UNIT SIX

INTERNAL DEVELOPMENTS AND EXTERNAL RELATIONS OF

ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN, 1800-1941.
The Gibe Oromo States

The Gibe Oromo States

In the19th century, the Oromo’s politically transformed in to Monarchical system as a result of

 The transformation of the Oromo’s from nomadic pastoralist to sedentary agriculture

economically
 Their assimilation and contact with the Omotic states
 The Long distance trade and the spread of Islam
 The rise of powerful individuals due to frequent wars such as Abba Dulas
 Resulted the stratification of Oromo society in the upper Gibe Basin under the
leader who assumed the title of Moti, meaning king
This were resulted the emergence of five gibe Oromo states such as;

LIMMU-ENARYA

 The earliest of the Gibe states

 The strongest state in the 19thc
 Its strategic location enables to control the LDT
 Its capital was Saqa
 The strongest ruler was Abba Bagibo or Ibsa (r.1830-1861)
 It was converted to Islam by missionaries from Harar
 The kingdom of Limmu-Ennarea was a continuation of the older kingdom of
Ennarea, which successfully resisted for many decades the encroaching Oromo,
who had overrun other kingdoms tributary to the Ethiopian Emperor including
Bizamo and Konch
 He formed a dynastic bond with the daughter of Abba Rebu, who traced his
ancestry to both the earlier dynasty that ruled Ennarea, as well as a Portuguese
soldier from Christovão da Gama's army who had come to live in Ennarea. It also

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 notes that another tradition states that this marriage was a political union between
two rival clans, the Sapera and the Sigaro..
 Limmu-Ennarea was secured for Shewa by Ras Gobana Dacche following the decisive
Battle of Embabo.

JIMMA
 In Jimma kingdom the local Abba Dula sought to take political power from her Among
the Abba Dulas, Ose Kobi (Abba Faro) was elected as a hereditary ruler against the
Gadaa rule.
 The process of state formation was completed by Sanna/Abba Jifar I (r.1830-55) who
formed Jimma Kingdom and left a consolidated state to his successors like Abba Rebu
(1855-59), Abba Boqa (1859-1861) and Abba Gomol(r.1861-75).
 Sanna/Abba Jifar I (r.1830-55)
 Abba Rebu (1855-59)
 Abba Boqa (1859-1861)
 Abba Gomol(r.1861-75)
 Abba Jifar II (c. r.1875-193
 The most famous among the Jimma monarchs was Abba Jifar II (c. r.1875-1934). Apart
from agriculture and trade, the kingdom's economy depended on iron mining and
smelting at Dakkano and Kito, respectively.
 Stronger than other Gibe Oromo states
 Depended on the ideological support of Islam and the commercial prosperity from
coffee and slave trade
 Submitted to Menelike II in 1881 under its ruler Abba Jiffar II (r. 1875-1934)
 In 1928, the tribute of Jimma amounted to MT 87,000 and an additional MT
15,000 for the army.
 Queen Gumiti also advised him to expand the cultivation of coffee in his
kingdom, which provided increased revenue for him and his subjects.
 In 1930, Haile Selassie removed a feeble Abba Jifar II from power and replaced
him with his son-in-law, Ras Desta Damtew. Desta Damtew ruled as Governor
(Shum) of Jimma while Abba Jifar II was allowed to remain as King (Negus) in a

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 powerless position as titular head. When Abba Jifar II died in 1932, the Kingdom
of Jimma was officially absorbed by the Ethiopian Empire.

GUMMA

 Emerged in the first decade of the 19th century

 Its politics grew under its strong ruler Oncho Jilcha
 In 1882, King Abba Jubir of Gumma convinced the kings of Ennerea, Gomma and Jimma
to form a confederacy known as the "Muslim League".
 At first the Muslim League had little success against this threat, for the other members
did not support Abba Jubir against the Macha.

 Despite the failure of the Muslim League, Gumma remained a stronghold of Islam, and
provided asylum to men exiled from the other Gibe kingdoms. It was conquered by
Emperor Menelik II in 1885, but the kingdom remained a "hotbed of rebellion and
Muslim fanaticism against alien colonial administration." Firisa, son of the last king, had
found sanctuary in the Sudan after the conquest, and returned in 1899 to declare a jihad
against the conquerors. Firisa was eventually captured in 1902, then executed in Jimma
soon afterwards

GOMMA

 Become a state since 1820

 Its ruler was Abba Mano
 Was the earliest Gibe state to accept Islam

GERA:

 With its capital at Chala (Later Chira), the Gera kingdom's territory corresponds
approximately with the modern woreda of Gera
 Gera-was well-known around 1835 during its strong ruler Tullu Gunji

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 WESTERN STATES
A. LeqaNaqamte:-

 Leqa Naqmte (Eastern Wallaga)-founded by the warrior Aba dula Bakare Godana
 The state great power full under Morada Bakare and Kumasa Moarada. Kumsa later
was baptized and given Christian name Gebre Egiabher (slave of god )

B. LEQA QELLEM
 Leqa Qellam (western Wallega) was founded by Tullu and great power full under Jote
Tullu .Both are traditional Oromo title called Moti.
 Both Wallaga States are peacefully submitted.
 Its economy was based on agriculture and Ethio-Sudanese frontier trade

Generally, merchants from Funji sultanate of Sudan traded with the two Leqa states.

TRADE AND TRADE ROUTES

Trade as a human activity has a long history. It was mainly the outcome of sedentary life, surplus
production and social division of lobar. Based on its geographical the local coverage, peoples
trade can be divided into two:-

 Local trade: - it is local exchange of goods mainly among peoples of the same region.
This kind of trade was conducted at markets usually held weekly on fixed days.
 Long distance trade:-its involved different markets, peoples, regions and Varity of
trading items. Long distance trade was conducted by local and foreign merchant.

Dear my student! Why the long distance trade was revived in the 19th c?

In 19th c three things was the main cause for the revival of for the long distance trade:-

1. The rise of Mohammed Ali of Egypt resulted the political stability of the region this
helped the revival of trade in the red sea basin and Arabia.

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 2. The conquest of the Caucasus by Russia had closed the supply of some goods of high
demand and concubines to the Ottoman Turks. This increased the demand for Ethiopian
slaves and luxury goods.
3. The European interest in Ethiopia was revived. As a result many Europeans envoys
visited the courts of different Ethiopian rulers. among these :-
 Following the above treaty the Europeans controlled many parts of the red sea and Gulf
of Aden. For instance an Italian private shipping company (Robantino shipping company)
controlled the port of Assab. At the same time French controlled the port of obock in
1862 while the British were already in control the Aden since 1869.

MERCHANTS OF THE LONG DISTANCE TRADE

The long distance trade of the 19th century involved different groups of merchants. These are

 Afkala:-It is the Muslim merchants of southwestern Ethiopia. It was dominated the

region of south west Ethiopia. The majority of these merchants were the Ghibe Oromo
states.
 Jabarti:-It is the Muslim merchants of northern Ethiopia and trading as far as the Red
sea coast.
 Jelaba:- it is Sudanese Muslim merchants in north west Ethiopia. specially in the present
day of Benishangul regional state.
 Saffare:-it is the Muslim merchants in the southern Ethiopia linking the country with
Somalia and Kenya.

Dear collogue! Why the long distance trade of the 19 th century in Ethiopia was dominated
by Muslim?

The long distance trade of the 19th century was dominated by Muslim merchants because:-

 Ethiopian long distance external trade was linked mainly with the Muslim Middle East.
 Trade as an occupation was thought by Muslim since they did not have as much access
to land as the majority of the Christian.

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  In addition for Muslim trade was also used as one of the mechanisms for expanding
their religion.
 The caravan merchants usually traveled in groups often consisting of up to hundred
merchants for the sake of safety and security. They had leaders of their own. The title of
the leaders of the Merchants known as Negadras (means head of the Merchants). The
Negadras were responsible for
 Mobilizing the group
 Fixing the date of departure
 Choosing camping sites for rest
 Settling disputes among merchants and paying taxes at custom sites.

Caravan traders consisted entirely of men. Women did not take part in long distance trade but
they were involved in local transactions. In caravan trade the foreign from Greeks, Arabs
Armenians and Indians dominated the external trade.

ITEMS OF TRADE

Long distance trade was based on exchange of both import and export goods.

 Ethiopia Imported: - copper, brass, spices, clothes, breads silks, silver fire arms etc. the
major export was ivory.
 Gold: - was extracted from such gold-bearing regions in western, southern, south-western
and northern Ethiopia.
 Musk: - is a creation of civet cats. Its main source was the dense forest regions of south-
western Ethiopia. It had high demand among the drug and perfume factories of Europe
and the Middle East.
 Coffee: - seems to have been indigenous to south western part of Ethiopia.

MARKETS, TRADE ROUTES AND MEDIUM OF EXCHANGE

 Markets are very important institutions serving different social, economic and political
functions. In the 19th century, Ethiopia markets usually held weekly on a fixed day.

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 People visited markets primarily to buy or sale goods, besides these however they went to
markets to:
 Look for their lost cattle
 Select a would be lover
 Settle disputes
 Send or receive a message from away relatives.
 In the absence of modern media people also visited markets to follow current affairs
and check if there were new orders from authorizes.
 The major markets in the long distance trades were: Bonga in Kaffa,---Hirmata in
Jimma,-- Sakka in Limmu Enarya, Assendabo in Wallega, Baso in Gojam, Darita and
Yifag in Begemidir and Adowa in Tigrai. These markets linked the south western regions
with the northern regions of Ethiopia.
 Markets located along the East-West long distance trade included Sodo in Gurage,
Ankober, Aliyu Amba and Abdul Rasul in northern Shoa, Ancharo and Dawe in Wallo
and Dire Dawa and Harar in Hararghe. These markets served the trade routes leading to
the ports of Tajura and Obock in Djibouti and Zayla and Beebera in Somalia.
 In 19th century there was no uniform use of a single medium of exchange in the markets.
But Salt bar know as Amole is the most common. The other medium of exchange was a
currency called the Maria Theresa. It was a silver coin of Austria named after the queen
of that country. It was imported to Ethiopia by foreign merchants in the late 18th century.

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 THE MAKING OF MODERN ETHIOPIAN STATE

The Process of Territorial Unification

 The territorial unification ushered in a revival of the imperial power, which had declined
during the Zemene Mesafint. This occurred after a series of battles and human and
material losses. A leading figure in the overall process was Kasa Hailu of Quara who
later became Emperor Tewodros II of Ethiopia.
What was the Prophecy of Fikera Iyasus about Tewodros?

 Following the defeat of Dejazmach Wube, Kassa was crowned Emperor by Abuna
Salama III in the church of Derasge Maryam on February 11, 1855. He took the throne
name of Tewodros II, attempting to fulfill a prophecy that a man named Tewodros would
restore the Ethiopian Empire to greatness and rule for 40 years.

