UNIT -1

Learning Material

Course Content:

Introduction: Modes of heat transfer, basic laws of heat transfer. Conduction Heat Transfer:
Fourier Law of heat conduction.
General heat conduction equation in Cartesian, cylindrical and spherical coordinates.
Simplification and forms of the field equation, initial and boundary conditions.
One Dimensional Steady State Conduction Heat Transfer: Homogeneous slabs, hollow
cylinders and spheres, electrical analogy, composite slabs, cylinders and spheres, critical radius
of insulation, systems with heat generation.

Introduction:

Heat is defined as an energy that flows due to a difference in temperature. It flows in a direction from higher to
lower temperature. Thermodynamic studies prescribe how much heat has to be supplied to or rejected from a
system between specified equilibrium end states, but fail to predict the rate of energy transfer. The rate of
energy transfer, on the other hand, is a time dependent non-equilibrium phenomenon and deals with systems
that lack thermal equilibrium. The science that deals with the mechanism and the rate of energy transfer due to a
difference in temperature is known as heat transfer. From an engineering point of view, the studies on heat
transfer provide the fundamental information needed to estimate the size and hence the cost of an equipment
necessary to transfer a specified amount of heat in a given time.

1. Modes of Heat Transfer:

There are Three Modes of heat transfer.

1. Conduction.
2. Convection.
3. Radiation.
Of the Three modes above, only TWO are basic Modes: Conduction and Radiation. Convection is not a basic
mode of Heat transfer. It always accompanies with Conduction.

1.1 Conduction:
The mechanism of heat transfer due to a temperature
gradient in a stationary medium is called conduction.
The medium may be a solid or a fluid. A very popular
example of conduction heat transfer is that when one
end of a metallic spoon is dipped into a cup of hot tea,
the other end becomes gradually hot. The law which
describes the rate of heat transfer in conduction is
known as Fourier’s law. According to this law, the
rate of heat transfer per unit area normal to the direction
of heat flow is directly proportional to the temperature
gradient along that direction.
Let us consider a temperature distribution T(x), as illustrated in Figure 1.1, in a medium through which heat is
being conducted. Here, the temperature is a function of x only. Therefore, heat flows along the x-direction in
which the temperature gradient dT/dx exists. According to Fourier’s law,
𝑑𝑇
𝑞𝑥 = −𝑘𝑥 𝑑𝑥 .--------(1.1)
where
 qx is the rate of heat flow per unit area normal to the direction of heat flow in x-direction. The minus
sign in Eq. (1.1) indicates that heat flows in the direction of decreasing temperature.
 dT/dx is called temperature gradient and is negative and hence heat flows in the positive direction of the
x-axis.
 The proportionality constant k is known as thermal conductivity and is a transport property of the
medium through which heat is conducted.

Heat conduction takes place in any direction along which a temperature gradient does exist.
𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑇
𝑞𝑦 = −𝑘𝑦 𝑑𝑦 and 𝑞𝑧 = −𝑘𝑧 𝑑𝑧
When the temperature becomes a function of three space coordinates, say, x, y, z in a rectangular Cartesian
frame.

In general when T =T(x,y,z)

𝑞 = −𝑘∇𝑇

𝑞⃗ = 𝑖̂𝑞𝑥 + 𝑗̂𝑞𝑦 + 𝑘̂𝑞𝑧

𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇
Where ∇𝑇 is 𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
For an isotropic medium 𝑘𝑥 = 𝑘𝑦 = 𝑘𝑧 = 𝑘 and depends on temperature only.
In SI units,
 q is heat flux and is expressed in W/m2 and
 k, is W/(m.K).

