COMMUNICATION

It performs goals and has the ability to speak and listen.

1. LISTENING
● we tend to focus and give attention to you partner or speaker
● We need to listen more than to speak
● to be a good listener there should be a good listening skill
● You can understand the speaker is saying
● You are expected to reply
● You should know the communicative competence
● Must answered the 5W's and H
● Hearing- there is no focus and attention
2. MESSAGE - the idea is being transfer from source to the listener
3. DELIVERY SYSTEM
○ IMPROMPTU - you don't have any idea about the topic and you are expected to
deliver your speech smoothly
○ EXTEMPORANEOUS- you have an idea about the topic
○ Reading from the manuscript- you have to observe the talk while reading the
manuscript
○ MEMORY METHOD - you need to encode all the informations from your mind
4. CONTEXT
○ Physical- date & time
○ Social - what is your role?
○ Must use the proper language and gestures in delivering the speech
○ Cultural- behavior

ADVANTAGE OF HAVING THE ABILITY TO SPEAK AND LISTEN

1. You will become a very good leader of a community or nation
○ You are expected to be responsive so you can offer solutions and can meet the
needs and demands of the community
2. Helps one to improve his economic opportunity
○ Improving your living standard
 ○ Example is an interview
3. Helps to improve social relationship
○ You will be able to have friends or peers
○ You can give advice
4. Helps you to achieve greater self realization

THE SEQUENCE OR CYCLE OF ORAL COMMUNICATION

● THINKING
○ There is an idea. Must use appropriate words and phrases
○ On audible speech
● SYMBOLIZING
● EXPRESSING
● TRANSMITTING
○ Transmitting the idea to the listener
● RECEIVING
● DECODING
● REACTING OR FEEDING BACK
● MONITORING

MODES OF COMMUNICATION
1. PARALANGUAGE
a. Kinesics - the science of communication with gestures and facial expressions, etc.

b. Semiology - the science of symbols of semaphore language.

i. Examples: The red and green traffic lights give the message of stop and go
respectively.
2. WRITING
a. Hieroglyphic (pictographic) -Egyptian
b. Syllabic (alphabet) - English
c. Cyrillic - Russian
d. Characters - Chinese, Japanese, Thai, Arabic.
 3. SPEECH
a. The correct utterance of words

Two Basic Types of Communication

● Oral Communication
● Written Communication

COMMUNICATION PROCESS

COMMUNICATION

● Transfer of message from the sender to receiver

● Communication in business is important for successful operation of their enterprise

(talking to each other to tackle issues and ideas and trust)

COMMUNICATION PROCESS

● process can usually assure that the sender's message will be understood by the receiver.

4 COMPONENTS OF COMMUNICATION PROCESS

● Encoding

● Medium of transmission

● Decoding

● Feedback

2 FACTORS OF COMMUNICATION FACTORS

● Sender

● Receiver

*starts with sender and ends with receiver

SENDER

● Individual/ group who initiates communication

● Written or spoken words are paramount so the receiver has something to interpret

● The sender’s knowledge, skills, perception, background, competencies, etc. has a great
impact on the success of the message.
ENCODING

● Translate information into message

● Form of symbols to represent ideas (language, words, gestures)

● Encode ideas that can be understood

MEDIUM OF TRANSMISSION

● Means used to convey the message

● Phones, letters, reports

DECODING

● Conducted by receiver

● Individual/group to whom message is directed

 ● Once message is examined, the stimulus is sent to the brain for interpreting

● Receiver interprets the symbols sent by the sender

● Translates the message in their own set of experience to make it meaningful

● include the following: how much the individual or individuals know about the topic, their
receptivity to the message, and the relationship and trust that exists between sender and
receiver.

● All interpretations by the receiver are influenced by their experiences, attitudes,

knowledge, skills, perceptions, and culture.
FEEDBACK

● Response of a receiver

● Signal can be spoken, gestures, written message, other actions

● Without this, the sender cannot confirm if the receiver understood the message correctly

● increases the effectiveness of the communication as it permits the sender to know the
efficacy of his message.