THE PERIOD OF TEWDROS-II (1855-1868)

 He was born Kassa Haile Giorgis, but was more regularly referred to as Kassa Hailu .
Early Life of Tewedros-II.
 Kassa was the son of a nobleman of the Qwara district of the province of Dembiya.
Dembiya was part of the large territory known as Ye Meru Qemas or "that which has
been tested by Maru". It was the personal fief of Dejazmach Meru, a powerful warlord,
and relative of Kassa Hailu (possibly a half-uncle). Kassa's mother, Woizero Atitegeb
Wondewossen, was the upper nobility, and was originally from Gondar.
 When Kassa was very young, his parents divorced and Woizero Atitegeb moved back to
Gondar taking her son with her. Not long after their departure, news reached them that
Kassa's father had died.
 To make ends meet, it is often repeated that Woizero Atitegeb was reduced to selling
"Kosso", a native herbal remedy used to purge patients of intestinal worms (a common
occurrence because of the Ethiopian love of raw meat dishes). Kassa would be taunted
often for being a "Kosso seller's son", an insult that Tewodros II seldom forgave.
 As indicated above, the man who ended the Zemene Mesafint was Kasa Hailu. He
started his career by assisting his half−brother, Dejjazmach Kinfu in defeating the

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 Egyptians at Wad Kaltabu (in present-day eastern Sudan) in 1837. As he acquired
military and political strength and experiences, he started mobilizing his own army in the
area and fought battles in his own right.
 In 1848, Kasa fought against the Egyptians at a place called Dabarki (again in present
Sudan). Although they showed extraordinary courage, Kasa’s forces lost the battle owing
to the Egyptians’ superior military organization, discipline, and better arms.
Notwithstanding his defeat, Kasa drew a lesson pertaining to the importance of a modern
army.
 On the other hand, Kasa’s recognition was spreading in the area and became a major
concern to the Warra-Sheh (Yejju) ruling house. As a result, they decided to pacify
Kasa through marriage arrangement.
 Accordingly he was achieved victory over different regional lords at different place.
 In 1852 Tewdros was achieved victory over Dejazmach Goshu of Gojjam at Gur-Amba.
 In 1853 Tewdros was achieved victory over Biru Aligaz Aben, Yazew and Belew at
Gorogora Bichen.
 In April 1853 Tewdros was achieved victory over Ras Ali-II at the battle of Ayshal.
This was the end of Yejju dynasty in the history of Zemene Mesafint.

Finally Wube of Semen and Tigari were defeated in 1855. Kasa was crowned in the name
of Emperor Tewdros.

THE REFORMS OF TEWDROS II WAS CLASSIFIED INTO THREE

1. Religious reforms
2. Military reforms
3. Administrative reforms

1. RELIGIOUS REFORMS
 The first reform of Tewdros restoring of the imperial power over the highland
Christian kingdom.
 He declared the Orthodox Tewhado as the official faith. He expelled leader of the
Catholics in Ethiopia (DeJacobins).

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  Tewdros entered to conflict with the clergy due to his plan of redistributing
church lands. He reduced the number of priests and deacons in church to 2 and 3
respectively. The clergy were ordered to cultivate their own land and pay due
tribute to the state. As a result he was entered in the conflict with church when the
Tewdros imprisoned the bishop Abuna Salama in 1864. The conflict with the
clergy further isolated Tewdros from the people.
2. MILITARY REFORMS

The military reforms of Tewdros targeted three important respects;

A. Organization
B. Discipline
C. Armaments
A. Organization:- with military organization Tewdros attempted to replace the regional
armies of Zemene mesfint with a national army which cut across local loyalties.
B. Discipline: - mixing soldiers from all regions of into the national army were made. New
hierarchies of command in the military titles which are still use in the Ethiopian army for
example commander of ten, commander of fifty and commander of thousands
respectively and he reduced the number of camp followers in order to avoid problem of
logistics and mobility.
C. Armaments: - Another Tewdros career in the military field was drive to acquire modern
arms .This was imprinted in his mind right after the battle of Debarqi 1848 when his
troops were then mow down by the artillery wielded to deadly effect by the disciplined
Egyptian troops. In 1866/7 Tewdros was stationed at Gafat near Debre Tabor where he
tried to manufacture modern arms with missionary labor. He move decanter to Meqdala
in wollo .

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 3. Administrative reforms: - The administrative reforms of Tewdros more focus on the
central approach by eliminating regional lords.
 In Tigre he appointed Dej. Kas Sabagadis the son of Agame chief
 In wallo he appointed Liban Amade and then Amade Liban the son of
Worqitu
 In Shewa Maried Azmach haile Mikael continued the shewan dynastic
rule.

THE END OF TEWDROS ADMINISTRATION

The opposition of Tewdros comes from three directions;

1. Oppositions from the church

2. Opposition from the nobility
3. Opposition from the Britain.

Oppositions from the Church: - The disagreement between Tewdros and the Church emanates
from his own reform. He decided to reduce the land churches and monasteries’ as well as the
number of the clergy. Each church allowed to posses two priest and three deacons and all other
were to become secular and the surplus land to be taxed. As result the church were propagated
against Tewdros administration.

Opposition from Nobility:-The regional lords were against the strong central administration of
Tewdroas because all of them lost their regional lords.

Opposition from the Britain: - The conflict between Tewdros and Europe were emerged from
the ambitious plan of the Tewdros. He was requested the European to bring technology. He
wrote letters to Britain and France in which he informed them of Egyptian aggression, pleaded
them to share his sorrow over the Muslim threat and requested them to send him skilled
technicians. These letters admitted the technological backwardness of his country and the urgent
need for training and educating his people. Despite his eagerness for skilled, Tewdros was unable
to get what he needed from Europe.

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  Firstly the Europeans were not impressed by Tewdross appeal to religious solidarity less
attractive compared with their economic interests in and the strategic significance of
Egypt.
 Secondly the Europeans themselves were in commercial competitions in the red sea
regions. They did not want to see the rise of a powerful nation in the region.
 Unable to get help from Europe Tewdros gathered some Europeans of different nations in
his kingdom and ordered to manufacture mortars and munitions for him at Gafat a place
near Debre Tabor. These Europeans were not skilled in the manufacture of weapons.
However they produce a mortar what we called Sevastopol.
 In another direction the European governments requested to release their citizens
which were arrested by Tewedros. The Emperor refused to release them despite repeated
and warnings of European letters. This led to the British military expedition led by
General Robert Napier to Ethiopia in 1868.
 On April1868 the Battle of Eroghe was fought between the British and Tewdros.
Tewdros were completely defeated. He released the prisoner when the British stormed
Maqdala and rushed to capture him. Finally Tewdros committed to suicide on 13 April.
The death of Tewdros was paved the way for many regional lords. Among these
 Waqshum Goboze G/Medhin from Lasta
 Kasa Mircha(Bezbiz Kasa) from Tigray and Negus Menelik-II from Shoa
 Among these Waqshum Goboze from lasta took the throne and became Emperor Tekle
Giorgis. He rule from 1868-1871. Tekle Giorgis ruled based his claim to the Imperial
throne on a dual heritage. Because Tekle Giyorgis's rule was so ephemeral, some lists of
the Emperors of Ethiopia omit his name. On 21 January 1872, the battle of Assem was
fought between Tekle Giorgis and Kassa Mircha of Tigray at the battle the latter was
achieved victory over the former as result Kassa Mircha proclaimed himself Emperor of
Ethiopia with the name of Yohannes IV.

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6.1. Internal Political Development And External During The Reign Of Yohaness-IV
 Yohannes was born in Enderta province. After he came to power he was implemented to
policy
1. Administrative policy
2. Religious policy
 ADMINISTRATIVE POLICY: - when he controlled the power he launched military
expedition to Gojjam, Begemidir, Hamasien, and Yejju to get the submission of local
chiefs.
 However Yohaness-IV did not persist with the use of force for building imperial
authority. Instead he recognized the local hereditary chiefs as long as they accepted him
as an over lord and paid him annual tribes. Thus he shared power in the kingdom with
vassal rulers including those who were once rebels.

Yohannes followed regional approach he gave recognition for two important regional lords.

1. MENELIK –II OF SHEWA

2. ADAL TESSEMA OF GOJJAM

MENELIK-II: - was competing for the throne since the death of Tewdros.

 He lost twice with the coronation of Goboze and Kasa Mircha, in1868 and 1872
respectively.
 Above all Menelik-II did not recognized Yohaness-IV as an emperor at the beginning.
Instead he used to call himself king of kings.
 He had foreign relations with the states like Egypt, Britain France and Italy. He used
these contacts to import fire arms with which he could fight for the throne. He did not
pay tribute to Emperor Yohaness-IV up to the year 1878.
 Yohaness-IV was realized the challenge of Menelik-II from the start but was unable to
take actions immediately. In the first years of his reign Yohanes was busy strengthening
his power in the Northern provinces. In 1875-1876 the land Yohanees was invaded by
Egypt. His war with Egypt did not allow Yohannes to work on the submission of
Menelik-II and Shoa.

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  In 1878 Yohaness-IV secured a peaceful submission of Menelik-II in Liche
Agreement:-The most important points in the Liche agreement were;

a) Menelik-II should renounce his title of kings of kings and could only king of shewa
b) Menelik-II was required to pay annual tribute to Yohanness treasury as well as military
support whenever needed.
c) According to the firms of this treaty Meneli-II had to stop his independent dealing with
the Europeans
d) Both agree to support each other against foreign enemies
e) Menelik –II should remain ruler of Wallo

 In spite of the Liche agreement Menelik-II continued his secret contacts with foreigners.
In 1883 the Italian had promised to help Menelik-II in importing arms through the port of
Assab. The import of arms demanded wealth and financial resource.
 The Liche agreement was the first agreement of the post Tewdros period that rulers gave
a peaceful solution even after miner clashes to their internal problems. Side by side with
his policy and military equilibrium and controlled to the regional kingdom he submit
Adal Tessema of Gojjam. However the actual political power challenges should come
from Menelik of Shewa rather than Adal Tesma of Gojjam. Therefore Yoahanness began
to support Ras Adal Tessma as counters weight to Menelik. At 1881 at the coronation
Ras Adal was given the title king of Keffa and Gojjam under the name of Tekle
Haymanot.
 The battle of Embabo-the first armed confrontation between the two (Menelik-II and
Ras Adal Tesema) rivals was happened in this battle that took place in January 1882 at a
place called Guma. The Gojame forces were lead by Dejazmach Deresso while the
Shewan forces were commanded by Ras Gobena. Both Menelik and Tekle Haymanot
participated in the battle as ordinary soldiers.

The main result of the battle was:

 Takle Haymanot was defeated and captured by Menelik-II soldiers.

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  The king who was this time in north in Tigre marched to and called both at Warra Ilu
punished.
 As a result wallo was taken from Menelik-II and Agew Midir from Tekle Haymanot. In
other side the Embabo victory was serious alarm to Yohannes-IV so that the king was
proposed a link of his own family with that of the shewan rulers to soften the blow of
Meneliks pride. Thus a marriage union arranged between his son Ras Araya Selase and
Meneliks daughter Zewditu. The emperor designed this arrangement in order to ensure
Meneliks loyalty to himself and to conform how far the Shewan monarch recognize
Araya selasie as heir to the throne. Although both Araya Selasie and Zewditu were the
young 12 and 6 years old respectively.

RELIGIOUS POLICY OF YOHANES-IV

In 1878 Emperor Yoheness-IV called a religious council at Borumeda in Wallo.

Representatives of different doctrines within the Orthodox Church debated over their differences
and tried justify their own doctrines. At the end Yohaness declared that:-

 Orthodox Tewahado was the official religion of the country.

 He declared that all Muslim and pagan should be Christian and he gave two and three
years to conform to the council’s decisions. Those who refused were threatened by
confiscation of land.
 The local rulers were and their subordinate chiefs were offered a choice between
conversion or loss of their power. Accordingly the two prominent Wallo rulers
Mohammed Ali who took a baptismal name Mikael and Ahmade Liban/ Abba Wataw
who became Haile-Mariam.

Some of ordinary rulers Christianized for fear of persecution. Some people in Wallo refused
conversion and were exiled to such far off regions as Gurage, Jimma Metema, Harar and Arsi.
The remain in Wallo rose rebellion under prominent religious leaders like Sheik Talha of
Argobba. Their rebellion was however crushed by the joint army of Yohaness-IV and Menelik.

