃1
= 𝑇2 = = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑃1 1 𝑇2 𝑇1

Avogadro’s Law
Avogadro’s law states that equal volumes of all gases, under the same conditions of pressure
and temperature, contain the same number of molecules. This law is very important and is
applied in many compressor calculations.

Perfect Gas Formula

Starting with Charles’ and Boyle’s laws, it is possible to develop a formula for a given
weight of gas:
PV =WR’T
where W is weight and R’ is a specific constant for the gas involved. This is the perfect gas
equation. Going one step further, by making W in pounds equal to the molecular weight of the
gas
(1 mol), the formula becomes : PV= RoT Ro is known as the universal gas constant.

5|Page
CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR OVERVIEW
A centrifugal compressor is basically a radial flow rotodynamic fluid machine that
primarily uses air as the working fluid and increases the total internal energy of the
fluid inside by using mechanical energy (transferred to the machine from an
outside source), typically in the form of increased static pressure head.

Centrifugal compressors are the dynamic type, meaning that compression is accomplished
through the conversion of kinetic energy to static energy. The defining characteristic of
centrifugal compressors is that the head is determined by the volume flow through the unit.
In the case of an axial-inlet centrifugal compressor (typical of integrally geared units), an
appropriate length of pipe serves to smooth the flow of gas into the eye of the first impeller.
Centrifugal compressors are the most common type of dynamic compressors. Centrifugal
compressors operate on the principle of imparting velocity to a gas stream and then converting
this velocity energy into pressure energy. Centrifugal compressors are designed as single or
multi-staged and are driven directly by a prime mover or through gearing.

6|Page
 Figure 1 Single-stage centrifugal compressor with integral step-up gearing. (Dresser-Rand Company, Olean, N.Y.)

Figure 2 Multistage centrifugal compressor in a petrochemical plant. (Elliott Company, Jeannette, Pa.)

7|Page
Classification of centrifugal compressors
Centrifugal compressors may be classified according to:
1. Number of stages.
2. Type.

1. Number of stages
Single stage:
A single-stage centrifugal compressor is defined as the combination of one impeller with its
associated inlet guide vane and diffuser. Velocity is converted into pressure within the diffuser
and then further increased as the gas passes through the volute. the velocity head that a
compressor develops represents the height a column of gas is lifted.

Multi-stage Compressor:
There is a limit to the compression ratio of a single-impeller compressor. This is not enough for
the pressures needed for most applications on the plant. One way to increase the discharge
pressure is to connect more than one unit in series. Multi-stage compressors have a series of
impellers and volutes contained in one or more casings.
The multi-stage compressor consists of 1 to 10 impellers and can arrange according to various
flow path patterns. In each stage, it is assumed that the compression ratio and the temperature
are constant.

8|Page
The impellers which can be arranged in a variety of flow path configurations according to
desired outputs requirements. The temperature and the compression ratio are assumed to be
constant throughout each and every stage. These compressors can be arranged in a variety of
configurations such as
• straight-through
• compound
• and double flow configurations.
There is a difference between the way that process operators and mechanical technicians use
the term multi-stage which can cause confusion.

For process personnel on the plant, a compression stage is any part of a compressor between
points where a gas stream enters or leaves the casing.
Whether there is a single impeller or many between those points makes no difference to them.
They are not interested in how many impellers are inside the compressor casing. The gas may
pass through several impellers before leaving the compressor for cooling or to be joined by
another, higher pressure feed. That is still called a single stage on the plant.
For a mechanical engineer, each impeller in the casing means another stage. There can be
interstage cooling, or gas streams (side streams) can enter or leave at different points, but this
does not change the number of impellers, and therefore the number of stages of the
compressor. For reciprocating compressors, each stage has a separate cylinder and piston. The
gas always leaves one cylinder casing before entering the next so there is no confusion.
Although, as mechanical technicians, you may call each impeller a stage, an engineer must
understand that this may not be the meaning of stage used on the plant.
In this module, the mechanical meaning of a compressor stage is used. The number of
compressor stages is the same as the number of impellers in the casing. Each section between a
gas inlet and a gas outlet will be called a compressor process stage.

9|Page
The Figure shows a section through a nine-stage centrifugal compressor. The cut surfaces of the
sectioned impellers are shown in red. The path of the gas through the compressor is shown in
green.
Gas flows through passages from the discharge of one impeller to the suction eye of the next.
Diffusers are located in that part of the passage leading away from the outside of the impeller.
A return passage then takes the gas back to the eye of the next impeller.
These passages are formed by diaphragms that are held in the casing and do not rotate.

10 | P a g e
The difference of pressure acting on suction and discharge sides of the impellers cause a thrust
that pushes from the discharge end towards the suction end. Some compressors have back-to-
back impellers to avoid this problem, as shown.

Notice three things about the compressor in the Figure.

•The impellers get smaller as the gas pressure increases and their volume is compressed, just
like the cylinders of reciprocating compressors.
•this compressor has four impellers so a mechanical engineer would describe it as a four-stage
compressor.
•The gas only enters the casing at one point and leaves the casing at one point so a process
engineer would call it a single stage compressor.
If impellers are all facing the same way, balancing drums or balancing discs are fitted. to reduce
this out-of-balance force. They are located at the discharge end of the impeller shaft.
Gas at final discharge pressure pushes back against the impeller thrust to reduce the load on
thrust bearings.

11 | P a g e
If some gas is needed at a pressure lower than the final discharge pressure it can be taken out of
the compressor between stages. Also, if some of the feed gas is at a pressure higher than the
main feed it can enter the compressor between stages, as shown.

Figure 3 balancing drum

12 | P a g e
2.Type
• Axially (horizontally)compressors are usually installed with the rotor axis horizontal.
• radially (vertically)with barrel-type casing for higher pressures.
• Integrally Geared
Axially (horizontally)compressors:
Horizontally split compressors allow the internal parts to be reached easily without disturbing
them too much.
The Figure shows an exploded drawing of a horizontally split compressor. The impeller shaft
assembly (the rotor) can be removed in one piece for inspection or dismantling.

Figure 4 axially split

Split bearings and split diaphragms can be used in a

horizontally split casing. Also, it is easier to check
running clearances with the upper casing removed and
the rotor in place.The Figure shows the rotor sitting in
the lower casing. You can see the many

large-diameter studs that keep the casing halves

together.

13 | P a g e
Barrel casing:
A barrel casing is cylindrical, like an oil barrel, with end covers. It has no joint that can be forced
apart by radial pressure. Axial pressure acts on the end covers but the axial force is not as great
because the area of an end-cover is quite small.

The barrel contains the rotor and diaphragms, which together are sometimes called the bundle.
An exploded drawing of a barrel-type compressor is shown the in Figure.

Figure 5 Barrel split

A figure shows the lower diaphragm halves with diffuser vanes.

14 | P a g e
Integrally Geared
Integrally geared compressors have a low-speed (bull) gear that drives two or more high-speed pinions
(rotors). The pinion sizes vary to allow for different rotation speeds. Impellers are mounted at one end or
both ends of each rotor.

Figure 6 integrally geared

15 | P a g e
Operation:
The principle of operation and construction of centrifugal compressors is similar to that of
centrifugal pumps.

A centrifugal compressor works in the following way:

At the start-up, the air introduces from the air tank or any other source into the centrifugal
compressor.
After entering the compressor, the air strikes the impeller. This impeller has multiple radial
blades that rotate with the rotation of the impeller.
As the air strikes the radial blades of the impeller, the air pushes by centrifugal force into the
center of the impeller.
After striking, the impeller blades provide kinetic energy to the air; due to that, their speed
(velocity) increases.
After passing through the impeller, the air enters the diffuser area. This diffuser has stationary
vans. After entering the diffuser area, the speed or velocity of the flow of the air starts
decreasing.

16 | P a g e
According to Bernoulli’s principle, the velocity square is inversely proportional to pressure. The
volute casing or diffuser converts the increased velocity of the air into pressure energy before
the air is drawn into the impeller center. In most conditions, the increase in the impeller’s
pressure will roughly equal the increase in diffuser pressure.
Actually, the diffuser is a static (stationary) part of the compressor that accompanies the flow of
air as it exits the rotor. This speed slowdown eventually leads to a further rise in pressure.
The diffuser and the impeller account for approximately 35% and 65% of the total pressure
generated by the compressor. The centrifugal compressor strongly affects the air compression
process.

