ANIMAL REPRODUCTION

REPRODUCTION- is a fundamental
biological in which new individual
organisms (“offspring”) are produced from
their “parents”. It ensures continuity of the
species.
Live bearing/Viviparous- gives birth to
offspring
Egg laying/oviparous- animals that lay
eggs
TYPES OF REPRODUCTION
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Parents produces genetically
similar/identical offspring.
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Production gametes (sex cells) via meiosis.
Fusion of male and female gametes
(fertilization)
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
PARTHENOGENESIS
 A form of asexual reproduction where
females can reproduce even without a
male to mate with.
Examples: alphids, hammerhead sharks,
turkeys & grassland whiptail lizards
BUDDING
An offspring grows directly out of the body
of parent.
Examples: hydras, predatory
enidarians/corals
FRAGMENTATION
Parents breaks into multiple pieces, each of
which develops into a fully functioning
individual.
Examples: sponges and coral colonies,
annelias flatworms
BINARY FISSION
It occurs in prokaryotic microorganism and
in some invertebrate, multicell organism.
An organism duplicates its genetic material
or deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and then
divides into two parts (cytokinesis) with
each new organism receiving one copy of
DNA.
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Hermaphroditism
It occurs in animals where individual has
both male and female reproductive parts.
Examples: earthworms, slugs, tapeworms
and snails
SEQUENTIAL HERMAPHRODITISM
It occurs when an individual reverses it’s
sex during its lifetime.
Types of Sequential Hermaphrodites
(i) Protygynous- individuals start out life
as female and change sex to male
ex. Wrasse (reef fish)
(ii) Protandrous- individuals start out life as
male and change to female
 ex. oysters
HOW GENES WORK?
Gene
Is a segment of DNA that encodes a unique
protein that performs a specialized function
in the cell. It is a functional use of heredity.
It capable of storing information and
capable of self-replication and can undergo
mutations.
Acts as instructions to make molecules
called proteins.
Alleles- forms of the same gene with small
differences in their sequence DNA bases.
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF DNA
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
Is found within the nucleus of every cell
It’s like a thumbprint
It holds the genetic formation needed to
make and control all cellular activities within
a living organism.
4 Bases of DNA
ADENINE (A) GUANINE(G)
CYTOSINE (C) THYMINE(T)
A&G are double-ring structures called
purines.
T&C are single-ring structure called
pyrimidines.
NUCLEOTIDES is the building block of
DNA. (4 bases, 5 carbon sugar
deoxyribose, and a phosphate group).
Human DNA consists of about 3 million
bases and more than 99 percent of those
bases are the same in all people.
DNA is a hereditary material in human and
almost all other organisms are found in
every cell pf a person’s body.
Nuclear DNA- found in nucleus
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA)- found in
mitochondria.
WATSON AND CRICK MODEL
In 1953, James Watson and France Crick
worked out that DNA is like a “double helix”.
Helix- is a screw-shaped spiral.
Double helix DNA is like a winding
staircase: the two sugar phosphate
backbones make up the sides and the base
pairs make up the rungs or steps of the
winding staircase.
Key Points
The DNA molecule consists of two
polynucleotide chains wound around each
other in right-handed double helix, the two
strands wind around each other in
clockwise (right-handed fashion).
The two chains are anti-parallel (show
opposite polarity), that is the two strands
are in opposite directions with one strand in
5’ to 3’ way and the other strand in 3’ to 5’.
More simply if the 5’ is the head and the 3’
is the tail, anti-parallel means the head of
one chain is against the tail of the other
chain and vice versa.
The sugar phosphate backbones are on the
outside of the double helix, with the bases
oriented toward the central axis.
The bases in each of the two polynucleotide
chains are bonded together by hydrogen
bonds which are relatively weak chemical
bonds. The specific pairings observed are
A bonded with T (2 hydrogen bonds) and
G bonded with C (3 hydrogen bonds).
The A-T and G-C base pairs are the only
ones that can fit the physical dimensions of