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6.2. The Expansion of Egypt in the Horn of Africa

In 1797 Napoleon invaded Egypt to destroy the British trade with the Middle East. In 1798 at the
battle of pyramids near Cairo the Mamluks Egyptian military ruler were defeated. The French
occupation of Egypt (three years) had several important consequences

1. Decline of Mamluks
2. Introduced the ideas of French revolution into the Egyptian society

Anglo- Ottoman military operation defeated French power in 1801. Mohammed Ali who was
born in on Kavalla part of Ottoman Empire. He remained in Egypt had established himself as
Egypt rules.

First phase of Egyptian expansion (c.1821-1850)

This phase started 1821 when Egyptian brought Sudan after destroying Funj kingdom of Sennar.
After occupation of Sudan attack Ethiopian in three fronts

1. Semen-in massawa direction

2. Mattema areas
3. Sheikdoms of Western Wallega in Asosa and Bella Shangul

In 1830 Egyptian army crossed western frontier of Ethiopia under pretext of to catch tax evaders
crossed to Ethiopia and Meknimir who had killed Ismail’s (Mohammed Ali son).

The task of defending the country rested up on one Dejazmach Kinfu of Dembiya fought against
Egypt at the Wadkaltbu Egyptian army was led by Ahmed Gashim defeated in 1837.

Kasa Hailu fought in 1848 at Deberqi against Egypt were wiped or beaten into pieces of modern
Egyptian army.

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What Tewdros learnt from the battle of Debarqi?

The Second Phase of Egyptian Expansion (1871-1876)

The second phase of Egyptian expansion comes from East (Red sea). During this time the Suez
Canal change the strategic situation in the eastern Mediterranean opening up water passage to the
Indian Ocean. The second phase of Egyptian aggression motivated by the fact that Khedive
Ismael sought to pay the debt by taking of the fertile Ethiopian high lands and profitable trade
products. Ismail’s desire supported by;

1. Samuel Baker –the European explorer who extend his wife to equatorial region.
2. Werner Muzinger –worked French consul at Massawa and served the Napier expedition
through intelligence later shifted to Egyptian side following the defeat of the French in
the Franco-Prussian war 1870 up to 1871.

Muziger came out proposal to Cairo to annex Bogos and keren and annexed Bogos in 1872.
Yohannes sent letter to Austria, Germany Britain Russia and France through Kirkehem. Egypt
continued to build up their strength in the area by using sub-version policy especially Menelik.

Menelik sent Abubeker to Cairo to negotiate some sort of alliance with Khedive against the
emperor but Menelik did not seem to facilitate because Egyptian invasion in southern front very
less. Dej. Wolda Mikael Solomon of Hamsen was more successful to the Egyptian side.

In 1875 Egypt invade Ethiopia in three fronts.

1. South East Ethiopia by Mohammed Rauf Pasha from Zeila occupied the Harar Emirate
1875 upto 1885.
2. Through Tajura in the direction of shewa led by 500 troops lead by Muzinger the
objective of this direction to reach shewa and Sandwiched Yohaness but destroyed by
Afars.
3. The third was on the direction of Massawa about 2500-3000 strong army led by Danish
officer colonel Arendrup and Arekel bay governor of Masawa. 20000 troops led by
emperor and Ras Aluala fought at Gundet 16 November 1875. It was one of the shortest
battles in Ethiopian history.

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 The two armies met at Gundet (also called Gunda-gude) on the morning of 16 November
1875. The Egyptians were tricked into marching into a narrow and steep valley and were
wiped out by Ethiopian gunners surrounding the valley from the surrounding mountains.
Virtually the entire Egyptian force, along with its many officers of European and North
American background, were killed. News of this huge defeat was suppressed in Egypt for
fear that it would undermine the government of the Khedive. A new Egyptian force was
assembled and sent to avenge the defeat at Gundat. The Egyptians were defeated again at the
Battle of Gura (7 – 9 March 1876), where the Ethiopians were led again by the Emperor,
and his loyal general, the capable (and future Ras) Alula Engida. This victory was followed
by Menelik's submission to Yohannes on 20 March 1878, and in return Yohannes recognized
Menelik's hereditary right to the title of King (Negus) of Shewa, and re-crowned him on
March 26.

After the above two battle an envoy of emperor Yoahanees –IV by the name of Blatta Gebre
Egzibaher was sent to Cairo in July 1876 in an effort to seek a peace full solution to the problem.
His condition was basically two.

1. Restoration of occupied Ethiopian territory.

2. Free access to the red sea.

However the Egyptian official imprisoned Blatta Gebre Egziabher. Finally after several
appeals and effort to contact the French and the British representatives in Cairo he was
released without any discussion on the issues.

Following this Khedive Ismail assigned Colonel Gordon his devoted European servant as a
negotiator Gordon played the role of chief negotiator until the end of 1879.

Colonel Gordon soon after his arrival at Masswa in February 1877 he listed the conditions he
intended to offer Yoahnnes as follows.

1. An armistice pending the final concluding of peace.

2. Preservation of the ancient frontiers which mean for the Egyptian between Hamsen and
Bogos.
3. Free trade and free passage for envoys and letters through MAssawa
4. The right for Yohannes to import free of duties 50 pounds of gun powder 10 muskets and
500 percussion caps annually
5. Gordon’s proposals for settlement with Ethiopia were hardly acceptable to Yohannes.

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From 1876 up to 1884 was know an as the era of no peace no war because the land which was
occupied by Egypt was not restore to Ethiopia.

The Hewett Treaty and Ethio-Mahdist Conflict

British involvement in the Ethio- Egyptian crisis was the result of the two developments.

 Egyptian rule in the Sudan had met a very serious challenge since 1881.
 Britain intervened on behalf of Egypt her colony since 1882
 In 1883 Egyptian control of the Sudan was over and some Egyptian troops were trapped
in the areas along the Ethio- Sudanese border. The fate of this army fell in the hands of
Ethiopia therefore it could only be saved if it were allowed to escape through the
Ethiopian territory. The urgent concern of Britain was to save the sandwiched Egyptian
garrisons in Eastern Sudan. She wanted to achieve this goal by winning the help of
Yohanes-IV.

Britain sent her envoy Rear Admiral William Hewett to Ethiopia to negotiate with Yohaness
on behalf of Egypt. The Hewett treaty or Adwa treaty as it was called signed on june 3,1884 at
Adwa. Among the articles in the treaty the first stipulated:

 The right of free transit through the port of Massawa for all goods including firearms to
and from Ethiopia
 Restoration of Bogos to Ethiopia
 Ethiopia agreement to help in the safe evacuation of the trapped Egyptian army via
Massawa.

The Hewett treaty might appear to have been a diplomatic victory for Ethiopia. in reality
however it had disastrous consequences on Ethiopian independence.

 Yohanees sent his generals Ras Alula to western Ethiopia to help the evacuation of the
Egyptian troops.
 Alula accomplished his mission at a very great cost. He fought against the Mehadist at
the battle of Kufit in September 1885 and other battles. By so doing Ethiopia was
considered as an ally of Egypt and enemy of Mahadist Sudan. But Ethiopia did not gain
Massawa. Britain secretly invited Italy in order to stop the possible expansion of France

19 | P a g e
 to the area. Therefore Italy was occupied Massawa on February 1885. In other direction
the Mehadist invaded Ethiopia for revenge through Gonder by defeating Tekle Haymanot
at the batlle of Sar wuha in 1887.

On 9 March 1889 the force of Yohaness met the Mehadists at the battle of Metemma. Despite
an initial victory Ethiopians lost the day after Yohaness was wounded. He was died in the next
day. The Mehadists captured his dead body and beheaded it.

EXPANSION TO THE SOUTH WEST, SOUTH AND SOUTH EAST ETHIOPIA BY

MENELIK-II

 Ethiopia was transformed under Nəgusä Nägäst Menelik the major sign posts of
modernization were put in place. The major events of Menelik were classified in to
THREE:-

1. TERRITORIAL EXPANSION
2. THE DEFENSE OF THE COUNTRY
3. BEGINNING THE PROCESS OF MODERNIZATION

Territorial Expansion

The territorial expansion of Menelik-II can be divided into three stages.

1. 1870-1889 when Meneliks was the king of Shewa

2. 1889 -1896 from his coronation to the battle of Adwa
3. 1896 -1900 from the battle of Adwa to the formation of the modern map of Ethiopia.

THE FIRST STAGE (1870-1889)

 During the first stage Menelik was Conquered the Oromo and Gurage lands around
Shewa.
 Before the 1870s, Menilek had already incorporated the Tulema and eastern Mecha
Oromo territories after controlling local leaders notably Ashe Rufo of Salale, Dula Ara’e
of Gullale, Tufa Muna of Gimbichu, Ture Galate of Soddo and others. Meanwhile,
other Oromo elites such as Ras Gobena Dache, Fitawrari Habte-Giorgis Dinagde, Dejjach
Balcha Safo (AbbaNefso) and others worked towards the formation of the modern
Ethiopian state.

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  There Were Two Kinds Of Reactions Among the Gurage

a. Peaceful submission (northern Gurages )

b. Armed resistance(western Gurage)

The northern Gurage more precisely known as the Kestane peacefully sub-mitted to the army of
Menelik without any sounding resistance. This was because

 Geographical proximity
 Their religious similarity with the kingdom of Shewa
 The threat of the Oromo that surrounded them.
 The western Gurage this period of shewan expansion was also a period of
Muslim revivalism movement led by Hasan Enjamo of Qabena to the NE of
Gibe River. The Wallo people and the Mahdist were included in this war.
Hassan Enjamos force which had the elements Hadya Gurege coalition
inflicted a number of defeats on the shewan forces until Meneliks General
Ras Gobena took the field in1888 and finally crushed the movements.

 The Oromo territories of the west of the Gibe River was occupied by Ras Darasu
especially the Horro Guduru leader Habishe Garba and minor lords were defeated by
Darasu and Habishe were captured and Imprisoned in Gojam.
 Menilek's territorial expansion to western and southwestern regions was concluded
through both forceful and peaceful submissions.
 In the regions south of the Abbay River, particularly in Horro Guduru, Ras Adal Tesema
of Gojjam had already established his control over the region since the mid1870s.
Although he faced stiff resistance from Moti(King) Abishe Garba of Horro, Adal’s force
ambushed Abishe and his entourage at a place called Kokor. Thus, Ras Adal

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 (NigusTekle-Haymanot since 1881) controlled the region until 1882, when he was
defeated at Embabo by Menilek's commander, Ras Gobana.
 Meanwhile, Garbi Jilo (of Leqa-Billo), Tucho Dano (Leqa-Horda), Ligdi Bakare (Leqa-
Naqamte), Genda Busan (Sibu-Sire), Mardasa Konche (Nonno Migira), and Turi Jagan
(Nonno Rogge) formed a coalition and defeated Menilek's army led by the Nadew
brothers, Dasta, Dilinesaw and Tesemma at the Battle of Gurra Doba. Similarly, west of
the Dhidhessa River, an alliance of Wachu Dabalo of Sibu, Jorgo Dagago of Noole
Kabba and others fought Menilek's local allies like Moroda and Amante Bakare at Sambo
Darro. Later, however, they were defeated.
 In the Gibe region, Firissa of Guma fought Menilek's army from 1889 to 1901. The
imperial army faced similar resistance from Abba Bosso of Gomma, although defeated
by Ras Demisew Nesibu in early 1900. Also, Ras Tesemma Nadew’s force incorporated
Ilu Abba Bor into the imperial state after fighting with Fatansa at Qarsa Gogila

The Wallaga Principalities were occupied during this phase

1. Leqa Naqmte (Eastern Wallaga)-founded by the warrior Aba dula Bakare .the state great
power full under Morada Bakare and Kumasa Moarada. Kumsa later was baptized and
given Christian name Gebre Egiabher (slave of god )
2. Leqa Qellam (western Wallega) was founded by Tullu and great power full under Jote
Tullu Both are traditional Oromo title called Moti. Both Wallaga States are peacefully
submitted.