17 | P a g e
Major components

Rotor
There is a step in the shaft at the bearing area. On the thrust bearing end, a precision ground
spacer that butts against the shaft shoulder is installed. This spacer locates the thrust disk,
which in turn will locate the rotor in the compressor.
The major components of a centrifugal compressor rotor are:
● Shaft
● Impellers
● Balancing drum (if required)
● Impeller spacer
● Thrust disk
● Coupling hub

Figure 7 compressor rotor

18 | P a g e
 1. Impeller
The impellers are mounted on a steel shaft inside the compressor and this assembly is known as
compressor rotor. The function of the rotor is to provide velocity to the gas through blades that are
attached to a rotating disc. Depending upon the desired output, these blades can be either forward
leaning, radial or backward-leaning. Since backward-leaning blades provide the widest range of
efficiency, most of the multistage compressors use them.

Centrifugal compressor impellers work in exactly the same way as a pump impeller. but they are a little
different in design. Impellers may be:

• Open with no shrouds.

• semi-closed with a shroud on one side.

• closed with shrouds on both sides.

19 | P a g e
Most centrifugal compressors use semi-closed or closed impellers.
Multi-stage compressors may have an open-impeller first stage, with closed impellers for the
other stages. The vanes at the impeller eye are often more steeply angled to give a smoother
entry path for the gas, as shown in the Figure.

2. Balancing drum
Balance drums and balance disks are two internal thrust balancing devices to limit the residual
axial thrust. The balance drum (balance piston) has no close running axial clearances and
compensates for a majority of the thrust but does not compensate for all of it, and it has no
additional compensation as axial position shift. This design will have higher internal recirculation
but will be more tolerant of starting and stopping and other transient events.

Balancing disk
The balance disk compensates for axial thrust across the operating range through control of flow and
pressure across a variable and close axial clearance. This is a self-compensating or thrust balancing
device that results in less internal leakage and greater thrust compensation compared to the balance
drum. However, due to the close axial running clearances, this design is susceptible to wear and damage
during transient events.

Figure 8 balancing disk

20 | P a g e
3.spacers
The specific axial clearance between the impeller and other adjacent stationary components is
maintained by spacers. The ring-shaped piece prevents contact or rubbing between the
impeller and stationary parts, preventing damage that happens due to friction and wear. The
spacer allows for thermal expansion while also allowing adequate space for the gas flow.

4.Thrust disk
The thrust collar allows the axial load to be transferred from the shaft to the bearing. Thrust
bearings are typically used in pairs on each side of the thrust collar.

21 | P a g e
Stationary parts
1. Casing or Housing
The centrifugal compressor components are mostly protected by housing. Basically, the housing
is a tight way of the air (or any other fluid) around the impeller.
The casing is designed in such a way that the air kinetic energy discharges at the impeller’s
discharge port, but this kinetic energy converts into pressure before the air exits the housing.
The housing consists of several bearings that support the rotor axially and radially. It is made of
steel or cast iron.
The housing has two main types:
• Vertically splits.
• Horizontally splits.

2. Diffuser and Volute

The purpose of the diffuser and volute is to increase gas pressure by reducing its speed of flow.
The impeller removes the gas at high velocity into a diffuser passage, which is a small space
between adjacent diaphragms that normally changes the flow of gas flow 180° in order to guide
it towards the next impeller. The diffuser is usually made up of two walls which create a radial
channel. Due to this arrangement, the velocity of the gas decreases and its dynamic pressure is
then converted into static pressure.
These opposite changes of energy keep the total energy of the gas constant. If kinetic energy
reduces, pressure energy increases.
The diffuser does not rotate; it is fixed in the compressor casing. The spaces between diffuser
vanes increase as they get further from the impeller. This allows a wider flow path for the gas,
and it slows down. You can see the increase of these spaces in Figure.

22 | P a g e
The vane angle on some compressors is adjustable to change the performance of the
compressor.
The gas enters the volute after passing through the diffuser. The flow path around the volute
gets bigger as the gas gets closer to the discharge. This allows the gas to slow even more, and its
pressure continues to increase.
The Figure shows the gas flow path through the volute casing of an electric-motor driven
compressor.

23 | P a g e
Some centrifugal compressors have additional vanes at the compressor inlet. These can be
opened or closed to control capacity.

3. Collector
After the diffuser, the air or the gas is collected and directed toward the outlet section. The
component uses to accumulate the air or gas emitted by the diffuser is known as a collector. It
also knows as a scroll or a volute.
A collector can also have valves and other devices for controlling the compressor. The collector
is the last component of the centrifugal compressor. A delivery pipe connects with the collector
from where the pressurized air or any other fluid discharges and transfers to desired location or
section.

4.Impeller Blades
These blades connect with the impeller rotation. The main objective of these blades is to
provide kinetic energy to the working fluid and increase its speed.

5.Inlet and Outlet Ports

The inlet port of the compressor is used to suck the air or gas inside the compressor. In contrast,
the outlet port is used to discharge the pressurized air or gas.

Compressor seals
A compressor process seal (air seal or Gas Seal) prevents the process gas in the compressor
from entering the atmosphere using a differential pressure. It also prevents the atmosphere
from entering the process gas in the compressor by sealing the rotating assembly in the
stationary compressor case.
There are three main subsystems in a gas seal system:
1. Gas supplies and vent for sealing and separation
2. Control
3. panel with piping leading to and from the seals to maintain seal gas
4. quality and seal gas supply pressure to the seal faces, The control
5. panel can use heaters also.
6. A gas seal housing, including seal faces/surfaces, and/or bushings on the rotors.

24 | P a g e
Typically, the seal gas used to seal the process gas (hydrocarbon, hydrogen) is a clean, dry and
cool gas compatible with the process gas that is being compressed. In order for the seal gas
supply pressure to be higher than what the compressor seals will ever be exposed to, filters,
dryers, and coolers must be installed in the seal gas supply line. Separation/ barrier gas is
usually inert gases, such as nitrogen, and should be dry and cool. In most cases, vent systems
are connected to a flare or other system where the leakage can be safely disposed of.

How do compressor air seals work?

Compressor air seals (gas seals) works on the principle of ” differential pressure control”.
As the process gas is pumped through the compressor, its pressure is usually balanced between
the discharge seal and the suction seal, so that both seals operate at the same pressure. A
differential pressure gauge and a differential pressure control regulator are connected to the gas
seal control panel, which uses the process gas as a control signal.
Seal Gas (along with Separation gas/ inert gas in some cases) is maintained at a “controlled”
higher pressure in the machinery creating a differential thus preventing any leakage of the
process gas to the atmosphere.

25 | P a g e
Benefits of compressor air seals
Reliability
A gas seal is a non-contacting mechanical seal, so it does not wear. The theoretical lifetime
depends only on the secondary seal elements (usually O-ring, gasket or polymer-based seals)
that can last for up to 15 years. Dry gas seals typically last for over 10 years before requiring
reconditioning, which is much longer than oil seals.
Reduced Maintenance Costs
Routine maintenance is less frequent with gas seal systems, making them economical.
Reduced Emissions
Thanks to the very thin running gaps between the seal faces, gas leakage is reduced by ten-fold.
This results in cost savings for the end-user and a reduction in penalties for taxable gas flaring.
There are other numerous benefits depending upon system configuration.

Types of compressor air seals

1. Labyrinth seals

Figure 9 labyrinth seal

26 | P a g e
• Standard gas seal offering on most compressor models
• Used with atmospheric air and low pressure gases
• Allows for a small amount of gas leakage from each compression
• A non-contacting component and is not subject to shaft wear
• Does not require periodic maintenance
• Does not require inspection for 5+ years under normal use
2. Babbitted dry Gas Seals

• Typically used with high pressure and nitrogen applications

• Knife edges on pinion cut into the Babbitt material on the seal for a close fit with very low gas
leakage
• Not sensitive to centering of the pinion shaft
• Ports can be machined in the seal to recover gas or buffer the seal during machine downtime
• Seal maintenance is not required for 5+ years under normal use

27 | P a g e
Dry gas seals can be further classified based on arrangement of the seal faces :

Multiport Babbitted Style dry gas seal

•Lower cost than dry face seals.
•Higher leakage, but some leakage is recovered back to the process.
•Non-recovered process gas is contained and routed to the vent for piping to a safe location.
•Can tolerate some liquids and particulate.
•Greatly simplified seal support system.

Single Dry Face Seal with Labyrinth Separation Seal

•Cartridge style dry gas seals.
•Babbitted separation seal is tolerant of liquids and solids.
•Separation gas requirement is higher than carbon ring type separation seals.