● Key component because it allows sender to evaluate effectiveness of their message

BARRIERS AS FACTORS OF NEGATIVE IMPACT ON COMMUNICATION

● Use of an inappropriate medium (channel)

● incorrect grammar

● inflammatory word

● words that conflict with body language

● technical jargon.

● Noise (distorts message by interfering with the process)

 CHARACTERISTICS OF LANGUAGE

1. LANGUAGE HAS TWO SIDES

○ These are expression and content. Expression because it has to be produced
orally and it must be meaningful which is content.
2. LANGUAGE IS SAID TO BE ARBITRARTY
○ We cannot predict the number of sounds (vowels and consonants) a word is made
up of. It is because we are not familiar with the Language, but we can predict that
all languages have sounds.
3. LANGUAGE TAKES PLACE WITHIN SOCIAL GROUP
○ More than two people know the language you are talking or using.
4. LANGUAGE IS DYNAMIC
○ It keeps on changing
5. LANGUAGE IS PRODUCTIVE
○ More and more words are being added because of development and necessity.

LANGUAGE WHAT IS IT?

● Language is a system of arbitrary vocal apparatus which we used in communication.
Being a system, it has a subsystem and a structure.

SUBSYSTEM OF LANGUAGE
● PHONEMES – minimal meaningful unit of sounds.
○ Example: 1a Jim is a rocketeer.
1b Jim is a racketeer.
● MORPHEMES – minimal meaningful unit of word particles
○ Words are made up of root word and non-roots. Root word can be found
functioning in sentences while the non-roots are to be attached to the root word
before you can see them functioning in sentences.
○ Root words are grace, noble, moral, legal, for the non-roots are ful, ly, un, ig, im,
il.
 ● SUPRASEGMENTALS – musical cadence of the language. It includes pitch, stress,
juncture, intonation and contour.
○ Examples: 3a. Jack is a fát chemist.
3b. Jack is a fat chémist.
● GRAMMAR – a description of language form and structure which serve as clues to
communication.
○ Example: 4a. The cook fished all day
4b. The fish cooked all day
● SEMANTICS (LEXICON) – vocabulary words.

STRUCTURE (PATTERNING ARRANGEMENT) OF LANGUAGE

1. VOWEL
○ Segment of the speech produced without any interruption of the air stream. They
are produced by considering the parts of the tongue, the height of the tongue, and
the rounding and unrounding of the lips
○ THE VOWEL CHART

2. CONSONANTS
○ segments mark with or without any interruption of the air stream. They are
produced either with or without the vibration of the vocal cords because some of
the consonant are voiced while others are voiceless.
○ THE CONSONANT CHART
 3. DIPHTHONGS
○ Combination of a pure vowel and a glide of the tongue.

THE LANGUAGE TOOLS

● SPEECH
○ The correct utterance of words. It is the voice breath shaped into words by the
tongue, lips, teeth, palette and nasal passages.
● VOICE
○ The sound produced by the vibration of the vocal cords. It is also the expression
of the speaker’s mental and emotional states, together with the person’s attitude
during the moment of speaking.

THE PHYSICAL REQUIREMENTS FOR GOOD SPEAKING VOICE

1. Control of breathing
2. Relaxation of throat and neck
3. Flexible and energetic use of the speech modifiers

THE VARIABLE ATTRIBUTES OF VOICE

A.RATE – The speed of utterance
1. The normal rate is from 120-180 words per minute
2. Rate corresponds to thought expressed.
a. A slow rate for weighty, dignified matters.
b. Fast rate for rapid sequence of events.
c. Fairly rapid for narration.
3. Rate – depends on two elements
a. Quantity – the length of time used in actual utterance of sounds within a word.
i. Example: beat - bit
b. Pause - the length of time spent in silence between words.
i. Example: For a moment/ I thought// I could forget you///
ii. For a moment/ I thought // I could still/ the restlessness in my heart///
B. FORCE – The loudness and vigor with which one speaks.
 1. DEGREE OF FORCE – refers to the amount of force applied. So it is determining
the key or pitch of ones voice.
2. FORM OF FORCE – the manner in which force is applied. This means that in ones
delivery, different emotions are expressed. Emotions like sincerity, sarcasm, doubt
and others.
C. EMPHASIS – making ideas stand out
1. Any change in rate, force, or pitch serves to make word, phrase or sentences emphatic.
2. The greater the amount of change, the greater the emphasis.
3. Emphasis is increased by pause and contrast.
4. Over emphasis and continuous emphasis should be avoided.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN COMMUNICATION AND PURPOSIVE