The Arsi Oromo –resisted Meneliks army from 1884-1886).There are two ways of resistance.
1. Peacefully submitted idea by Suffa Kussa and Dame Usu
2. Armed resistance by Roba Dadhi

Personally Menelik Participated in the Arsi and Harar. Roba DAdhi army crushed at the battle
of Azule in 1886 after that Menelik appointed Ras Derge over Arsi.

 Of all the campaigns Nigus Menilek conducted before he became emperor, perhaps, the
most sustained bloody wars were those against the Arsi Oromo.

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  It took six different campaigns from 1882-6 to control this vast region. Menilek
encountered fierce resistance from the Arsi Oromo led by notables like Sufa Kuso, Damu
Usu, Lenjiso Diga, Gosa Dilamo and Roba Butta. Initially, the Arsi Oromo defeated
Menilek's force at Dodota and Qalata. Yet, with intelligence service of local supporters,
Ras Darge Sahile-Selassie's force defeated the Arsi Oromo at the battle of Azule on 6
September 1886. The battle of Azule was followed by what is known as the Anole
incident of 1887, which inflicted heavy damage on the Arsi
 The Harar –Harar replaced Daker the centre of Walsma Dynasty. In 1527 it was from
Harar Ahmed destroy the Christian kingdom. The first army of Menelik and the Harar
Ormo was fought at the battle of Hirna when Dej, Wolde Gebriel occupy Chercher but
defeated by the Oromo. After that in January 6, 1887 at the battle of Chelenqo the Harari
and the Oromo were defeated by Meneliks army.

The Second Stage (1889-1896)

During this stage the main area –Wolyta, Bale and Sidamo except Borana lowlands.

88 to 1892.Tonas instigation of the Dawaro and konta peoples to the west of wolyta to rise
against Meneliks authority further strength the confrontation. Menelik personally led the
campaign. He was accompaniefertility of Wolayta made Meneliks and his troops more During
this time Menelik was busy for two reasons.

a. Consolidating his imperial power

b. Conflict with Italian colonial ambition

ambitious in the wake of the great faThe mine of 18d by his generals such as;

 Ras Mikael of Wallo

 Fitwrari Gebyehu
 Lika makawost Abate Buayelahu
 Dej. Balcha safo and ras walda Giorgus
 Abba Jifar of Jimma.

In 1894 Kawo Tona was wounded captured and taken as prisoner to Addis Ababa.

23 | P a g e
The third stage (1896-1900)

During this stage Keffa and Ethio-Sudanese border ogaden Borana bench menzger jkawo and
Lake Turkana area .

Keffa –keffa was the area produced the Enset. In the military Keffa had strong tradition of the
digging defensive trenches and fences. The Gojeb River was also acted as a natural defense
against external intrusion. This helped keffa kingdom to survive independent for many years.
Keffa captured three years later of Wolayta. The Menelik force under the leadership of Dej.
Dame’s governor of Arjo and Horro in Wallaga. Abba Jifar and the rulers of Dawro and konta
were participated. The last king of Keffa Tato Gaki Serecho fled and remained a fugitive for
nine months until he was captured and taken to Addis Ababa. The capital city of Keffa Andercha
captured in 1897.

The sheikdoms-there was three kingdoms in the present day of western Ethiopian in Ethio-
Sudanese border.

1. Bela Shangul the ruler was Abdurrahman Khojole .

2. Asosa (Agoldi) the ruler was Sheik Khojole Al-Hassan.
3. Khomosha –Muhammad Wad Mahamud. This area was rich in gold.

The ruling family were Sudanese in origin. In 1897 RAs Mokkenin Wolda Mikael accompanied
by Dej.Jote Tullu and Dej.Gebere Eghziahber Moroda of Wollega campaigned to these
sheikdoms. When Ras Mokkenen reached there the leaders of the region were divided among
themselves on the measure to be taken. Ruler of Benishangul was making efforts to establish a
unit front. But the ruler of Asosa began establishing secret lines with Ras Mokonnen. The ruler
of Benishangul engaged into battle against Ras Mokkenin force. The intelligence that the rulers
of Asosa provided for Ras Mokenis force instrumental for the defeat of Abdurrahman at the

24 | P a g e
battle of Fadogno in 1897 and he was forced to flee. The Khomosha ruler was choose to fight
but he was defeated by Sheik Khojole himself.

Sheik Khojale Al Hassan then joined the Imperial forces, and launched an attack on Mohammad
Wad Mahmud of Khomosha and defeated him, handing him over to Ras Makonnen. However,
Sheik Khojale was soon found to be in secret correspondence with the British who were
reestablished in the Sudan, and he was arrested and brought to Addis Ababa along with the two
other captive Sheiks. After all three had formally submitted to the Emperor, they were allowed to
return to their lands to continue ruling them as before in all respects, except that annual tribute
must be sent to the crown. Muhammad Wad Mahmud was granted the title of Fitawrari, and
Abdel Rahman Khojale was made a Dejazmatch. Sheik Khojale Al Hassan however insisted on
keeping his traditional title of Sheik and accepted no other title. Ethiopia was beginning to
assume her present borders.

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POLICY DURING EXPANSION

Menelik-II had two opposite policies of expansion

1. Mercy to sub-missive
2. Sword to the rebel

A population of peacefully sub-mitted regions spared from enslavement and from the stationing
of the armed garrisons and from the even worse fate of land alienation. The Oromo kingdom of
wellega and the Gibe, Benishangul and afar belong to this category. In the regions resisted
Meneliks-II army there were elimination of local rulers the imposition of tax and land alienation
and sometimes enslavement of population. The Oromo territories of Arsi Hararghe the emirate
of Harar, Walayta and Keffa provider of this pattern . After the elimination of the region rulers.

 Ras Tesemma Nadew appointed over Illu Abba bor

 Ras wolda Giorgis over Keffa
 Ras Mekkonin over Hararghe

Another problem of the southern people was the intensification of the slave trade especially
wolyata keffa and Gimira became virtual hunting ground for slaves. In general the imposition of
such an oppressive and exploitive system also under mined their cultural traditions and their
sense of human dignity.

26 | P a g e
The Great Ethiopian Famine (1888-1892)

 The Great Ethiopian Famine alone, which spanned from 1888 to 1892, is estimated to
have killed up to one-third of the population and is commonly referred to as kifu qan or
“evil days.” Drought and pestilence are well-known contributors to food shortages in the
country.
 The immediate cause for the outbreak of famine at this time was a cattle epidemic or
contagious virus disease of cattle which started in north Ethiopia and swept across the
rest of the region.
 The basic cause of the famine was the precarious economic base of the country
particularly in the 19th when the peasants were reduced to the bare survival because of the
intermittent wars of the country found it highly vulnerable to these natural calamities.
This famine because of its harshness is known as Kefu qen (evil day). The measures from
the government were no adequate to alleviate the disaster. Disturbing cattle from Bale
and Harar. The famine also necessitated Meneliks territorial acquisition in southern
Ethiopia. A good examples of as Wolayta and it also facilitated the Italians advance to the
highland of Eritrea in 1890.

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SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENTS
 The period from 1800 to 1941 was also marked by changes in socio-economic conditions
including trade, slavery and slave trade, agriculture, urbanization and manufacturing.
Socio- Economic Developments

The economic basis of political power was the tribute collected from the peasants and the labor
service offered by the same peasant who held his land (rist). There were different types of tribute
.The most important tributes was the land tax or rent .the rate of land tax varied on the basis of
cultivation of the land.

 Cultivation (lam)
 Uncultivated (taf)
 Semi cultivated

The second (Asrat) to a tenth of the peasants harvests .The gabber provide fire wood for his
overland usually known as Melkengna or Shelaqa . The territorial expansion of Menelik to the
south west and east was doubly significant. Menelik-II imposed two types of tribute

1. Qurt Gibir – it was imposed on the region peacefully sub-mitted to Menelik-II like
Jimma to Wellaga states Bela shangul awasa Afar and gubba western Gojjam .
2. Quter Gibir –the number of the gabber allocated to the retainer or officials ranged from
5 to 100depending on his rank and status. This system applied in the area which Menelik-
II occupied forcefully.

Qalad system was the land measurement in the 20 th after the rape used to measure the land .one
qalad is about 133 cubits or 66.7 meters length .Such type of land is known as Gasha land. In the
area of Wallaga land was measured by Qabiye. During the land measurement and Distribution

28 | P a g e
the Ballabats or local governor share constitutes 1/3 while remaining 2/3 was appropriate by the
states.

SISSO –means or referred three things simultaneously.

1. Represented the three conventional claimants of measured land namely

 Ballabat
 The states
 Church
2. It represented the numerical fraction of land that went to each one of them.
 Sisso of the state
 Sisso of the church
 Sissi of the individuals

Samon land –government officials were granted Madarya land in the lieu of salary.

Baldras: –to the up keep of the horses (the royal horses).

Warra Gannu: to keep royal cattle. There were farmers who cultivated land known as
Gindebeland .The duty of the owners of ginbeland in times of war was to lead the tent onto
mules and carry the tent posts themselves. In peace time they had to keep the mules or horses
belonging to the state and to pay the central authority. One dawula of grain per year.

BALABBAT: mediating between peasant and the state played a crucial role in the development
of tributary relationship. The Qutar gabber in HArar and the garad subordinate to the damin.

NAFTEGNA: refers to soldiers of different social backgrounds who were stationed in the
southern territories under the imperial banner. In the latter case, the major force of change was
the settlement and exploitative nature of the system that altered both settlement pattern and
agricultural system.

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 

SLAVERY AND SLAVE TRADE IN ETHIOPIA

 Slavery and slave trade had long history in Ethiopia and the Horn. Most slaves in
Ethiopia were kept as domestic slaves and some were sold to Egypt and the Middle East
and the Ottoman Empire through the Sudan, the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden ports.
 Slaves were traded as commodities in local and international markets. For instance, in
1837 slave raiders captured Bilile from Guma and sold her to a German prince, Herman
Pickler Muskau at Cairo who changed her name to Mahbuba.
 Similarly, Hika (later Onesimos Nasib) was kidnapped in 1869 in Hurumu when he was
four years old. He was sold at Massawa, later freed by a Swedish mission, after which he
translated the Bible into Afan Oromo at Menkulu (in Eritrea).
 Aster Gano was also sold into slavery from Limmu. However, in 1886, she was
emancipated and assisted Onesimos in the translation of the Bible.
 During the nineteenth century, slave trade expanded in Ethiopia and the Horn due to
increased demand for slaves in foreign markets largely in the Middle East. This was
followed by the emergence of market centers from Bonga to Metemma and Massawa.
 Selling slaves was source of revenue for many local chiefs. Slaves were acquired through
kidnapping, war captivity, debt bondage, and purchase from open markets. Major sources
of slaves were southern and southwestern parts of Ethiopia.
 Emperors Tewodros II, Yohannes IV and Menilek II tried to stop the slave trade although
not slavery itself.
 In 1923, Ras Teferi banned slave trade which eventually came out in adecree in 1924 to
emancipate slaves.
 This was followed by the establishment of the Office for the Abolition of Slaveryin 1932.
Freed slaves were kept under the overall supervision of Hakim Warqineh Eshete. The

30 | P a g e
 Italians proclaimed the abolition of slavery immediately after their occupation of the
country. After liberation, the Emperor issued a new decree in 1942 abolishing any forms
of slave trade and the institution of slavery itself. The impact of slavery was obviously
social and economic deterioration of the source areas, families and suffering of the slaves
themselves.