 In liquids and gases, conduction is due to the collisions of molecules in course of their random motions.
Temperature is a measure of the kinetic energy of the molecules or atoms of a substance. A molecule having a
higher kinetic energy is at a higher temperature than another having a lower kinetic energy. When two such
molecules collide with each other, a part of the kinetic energy of the more energetic (higher temperature)
molecule is transferred to the less energetic (lower temperature) molecule. The process is being conceived as a
transfer of heat by conduction from a higher temperature to a lower one.
 In solids, the conduction of heat is attributed to two effects: (i) the flow of free electrons and (ii) the lattice
vibrational waves caused by the vibrational motions of the molecules at relatively fixed positions called a
lattice.
1.2 Convection:
The mode by which heat is transferred between a solid surface and the adjacent fluid in motion when there is a
temperature difference between the two is known as convection heat transfer.
o The temperature of the fluid stream refers either to its bulk or free stream temperature. Let us consider
the flow of a fluid over a heated surface as shown in Figure 1.3. If the temperature T∞ with which the
fluid approaches the surface is less than the temperature Ts of the surface, then heat is transferred from
the surface to the flowing fluid, and as a result, the surface is cooled.
o It is our common experience that an increase in fluid motion cools the surface faster which means that
the rate of heat transfer increases with an increase in the fluid motion.
o This implies a sense that the heat is being convected away from the surface by the stream of fluid and
hence the mode of heat transfer is known as convective heat transfer.
The mode of convective heat transfer, in fact, comprises two mechanisms: (i) conduction at the solid surface
and (ii) advection by the bulk or macroscopic motion of the fluid a little away from the solid surface. This can
be explained through the velocity and temperature distributions in the fluid flowing past the solid surface. A
consequence of the fluid–surface interaction in case of momentum transfer due to flow is the development of a
region in the fluid flow near the surface within which the flow velocity varies from zero at the surface to a finite
value U∞ at the outer flow as shown in Figure 1.4. The velocity U∞ is termed the free stream velocity. This
region of fluid flow is known as the hydrodynamic boundary layer. In a similar fashion, there is a region of fluid
flow where the temperature varies from Ts at the surface to T∞ in the outer flow as shown in Figure 1.4. This
region is known as the thermal boundary layer. The temperature T∞ is known as the free stream temperature
and equals to the uniform temperature with which the fluid approaches the surface.

At the interface between the surface and the fluid (y = 0, Figure 1.4), the fluid velocity is zero. Therefore, heat is
transferred from the surface to the fluid by conduction, i.e. by the transfer of kinetic energy between the
molecules due to their random motions. The contribution of advection due to bulk fluid motion arises with the
growth of the boundary layer in the direction of flow. The heat that is conducted into this layer is swept
downstream and is eventually transferred to the fluid outside the boundary layer. Therefore knowledge of the
boundary layer is essential to understand the mechanism of convective heat transfer clearly.

o The convection is of two types: forced convection and free convection.

o In forced convection, the fluid is forced to flow over a solid surface by external means such as fan,
pump or atmospheric wind.
 o When the fluid motion is caused by the buoyancy forces that are induced by density differences due to
the variation in temperature or species concentration (in case of multicomponent systems) in the fluid,
the convection is called natural (or free) convection.
o Figure 1.5 shows an example of forced convection from a horizontal surface where the fluid motion
past the surface is caused by a fan, whereas
o Figure 1.6 shows a situation of free convection from a heated vertical surface in air in the absence of
any forced flow.

Irrespective of the details of the mechanism, the rate of heat transfer by convection (both forced and free)
between a solid surface and a fluid is calculated from the relation Q = h A∆T Where
o Q is the rate of heat transfer by convection
o A is the heat transfer area ∆T = (Ts – Tf), is the difference between the surface temperature Ts and the
temperature of the fluid Tf at some reference location. In the case of external flows, Tf is the free stream
temperature T∞ (Figure 1.6), and in the case of internal flows, it is the bulk temperature of the fluid.
o h is the average convective heat transfer coefficient over the area A. Units are W/m2.K.