COMMUNICATION
● COMMUNICATION – is the process of exchanging ideas, thoughts, feelings, and
emotions from one person to another with of symbols which may be verbal/nonverbal
and aims for understanding.
● PURPOSIVE COMMUNICATION is done with an objective in mind. There is a
goal when one indulges in communication. One does not talk for talk sake only. Hitting
the bottom line is the goal of purposive communication.

LANGUAGE REGISTER
IMPORTANCE OF LANGUAGE REGISTER
● Different communicative situations call for speakers to use different registers.
● Level of formality and informality of the language used is revealed.
● Appropriate varieties and register of language show respect, interest and professionalism.

Differences Between Formal and Informal Register

FORMAL REGISTER
● happens in a appropriate setting
● follows accepted format
 ● uses impersonal register
● aims to inform
INFORMAL REGISTER
● happens in unexpected setting
● requires no format
● uses personal register
● aims to entertain

THE FIVE REGISTERS OF LANGUAGE

1. STATIC REGISTER
○ This style of communication RARELY or NEVER changes. It is frozen in time
and content.
■ Examples: The Pledge of Allegiance, The Lord’s Prayer, The Preamble of
the Philippine Constitution.
2. FORMAL REGISTER
○ This language is used in formal settings and is one-way in nature.
■ Examples: speeches, pronouncements, announcements etc,.
3. CONSULTATIVE REGISTER
○ A standard form of communications. Users engaged in a mutually accepted
structure of communication. It is a professional discourse.
■ Examples: Communication between a supervisor and a subordinate, doctor
and patient, lawyer and client, lawyer and judge etc.
4. CASUAL REGISTER
○ Informal language used by peers and friends, slang, vulgarities and colloquialism
are normal.
5. INTIMATE REGISTER
○ Refers to private communications. It is reserved for close-family members or
intimate people.
■ Examples: husband and wife, boyfriend and girlfriend, siblings, parent and
children.
SUBGROUPS OF VARIETIES OF LANGUAGE
1. STANDARD
○ The form of language that observes all grammatical rules and structures of the
language
2. JARGON
○ A specified form of language with vocabulary that is associated with particular
discipline such as law or medicine
3. COLLOQUIAL
○ Refers to language that is used in ordinary conversations. It is less formal than the
standard language, but not quite informal as slang expressions. It should not be
used in formal contexts.
4. SLANG
○ A word or an expression that has been made up or that has taken on a new
meaning and is quite popular within certain social or age groups. The words are
not appropriate for formal context
5. DIALECT
○ The variety of language common to a particular speech community.
6. PATOIS (PA.TWAA)
○ Refers to a geographical dialect which differs from the standard language spoken
in a given country.
7. CREOLE
○ A pidgin language that has became the native language of a speech community
and is learned by children as their first language. Quite simply, it is the language
that results from the contact between the language of a colonizing people and the
language of a colonized people.
○ Pidgin is a simple language that emerges when speakers do not share a common
language but have to communicate.

● It is important to note that we have different approach in language register when it

comes to face to face conversation and in written mode.
 ● We characterized face-to-face conversation as multi-modality because we can use
different registers and we can consider the status, position or the way of living of the
person we’re communicating with in order to know when and where to use or drop
the formality.
● While writing a paper, we commonly use the formal register since the construction of
sentences, correction of grammar and appropriate use of ideas really matter.