URBANIZATION
 During the period, the expansion of both local and long distance trade since the early
nineteenth century had transformed old markets and socio-political centers into towns in
Ethiopia and the Horn.
 In this case, several towns located on the long-distance trade in western Ethiopia grew
into towns.
 In addition, the beginning of railway connecting Djibouti and Addis Ababa as of 1917
was followed by the evolution of several fast growing towns. Towns including Dire-
Dawa, Adama, Mojo, Bishoftu Mieso, Asabot and others were results of the extension of
the railway and the expansion of trade.
 On the other hand, politico-religious centers in several parts of the region evolved into
towns. This was true mainly in the northern parts of Ethiopia. Many centers that once
served as "royal camps" evolved into towns and parallel to this many towns declined with
the demographic change when "royal camps" shifted to other centers. One of the towns
that grew through such process was Addis Ababa. Empress Taytu Betul chose the place
for its hot springs, Fel-Wuha (formerly called Hora Finfinne).
 Similarly, as of the late nineteenth century, in southern Ethiopia, a number of towns
emerged when Menilek's generals established garrisons in suitable locations in order to
maintain control of the occupied provinces. The presence of the governors and soldiers
made such areas permanent areas of politico-economic and religious activities. Such
centers of administration known as katamas (garrison towns) became centers of trade
and eventually grew into towns. Towns including Gobba, Ticho, Gore, Arjo, etc were
garrisons that grew into towns. During the Italian rule (1936-41), several of the above
towns grew in size and other new towns evolved because of socio-economic and political
developments of the period.

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 The Battle of Adwa

Back ground of the battle of ADWA

 Meneliks contacts with the Italians can be said to have officially begun in 1876 with the
coming of the Italian geographical society to shewa.
 The society was headed by Marquis Orazio Antinori. By the agreement a member of
the geographical society by the name Martini was given to the Menelik to be his agent to
purchase fire arms from Europe.
 The early contacts grew even closer and broader with the coming of Count Pietro
Antonelli in1882 as Italians delegate to Shewa .

On 21 may 1883a treaty of friend ship and commerce was signed. According this treaty it
provided for;

 Consular exchange
 Free movement of people
 Free trade and free propagation of religion.
 In October 1887 a convention of neutrality was signed by this treaty signed the wake of
Italian defeat at Dogali and preparation for revenge Menelik-II agreed to be neutral from
the expand confrontation between the Italians and the emperor. As reward for this
Menelik-II was promised 5000 Remington rifles.

32 | P a g e
WUCHALE TREATY

 The treaty of wuchale was drafted in Rome in August up September 1888. On 26 march
1889 two weeks after the death of Yohanness.
 Menelik-II sent his first letter after he came to power to king Umberto of Italy .The letter
informed Italians to occupy some part of high land of Eritrea. The wuchale treaty was
signed by two parties on 2 may 1889 signed Menelik .
 Menelik-II signed the treaty on the Ethiopian side and count Pietro Antonelli signed it
on the Italian side. It was the treaty signed not to end any conflict or battle but simply the
climax of the former friendly relations.
 Antonelli returned to Rome in August in companion with an Ethiopian mission headed
Dejezamach Mokonnen Walda Mikael. On 1 October 1889 Dej. Mokonnen and
Francisco Crispi Italian prime minster signed the Naples convention.

Naples convention was not to replace the wuchale treaty but it was supplementary Convention
to the treaty particularly –III of the treaty which granted the Italians considerable territory in the
north. This additional convention was on the boundary demarcation and effective occupation
which helped them in the subsequent expansion towards the Mereb River.

The wuchale treaty has in all 20 articles out of which article XVII is more relevant to the battle
of ADWA. The treaty was written in the official languages of both countries. The major
difference was come in the Italian version and Amharic version of article XVII. Menelik-II
and his supporter Grazmech Yoseph Neguse had nothing to do with Italians language and not
active in international diplomacy Antonelli had been in shewa since 1882 thus had knowledge of
Amharic and was very active in Internationals diplomacy. The Italian government argued
through its ambassadors and ministers that the article XVII was signed in conformity with article
XXXIV (34) of the general act of the congress of Berlin conference. In other word a protectorate
was claimed over Ethiopia. Ethiopia had given the Italians the perfect opportunity to push inland
and occupy most of the highlands of the Mereb-melesh. In January 1890 the Italians government
formally declared the creation of their colony on Eritrea. The Italian colonial motive was used
the scramble of Africa through peaceful methods such deceptive treaties (misleading) purchasing

33 | P a g e
of land for money for fire arms for ammunition etc. To control the Ethiopia land the Italians
used two methods.

1. Persuasion methods
2. Subversive methods

PERSUASION METHODS –policy was putting pressure on the emperors this was Antoneelis
line. Thus the Antonneli and other envoys tried hard to persuade Menelik-II to accept their
version of the Wuchale treaty .this policy was dealt the final blow when Meneklik-II publically
abrogated the treaty in 1893.

SUBVERSIVE METHODS –was devised by the Italians governor of Eritrea Antonio Bladissra
called Bladisera line. He suggested the best to Italy by persuading the policy of dividing the men
effort therefore to use the discontented Tigeran lord’s against Menelik-II. Bladissra line
appeared to have been successful when the Tigreans princes led by Mengesha Yohanees
expressed their solidarity with the Italians by swearing on 6 October 1891 an oath of alliance
commonly known as the Mereb convection. By the convention Ras Mengesha declared that he
was friend of the Italians against Menelik-II

It was proved hollow as the Tigrean princes again led by Ras Mangasha, came to Addis Ababa
in June 1894 and swore their allegiance to Menilik in dramatic ceremony..

In December 1894, a large scale peasant pricing was started in Eritrea. It was led by Dejeazmach
Bebahta Hagos the governor of Akkala guzay. The main reason was Italian policy of land
alienation. The problem led to the battle of Halay, where not only his forces but also Bahta
himself was killed.

Following the abrogation of the treaty unilaterally by Menilik in 1893. Italy began to claim up to
Ambalage.

In January 1895 at the battle of coateti and sanafe Ras Mengasha was defeated and retreated
southward.

THE CAMPAIGN OF ADWA

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 The battle of Adwa was not single best it had three phases.
A. The battle of Amba Alage [7dec - 1895].
B. The siege of Makale [7 -21 jan.1896]
C. The final battle of Adwa [1 march 1896].

The Battle of Amba Alage

 The first military engagement took place on 7 December 1895 at Ambalage a natural
fortress near the southern most point the Italians had reached and already a occupied by
force led by Major Toselli. The Ethiopian army was led by Fitwrari Gabayeh attacked
the entrenched base of the Italians the result was the Italians were defeated and forced to
retreat back. Causality e was high on the Italian side. This time Menelik was at Kobbo.

The Siege of Magale 7-21 Jan 1896].

After Italy was defeated at Ambaalage retreated nor ward and built a formidable fort at Makale.
The problem of water became more acute for the besieged. Finally, a settlement was negotiated
where by the besieged were allowed to come out and rejoin their compatriots Italy instead of
crossing to their colony they went to Adwa and controlled a strategic area at saurya.

C. THE FINAL BATTLE OF ADOWA.

Commanders

Menelik II
Oreste Baratieri
Alula Engida General Dobormida
Makonnen General Arimondi
Mengesha Yohannes General Albertoni
Mikael of Wollo General Ellena
Tekle Haymanot
Taytu Betul

35 | P a g e
The battle lasted for one full day. Ethiopian troops displayed a high degree of courage and unity.
Local people including former collaboration showed their support to the Ethiopian fighting force
indifferent ways. Some supplied misleading maps and information to the Italians. The Ethiopians
women supplied water and arms to the fighters and encouraged them to fight with the
determination. in this battle empires Taytu commanded here own contingent. The war was
concluded with complete Ethiopian victory.

The consequences of the victory of Adwa

 In Italy the defeat at Adwa arouse internal opposition against the government of
Francesco Crispi (Italian prime minister at that time). These wide spread public
opposition lead to the down fall of Crispi government.
 The Adwa victory became a symbol of the black dignity and self rule. As a result in
South African countries it sparked the emergence of religious separatist movements
known as Ethiopianism. This was a preference for African churches independent from
European missionary churches.
 The Treaty of Addis Ababa was signed between Italy and Ethiopia on 26 October 1896.
By this treaty Italy recognized the absolute independence of Ethiopia and accepted the
abrogation of the Wuchale Treaty. Ethiopia and Italy also agreed to observe the
boundary along the rivers Mereb, Belesa and Muna River. The boundary between
Ethiopia and Italy was formally delimited in 1900.

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POLITICAL HISTORY OF ETHIOPIA (1896-1936)

The political history of Ethiopia during this period began by the confidence of the victory of
Adwa and ended by the defeat of Ethiopia by the fascist Italian forces in 1936.

A decade of Consolidation 1896-1906

In December 1906 the three colonial powers Britain, France and Italy signed what has came to
be known as Tripartite Treaty. The aim of the colonial powers was to scramble Ethiopia. The
political history of Ethiopia during this period began by the confidence of the victory of Adwa
and ended by the defeat of Ethiopia by the fascist Italian forces in 1936.

The immediate decade after Adwa was a period of both internal and external success for
Menelik-II

INTERNALLY –he expanded the Ethiopia Empire to a large extent. It was not only a large scale
expansion but it was also followed by effective administration

Keffa –was given to RAs walds Giorgis and Sidamo was given to Dej Balcha Safo.

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Externally too Menelik-II was greatly successful in translating the military victory into a
diplomatic one. In 1900 that Italy and Ethiopia signed a separate boundary delimitation
agreement. In this agreement they declared that the boundary between them have to be
determined by the line Tomat Todluc-Mereb-Belesa –Muna River.on 20 March 1897 the shortest
boundary between Ethiopia and French Somali land was delimited. In this boundary with British
Somali land was delimited. The longest boundary between Ethiopia and the Sudan was dealt
with by 1902 treaty signed with the British government. The agreement delaminating the
boundary with the British East Africa or Kenya was signed in 1907 and the next year Menelik
agreed with the Italian who controlled the Italian Somali land.

THE PERIOD OF INTERNAL POWER STRAGGLE

Two crushing events of the year 1906 encouraged very serious and long lasting internal power
struggle in the Ethiopia for the next 24 years.

1. The first was the illness of Menelik which finally led his death in December 1913.
2. The second was the death of Ras Mokennin Wolde Mikael ,Menelik’s cousin and his
mostly successor. In the mean time this internal crisis began to draw the attention of the
three neighboring European colonial powers –Britain, France and Italy which dominated
the internal and external policies of Ethiopia after Adwa.

Menelik his only child was Zawditu whose successor ship was rejected on the account of her
Sex. Menelik chose Iyasu as his legal Successor. The prince was son of Meneliks daughter
Weyzero Shewaraga who married to Ras Mikael of Wallo and got Iyasu. Iyasu was young
and male in May 1909 Menelik officially announced his successor ship. The prince was
about eleven years of age and was too young to exercise power by himself. Ras Bitwaded
Tessema Nadew the prominent member of the shewan nobility and the governor of Ilubabor
was appointed as a regent to the young prince and since emperor Menelik did not die it yet a
title Lij Abeto was given to Iyasu.

The Challenge of Empress Taitu

It was during this declining health of her husband that empress Taitu began to emerge as a
powerful figure in the court. She over shadowed the power of the regent and the council and

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 became the defacto head of government. Empress taitu had several grounds to act as
spokeswomen of the emperor and make shumshirs

1. She was the founder of the town of Addis Ababa in 1896

2. She was the wife of menelik
3. She was the main figure in the abrogation of the wuchale treaty.
4. She came from the very prominent family of the north.
5. She was the sister of of Ras walle Bitul of yejju leader of the best army in north Ethiopia.