Single Dry Face Seal with Carbon Ring Separation Seal

•Dry face and separation seals supplied as one cartridge style assembly.
•Two different styles of carbon ring separation seals:
–Standard segmented carbon ring seal
–Lift off type carbon ring seal
•Reduced separation gas consumption as compared to Babbitted separation seal.
•Lift off type seal ideal for machines spending long periods of time in standby.
–Static leakage is reduced by a factor of 3 as compared to standard carbon ring separation seals.

Tandem Dry Face Seal with Intermediate Labyrinth

•Cartridge style assembly.
•Second dry face seal minimizes leakage to atmosphere in the event of a primary seal failure.
•Reduced separation gas consumption as compared to carbon ring separation seal.

28 | P a g e
Tandem Dry Face Seal with Carbon Ring Separation Seal
•Cartridge style assembly.
•Leakage across the primary dry face seal faces can be recovered, reducing process gas lost to
vent.
•The carbon ring separation seal prevents process gas leakage to the atmosphere.
•Ideal for closed loop applications where the cost of the process gas is significant.

Double Opposed Dry Face Seal

•Advantage of this seal type is its low seal gas consumption.
•Seal gas leaks into the process and to the atmosphere.
•May be provided with a Babbitted or carbon ring separation seal if seal gas leakage to the
atmosphere is not acceptable.

Figure 10 oil film seal

Figure 11 Mechanical seal

29 | P a g e
Bearings
Bearing is a member designed to support a load while permitting relative motion between two
elements of a machine.

The primary loads that act on main bearings are:

• Weight of the rotating mass (compressor, turbine, etc.)
• Axial forces of power or load change
• Compression and tension loads between stationary parts and rotating part caused by thermal
expansion and misalignment
• Vibration
What is the Function of the Bearings?
1. Carry the rotating shaft.
2. Support the moving parts.
3. Reduce the friction between moving and stationary machine parts.
4. Reduce wear.
5. Moving parts include rotating shafts and parts moving in straight lines, such as the carriage
on a lathe moving along the ways.
6. The bearing must provide this support and must also hold the part in proper alignment with
other parts of the machine and do so with minimum friction.

30 | P a g e
The bearings are classified by the direction of loading as follows:
• Radial bearings support a load acting in the direction normal to the rotating shaft.
• Thrust bearings support a thrust, or a load acting along the axis of the shaft.
Classification of Bearings With Respect to the Load
1.Radial load bearings: Carry radial load only.
2. Axial load bearings : Carry axial load only.
3. A combination of axial and radial loads.

31 | P a g e
Classification of Bearings:
There are:
1. Sliding surface bearings
2. Rolling element bearings
Sliding Surfaces Bearings (Plain Bearings)
• A sliding surface bearings (plain bearing) is simply a sleeve that fits around a shaft.
• Shafts are always in contact with the surface of the bearing. For this reason they produce
sliding friction; lubricant (oil or grease) is essential to minimize this friction.
• The lubricant not only lubricates and cools, but also locates the shaft, When the shaft is
turning it will not touch the bearing.
Friction Bearings (Sliding Friction)
• Bearings which rely on sliding friction-called friction bearings because of the high initial
starting friction.
• Use a rigid housing to support the bearing liner material.
• Almost always rely on some form of lubricant to separate the bearing liner and the moving
part (shaft, journal or thrust collar). The bearing liner material is usually soft.
• Contact pressure acting on the bearing material is generally low.
• Mostly designed to carry radial loads although some carry thrust loads.

Figure 12 journal bearing

32 | P a g e
Advantages

• Tolerate dirt well.

• Quiet.

• Unlimited shaft speed potential.

• Extremely long life if lube kept clean and well supplied.

• Can carry heavy loads and are less susceptible to damage from shock loading.

• Vibration damping.

Disadvantages

• High starting torque (until oil wedge formed).

• High lube consumption.

• Less efficient.

Anti-Friction Bearings (Rolling)

• Contain some types of rolling elements-balls, needle or rollers.

• Contact areas are small, so contact pressures are high.

• Manufactured to very close tolerances usually <.0001”.

Advantages

• Low starting torque.

• Low lube consumption.

• No break in time.

• Standardized sizes.

Disadvantages

• Very sensitive to dirt contamination, may require more expensive lube filtration systems.

• Susceptible to damage from shock loading.

• Speed limited because rolling elements tend to throw off lubricant at high speeds.

33 | P a g e
 Figure 13 Parts of ball bearing

34 | P a g e
 Compressor Bearings
Centrifugal compressor bearings must support:
• radial load—from the weight of shaft and impellers and any out-of-balance forces
• thrust—from pressure differences on opposite sides of impellers
Radial loads are supported by:
• plain radial bearings (Fig(a))
• anti-friction radial bearings (Fig.(b))
• tilting-pad radial bearings (Fig.(c))

Figure a plain bearing Figure b Ball bearing Figure c tilting pad bearing

Thrust loads are supported by:

• plain thrust bearings (Fig.(a2))

• anti-friction thrust bearings (Fig.(b2))

• tilting-pad thrust bearings (Fig.(c2))

Figure a2 plain thrust bearing Figure b2 ball thrust bearing Figure c2 tilting thrust bearing

35 | P a g e
ADVANCED SEALING AND BEARING SYSTEMS
DRY SEALS
Operating Principles:
Dry seal design is based on the gas film technology used successfully in other applications, such
as air bearings in high-precision machining and measurement equipment. The heart of the
sealing mechanism is comprised of two seal rings (Fig. 13.1). The mating ring has a groove
pattern etched into a hard face and rotates with the shaft. The primary ring has a softer face
and is restrained from movement except along the axis of the shaft. Springs are located to
axially force the primary and mating ring faces toward one another. When the compressor I
shut down and depressurized, the spring forces result in contact of the faces. As the compressor
is pressurized, the balance of static pressure forces on the seal mechanism allows a minute
volume of gas to leak past the faces.

Figure 14 dry seals

36 | P a g e
MAGNETIC BEARINGS
Operating Principles:

Magnetic bearings for gas compressor applications are used in both radial and axial configurations,
performing the same tasks as their hydrodynamic counterparts. Each bearing consists of a rotor and
stator, position sensors, and an electronic control system . The rotor of a radial magnetic bearing consists
of a stack of circular laminations pressed onto a sleeve that can be fitted to the compressor shaft. Used
to reduce eddy-current losses, these laminations are selected from a material with high magnetic
permeability for higher magnetic flux conductance.

Figure 15 Magnetic bearing construction

Thrust-Reducing Seals
To take advantage of current dry seal and magnetic bearing technology, Revolve is focusing considerable
attention on thrust-reducing seals for both overhung- and beam-type compressors. The first thrust
reducing seal for overhung compressors was installed in making possible the application of magnetic
bearings in this type of compressor. Overhung compressors typically undergo much higher thrust loading
upon startup than do beam-type compressors because their pressure forces are not balanced. Without
the thrust-reducing seal, the size of the axial magnetic bearing required would have been prohibitive.
The seal enabled reduction of the bearing to a size easily incorporated into the housing.

37 | P a g e
compressor performance
The centrifugal pump performance curve consisting of the following three important curves

• Differential Pressure (or some cases Polytrophic Head) Vs Inlet Flow rate
• Brake Power Vs Inlet Flow rate
• Efficiency Vs Inlet Flow rate
Differential Pressure Vs Inlet flow rate
In this curve, the differential pressure indicated in the vertical axis and Inlet Flow rate in the
horizontal axis. With an increase in compressor inlet flow rate, the head developed by the
compressor start decreases. The compressor develops maximum differential pressure (head)
called Surge (3A). The flow and pressure corresponding to the surge point refers to surge flow
and surge pressure.
When the inlet flow rate increases (Refer below performance curve), the differential pressure
(head) keep on decreases up to a maximum flow rate (right side of the curve) called as
“Stonewall point” or “Stall Point”. The Stonewall point or Stall Point refers to the maximum
operating range of a centrifugal compressor.
The inlet flow rate and differential pressure (head) are related to each other, one cannot be
changed without varying the other parameter.
Brake Power Vs Inlet Flow Rate
In this curve, the Break power represents in the vertical axis and Inlet Flow rate on the
horizontal axis (Refer below performance curve). As we have seen from the curve, the brake
power does not start from zero, the minimum power represents in the curve to overcome the
frictional losses and centrifugal compressor inertia. Based on the compressor flow rated, the
rated power obtain from this curve.
Efficiency Vs Inlet Flow Rate
As we have seen from the performance curve, the efficiency curve is raising as the flow rate
increases. But at one point the curve reaches the maximum and starts decreasing. The
maximum point is called Best Efficiency Point (BEP). It’s always preferred to run the centrifugal
compressor at the best efficiency point (BEP), but in the practical case, we are not able to match
the required operating point with compressor BEP.
If the centrifugal compressors run at or near to BEP, not only we get higher efficiency and also
the less vibration of the compressor.