Global Spread of English

1. Migration- The spread of mother tongue English speakers from England, Scotland, and
Ireland to North America and the Carribean, Australia, South Africa, and New Zealand.
2. Colonization- English was transported to Asia and Africa which led to the development
of New Englishes. the second language varieties of English (ESL).
The spread of English around the world is often discussed in terms of three distinct group of
users, where English is used respectively as:
1. English as a native language.
2. English as second language
3. English as a foreign language (EFL) used almost exclusively for international
communication such as in Japan.
World Englishes Braj Kachru Model (1992)
The inner circle includes the United Kingdom, United States of America, Australia, New
Zealand, Ireland, and anglophone Canada, which are regarded as the "traditional bases" of
English. English is considered a 'first' language in several nations. The inner circle countries are
referred to by Kachru as "norm-providing," meaning that they provide English language norms
Next comes the outer circle, which includes countries where English is not native tongue,
but it is important for historical reasons and plays a part in the nation's institutions either as an
official language or otherwise. This circle includes India, Nigeria, Philippines, Bangladesh,
Pakistan, Malaysia, Tanzania, Kenya.
Finally, the expanding circle encompases those countries where English plays no
historical or governmental role, but where it is nevertheless widely used as a foreign language or
lingua franca. This includes much of the rest of the world's population: China, Russia, Japan,
most of Europe, Korea, and Egypt.

ACHIEVING EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

● THE TONE OF VOICE must be at its natural volume and pitch. Speak clearly and
distinctly
● BODY LANGUAGE refers to the body movements, gestures, facial expressions as well
as posture to the kinds of clothes, the choice of hairstyle or even color preference,
communicate something about you and can be perceived and interpreted effectively by
the listener
● USE APPROPRIATE WORDS. You should not hurt the feelings of the person
receiving the message. Be a pleasant communicator
● TAKE TIME TO LISTEN. Taking time to listen is taking time to care.

● CONVEY THE MESSAGE IN A SIMPLE AND EASILY UNDERSTANDABLE

FOR THE RECEIVER. Communication in the base for making the decisions in any
field; therefore, the giving of information should be complete, accurate, and consistent.
○ To be guided in the presentation, you should follow the STAR during informal
communication activities:
S ituation
T ime
A ction
R esult
 ● NOT the reverse: RATS; however, you may use it (RATS) during
emergency situations

● For formal presentations such as speeches, lectures, symposia and other public
addresses you may use the 4 A’s which stand for: ACTIVITY, ANALYSIS,
ABSTRACTION and APPLICATION.

● Start your presentation of information with the situation. It refers to the context of the
communication such as the talk, transactions, dealings, discussion or exchange of
information
● Consider the time and place as to when and where the situation happened? This is
important in effective communication.
● State the activity that completes the context of the communication.
● Concludes your presentation with the results of the communication
● Never starts your presentation with the results of the communicative event/s because
this/these may lead to misunderstanding

Remember, it is not enough that you have something to say. You have to consider the following
questions before you express your message:
1. Is it the proper place?
2. Is it the right time?
3. In what manner do I have to express/utter my message?

Through the following communication skills, one can easily communicate with others
effectively:
1. BECOME AN ENGAGED LISTENER.
○ Effective communication is less about talking and more about listening. This
means not just understanding the words or the information being communicated,
but also understanding the emotions the speakers trying to convey.
2. PAY ATTENTION TO NON-VERBAL SIGNALS.
 ○ Developing the ability to understand and use non-verbal communication can
help you connect with others, express what you really mean, navigate challenging
situations, and build better relationships at home and work.
3. KEEP STRESS IN CHECK.
○ Communicate effectively by staying calm under pressure.
○ USE STALLING TACTICS TO GIVE YOURSELF TIME TO THINK
i. Ask for a question to be repeated or for clarifications of a statement before
you respond.
○ MAKE ONE POINT
i. and provide an example or supporting piece of information and then gauge
the listeners’ reaction to tell if you should make a second point.
○ DELIVER YOUR WORDS CLEARLY
i. Speak clearly, maintain an even tone and make eye contact. Keep your
body language relaxed and open.
○ WRAP UP WITH A SUMMARY AND THEN STOP
i. You don’t have to fill the silence by continuing to talk.
4. ASSERT YOURSELF
○ Being assertive means expressing your thoughts, feelings, and needs in an open
and honest way while standing up for yourself and respecting others.
○ Effective communication is always about understanding the other person, not
about winning an argument or forcing your opinion on others