Zawditu was the daughter of Menelik by another wife Weyziro Abicho a daughter of Wallo
ballabat .So empress Taitu favored Zawditu not because of her being the daughter of Menelik
but mainly because Zawditu was the wife of Taitu’s nephew Ras Gugsa Walle of Begemidir .
Taitus was opposed by the most prominent officials of Menelik lik –Ras Bitwaded Tesema
Nadew and Fitwrari Habte Giorgis Dinagde and also Ras Maikael of Wallo the oppose of Taiuts
.A popular element represented by Mahel Saferi units of imperial army and civil functionaries
closely attached to the palace. In March 1910 the Mahel Safari made Public demonstration in
Addis Ababa denouncing the empress .their demonstration was the first political movement in
the country. They requested that the empress had only to nurse her dying husband rather than
involving in politics. After her removal from government work she continued to nurse Menelik
until his death in December 1913. After that she took a self imposed exile to intoto Mariam
church where she died in 1918. All the shumshirs made by Taitu were cancelled. For instance
Ras Gugsa Wall who appeared in Addis Ababa fallowing Taitus deposition was capital and
imprisoned. In his place Ras Walde Giorgis of Keffa was appointed over Begemidir . RAs Walle
Bitul also surrendered and was detained in Ankober . Both were released and returned to their
respective provinces after the battle of Sagale.

Mahal Safrai; a semi-professional military nature proximity to the court gave them a
political character. They became a relatively well organized pressure group that played an
active role in some of the major political events of the early 20th century.

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 The reign of Lij Iyasu

In April 1911 the regent of Lij Iyasu was died .it was during this time that Dej.Abate Buayalew
governor of Kembeta came to Addis Ababa and began to play a political role to became a regent.
When he attempted to enter the palace he was confronted by the palace guards of Menelik under
Fitwrari Gebre Mariam but after the intervention of the Abuna and Echege dej. Abate was
persuaded to return back to his fief of Kembeta. Finally in November 1911 Ras Mikael father of
Iyasu came to political intrigues of the shewan nobility and to strengthen his son’s role. One
victim of this was dej. Abate who was called to Addis Ababa and then Imprisoned at Mekdella
until the battle of Sagale. The shewan nobility did not fully favor Lij Iyasus’s successor ship
since he was the son of a non-shewan regional ruler. We can say that Iyasus reign practically
started in 1911 although Menelik did not yet die.

REFORMS OF LIJ IYASU

Some modern reforms that resulted in social and economic security in the country

1. Asrat
2. Quranga
3. Leba shay

Asrat; modified the traditional methods of asrat collection of tax from the peasant. Earlier
the amount of the tax to be paid to the government was determined by the tax assessors
before the peasant harvest his produce.

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 Qurangna; Lij Iyasu also ended the quranya system the practice of chaining the accusing
and the accuser or the debtor and creditor together until justice was given. There is no
police to keep the debtor the accuser himself to perform the task of police.

Lebashay; lij iyasu also dealt a way with the leba shey system the traditional method of
detecting theft or criminal. In addition to the above Iyasus reign saw the establishment of
the modern municipal policy force known as Trinbulee or Ya areda Zebegnya. This force
mainly consisted of soldiers who served in the Italian campaign to occupy Libya in 1911.
Lij Iyasu met strong opposition from both internal and external forces that worked against
him .In order to consolidate his power he married the daughter of different regional lords
like Jote Tulu of Qellam,Amira Abdullah of Harara etc. Iyasu dismissed many of old
Rases and dej.of Meneliks day’s .He used the pretext that these old guards became too fat
to accompany him during his tours. The main causes of internal opposition to iyasu were
his attitude towards the old nobility of Menelik and his encroachment to the shewan
political supremacy. Some prominent figures who became victims of such policy of Iyasu
were;

A. Fitwrari Habte Giorgis –who was struck in the face by the prince and who had
relinquished his presidency of the council of ministers.
B. Dej.Balcha Safo –who was removed from his fief of Sidamo
C. Dej. Tefari Mokennen –who lost the governorship of Harar to Iyasus Syrian friend
Ydilibi. The one that seriously challenged and undermined the shewan hegemony was
the coronation of his father in 1914 as a negus of the north therefore Wallo and Tigre.

The period of Lij Iyasu coincided with the WW-I in this war Britain, France and Italy
were allies against Germany and Turkey .the relation of Iyasu with Germany and Turkey
appeared as a serious challenge to the three powers. Iyasu maintained close links with
Somali patriotic leader known as Sayyid Mohammed Abdille Hassen. This man launched
a war of liberation against the British and Italian colonial rulers of Somali since the turn of
the 20th century. Iyasu was said to have given moral and material support to this patriotic
leader. In September 1916 when Iyasu was In Ogaden they appealed to the Abune to ex-
communicate Lij Iyasu whom they charged mainly with a pro-Muslim policy. On

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 September 27, 1916. The young ruler was declared over throw by a palace coup d’état.
After coup d’état lij Iyasu defeated at Miesso iyasu fled to the Danakil plains of where he
became a fugitive until his capture in1921. In this year he was placed under the protection
of Ras Kasa Hailu in Fiche town .in 1932 he tried to escape from but captured again then
sent to a prison in Garamuleta. negus Micael mobilized large army from wallo on October
27,1916 he fought a bloody battle with the shewan forces led by Fitwrari Habte Giorgis at
Segale Near Sheno on the plains of Sendefa. The causality of the battle was equally harsh
for both sides where about 20000 wallo forces and 12000 shewan forces died finally the
wallo forces were defeated and negus Mikael himself was captured and made a prisoner
until his death two years later.

The Period of Diarchy

The term diarchy refers to the period of dual rule between 1916 upto 1930. The period has
an empress and an heir to the throne therefore Zewditu and Taferi Mokkenin respectively
who were chosen from the family of Menelik.

Zawditu-was an old empress and she lacked interest in politics and her interest was
building churches and giving endowments to the churches.

Tafari- was very ambitious political man who grew under the political leaders and he was
better educated by the catholic mission school in Harar during his child and latter on
attended Menelik-II school. During the diarchy there were two tendencies in the court;

1. Traditional –consisted of the old nobility of Menelik and they were represented by
Empress Zawditu her camp was led by Fitawrari Habte Giorgis the war minister.
2. The Progressive- mainly consisted of young and educated Ethiopian intellectuals and
few enlighten nobility. Thus he began to take effective measures against the old
nobility. The first significant event was the demonstration of his supports against the
nine ministers appointed by Menelik. This took place at Janmeda in 1918. All the
ministers were removed from the power except Fitwrari Habte Giorgis Dinanagde who
was retained in power because of his leading role at the battle of Segele. Thus Tafari
appointed new ministers. The new council to be known as the crown council which
was only an advisory body.

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 In 1926 nature it began to favour Teferi that was the natura death of Fitwrari Habte
Giorgis which had a double advantage for the regent.well trained soldiers were now left in
the hands of Tafari and he took over all the first of Habte Giorgis and enriched his
economic recourses to come to power. In 1927 Ras Tefari outmaneuvered Dej.Balch Safo
one of god-son of RAs mokennin and ironical that they became mortal enemies. Balcha
Safo was hero of Adwa and was given Sidamo by Menelik-II as the result of the battle of
Adwa. He was prisoner until coming of the Italians in1936. In 1928 Ras Teferi
outmaneuvered Dej. Abba Wuqaw Birruhe was the supporter of Coup detet in 1916 He
was the head of imperial body guard who decided to defend the power of empress when
Taferi began to assume all the power .he was imprison until the coming of Italy in 1936.
The supporter RAs Tefari requested the empress to crown him as king of kings and in
October the empress crowned Tefari as Negus. The final confrontation come from the ex-
husband of Zawditu and governor of Begemidir Ras Gugsa WAlle. The struggle between
Ras-Gugsa and Teferi was economic motive because Gonder region had a trade with the
Sudan and Eritrea. The conflict was concluded by bloodshed at the battle of Anchim
which was fought on September 31 march 1930. The immediate cause of the clash
between Gugsa and Tefari was the refusal of the former to respond to the orders of the
latter. The war minister dej.Mulgeta Yigezu led the imperial force while Ras Gugsa
himself led his force to the battle field. To surprise of the forces of Gugsa Tefari deployed
two airplanes which dropped bombs on Gugsa targets. The aftermath of the battler of
Anchim was good for Tefari because just two days later April 2 1930 the empress died in
the capital probably shattered by the news of death of her husband. Death of Gugsa was a
warning for other rulers;Ras Hailu Tekle Haymanot of Gojjam ,ras Siyoum Mengesha of
Tigray who were secretly behind Ras Gugsa.

a. The Emergency of Autocracy

The term autocracy refers to a political system in which power has virtually concentrated in the
highlands of one ruler. The government of Emperor Haileselasie was an autocratic state. Haile
Sealasie built his government with a highly centralized system of the rule

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The Constitution of 1931

 It was the first written constitution in Ethiopia

 It was served as a legal basis of the incipient autocratic state.

The 1931 constitutions gave extensive powers to the emperor. He was empowered to

 Appoint and dismiss civil and military officials

 Declare or end wars
 Establish a parliament which he could convene or disband at his own will
 Decide on the size of army and command it
 It reserved the imperial throne only for the family of Haile Selase and his descendents

The 1931 constitution established two houses:-these are chamber of senate and chamber of
deputies.

Chamber of senate: - the members of senate were appointed by the emperor from among the
nobility, princes, judges, ministers and other high ranking civil and military officials.

Chamber of deputies: - it was nominated by the nobility and local chiefs. Therefore members
of the parliament were not elected through universal suffrage. The masses of the Ethiopian
people’s were not given the right to vote in elections.

Administration and Economy During the Emperor Haile Sealasie

Administration:- The emergent of autocratic state adopted a policy of monarchial control over
the provinces. The objective if the policy was to eliminate the possibility of the regional
challenge to the central government. As result the emperor controlled Gojjam and Jimma under
direct control in 1932 and 1933 respectively.

Economy: - the Emperor made reforms in the introduced the collection of the two major sources
of the state income land and tax on goods. Under new state land sale became a common
practice. In the southern provinces the process of land sale further reduced peasants to landless
tenants. In 1935 the government began the practice of collecting fixed taxes in cash at the rate
of 30 Maria Theresa talares per gasha ( 40 hectares of land).

Military Reforms

In 1930 the Ethiopian government began the training of the imperial Body guard by Belgian
officers. Their main unit was stationed in Addis Ababa but sub-units were also formed in the

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provinces. The troops of the Imperial Body Guard were the most privileged ground troops in the
country.

In 1934 the first modern military academy for the training of officers was opened at Holeta
Genet. The trainers were from Sweden.

a. Socio-Economic Developments 1906-1935

The major things that brought the socio-economic during this time was

 The introduction of the rail way brought the revival of the external trade through Djbouti
 The introduction of motor car in 1904
 The rail way and the airplane were introduced in1917 and 1929 respectively
 Bank of Abysinia was introduced in 1905
 Menelik-II school and Hospital was established in1908 and 1910 respectively

Generally modern technology was not an outcome of indigenous inventions. The main agents of
technical innovation in the country, the craftsmen were disliked, lookdown up on and associated
with evil sprits and practices by traditional society.

ITALO-ETHIOPIAN WAR (1935-1941) AND IT’S AFTER MATH

a. Italo-Ethiopian Relations

After the battle of Adwa Italian government renounced its policy of colonial expansion and
reduced the budget for it. Despite this colonial ambitions did not die. Therefore at this time there
were signs of revival of Italian colonial interests in Ethiopia.

 The first indication was Italy’s plan of building a rail way connecting her colonies of
Eritrea and Somali land as manifested in the tripartite treaty of 1906.

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  The Italy was entry in the First World War on the side of Entente power in 1915. Italy
made clear that its intention was to take over the colonies of British and French
Somaliland as well as the Bank of Abyssinia and Djibouti Addis Ababa rail way.
 Thirdly in 1922 the fascist leader Benito Mussolini seized power he promised to avenge
the defeat of Adwa and the restoration of the glory of the Roman Empire to Italy.
 Fourthly by the 1925 Anglo-Italian agreement the government of Italy agreed to give a
diplomatic support to Britain plan of building a Dame on Lake Tana.