38 | P a g e
How to read a Centrifugal Compressor Performance Curve?
Consider a centrifugal compressor, the required operating points are referred below
Rated Flow rate – 66000 kg/hr
Suction Pressure – 10 bar
Discharge Pressure – 65 bar
Differential Pressure – 55 bar

39 | P a g e
Operating Point
The Red Colour mark represents the operating point of a centrifugal compressor. The flow
corresponding to the operating point refers to “Operating Flow” and the corresponding
discharge pressure is called “Operating Discharge Pressure”. As per our example, the operating
flow is 66000kg/hr and discharge pressure is 65 bar.
Sometimes the compressor manufacturer provides a polytropic head or differential pressure
instead of the discharge pressure.
Speed
As we have seen from the performance curve, the Flow rate Vs Discharge Pressure curves for
corresponding speed. (ie., for various speed of the compressor the flow rate Vs Discharge
pressure curves change accordingly)
As per the curve, the point (1) represents the 100% speed (also called rated speed) of the curve
and the point (1A) represent the maximum continuous speed of the compressor. In this case,
the maximum speed is 105% of the rated speed.
Stall or Stone Wall Point
The maximum flow developed by a centrifugal compressor is called Stall or Stonewall Point (2).
Below this point, the compressor is aerodynamically unstable.
Surge
The surge point refers to the minimum flow in the centrifugal compressor, below with
momentary reversal of rotor occur. Refer performance curve for the surge represented as a
point (3).
To avoid the compressor surge, an anti-surge system installed in the compressor system. As per
the curve, the Anti-surge line represented as (Point 3A). Normally the Anti-surge line considered
at 10% higher than the surge flow.

40 | P a g e
In process compressor, the compressor operates at various cases. It’s necessary to prevent the
compressor operates in the left side surge line. If the compressor operates in this region, it may
lead to catastrophic failure.
Efficiency
The operating flow of the centrifugal compressor intersect at the efficiency curve, the
corresponding efficiency in the Y-axis called “Operating Efficiency” of the compressor. This point
represented as the point (4) in the curve.
As we have seen the efficiency curve, the curve starts rising and reach a maximum point and
then starts decreasing with an increase in flow rate.
The maximum point in the efficiency curve called “Best Efficiency Point (BEP)”, it’s represented
as the point (4A).
Brake Power
The “brake power” or “rated power” represents the power required for the compressor to
deliver the rated/operating flow at rated discharge pressure or head.
As per the curve, the operating flow of the centrifugal compressor intersect at the Brake power
curve and corresponding power in the Y-axis called “brake power of the compressor”. It’s
represented as the point (5) in the curve.
In the current example, the brake power is 3000 kW.
The power corresponding to the “End Of Curve” in the brake power curve represented as a
point(5A) in the Curve. Based on the brake power required, motor kilowatt or hp will be
selected.
If the compressor is driven by a steam turbine, then the steam turbine has sized for 110% of the
maximum power required for the complete compressor train.
Turndown
It’s the percentage of change in capacity between the Rated-Capacity and the Surge Point
capacity at the Rated-Head when the unit is operating at Rated-Suction Temperature and gas
composition. Refer below the figure for turndown representation.

41 | P a g e
For proper selection of Centrifugal Compressor, the below mentioned points to be check in
the centrifugal compressor performance curve.
1. Normal Operating / Rated Flow
2. Normal Operating / Rated Head
3. Speed of the Compressor
4. IGV opening (if IGV will use for flow control, then IGV full close represent the minimum
flow of compressor and IGV full open (100%) represent the maximum flow to the
compressor )
5. Surge flow & Anti-surge limit
6. Efficiency
7. Compressor brake power
8. End of Curve power
9. Turn down capacity

42 | P a g e
 The performance of a dynamic compressor is very much dependent on environmental
conditions. The impact of the different environmental parameters and their effect on
performance below will be explained.
When considering an investment in a centrifugal type of compressor it is critical to consider
the yearly extremes, as well as the average conditions when sizing the equipment for the
application to achieve maximum performance.
The environmental parameters that influence the performance are:
• Inlet temperature
• Inlet pressure
• Relative humidity (RH)
• Cooling water temperature
1) Inlet temperature:
The inlet temperature of the air has an impact on the density of the air at the intake of the
compressor and will influence the kinetic energy transferred by the blades to the air.
Increased density at lower intake temperatures will result in a higher free air delivery and
also higher power consumption of the compressor.
Another effect of the change in air or gas density is the available turndown of the
compressor. That is the flow range where efficient regulation through use of a throttle valve
or inlet guide vanes is possible.
From the illustrations below it is clear that with lower temperatures higher turndown range
is available.
Inlet temperature changes produce large changes in performance. In cold weather, a
centrifugal can deliver much more weight flow of air than in warm weather if the drive is
sized to provide the additional power required.

43 | P a g e
 Lower Temperature:
• Increases the surge pressure.
• Increases the maximum capacity (weight flow) at a given discharge pressure.
• Increases power consumption (horsepower).

Higher Temperature:
• Decreases the surge pressure.
• Decreases the maximum capacity (weight flow) at a given discharge pressure.
• Decreases power consumption (horsepower
Figures 1 and 2 show the effect of inlet temperature on the performance of turbo
compressor.

Figure 16 effect of inlet temperature

44 | P a g e
2)Inlet Pressure:

A decrease in inlet pressure will reduce the density of the air at the compressor intake. As with higher
temperatures, it will result in lower free air delivery and power. Changes in inlet pressure can be caused
by fouled inlet filters or changing barometric pressure. The same goes for the available turndown -lower
intake pressure will result in smaller available turndown. (See Figure 3).

Lower inlet pressure:

•Decreases the discharge pressure along the entire curve.

•Decreases the maximum capacity (weight flow).

•Decreases power consumption or horsepower (due to reduced weight flow).

Figure 17 effect of inlet pressure

45 | P a g e
3)Relative humidity (RH):

An increase in relative humidity (RH) reduces flow and power, and a decrease in RH will increase flow
and power. The addition of water vapor to the air makes air humid and reduces the density of the air.
This is due to the molar mass of water being less than that of air. (See Figure 4).

Humidity has a slight effect on discharge pressure and a greater effect on weight flow.

Higher relative humidity:

•Decreases the discharge pressure at surge.

•Decreases the maximum capacity (weight flow).

•Decreases the flow at which surge occurs.

•Decreases power consumption (horsepower).

The higher condensate losses on high humidity days results in reduce flow delivered to the plant air
system.

Figure 18 effect of relative humidity

46 | P a g e
4)Cooling water temperature:

The cooling water temperatures will affect the intake temperatures to the second stage and any further
stages if present. Colder water increases flow and power, and warmer water reduces flow and power.

To size a centrifugal compressor, you should consider the demand flow pattern of customer operation
and site inlet conditions (minimum / average / high) for optimum performance. Another important point
for consideration is motor sizing. If the motor / driver is selected based on performance at lower inlet
temperatures, it will ensure that even during low inlet temperatures.

The motor has sufficient power available to take care of flow increases. The customer can then take
advantage of the increased flow available from their compressor. (See Figure 5)

Lower cooling water temperature:

•Increases discharge pressure.

•Increases maximum capacity (weight flow).

•Increases power consumption (horsepower).

Higher cooling water temperature:

•Decreases discharge pressure.

•Decreases maximum capacity (weight flow).

•Decreases power consumption (horsepower.

Figure 19 cooling water temperature

47 | P a g e
Auxiliary components
Compressors usually have additional equipment to help them to work efficiently and to reduce the
chance of damage. Snubbers have already been described for reciprocating compressors. They are
pulsation dampeners that smooth the flow of gas entering and leaving the compressor cylinder on each
discharge stroke of the piston. Snubbers are items of auxiliary equipment for reciprocating compressors.
Other auxiliary equipment:

• helps to cool the gas during and after compression

• removes liquid droplets and solid particles from the gas stream

• supplies lubricating oil to the compressor

• supplies sealing liquid to shaft seals

1. Gas cooling
Increasing the pressure of a gas reduces its volume, but it also raises its temperature. When gas gets
hotter it tries to expand, increasing its volume again. This reduces the capacity of the compressor as the
gas becomes less dense.