the helical model and their arrangements
are in accord with Chargaffs rule.
The base pairs are 0.3 nm apart in the DNA
helix. A complete 360 degrees turns of the
helix takes 3.4 nm; therefore, there are 10
base pair per turn. The external diameter
of the helix is 2nm.
Because of the way the bases bond with
each other, the two sugar phosphate
backbones of the double helix are not
equally spaced from one another along the
helical axis. This unequal spacing results
on grooves of unequal size between the
backbones; one groove is called the major
(wider) groove, the other the minor
(narrower) groove.
Why is DNA Important?
-it controls the color of your eyes and hair,
complexion, height and many more
-DNA store the blueprints for making
proteins
How DNA copies itself?
Step 1. An enzyme breaks the bond
between the nitrogen bases. The two
strands of DNA split.
Step 2. The bases attach to each strand
then pair
Step 3. The complementary nucleotides join
to form new strands. Two new DNA
molecules, each with a parent strand and
each with a new daughter strand, are
formed.
MITOCHONDRIAL DNA
Mitochondria are structures within cells
that convert the energy from food into a
form that cells can use. Each cell contains
hundreds to thousands of mitochondria,
which are located in the fluid that surrounds
the nucleus (cytoplasm).
Mitochondria produce energy through
process called oxidative phosphorylation. A
process that uses oxygen and simple
sugars to create adenosine triphosphate
(ATP), the cell’s main energy source. A set
of enzyme complexes, designated as
complexes I-V, carry out oxidative
phosphorylation within mitochondria.
Mitochondrial DNA contains 37 genes, all
of which are essential for normal
mitochondrial function. Thirteen of these
provide instructions for making enzymes
involved in oxidative phosphorylation. The
remaining genes provide instructions for
making molecules called transfer RNAs
(tRNAs) and ribosomal RNAs (rRNAs),
which are chemical cousins of DNA. These
types of RNA help assemble protein
building blocks (amino acids) functioning
proteins.
WHAT IS RNA?
RNA stands for ribonucleic acid. Like DNA,
RNA is a long strand made of building
blocks called nucleotides.
RNA is a single stranded molecule with no
helix. The four bases are guanine, cytosine,
adenine and uracil.
DNA and RNA occur in nature as
macromolecules composed of smaller
building blocks called nucleotides.
DNA and RNA are polymers- large
molecule that consists of many similar
molecules, called monomers linked
together. The monomers that make up DNA
and RNA are called nucleotides.
PROTIN SYNTHESIS
I. TRANSCRIPTION
1. mRNA (messenger RNA) travels from
the cell’s cytoplasm into the nucleus
2. in the nucleus the DNA unzips
3. mRNA nucleotides float into unzipped
DNA following the order of the
nitrogenous bases
4. nitrogenous base pairing in chart
 5. mRNA carries DNA’s code, in it’s strand,
out into cytoplasm
6. in the cytoplasm mRNA joins with Trna
for next step, translation
7. nitrogenous base pairing
PART-II TRANSLATION
1. mRNA travels to and joins to ribosomal
unit at the 5’ untranslated region
2. a tRNA (looks like a clover leaf) carrying
a “start” codon and the amino acid
attaches to the codon on the Mrna.
3. The ribosome moves in the 3’ direction
down the messenger RNA by three
bases or one codon shifting the tRNA
and protein (polypeptide chain).
4. tRNA ejected from the ribosome.
 5. Process continues until a “stop” codon is
reached which finishes the process
releasing the protein.
TRANSLATING THR CODE OF LIFE: From
DNA to RNA to Protein

Summary of Protein Synthesis

I. The DNA is inside the nucleus. It
contains the information for making
proteins. This information has to be
copied or transcribed by the RNA called
messenger RNA (mRNA).
II. The copied information called codon,
which is made up of three consecutive
nitrogenous bases, is sent to the
 cytoplasm where it will enter the
ribosomal RNA.
III. Once inside the ribosome, translation
begins, meaning, the transfer of RNA
(tRNA) from the cytoplasm starts to
bring the anticodon, the three
consecutive nitrogenous pairs, that fits
the mRNA codon.
IV. A codon is a base triplet of nucleotides
in mRNA which calls for an amino acid.
Each anticodon represents one type of
amino acid. Amino acids are the basic
units of protein molecules.
V. When all codons are converted into
amino acids, translation stops and
protein molecule is produced.