IMPORTANCE OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION AT THE WORKPLACE

1. Employees experienced increased morale, productivity and commitment. Trust is present
among employees resulting to valuable assets of the company.
2. The importance of strong communication runs deep within the workplace because of the
following:
● Innovation – an organization that promotes
communication is more likely to be
innovative
● Growth – each growth project is based on solid communication
 ● Effective Communication – a strong communicator can easily delegate
activities, manage conflicts, motivate and build relationships.

COMMON BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

1. Stress and out of control emotion
2. Lack of focus
3. Inconsistent body language
4. Negative body language
Moreover, it is significant to keep in mind the most defining influence of culture on human
interaction, culture provides the communicators the framework/ bases to organize their thoughts,
emotions, and behavior leading to effective communication

COMMUNICATING EFFECTIVELY IN MULTICULTURAL SETTINGS

MULTI-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION
● The multicultural communication concentration focuses on the dynamics of
communication across cultures. It explores not only what happens when people at two
different cultures meet, but also what happens when people from a variety of cultures and
ethnicities come together in one organization, community or country.

In this light you will become familiar with the definition of the following terms:
1. INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION – the verbal and non-verbal interaction
between people from different cultural backgrounds.
a. Example: If we raised in a culture where males speak while female are explicit to
remain silent, the context of communication interaction governs behavior, which
in itself is a representation of culture. All communication is intercultural.
2. CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION – the study of how people belonging to
different cultural backgrounds communicate with each other, in ways that are both
similar and different among themselves and how they endeavor to communicate across
cultures.
 a. Example: People from different cultures gathered together in an international
conference.
3. MULTICULTURAL SETTING – something that incorporates ideas, beliefs , or people
for many different countries and cultural backgrounds.
a. Example: When people of a different cultures come together to celebrate and
share their traditions in an example of a multicultural celebration.
4. ETHNOCENTRISM – the belief that one’s culture is superior to all others and is the
standard by which all other cultures should be measured.
a. Example: The Asian cultures across all the countries in Asia. Throughout Asia,
the way of eating is to use chopsticks with every meal. These people may find it
unnecessary to find that people in other societies, such as the American society,
eat using forks, spoons, knives, etc.

IMPORTANCE OF INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION

The primary purpose of intercultural communication is to increase understanding of
culturally mediated communication phenomena. This is important to know because of the
following:
1. Adapting to global and domestic workforce diversity.
2. Improving workplace communication.
3. Engaging in creative problem solving.
4. Enhancing intercultural relationship satisfaction.
5. Deepening your own self-awareness.
6. Fostering global and interpersonal peace.

THREE PARTS OF DEVELOPING INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION

1. KNOWLEDGE – an understanding of communication rules within a culture. This refers
to the practical stuff you need to know to communicate such as greeting rituals, styles of
communication, etc.
Key areas of Knowledge to Consider in Intercultural Communication
● Knowledge of the cultures, organizations and institutions, history, and general way of
living of different communities and nations.
 ● Recognition that knowledge of culture affect behavioral norms in certain specific
intercultural environments such as views on the role of women LGBT, or the license on
same sex marriage.
● Understanding of the knowledge culture affect communication and language.
● Knowledge awareness of your own culture and other people’s beliefs and values, and
recognize when these may clash.
● Sensitivity towards cultural stereotypes that may affect and interfere with intercultural
communication.
Applying Knowledge in Communication Across Cultures
Some useful starting points may be:
● Demonstrate your willingness to meet others at least halfway by learning a few phrases in
their language
○ Example: A few phrases, such as “Good morning!”, ”Good evening!” and “Thank
you!”, will go a long way.
● According to Nelson Mandela, "If you talk to a man in a language he understands, that
goes to his head. If you talk to him in his language, that goes to his heart."
● Talk to the people who know the culture about common traps and problems.
● Adapt your behavior, and don’t always expect others to adapt you.
● Check your understanding and that of others.
● Don’t be afraid to apologize.
● Familiarize oneself about behavioral issues and norms.
● Reflect on your experience.