The capacity, or volume flow rate, is measured as if the gas was at atmospheric pressure (1.1013bara)
and at a temperature of 15C. A compressor may be discharging a vary large volume of gas every hour but
if its temperature is high, that volume would be a lot less at 15C and the capacity may be quite low. Gas
at high temperature reduces the efficiency of a compressor.

Gas must be compressed and cooled to change it to liquid. If the compression is part of a gas liquefaction
process, cooling during compression increases the efficiency of the process. The gas is cooled between
compressor process stages and after final discharge.

A cooler connected between process stages of a compressor is called an intercooler.

Cooling between compression stages:

• reduces the gas volume (increases its density) before compression in the next stage

• saves power—intercooling between stages of compression reduces the power needed from the driver

• liquefies any vapours in the gas that might condense during compression liquid droplets can damage a
compressor

• makes lubrication more effective by keeping lubricants cooler

• reduces the chance of damage from overheating the compressor Gas leaving the final discharge of a
compressor is cooled by passing it through an aftercooler.

Intercoolers and aftercoolers are types of heat exchanger. In a heat exchanger the hot fluid flows past a
cooler fluid. Heat passes from the hotter to the cooler fluid. The cooler fluid may be air, water or a cooler
process fluid.

48 | P a g e
The liquid-cooled type has a drum (the shell) with tubes passing through it. One fluid passes through the
tubes while the other flows into and out of the shell, surrounding the tubes as it flows.

Figure 20 Shell and tube collar

Figure 21 intercooler and after cooler

49 | P a g e
 2. Removal of Solids and Liquids
Solid particles entering a compressor can increase wear between sliding surfaces in bearigs.

In dynamic compressors, rotational speeds can be very high. Any solid that enters with the gas stream
can cause erosion damage to impellers. Liquid droplets can have a similar effect to solid particles when
they hit fast moving impeller vanes.

A knockout drum, often with a filter, located close to the compressor’s intake removes solid particles and
liquid droplets from the gas entering the compressor. A knockout drum is a long cylindrical drum through
which the gas passes. The drum contains baffles to make the gas change direction as it passes through.
Solid particles and liquid droplets are heavier (more dense) than the gas. They can not change direction
so easily. When the gas flows around a baffle, any liquids or solids hit it and fall to the bottom of the
drum. These can then be drained off. Mist extractors remove very small liquid droplets from the air
leaving the drum.

Some gases need less cooling and lower pressures to change them to liquid than others. If the gas being
compressed is a mixture of gases, those that liquefy more easily may start to change inside the
compressor. To avoid this, the gas may also pass through knockout drums between compressor process
stages. It also passes through a discharge knockout drum after the final stage. This makes sure that gas
entering the next stage of the process contains no liquid droplets.

50 | P a g e
 3. Compressor Lubrication
Most large compressors have an external lubricating-oil (lube-oil) system to supply lubricant under
pressure to bearings etc. The main parts of an external lube-oil system are:

• oil reservoir—a tank to hold oil not being circulated

• strainers and filters—to remove solid particles from the oil

• pumps—to pressurise and circulate the oil

• coolers—to reduce the oil temperature and increase its viscosity

A strainer in the pump suction line removes larger solid particles before the oil enters the pump. Oil is
pumped from the reservoir, through the strainer to coolers and filters before reaching the bearings. It
then flows back to the reservoir by gravity.

51 | P a g e
 Figure 22 lube oil system

52 | P a g e
1. Lubrication Oil Reservoir

- The system usually includes a reservoir to store the lubricating oil. The reservoir may have a sufficient
capacity to ensure an adequate oil supply for the compressor during both normal operation and
startup/shutdown.

2. Lubrication Oil Pump

- A pump is employed to circulate the lubricating oil throughout the compressor. It ensures a
continuous flow of oil to all critical components that require lubrication. The pump is often (gear pump)
and driven by an electric motor.

3. Oil Cooler
An oil cooler is used to control the temperature of the lubricating oil. Maintaining the appropriate oil
temperature is crucial for ensuring the oil's viscosity and performance. Commonly, air or water is used as
a cooling medium for the oil.

53 | P a g e
 4. Oil Filters
Filters are incorporated in the system to remove contaminants and impurities from the
lubricating oil. Clean oil is essential for preventing damage to bearings and other sensitive
components.

5. Bearings
The lube oil system delivers oil to the various bearings within the compressor. Proper
lubrication is essential for reducing friction, dissipating heat, and preventing premature
wear.

6. Oil Pressure and Temperature Monitoring

Sensors and gauges are installed to monitor the oil pressure and temperature. An alarm
system may be in place to alert operators if these parameters deviate from the
recommended range.
8. Automatic Lubrication System
Some modern systems are equipped with automatic lubrication systems that adjust oil flow
based on the operating conditions of the compressor. This helps optimize lubrication and reduce
energy consumption.

54 | P a g e
9. Emergency Shutdown System
A shutdown system is often incorporated to stop the compressor in case of a critical failure or
when abnormal operating conditions are detected. This is crucial for preventing catastrophic
damage to the compressor.
10. Oil Analysis and Condition Monitoring
Regular oil analysis is conducted to assess the condition of the lubricating oil. This helps identify
potential issues such as contamination, degradation, or excessive wear in the compressor.
Proper maintenance and monitoring of the lube oil system are essential to ensure the longevity
and reliable performance of the centrifugal compressor. Regular inspections, oil analysis, and
adherence to recommended maintenance schedules are vital for optimal operation.

API 617

55 | P a g e
Troubleshooting
1. Low compressor capacity

2. High discharge temperature

56 | P a g e
 3. Seal oil system

4. Lube oil system

57 | P a g e
 5. surge
Centrifugal compressor surge is a characteristic behavior of the compressor that occurs in situations
when inlet flow is reduced, and the compressor head developed is so low that it cannot overcome the
pressure at the compressor discharge.

During a centrifugal compressor surge situation, the compressor outlet pressure (and energy) reduce
dramatically which causes a flow reversal within the compressor. Due to its violent nature, it is the
limiting factor for operability. To enhance the operating range, understanding of the flow instability
inception when approaching surge is essential.

detrimental phenomenon as it results in compressor vibration that results in the failure of the
compressor parts. Compressor surge normally occurs in centrifugal and axial compressors. Compressor
surge is a cyclic event, and this results in high strain on compressor bearings, seals, and the impeller. The
resulting severe vibration can lead to damage to the motor compressor coupling and the baseplate.

What Causes Compressor Surge?

Various reasons could contribute to a centrifugal compressor surge. The reasons are multitude ranging
from a

• Driver failure.

• Misdistribution of load in the compressor.

• Power failure.

• Restrictions in the inlet and outlet of the system.

• Upset process conditions.

• Inadvertent loss of speed.

• Startup & shutdown problems.

58 | P a g e
• Failure of anti-surge mechanisms.

• Check valve failure.

• Very high rotation speed and insufficient flow.

• Mispositioning of rotor.

• Operator error.

The compressor working condition is determined by its map as shown in the Figure in which the lower
and higher flow limits are phrased as surge and choke limits respectively. Surge limit and choke lines are
two extreme flow conditions. Surge occurs if the surge limit line is crossed in low flow conditions. If the
choke limit is exceeded at the given speed, the flow achieves the sonic speed and an increase in the flow
cannot be attained further. Between the mentioned limits, the flow is designated to be stable3 and is
recommended for compressor operation.

59 | P a g e
Consequences of Centrifugal Compressor Surge:

Surge causes a complete defeat and reversal of the balancing design of the rotating bundle of the
compressor leading to abnormally high loads on bearings (especially thrust bearings) and seals, collar
shafts, impellers, etc. wear out and sometimes depending on how powerful the compressor surge forces
are, cause fractures to the machinery parts due to excessive vibrations. Other bad consequences of the
compressor surge are:

•The flow reversal could cause process-related problems leading to plant shutdown.

•As the hot compressed gas is returning at the inlet, it will result in an increase in the compressor inlet
temperature.

• As long as this surge will prevail, a large dynamic force will act on the compressor impeller and blade.