1.3 Radiation:

Any substance at a finite temperature emits energy in the form of electromagnetic waves in all directions and at
all wavelengths (from a very low one to a very high one). The energy emitted within a specific band of
wavelength (0.1–100 mm) is termed thermal radiation. The exchange of such radiant energy between two
bodies at different temperatures is defined as heat transfer between the bodies by radiation. We have seen earlier
that the heat transfer by conduction or convection requires the presence of a medium. But the radiation heat
transfer does not necessarily require a medium; rather it occurs most efficiently in a vacuum. An ideal radiator
is definsed to be a body that emits and absorbs, at any temperature, the maximum possible amount of radiation
at any given wavelength. An ideal radiator is termed a blackbody. The amount of thermal radiation emitted by a
surface depends upon the absolute temperature and the nature of the surface. The rate of radiant energy emitted
from the surface of a blackbody is given by
𝑬𝒃 = 𝝈. 𝑨. 𝑻𝟒
The above equation is known as Stefan-Boltzman Law.
where
o A is the surface area
o T is the absolute temperature of the surface from which the energy is being radiated
o 𝝈 is a constant.
A blackbody radiates uniformly in all directions.
1.4.) Heat conduction:
1.4.1. Thermal Resistance Concept:
Let us consider a plane solid wall whose thickness L is small compared to other dimensions as shown in Figure
1.2(a). The two faces are kept at constant temperatures T1 and T2 (T1 > T2). Heat flows by conduction from the
left face (at T1) to the right one (at T2). This is an example of one-dimensional heat transfer problem where heat
𝑑𝑇
flows in the x-direction only and the rate of heat flow is given by Eq. 𝑞𝑥 = −𝑘𝑥 𝑑𝑥 -----Eq.1.1
At steady state, the value of dT/dx will be constant, i.e. the temperature distribution becomes linear. Hence, we
𝑑𝑇 𝑇 −𝑇
can write 𝑑𝑥 = 2 𝐿 1 .
𝑇 −𝑇
Therefore, Eq.1.1 becomes 𝑞𝑥 = −𝑘𝑥 2 𝐿 1
The rate of heat flow Qx through the wall is then given by
 𝐿
𝑇1 − 𝑇2 = 𝑄𝑥 ( )
𝑘𝐴
𝐿
o In the above equation is called Thermal Resistance.
𝑘𝐴
o This is analogous to electrical resistance in Ohm’s Law. V= I.R.==>R=V/I.
o (T1-T2) is the temperature difference which is the driving force for heat transfer like
Potential difference (V) for current flow.
o I is the current flow and Qx is the heat flow.
𝐿
o R is the electrical resistance equivalent to Thermal resistance =
𝑘𝐴
𝐿 ∆𝑇
o So is called Conduction resistance. Similarly for convection 𝑄 = ℎ. 𝐴. ∆𝑇. and 𝑄 = 1
𝑘𝐴
ℎ.𝐴
1
o The term ( ) is called Convective Resistance.
ℎ.𝐴
1.5. General Heat conduction Equation in Cartesian coordinate system:

o The conduction of heat takes place in any direction along which a temperature gradient does exist.
When it takes place in all the three coordinate directions (in a frame of reference), it is termed
three-dimensional heat conduction. In an unsteady three-dimensional heat conduction through a
medium, we can express temperature distribution (in a Cartesian frame of coordinate axes) as
T = T(x, y, z, t )-------------- Eq(2.1)
o In the case of steady-state heat conduction, the temperature ceases to be a function of time. It
becomes a function of space coordinates only. Hence, we can express steady-state conduction as
T = T(x, y, z)-----Eq.(2.2)

The heat conduction equation is derived by considering the energy balance of a small element of the heat
conducting medium as a control volume appropriate to a coordinate frame of reference. A rectangular
parallelepiped is considered (Figure 2.1) as the control volume in a rectangular Cartesian frame of coordinate
axes. Let us also consider that thermal energy is being generated along with the conduction of heat within the
control volume.

The principle of conservation of energy for the control volume can be described as

The rate of heat conducted into the The rate of heat conducted out of the control
Control volume + the rate of generation = volume + the rate of increase in the internal
of thermal energy within the control energy of the control volume
volume

Or
The net rate of heat conducted into the Control volume + the rate of generation of thermal energy within the
control volume is equal to (=) The rate of Increase of Energy of the control volume.