2. SKILLS
● are those skills required to communicate, or share information, with other people from
other cultures and social groups.
● It is important to note that language skills may be an important part of intercultural
communication but they are not the only requirement.
● One of the skills required for instance is an understanding that different cultures,
standards, social mores and even thought patterns.
 ○ Finally, good intercultural communication skills requires willingness to accept
differences and adapt to them.
Intercultural communication skills are important to companies for several reasons.
● Intercultural communication skills will help employee cope with cultural differences.
These skills give employees a better understanding of their workplace or co-workers.
● These skills (intercultural communication skills) help employees adapt to new work
environment and prevent culture shock.
● Intercultural communication skills will provide workers a solid understanding of how
to interact with other cultures.
COMMUNICATION STYLE
● the way people communicate across cultures, verbally and non-verbally.
● It proposes to understand cultural variations, the most widely cited one is the
differentiation in between high context and low context communication.

HIGH CONTEXT VS. LOW CONTEXT CULTURES

HIGH CONTEXT
● Communication tends to be indirect, harmoniously structured and understated.
● In conversion, people are expected to speak one after another in an orderly, linear
fashion.
● Disagreements are personally threatening. It is important to solve conflict immediately or
avoid it completely in order for work to continue.
● Physical space is considered more communal. Standing very close to others is a common
practice.
● Verbal messages are indirect.
● Accuracy is valued. How well something is learned is important.
● Some countries considered high “context” include Japan, Greece and various Arab
nations.
LOW CONTEXT
● Communication tends to be linear, dramatic, precise and open.
● Because words are so highly valued, they are used almost constantly.
 ● Disagreements are depersonalized. Conflicts do not have to be resolved immediately for
work to continue. When solutions are found, they tend to be rationally based.
● Privacy and personal space are highly valued. Physical space is considered privately
owned.
● Verbal messages are explicit and direct words are valued above their context.
● Speed is valued. How efficiently something is done is important.
● Some countries considered “low context” include the United States, Germany, and
various scandinavian countries .

FORMS OF NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION

● EYE CONTACT
○ In many Asian cultures, avoiding eye contact is seen as a sign of respect;
however, those in Latin and North America consider eye contact important for
conveying equality among individuals. In Ghana if a young child looks an adult
in the eye, it is considered an act of defiance.
● TOUCH
○ In America, using a firm handshake is considered to greet a stranger or another
business professional.
○ In France, it is common to see to kiss someone you greet in both cheeks.
○ Touching children on the head is fine in North America but not in Thailand as the
head is considered sacred part of the body.
○ In the Middle East, the left hand is customarily used to handle bodily hygiene,
therefore, using this hand to accept a gift or shake hands is considered extremely
rude.
● GESTURES
○ Individuals in the United States use the “OK” sign to convey that something is
acceptable.
○ In Japan, the same hand symbol means “money” . Argentinians, Belgians, the
French and the Portuguese all use the symbol to mean “zero” or “nothing”.
○ Other countries in eastern Europe consider that same sign an offensive swear.
● PHYSICAL SPACE
 ○ The Japanese react strongly to an accidental touch by a stranger than American
○ Less personal space is needed in areas such as Latin America, and in the context
of one by one conversation, in the Middle East.
● FACIAL EXPRESSIONS
○ In Latin America, winking is a facial expression considered as a romantic or
sexual invitation.
○ The Yoruba people in Nigeria wink at their children if they want them to leave the
room.
○ The Chinese consider the winking facial expression are rude.
● PARALANGUAGE
○ Refers to factors of speech such as accent, pitch range, volume or articulation.
○ In Britain, people use volume to convey anger, while in India, they use it(volume)
to command situation.
○ Japanese women make a point of raising the pitch of the voices to differentiate
themselves from men.
○ In America, voice pitches between genders remain comparably the same.
○ The use of attitude toward silence can also be coincidence a type of paralanguage.
The Greeks use silence as a way to refuse things while Egyptians use it to
consent.
● POSTURE
○ Posture can convey power structures, attitudes, and levels of civility:
○ Slouching in Taiwan is considered disrespectful .
○ In America, standing with the hands on the hips may suggest power or pride.
○ In Argentina, standing with hands on the hips may suggest anger or a challenge.
○ Sitting with a foot resting on the opposite knee is strongly discouraged in Arab
countries.
2. ATTITUDE
○ the last component of intercultural communication competence which refers to the
appreciation and acceptance to the diversity of the cultures and is able to
communicate with culturally different others in an unexpected, interested and
open manner (Deardorff, 2006, Matreer & Miller 2004).
 ○ Learn to respect and accept the differences in the cultures among nations. Avoid
biases and prejudices.