Exceptionally high levels of vibration; rapid rise in the internal temperature of gas, and consequently, a
rise in the internal temperature of the compressor; inability to meet flow and pressure demands of the
process. For the majority of modern compressors surge is a highly damaging, sometimes a destructive
event.

The degree of damage to compressors during surge varies depending on design and application, and
statistics are incomplete for obvious reasons. However, it is a common industry belief that a ½ hour of
accumulated surge is detrimental enough for the compressor to become damaged beyond acceptable
level. Operation of the compressor to the left of the SLL must be avoided and a surge event that evolved
into surge cycling must be stopped immediately.

As shown in the figure, the relation between the fluctuating force (due to vibrations on the compressor)
and the time is a huge evidence on the huge damage which surge causes to compressors

60 | P a g e
Here is an image, that shows the bearings being dislodged from their containment. The effects of the
compressor surge are also contagious and due to excessive shaft vibrations, the gearbox connected
between the compressor and the driver is also not spared at the bearings and gear teeth.

A control action is required to avoid and remove the surge out of the compressor, as it is a cyclic
phenomenon and repeats itself.

An entire surge cycle can be seen in the Figure representing the reversal of flow and its recovery. This
phenomenon occurs at a very high speed that is, it can take less than 150 ms for flow reversals. The
surge intensity is varied in different applications and is directly related to the fluid density.

61 | P a g e
Anti-surge Mechanism:
• By pass with anti-surge valve.

Commonly used for gas compressors.

• Blow off valve.

Commonly used for air compressors.

• Inlet guide vanes.

1. By pass with anti-surge valve:

62 | P a g e
2.Blow off valve:

Anti-surge control system:

It prevents the surge in CCs by opening the ASV quite effectively and quickly. A typical
implementation of ASC in a local gas station compressor is shown in the Figure

63 | P a g e
Instruments used for surge detection need to be located as close as possible to the compressor
flanges. Locating the points of process sensing as close to the compressor as possible provides
the quickest and most accurate information about the condition of the compressor.
When selecting the location for the transmitter, vibration at the point of installation must also
be considered. Installation on or near rotating machinery, or on a segment of pipe affected by
vibration may produce adverse effects on the transmitter and its signal.
Flow measurement in particular is susceptible to noise. Often, poor installation such as not
allowing enough straight run piping upstream or downstream of the flow measuring device
results in signal that is too noisy.
A complete ASC consists of the following components:
Surge Detection and Control Algorithm: Surge detection and control algorithm is controlling the
compressor protection using discharge and suction transmitters as inputs. It then calculates the
deviation and surge parameter and generates output setpoint for the anti-surge control valve
for flow recycle.
Surge Limit Model: At multiple speeds of the compressor, the surge limit model exhibits the
surge points. The data is generally taken from datasheets provided by the vendor. It is also
calculated at the site during the anti-surge controllers commissioning.
Actuator Control: The ASC gives output to the ASV in the form of 4–20 mA for the protection of
the compressor. For an effective anti-surge control valve, the selection parameters are the size
and the type of valves.
Instrumentation: It comprises the transmitter for suction temperature, discharge pressure,
discharge temperature, suction pressure, and suction flow orifice meter. The transmitters then
send a 4–20 mA range signal separately to the controller as per their calibrations. The right
selection of an instrument is important for efficient ASC action.
Pipelines: Piping is very much responsible for the reaction time in the compressor to provide a
quick response to the recycle valve. Taking into account of quickness of response and accuracy
of control, the piping volume of piping is also considered as it controls the process operation.

64 | P a g e
PID control system:
Effective prevention against the surge is achieved by sustaining the lowest amount of flow just
over from fixed margin making sure of the compressor to be operated in a stable region.
Usually, the lowest amount of flow is assigned at 110% of the surge line flow, without varying
the ratio of pressure. The procedure is done using valves either for recycle in the discharge
process, or to run blow-off at the compressor line of discharge. Recycle valve is preferred over
blow-off to avoid waste of expensive fluid. Recycling is done by an electronic/analogue signal of
4–20 mA operating control valve termed as ASV.
A PID controller is the most popular feedback control system in the process industry. Its
equation is generally written as follows

Where OP(t) is the output of controller at time t, Kc is the gain of proportional, E(t) is the error
at ‘t’ time, Td is the derivative rate and Ti is the integral (reset) time. The proportional action is
the current response according to the error signal, the integral is the history response and the
derivative is the anticipator response. The derivative action is normally not used in flow
applications due to the hunting problems in actuators because of sudden variations of error
signal due to a varying process variable. However, in our application, this action would be
necessary to quickly open the valve in severe surge conditions.
A severe surge is a condition that is caused in very less time causing the rapid movement of the
compressor map Operating Point (OP) to the left of the safety lines. The severe surge can only
be prevented by the rapid opening of the ASV which is possible with high derivative action
termed as Recycle Trip Line (RTL) response. The derivative action will not be used for the closing
of the ASV to avoid hunting and forcing the compressor to go in the surge zone by limiting
recycling. This forms the basis for split PI+D response in which the derivative response will be
used only for the opening of the ASV in severe surging conditions.

65 | P a g e
Research methodology:
The working of the advanced ASC has been elaborated by the flowchart shown in the Figure

In this control approach, two lines are introduced to the right of Surge Limit Line (SLL): Surge
Control Line (SCL) and Recycle Trip Line (RTL) as shown in Figure 6. SCL has been set at 10%
margin from SLL and RTL is set to 5% from SCL.
In normal and slow low flow conditions, when the operating point crosses the SCL, a PI response
is activated by the controller to open the ASV. In the fast-low flow conditions in which the OP
suddenly crosses the SCL, the PI response alone cannot protect the compressor from the surge.
Therefore, RTL has been introduced to generate an open-loop response of greater magnitude
for the additional opening of ASV depending upon the rate of change or speed of the OP that is,
derivative action. The RTL response magnitude equals the derivative of the ‘Ss’ Surge parameter.
It can also be described as the change in rate is directly proportional to the magnitude of the
step response.

66 | P a g e
The split PID control action can be seen in the Figure

67 | P a g e
The final response is calculated by adding the response of PI control and the response of
Recycle Trip, which can be seen in the Figure

6. Bearing failure
THE FATIGUE PROCESS AND STRESSES THAT ACT UPON ROLLING ELEMENT BEARINGS

• Microscopic subsurface fractures of metal due to cyclic loading stress, producing thin layers of surface
separation, which flake off (spalling).

• Some increase in noise and vibration will occur.

• A change in critical dimension occurs.

• Noise, vibration, friction, heat and wear accompanied by more advanced spalling. It is no longer safe or
prudent to operate the machine.

• The final step is advanced spalling, usually followed by catastrophic failure. (See Figures )

68 | P a g e
 Figure 23 Fatigue stress

. The majority of bearing failures can be attributed to a variety of stresses that can be grouped as
follows:

Thermal stress

• Friction.

• Lubricant.

• Ambient.

Dynamic and static loading stress

• Radial.

• Axial.

• Preload.

Vibration and shock stress

• Rotor.

• Driven equipment.

• System.

Environmental stress

• Condensation.

• Foreign material.

• Excessive ambient.

• Poor ventilation.

69 | P a g e
Mechanical stress

• Loss of clearance.

• Misalignment.

• Shaft fit out of tolerance.

• Housing fit out of tolerance.

Inspection during operation

Early indications of bearing damage enable a user to replace bearings during regularly scheduled
maintenance, avoiding otherwise costly unscheduled machine downtime due to bearing failure.
Important parameters for monitoring machine condition include noise, temperature and vibration.

70 | P a g e
METHODOLOGY FOR ANALYZING ROLLING ELEMENT BEARING FAILURES

There are five key areas which should be considered and related to one another in order to accurately
diagnose the root cause of rolling element bearing failures. They are:

• Failure mode.

• Failure pattern.

• Appearance.

• Application.

• Maintenance history.

FAILURE MODES

Failure modes can be grouped into twelve categories, which are usually the result of combined stresses
acting on the bearing to the point of damage or failure. This is arbitrarily referred to as the failure mode.

• Fatigue.

• Fretting.

• Smearing.

• Skidding.

• Scoring.

• Abrasive or abnormal wear.

• Corrosion.

• Lubrication failure.

• True or false brinelling.

• Electric pitting or fluting.

• Cracks.

• Seizures.

These modes do not represent the cause of the bearing problem; instead they are the result or way that
the problem is manifested.