Now we use the Fourier’s law (Eq. (1.1)) to determine the conduction of heat through the different faces of the
control volume (Figure 2.1).
. Questions at remembering / understanding level:
I) Objective Questions
1. Which of the following statement(s) is/are correct? [CO1] [BL2]
a. Conduction heat transfer takes place from one particle of the body to another without the actual
motion of the particles.
b. Conduction heat transfer takes place from one particle of the body to another by actual motion of
the heated particles.
c. Convective heat transfer takes place between a surface and the surrounding fluid.
d. Convective heat transfer takes place within the fluid medium.
A) a,c & d B) a & d C) a & c D) b,c & d
2. Which of the following statement(s) is/are correct? [CO1] [BL1]
a. The rate of heat transfer by conduction is proportional to the temperatue gradient in the direction of
heat flow and area normal to the heat flow direction.
b. The rate of heat transfer by conduction is proportional to the temperatue gradient in the direction of
heat flow and inversely proportional to the area normal to the heat flow direction.
c. The thermal conductivtity of matiral can be defined as the rate of heat transfer through a unit
thickness of the material per unit area per unit temperature difference.
d. Conduction heat transfer can takes place in solids, liquids and gases.
A) a & c B) a,c & d C) a & d D) b,c & d
3. Which of the following statement(s) is/are correct? [CO1] [BL2]
a. Thermal conductivity of liquids increases with decrase in temperature (water as exception)
b. Themal conductivity of metallic solids decreases with increase in temperture.
c. Themal conductivity of gases increases with increase in temperature.
d. Themal conductivity non metallic solids increases with increas in temperature.
A) a & c B) a,b & c C) a,c & d D) a,b,c & d
4. Which of the following statement(s) is/are correct? [CO1] [BL2]
a. The heat transfer between a solid surface and an adjustant fluid takes place by convection.
b. The rate of heat transfer by convection is proportional the surface area and temperature difference
between the surface and the fluid.
c. Radiation is the energy emitted by matter in the form of eletromagnetic waves (or photons) and dose
not required the presence of intervening medium.
d. Stefan-Boltzmann law of radiation states that the the radiation energy emitted by a black surface per
unit area is proportional to the fourth power of absolute temperatue of the surface.
A) a & c B) a,b & c C) a,c & d D) a,b,c & d
5. Which of the following statement(s) is/are correct? [CO1] [BL2]
2
a. Themal diffusivity is a property of a material and its unit is m /s.
b. A material that has a high themal conductivity or a low heat capacity will have a large themal
diffusivity.
c. The large the thermal diffusivity, the faster the propagation of heat through the medium.
d. A small value of themal diffusivity means that heat is mostly absorbed by the material and a small
amount of heat is conducted further.
A) a & c B) a,b & c C) a,c & d D) a,b,c & d
6. Match the following [CO1][BL1]
a. Convection heat transfer i. Heat conducted to heat stored per unit volume
b. Themal diffusivity ii. Heat transfer between a solid surface and
surrounding fluid
c. Themal conductance iii. Electromagnetic phenomenon
d. Radiation heat transfer iv. Reciprocal conduction resistance
A) a-ii, b-i,c-iv,d-iii B) a-iv, b-iii,c-i,d-ii C) a-i, b-iv,c-ii,d-iii D) a-ii, b-i,c-iii,d-iv
7. Match the following [CO1][BL2]
 T  T  T qgen 1 T
2 2 2
a. Laplas equation i.    
x 2 y 2 z 2 k  t
 T  T  T qgen
2 2 2
b. Diffusion equation ii.    0
x 2 y 2 z 2 k
 2T  2T  2T 1 T
c. Fourier-Biot equation iii.   
x 2 y 2 z 2  t
 2T  2T  2T qgen
d. Poission equation iv.    0
x 2 y 2 z 2 k
Descriptive Questions:
1. Describe the mechanisms of conduction, convection and radiation and state the laws governing them.
[CO1] [BL2]
2. Explain the mechanisms of heat conduction in gases, liquids and solids. [CO1][BL2]