Actually Italy made no official moves that openly antagonized Ethiopia in the first three
decades of the 20th century. Italy tired her best to hide her colonial designs by showing
friendly gestures towards Ethiopia without giving up her grand plans.

 Italy gave diplomatic support to Ethiopia’s membership in the league of nations in

1923
 Ras Tafari European tour of 1924 included an official visit to Italy
 A treaty of peace and friendship was signed in August 1928 between Ethiopia and
Italy.

To advance her real plans Italy used her colonies of Eritrea and Somali as bases of military
preparations and subversive activities against Ethiopia.

The Walwal Incident

Walwal was place located inside Ethiopia territory of Ogaden. However by the 1930 through a
process of encroachment the Italians had illegal control over it. On December 1934 Italian troops
who were just waiting for a pretext for aggression, opened fire on an Anglo-Ethiopian boundary
commission passing through the area around the water wells escorted by Ethiopia troops. This
led armed clash in which Italians lost about thirty soldiers. By using this conflict Italy was ready
to invade Ethiopia. Ethiopia took the matter to the League of Nations seeking arbitration and
justice.

The League of Nations failed to give a just solution to the Italo-Ethiopian crisis. The League was
dominated by European powers who themselves were imperialist owning several colonies each.
Britain and France were instrumental in delaying the agenda. Finally the League decide

 Imposed sanctions on both Italy and Ethiopia. The sanctions however were nominal
and could not stop the aggressor.
b. The Italo-Ethiopian war 1935-1936

Italy invaded Ethiopia through two directions:-these are

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  In the North through of Eritrea
 In the south through Somalia

The Northern Front:- Italy military operations in the north was led by Marshal Emalio De
Bono who after the beginning of the war was replaced by Pietro Badoglio. Badoglio troops
advanced rapidly into Tigrai accompanied by air attacks. In Ethiopian side the overl all
command was under the control of Ras Kasa Hailu. It fought the Italians in three directions.

 The forces under minister of war Ras Mulgeta Yigezu fought on the eastern front at the
battle Amba Aradom
 At the centre were forces Ras Kasa Hailu and Ras Seyoum Mengesha
 In the western Ras Imiru Haile Selasie led a force that fought against Italians at the
Shire.

Ethiopians could not withstand Italians aerial bombardment and poison gas. Therefore Italians
won victory at the battles of Temben and Amba Aradom. In Amba Aradom Ras Mulgeta
Yigezu lost his life. The Ethiopian army scored minor victory only at the battle of Shire in
western front.

Finally Emperor Haile Sealsie took command of Ethiopian forces which offered the remaining
organized resistance. The better trained army the imperial Body guards was at his disposal led by
the emperor, Ethiopians fought the Battle of Maichew on 31 March 1936. This is the last battle
in the Northern front in Ethiopia. After this battle Emperor Haile Selasie fled to England via
Djibouti.

The Southern Front: - In the South the Italians army under General Rudolfo Graziani attacked
Ethiopians using its superior weapons. The Ethiopian forces in the South was commanded by
Dejazmach Nassibu Zeamanuel, Dejazmach Desta Damtew , Dejazmach Balcha Safo and
Dejazmach Mekonnen Endalkachew fought the Italians with the determination. In the South the
Ethiopians resistance had effective and united leadership. Yet they could not stop Italian
advance. Harar was occupied by the Italians some days after the fall of Addis Ababa. Thus the
Italo-Ethiopian war of 1935-1936 was concluded by the victory of the Fascist forces.

Several factors were accountable for Ethiopias defeat.

 Military superiority of Italy

 The poison gas caused great frustration among Ethiopian troops
 Ethiopians war efforts had been further weakened by an arms embargo

c. Fascist Rule and Patriotic Resistance (1936-1941)

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Italian control over Addis Ababa on may 5 1936 marked the begging of the Fascist occupation of
Ethiopia. Ethiopia was merged with the other Italians colonies, Eritrea and Somali land. In 1936
Italy declare the establishment of Italian East Africa by putting the three territories together and
began to Italian East Africa. The Africa Orinete Italiana was rule

Bodaglio
Graziani
Amedeo Umbero D’Aosta whose administrative is said to be relatively liberal

The Italian East Africa Empire had six administrative divisions named.

 Eritrea and Tigray with the capital of Asmara

 Amhara with the capital of Gonder
 Shoa with the capital of Addis Ababa
 Oromo and Sidama with the capital of Jimma
 Harar and Dire Dawa with the capital of Harar
 Ogaden and Somalis with capital of Moqdasho

Patriotic Resistance Movement

There are two stages of the patriotic resistance against Italian rule.

1. The first was a continuity of the major war and it lasted up to early 1937:- it was led by
members of the upper nobility in command of their respective troops. One of them was
Ras Imiru Haile Selasie. He was the Members of black lion organization.

Black Lion Organization:- this organization was formed in 1936 and it consisted of gradutes
of Holeta Military Academy and some other civilians. The engaged infighting the Italians
around Neqamte. He led the patriots on the first to liberate Addis Ababa in 1936. But he was
defeated in Keffa and captured finally deported to Italy. The second attempt to librate
Ethiopia was at the summer time. The operation was organized by two sons of Ras Kas Hailu,
Abera and Asafawossen, Balcha Safo, Abebe Aregay and Dejazamach Fikremariam. However
the plan lacked proper organization and the Italians easily crushed it. One of the unifying
figures of the attck Abune Petros was caught and executed in the capital.

On February 19,1937 two young Ethiopian named Moges Asgdom and Abarah Deboch made
an attempt to assassinate the Italian viceroy Graziani. Graziani was seriously wounded hwile
some other officials were killed. As revenge Italians soldiers carried out at wholesale massacre
of Ethiopians in the city. The incident is reffered to as the February or Graziani massacre.
Within three days about 30,000 Ethiopians were killed.

2. The second phase of the resistance was led by the nobility and local notables. It assumed
the character of guerilla war fare and largely centered in rural areas. It was mainly strong
in the regions of shoa, Gojjam and Begemidir.

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Another significant contribution to the patriotic resistance came from Yewust Arbagnoch
(inner patriots). These were patriots who lived and often worked with the Italians in towns but
passed on useful information to the patriots. Some members of this used to give underground
service to the patriots fighting in the bushes. Their major service was in the collocation of arms,
medicine, food and intelligence reports to be secretly sent to fighters. Ethiopians women played
significant role as Yewest Arbegnoch. The prominent movement were

 Shewareged Gedle of Adds Alem

 Kebedech Seyoum of shoa
 Shewanesh Abera of Lasta
 Abbech Cherqos of Gonder
 Lekyelesh Beyan of Jiru:– their slogan was fighting for the Ethiopian flag and Monarchy.

d. The Libration of Ethiopia

In 1940 Italy entered world war the second on the side of Germany. This incident led to British
intervention in the libration campaign of Ethiopia. Britain believed that military involvement
would defend her colonial interests in Africa. As a result British was launched war on Italy on
the side of Sudan and Kenya.

The Ethiopian patriots was joined the troops of British under General William Platt attacked the
Italians in Eritrea. The two British officers major general Orde Chrles Wingate and Brigedar
general Sandford led a joint army known as Gedeon forces with emperor Haile Selasie that
eneterd Gojjam in April 1941.

The British commander Lieutenant General Sir Alle Cunningham entered Ethiopia through
British East Africa( Kenya) and his army controlled Addis Ababa on April 1941. After Ethiopia
libration the British set up Occupied Enemy Territory Administration (OETA) over the Ogaden
and Eritra.

In 1942 the Britsh signed a treaty with the empror the Ango-Ethiopian treaty. The treaty allowed
the British to:-

 The British citizens were to be assigned to key positions in Ethiopia administration

they led the police force and controlled financial system.
 The Emperor could not real power and he had to obtain permission from the British to
declare war
 The case of Italian prisoner of war and civilians was handled by the British alone.

In 1944 the second Anglo-Ethiopian treaty was signed in this treaty.

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  British promised to restore Ogaden to Ethiopia and recognized the right of Emperor to
recruit non-British foreign personnel.
 The British agreed to train Ethiopian military force. However Ogaden under the Britsh
force until 1954.

4.1. Consolidation of Autocracy

After the liberation, Emperor Haile Sealsai measured many things to consolidate power.

 He was adopted a new constitutions. The 1955 revised constitutions included the
following content:-
1. It introduced universal suffrage and allowed an elected chamber of
deputies.
2. It included the provision of human rights and freedom of press but they
were not practically implemented.
 The imperial body guard was res-established with the Swedish assistance in 1942
 The police force was set up in 1942 on the British model
 The department of public security was set up under the ministry of interior. All the
organization was established to put down any opposition of the state.

Economic Development:-

After Libration a process of land privatization was pursued at an increasing scale. The gabber
system in which northern settlers used to be given tributary rights over peasant of the south
enabled the settles to take over much of land for themselves through purchase or forcefully.

The post 1941 Ethiopian economy grew at very slow rate. In 1953 a treaty was signed between
Ethiopia and USA. The treaty was allowed the USA to use the KAGNEW communication
station in Asmara. In return the USA agreed to give military assistance to Ethiopia. To
implement this military aid program a body called Military Assistance Advisory Group (MAAG)

50 | P a g e
was set up in the same year. Their air force, the Navy and the ground forces were equipped with
American weapons.

The Ethiopian Airlines had already been established in 1945 by the help of the Americans.

The imperial board of Telecommunication was set up and Sweden closely cooperated with the
Board. The Ethiopian Educational system was shaped along the American system of education.
The influence of USA was continued until 1974 revolution.

4.2. Oppositions to the Imperial Regime

1. The Abortive Coup of 1960

The 1960 coup d’état was open revolt , causing crucial consequences. The coup was led by
Brigadier general Mengistu Neway and his brother Germame Neway.

Mengistu Neway:- was the commander of the imperial body guard while his bother Geramame
was USA educated and served as administrator of Wolyta and Jigjiga.

The coup leaders was proposed:- the establishment of constitutional monarchy led by prince
Asaf Wosen and Ras Imiru Haile Sealsie was selected for his liberal attitude as the prime
minister of the new government.

Result of the coup.

 The coup was failed

 General Tsige Dibu chief of the police force and the formidiable ally of the coup leaders
was killed.
 Mengistu Neway was wounded and Germame was killed.

2. The Ethiopian Student Movement

The ESM began in the 1950s when University students started to demand improvement in
education facilities and services. Shortly after wards students demanded freedom of press and
the right to form their union freely and foredoom of press. This marked the beginning of their
political struggle.

In 1965 University Students Union of Addis Ababa (USUAA) was established. The students
were demonstrated on the streets with the slogan land to the Tiller. They called for civil rights

51 | P a g e
and liberties and protested against economic religious and ethnic equalities but the imperial
regime refused to heed even to some of their demands.

3. Gojam Peasant Rebellion

The Gojjam peasant rebellion was broke out in 1968. The immediate cause of the rebellion was
the introduction of a new agricultural income tax. The rebellion was first started in the districts
of Mota and Dega Damot. The first reactions of peasants were refusal to permit government tax
assessors to work in region. They presented their petition to the state but the government
attacked the peasants and burnt their homes, many peasants were killed. At the end of fighting
the emperor visited Gojjam removed unpopular government officials, postponed the new tax and
exempted unpopular government officials from back payment of taxes for the years 1950 to
1968.