71 | P a g e
FAILURE PATTERNS

Closely associated with the failure mode, yet different, is the failure pattern. Each bearing failure has
associated with it a certain pattern which can be grouped into some combination of the following
categories.

• Temperature levels (discoloration).

• Noise levels.

• Vibration levels.

• Lubrication quality.

• Condition of mounting fits.

• Internal clearances.

• Contamination.

• Mechanical or electrical damage.

• Load paths and patterns (alignment).

APPEARANCE CONSIDERATIONS

When coupled with the mode and pattern of failure, the motor, bearing and load appearance usually
give a clue as to the possible cause of failure. The following checklist will be useful in the evaluation.

• Are there signs of contamination in the area of the bearings? Any recent welding?

• Are there signs of excessive temperature anywhere in the motor or driven equipment?

• What is the quality of the bearing lubricant?

• Are there signs of moisture or rust?

• What is the condition of the coupling device used to connect the motor and the load?

• What levels of noise or vibration were present prior to failure?

• Are there any missing parts on the rotating member?

APPLICATION CONSIDERATIONS

Usually it is difficult to reconstruct the actual operating conditions at the time of failure. However, a
knowledge of the general operating conditions will be helpful. The following items should be considered:

• What are the load characteristics of the driven equipment and the loading at time of failure?

• Does the load cycle or pulsate?

• How many other units are successfully operating?

• How often is the unit started?

72 | P a g e
• What type of bearing protection is provided?

• Where is the unit located and what are the normal environmental conditions?

LUBRICATION PRECAUTIONS

• All motor housings, shafts, seals and relubrication paths must be kept thoroughly clean throughout the
motor's life.

• Avoid any dirt, moisture, chips or foreign matter contaminating the grease.

• Identify the temperature range for the application and select a grease that will perform satisfactorily.

• Over greasing may cause elevated bearing and/or winding temperatures which can lead to premature
failures. Be sure to properly purge excess grease.

• When regreasing, be sure that the new grease is compatible with the existing grease and that it has the
desired performance characteristics.

• Synthetic grease may not be as suitable as petroleum greases for high-speed applications. Some
applications may require an extreme pressure (EP) grease.

• Some common greases are not suitable for motor applications. If they are too soft, whipping can occur.
If too stiff; noise and poor bleeding characteristics can occur.

• Do not try to lubricate sealed bearing

Bearing Failure modes

73 | P a g e
74 | P a g e
Case studies
Case 1 (AMOC SITE)
Failure: Damage of outside ring and cage of ball bearing

Causes: high load (vibration) due to misalignment , high wear due to less lubricant

Action: check alignment , coupling distance , oil system (grease , oil level)

Insufficient lubricant

Grease lubrication

Considerations during first-fill or start-up:

• The grease should fill 100% of the bearing and up to the bottom of the shaft in the housing (1/3 to
1/2).

Oil bath lubrication

Consideration during first fill, refill or standstill:

• The oil bath level should be at the middle of the lowest rolling element during standstill.

75 | P a g e
Case 2True Brinelling
Brinelling occurs when loads exceed the elastic limit of the ring material. Brinell marks show as
indentations in the raceways which increase bearing vibration (noise). Any static overload or severe
impact can cause brinelling.

False Brinelling

False brinelling - elliptical wear marks in an axial direction at each ball position with a bright finish and
sharp demarcation, often surrounded by a ring of brown debris indicates excessive external vibration.
Correct by isolating bearings from external vibration, and using greases containing anti-wear additives.

76 | P a g e
Case 3 Abrasive wear
Abrasive wear means progressive removal of material. Initially, a bearing experiences some very light
wear during the running-in stage, mostly just showing a path pattern . Most of the time, real abrasive
wear occurs due to inadequate lubrication or the ingress of solid contaminants. Abrasive wear is
generally characterized by dull surfaces.

Actions:

• Make sure an adequate sealing arrangement is in place considering the operational conditions.

• Make sure the lubrication is adequate: right lubricant, right quantity, right time.

• Check the quality of the lubricant at regular intervals.

• Check the quality of the sealing arrangement at regular intervals.

• Make sure housing and shaft fits are adequate to avoid creep.

77 | P a g e
78 | P a g e
79 | P a g e
Troubleshooting table

80 | P a g e
Compressor maintenance
1.Breakdown Maintenance
In critical non-spared situations, breakdown maintenance may not be cost-effective, for obvious reason.
With breakdown maintenance there is also the potential of consequential damage that may cost more
and result in long unplanned outages and could result in unacceptable environmental releases and/or
breach of safety regulations if the equipment is flammable or is used in hazardous services.

2. Time-Based Maintenance
Most original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) provide a matrix of recommended times for overhauls
of reciprocating compressors. In many instances, maintenance cost or production cycles demand deferral
of planned maintenance. In such cases there is a need to (1) assess if overhaul could be postponed, and
(2) assess the remaining life of components with the intent to extend the mean time between overhauls
(MTBO). Without correct methodology, such assessments are at best guesses, and the results are either
piecemeal maintenance of components or opportunistic maintenance of the compressor. Both of these
are suboptimal strategies that could have serious consequences.

3.Equipment Health Monitoring

Reciprocating compressors installed with equipment health monitoring (EHM) systems allow an
opportunity to assess the health of the compressors and provide protection against catastrophic failures.
Adequately instrumented compressors provide the best opportunity for application of cost-effective
maintenance strategy. Increasingly, many users are transitioning from time-based to condition-based
maintenance with the advent of more sophisticated EHM. Several competing EHM systems [2,3] are
available on the market.

4. Reliability and Maintenance

● Determination of optimum MTBO without excessive risk of forced outages or production interruption
during target time.

● Stocking optimum level of spare parts

● Safe and cost-optimized planned overhaul

● Assessment of risk when the MTBO is extended It follows that these objectives are used to guide the
development of an asset management strategy.

81 | P a g e
 5. Asset Management Strategy
A systematic approach to developing an effective asset management strategy for reciprocating
compressors involves the following elements:

1. Review of the maintenance history of the compressors and the failure causes

2. Analysis of component(s) failure data and development of failure distributions

3. Development of equipment maintenance strategies based on statistical analysis

4. Development of a spare parts strategy

Overhaul Reports A detailed summary of overhauls provides vital information regarding life factors and
the condition of equipment components at each overhaul. The summary must include the run hours of
the compressor. Statistical analysis requires quantitative life data in cycles, hours, or years. It is good
practice to conduct a root cause failure analysis of all failed components. This serves to define causes of
failure and will identify the underlying component design deficiencies, if any exist.

Root Cause Failure Analysis A careful study of component failure modes and degradation reveals
predominant failure mechanisms and causes that are influencing component lives. For example, in a
petrochemcial application, the suction and discharge valves of a compressor showed random failures of
the valve damper plates within the first year of its operation. The predicted life was 24 months for the
valves. Root cause failure analysis showed that the failures were due to inadequate stress relieving of the
plates after manufacturing.

Root cause failure analysis

Reliability engineering and predictive maintenance have two major objectives: preventing catastrophic
failures of critical plant production systems and avoiding deviations from acceptable performance levels
that result in personal injury, environmental impact, capacity loss, or poor product quality.

PURPOSE OF THE ANALYSIS

The purpose of RCFA is to resolve problems that affect plant performance. It should not be an attempt to
and blame for the incident. This must be clearly understood by the investigating team and those involved
in the process.

WHEN TO USE THE METHOD

The use of RCFA should be carefully scrutinized before undertaking a full investigation because of the
high cost associated with performing such an in depth analysis.

The method involves performing an initial investigation to classify and define the problem. Once this is
completed, a full analysis should be considered only if the event can be fully classified and defined, and
it appears that a cost-effective solution can be found.

ROOT CAUSE METHODOLOGY

Root cause methodology is a step-by-step method for examining a failed motor and its system. It focuses
on the stresses that acted upon the failed component. By better understanding the stresses that acted
upon a failed part, the service center is more likely to uncover the root cause of the failure.

82 | P a g e
The five key steps in root cause methodology are:

• Failure mode: The manifestation, form or arrangement of the failure (e.g., turn-to-turn, phase-to-
phase, etc.).

• Failure pattern: How the failure is configured (symmetrical or nonsymmetrical).

• Appearance: A visual examination of the failed part, the entire motor and the system in which it
operates. Care must be taken to inspect all motor parts for damage, contamination, moisture, cracks or
other signs of stress.

• Application: A close examination of the work performed by the motor and the characteristics of those
types of loads.

• Maintenance history: An examination of the work performed to keep the motor and system in proper
operating condition.

The good news is, in some cases, the root cause of failure is obvious. Such examples could be:

• A balancing weight comes loose and strikes the winding.

• The winding is saturated with water.

• The bearing lubricant is contaminated. However, in a case where the root cause must be known, it is
imperative that none of the steps of the methodology be skipped.

83 | P a g e
API 617

Key

A critical speed

B trip speed steam turbine drive

C trip speed gas turbine drive

D maximum continuous speed (Nmc) variable-speed drive

E rated (100 %) speed

F minimum operating speed

G anti-surge control line

1 compressor rated point

2 normal operating condition

3 specific operating condition

4 highest head operating condition

84 | P a g e
 NOTE 1 Except where specific numerical relationships are stated, the relative values implied in
this figure are assumed values for illustration only.

NOTE 2 The 100 % speed curve is determined from the operating point requiring the highest
head; point 4 in the illustration.

NOTE 3 The compressor rated point (point 1) is the intersection on the 100 % speed line
corresponding to the highest flow of any operating point (point 3 in the illustration). Point 1 is not a
purchaser-specified point.

NOTE 4 The head-capacity curve at 100 % speed typically extends to at least 115 % of the
capacity of the compressor rated point.

NOTE 5 Refer to the applicable standard for the compressor driver such as API 612 or API 616 for
trip speed and minimum operating speed limits.

NOTE 6 Refer to 6.8.2.9 for allowable margins of critical speeds to operating speeds.

Figure 1—Centrifugal Compressor Performance Map—Illustration of Terms

Low Temperature Service

Pressure casings and rotating elements shall be designed for the prevention of brittle fracture.

The purchaser shall specify the minimum temperature and concurrent pressure including any transient
operation.

Vendor shall establish the minimum design metal temperature, impact test, and other material
requirements based on the information supplied by the purchaser.

NOTE Normally, this will be the lower of the minimum surrounding ambient temperature or minimum
fluid pumping temperature; however, the purchaser can specify a minimum temperature based on
operating properties of the pumped fluid, such as auto refrigeration at reduced pressures.

The purchaser and the vendor shall agree on any special precautions necessary with regard to
conditions that may occur during operation, maintenance, transportation, erection, commissioning, and
testing.

NOTE A good design practice will include the selection of fabrication methods, welding procedures, and
materials for vendor-furnished steel pressure retaining parts that could be subject to temperatures
below the ductile-brittle transition temperature. The published design-allowable stresses for materials in
internationally recognized standards such as the ASME BPVC and ANSI standards are based on minimum
tensile properties.

85 | P a g e
Dynamics
6.8.1 General

NOTE Refer to API 684 for more information on rotordynamics.

6.8.1.1 In the design of rotor-bearing systems, consideration shall be given to all potential sources of

excitation and force such as, but not limited to, the following:

a) unbalance in the rotor system;

b) fluid forces from bearings, seals, and aerodynamics;

c) internal rubs;

d) blade, vane, nozzle, and diffuser passing frequencies;

e) gear-tooth meshing and side bands;

f) coupling misalignment;

g) loose rotor-system components;

h) internal friction within the rotor assembly;

i) synchronous excitation from complimentary geared elements;

j) control loop dynamics such as those involving AMBs;

k) driver-induced dynamics.

NOTE 1 The frequency of a potential source of excitation or force can be less than, equal to, or greater
than the rotational speed of the rotor.

NOTE 2 When the frequency of a periodic forcing phenomenon (excitation) applied to a rotor-bearing
support system coincides with a natural frequency of that system, the system will be in a state of
resonance. A rotor-bearing support system in resonance can have the magnitude of its normal vibration
amplified. The magnitude of amplification and, in the case of critical speeds, the rate of change of the
phase-angle with respect to speed, is related to the amount of damping in the system.

86 | P a g e
87 | P a g e
Mounting Fixtures
7.2.1 Soleplate or Baseplate

7.2.1.1 General

7.2.1.1.1 The equipment shall be furnished with soleplates or a baseplate, as specified.

7.2.1.1.2 Baseplates and soleplates shall comply with the requirements of 7.2.1.2.1 through 7.2.1.2.18.

7.2.1.2 General

7.2.1.2.1 Soleplate or baseplate shall be furnished with horizontal (axial and lateral) jackscrews meeting

the following requirements.

a) The lugs holding these jackscrews shall be attached to the soleplate or baseplate in such a manner
that they do not interfere with the installation of the equipment, jackscrews, or shims.

b) Means for moving the equipment vertically for removal or insertion of shims shall be provided.

c) Vertical jackscrews (if provided) in the equipment feet shall not mar the shimming surfaces.

d) Supports and alignment bolts shall be rigid enough to permit the machine to be moved by the use of
lateral and axial jackscrews provided on the soleplate or baseplate.

e) Alternative methods of lifting the equipment for the removal or insertion of shims or for moving the
equipment horizontally, such as provision for the use of hydraulic jacks, may be proposed.

f) Alignment jackscrews shall be plated for rust resistance.

g) Materials used for plating shall not create a galvanic reaction between the plating material and the

parent material.

7.2.1.2.2 The alignment shims shall be provided by the vendor in accordance with API 686, Chapter 7

and meet the following requirements.

a) Each shall straddle the hold-down bolts and vertical jackscrews.

b) Shims shall be at least 6 mm (0.25 in.) larger on all sides than the equipment feet.

7.2.1.2.3 All machinery mounting surfaces on the soleplate or baseplate shall be machined flat and

parallel to the axial plane(s) of the machinery.

7.2.1.2.3.1 Mounting feet after fabrication shall extend at least 25 mm (1 in.) beyond the outer three
sides of the equipment feet.

7.2.1.2.3.2 These mounting surfaces shall meet the following requirements.

88 | P a g e
a) Each mounting surface shall be machined to a finish of 6 μm (250 μin.) Ra or better.

b) To prevent a soft foot, when the machine is installed on the soleplate or baseplate, all mounting
surfaces in the same horizontal plane shall be within 125 μm (0.005 in.).

c) Each mounting surface shall be machined within a flatness of 75 μm per linear m (0.001 in. per linear
ft) of mounting surface.

d) Different mounting planes shall be parallel to each other within 125 μm (0.005 in.).

7.2.1.2.4 Machinery soleplates, baseplates and supports shall be designed to have sufficient strength
and rigidity to limit coupling movement (caused by imposing allowable forces and moments) to 50 μm

(0.002 in.).

NOTE Refer to Parts 2, 3, or 4 as applicable for allowable piping loads.

7.2.1.2.5 Anchor bolts shall be furnished by the purchaser.

7.2.1.2.6 Anchor bolts shall not be used to fasten machinery to the soleplate or baseplate unless
approved

by the purchaser.

7.2.1.2.7 Grouted soleplates or baseplates shall be sized to limit the static loading to 700 kPa (100 psi)

on the grout.

7.2.1.2.8 Diametrical clearance between anchor bolts and the anchor bolt holes in the soleplates or

baseplates shall be a minimum of 6 mm (0.25 in.).

7.2.1.2.9 Soleplates and baseplates shall be supplied with vertical leveling screws for field leveling.

a) A leveling screw shall be provided near each anchor bolt.

b) If the equipment and soleplate or baseplate are too heavy to be lifted using leveling screws, alternate

methods shall be provided by the equipment vendor.

89 | P a g e
90 | P a g e
References

https://drive.google.com/file/d/1IBXGKtB2N8Gw8TSI9Vt05-n3VyC1lyH-/view?usp=drivesdk

https://drive.google.com/file/d/1IJW-kpuC8tgN96Qvc2Qj36aA3-hLRrsi/view?usp=drivesdk

https://drive.google.com/file/d/1zBuMDuEvxb-4udbnqto7Oxu7Wr2-TUNi/view?usp=drivesdk

https://drive.google.com/file/d/1Ekyy_KdDrwDNoUzjw2GS7YbQgs-EHQvo/view?usp=drivesdk

https://drive.google.com/file/d/1S2DCV7fSBjfPUMTKB-7xftsCpx4lD7QP/view?usp=drivesdk

https://drive.google.com/file/d/1zMACAH3crnXU_Fcwu0vNxatjCX3G6Nbm/view?usp=drivesdk

https://www.airbestpractices.com/technology/air-compressors/how-inlet-conditions-impact-centrifugal-
air-compressor-performance

91 | P a g e