3. Bale Peasant Rebellion

The main cause for the Bale peasant uprising was:-

 Land alienation religious and ethnic domination of the Amhara ruling class
 In humane and corrupt administration
 External involvement of Somali

The rebellion in Bale began in the frontier districts of Elkere in 1963. It started with the refusal
of peasants to pay governments taxes and to sell grains at markets. The rebellion became more
militant and very well organized under the leadership of Commander Waqo Gutu. The Ethiopian
government appointed Oromo Genaral Jagema Kello as governor of Bale.

4. The Outbreak of famine

Form 1958-1974 almost all regions of Ethiopia were affected by the famines of varying degees.
Of all the famine those of Tigarai in 1958/59, Wag-lasta in1965/66 and Wollo 1972/73 were very
serious, despite the death of the thousands of the peoples however the government tried its best
to hide the famines. In 1974 the devastating famine of that period was exposed to the
international community by the Ethiopian students and a documentary film produced by the
British journalist Jonathan Dimbilbet. This exposed the governments cruelty and irresponsibility.

4.3. Eritrean problem

Adulis had long been the major port of the area, which had been the main outlet of the Axumite
Empire in the ancient time. Since the 16 th century, the port of Massawa in the vicinity of Adulis
[which was destroyed long years ago had been under the ottoman Turks, and in 1842 , it fell to
the Egyptians: lastly the Italians occupied it in 1885. From the port of Massawa, the Italians

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gradually moved on to the plateau and eventually occupied the whole highland and formed their
colony in 1890.

In 1941, following the fascist expulsion, Eritrea fell under British administration as occupied
enemy territory. At the same time the government of Ethiopia was requested Britain at diffent
conference. But the aim of Britain was to incorporate Eritrea with Sudan. And the separate state
was carved for Tigregna speakers.

In 1945 of London conference of the Allied powers Ethiopians claim but not achieved.

When Eritrea was under the administration of Britain different party was emerged. Among
these was:-

Unionist party was an organization that was to play an important role in the future fate of
Eritrea. the aim and the establishments of the unionist party was for union of Eritrea with
Ethiopia. the main supporters was Christian. Prominent leader were like Gebre Meskel Woldu.
[Presumably the leader], etc., the unionist party was a religious organization dominated by
Christian Eritreans who constituted approximately half of the population, supporting unification
with Ethiopia. Its leaders were generally men with catholic and orthodox background and by
1942; every village church had been their center of propaganda for unification with Ethiopia.

The Muslim league:- formed for independence block. Mostly supported by Muslim of Eritrea.

The Liberal Progressive Party: - was campaigned for the independence of Eritrea united with
Tigrai. It was led by Ras Tessema Asmerom.

The pro-Italian party was formed lately, towards the end of the year. This party sought for the
return of the Italian colonial power under the auspice of a United Nations trusteeship. It was
dominated by the Italo-Eritrean association, a group composed of Italians and half- caste, who
were well established in Eritrea. It was subsidized by the Italian government. Nevertheless this
party had little or no importance to influence the commission.

In 1948, a referendum was held in Asmara and the commission found out that the Eritrean
people were almost split evenly on the question of Eritrea’s future. Close to 50 percent voted for

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unity with Ethiopia, while only others chose either union with the Sudan or to stay under Italian
rule. As a result the commission remained in-conclusive as to determine the future of Eritrea.

In 1950, the UN appointed a commission of five men, respectively from Burma, Guatemala,
Norway, Pakistan and South Africa: to ascertain the destiny of the Eritrean people. Although
four of the five members of the commission [Norway being exceptional] came from countries
with an anti- Ethiopian stand. They strongly pro-Ethiopian sentiments that they encountered in
Eritrea found at least two of them to modify their position. Unanimity could not be achieved,
however.

 Two members recommended granting independence [Guatemala-pro-Italian and

Pakistan, champion of the Muslim cause in Eritrea.].
 Two others [South Africa and Burma] recommended federation with Ethiopia, while the
fifth member [Norway] favored union with Ethiopia.

The UN supported the majority opinion that of South Africa, Burma and Norway. The USA and
Britain followed suit consequently. The UN general assembly voted to that effect in 1950 and
Eritrea was federated with Ethiopia in 1952.

Accordingly the UN assembly recommended that Eritrea would have its own:-

 Regional government
 Parliament and prime minister
 A national flag
 Two official languages [Tigrigna and Arabic] and its own police force.

The federal government would be responsible for foreign affairs, foreign and interstate trade,
communications, currency and finance. A federal council was also to be formed in which,
Ethiopia and Eritrea would be equally represented. Article 7 of the federal resolution [UN
resolution 390] accorded Eritrea political democracy i.e. freedom of press association, worship
and due process of law.

An Eritrean constitution was drawn up, which among other things prohibited [according to
article91] the Eritrean parliament from passing legislation that violates the federal act. Political
parties were organized and contested for the seats in the legislature. In the first election of 1952,

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the pro-Ethiopian unionist party emerged as the largest party with 32 out of sixty eight seats and
its founder; Tedla bahru became the chief executive of Eritrea.

Eritrea: Federal and Union

From the very beginning of the federal arrangement by the UN assembly the Emperor and his
representatives, in particular , prime Minister Aklilu Habtwold were against Eritrea’s separate
status under the federal system. The emperor did not want to make any concession to the
uniqueness of Eritrean situation. The Emperor feared that the relatively higher degree of
democratic and civil liberties exercised by the Eritreans might be coveted by the people of
Ethiopia who were under his autocratic regime. This attitude immediately antagonized all the
Eritrean parties including the unionist party which struggled for Union of Eritrea and Ethiopia. In
1955 Tedla bahru the chief executive of the Eritrean Assembly resigned under pressure from the
emperor who replaced him with his loyal prince Asrate Kassa. The emperor made Amharic the
official language in place of Arabic and Tigrigna. He also terminated the use of Eritrean flag. He
moved many business men out of Eritrea and invests in other parts of Ethiopia. In addition
forbade all sorts of political activate and political parties imposed censorship on all press.
Abolished the parity between the Muslims and Christians officials, by appointing more loyal
Christian to responsible posts especially from central government

In November 1962 the Eritrean assembly voted itself out of existence by terminating the federal
arrangement and deciding to unite Eritrea with the rest of Ethiopia.

The extinction of the federation consolidated internal and external opposition to the forceful
union with Ethiopia. Four years earlier in 1958 a number of Eritrean exiles had founded the
Eritrean liberation Movement in Cairo.

The ELM was a movement which sought to achieve its objective by political and diplomatic
means including intervention from the UN. This organization soon neutralized.

A new faction, the Eritrean liberation front [ELF] was formed in 1961 by Eritrean exile in the
Middle East. It started to receive Iraqi and Syrian support. It started to launch armed attacks in
September of that year, under the leadership of a veteran Shifta, Idris Awate in western lowlands.
Haile Sellassies high handed policy was responsible for the problem in Eritrea to outburst.

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But the ELF’s sectarian conception of the struggle soon resulted in division within itself.
Because it could not accommodate the people with divergent background and aspiration who had
joined it. Strike developed between guerrillas of the Barka lowlands in western Eritrea; ELF’S
base and those of the red sea plain: between Christians and Muslims and between different zonal
commands. splinter groups emerged: the Eritrean liberation force in the Barka area; the people’s
liberation force in the red sea area led by Osman Saleh Sabby and the Salfi Nasenet Eritrea
[Front for Eritrean independence] in the Akale Guzay region led Isaayasafe worqi. These three
groups merged in 1972to form the Eritrean liberation front and popular liberation forces
[ELF.PLF] later reconstituted are the Eritrean people’s liberation forces [EPLF] the following
year.

The last years of Hailesellassie’s government saw two organizations competing for recognition
as leaders of the Eritrean separatist movement. ElF and EPLF or in their more popular Arabic
designator Jabha [front] and sha’abiya [popular]. The two groups carried out a relentless civil
war during the period 1972- 1974 for supremacy. By 1975 the EPLF had more than, 10,000
members in the field confronting Ethiopian army. After the long period of war Eritrea was
declared their own independence from Ethiopia.

Popular Revolution of 1974 and its Aftermath

Opposition to the imperial regime reached its peak in February 1974. In January 1974 the army
stationed at Negele Borana mutinied in protest against poor living conditions. At Negele Borana
soldiers detained high ranking military officials who went there for mediation. Armed forces
elsewhere began to demand salary increases and improvement of the living conditions.

In 1962 workers established a national organization known as the Confederation of Ethiopian

Labor Unions (CELU). Trade unions began demanding salary increases, pensions, annual leave,
insurance, medical care etc. The unions helped improve the political maturity of the workers and
strengthened their solidarity.

Ethiopian teachers rose against the exploitative system of the state general and the newly
introduced educational reform program known as Education Sector Review of 1971-1972 in
particular. Teachers criticized the program as unfair towards the poor.

Muslims of the capital set out for demonstration and demanded religious equality, separation of
church and state and officials observance of Muslim holidays.

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Finally the mutiny of different divisions of the army and air force brought a serious challenge to
the state since the beginning of 1974. This time soldiers did not only demand salary increases but
also asked for political and economic reforms. As result representative of different army
established a committee to the co-ordinate of the Armed forces, the police and the Territorial
Army. This body became known as Derg.

The derg began to exercise power and take actions. And on 12 September 1974 Emperor Haile
Selasie was deposed and detained. Thus Solomonic dynsty and rule of the rime came to an end.
The Derg proclaimed it the Provisional Military Administrative council (PMAC) and assumed
supreme political power.

The Military Rule 1979-1991

When he controlled the power the Derg can be measured the following things.

 A programme known as the Development through Cooperation campaign was launched

in December 1974.
 In 1975 the Dreg was nationalized industries, banks, and insurance companies that had
formerly been privately owned
 In march 1975 a proclamation was issued on nationalization of Rural land and its
distribution to the landless peasants
 A government controlled known as Agricultural Marketing corporation( Ersha Sebil
Gebaya Dirijit) was established.
 On July 1975 urban land and extra houses were nationalized.

Oppositions against the Derg regime

 Ethiopian People’s Revolutionary Party(EPRP):- it was active manily in

urban areas. The Derg also take measurement which was known as Red Terror.
 Ethiopian People’s Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRD)
 Tigrai peoples Liberation Front (TPLF)
 Eritrean People’s Liberation Front (EPLF)
 Oromo Liberation Front(OLF)

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  Ethiopian Democratic Union (EDU)

The Somali Republic Invasion of Ethiopia and the interventions of USSR

The Somali government under the rule of Mohammed Ziyad Bare was invaded Ethiopia in 1977.
At the first time he was trained by Soviet military experts and weapons. After full invasion
Somali governments expelled the Soviet from their own countries and invited USA. As result
Ethiopia brought the alliance of the Soviet Union, Cuba and the Democratic Rebulic of Yemen.

The military regime also strengthened its ties with the Soviet Union; in all direction as result the
aim of Somali to create great Somali was failed. The Somali troops were expelled from the
Ethiopian territory.

Decline and Fall of The Military Regime

There are several factors for the decline of military regime: these are

 Internal factors
 External factors

Internal factors:- the main cause for decline of the Derg regime from internal was

 The famine of 1984/5

 An aborted coup of 1989
 The struggle of EPLF, TPLF and OLF

The TPLF or woyane scored victory over the Derg at the battle of Shire in1989. And the
EPLF was also controlled Massawa in 1990 this was graet shocking for the Derg.

External factors:- the decline of socialist ideology in the world. This was changed since 1985
in that year soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev introduced the restructuring program called
Perestroika and Glasnot.

Perestroika:- (Russian for “restructuring”), a key element of the campaign initiated by Soviet
leader Mikhail Gorbachev to reform and revitalize the Soviet system A major part of the reforms
involved expanding private ownership, which had long been shunned by the regime for
ideological reasons.

After long period of internal and external problem the EPRDF was controlled Addis Ababa on
may 28, 1991. On week earlier Mengistu Haile Meriam fled to Zimbabwe.

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