HOW DOES ETHNOCENTRISM AFFECT CROSS CULTURAL COMMUNICATIONS?

● In communication, an attitude of ethnocentrism makes people from other culture feels
that you do not value them. Thus, communication is unproductive and/or even
counterproductive. Some people are ethnocentric on purpose and truly, consciously
believe their culture is superior to all others.
● Other communication barriers with similar effect/ outcomes with ethnocentrism are
egocentrism, prejudice and stereotyping.
○ EGOCENTRISM are the people who see the world from their own perspective.
They cannot fathom the idea that others do not have the same perspective as they
have themselves.
○ PREJUDICED – a person with a negative feeling about others. It is illogical
looking down on others without prior understanding of the culture or person.
○ STEREOTYPES – an oversimplified belief about a culture or specific group of
people. While some stereotypes can be negative(even racist in nature), a pure
stereotype is typically not intended to be beautiful.

Gender Differences in Communication Styles

1. The purpose of Communication
- men are more likely to communicate as a way to maintain their status and independence,
while women tend to view communication as a path to create friendships and build
relationships.
Research shows that men and women are more likely to exhibit different styles of verbal
communication:
- Men are more prone to adapt “report talk” while women gravitate more toward
“rapport talk”
“Report” style of communication is driven by the exchange of actual information to solve given
problem.
“Rapport” communication aimed at building relationships and problem solving. This style of
communication involves the inclusion of personal feelings.

Gender Differences in Non-Verbal Cues

1. Facial Expression
- Men use fewer expressions than women. Women tend to rely heavily on facial
expressions such as nodding and eye contact because they were taught “more
appeasement body language” according to Science of People.
2. Paralanguage
- Women use paralanguage more than men. This includes gesturing noises such as “mhm”
“ah” and “oh” as well as head nodding. Men also use paralanguage just to confirm
someone's comment as to say, “I agree”.
3. Physical Space
- Men are more likely to command and use personal space than women. Men often prefer
face to face communication with the opportunity to shake hands or pat someone's
shoulder while women are more comfortable bring in close proximity with other women.
4. Touch
- Men use pats, backslaps, and shoulder touches as a way to display dominance. They use
introductory handshakes to set the tone for communication. Women, on the other hand,
may reach out and touch someone's arm or offer a hug to build connection and show
support.
5. Posture
- Men typically have wider postures and stand with their arms farther away from their
bodies and legs apart. Women are more likely to keep their arms closer to their bodies
and cross their legs.
6. Gestures
 - According to research on non-verbal communication, women learn during childhood to
“align their bodies to force other person” and sit still while using more hand gestures.
- Womens gestures are more fluid because men use sharp, directed movements.
7. Eye contact
- Women typically use more direct eye contact during communication in order to make a
strong connections and develop a relationship. Men, however, use eye contact must
commonly a challenge of power or position.

Important:
The purpose of Gender Communication is not to change another's communication style
but to understand and adapt to it.
Again, the discussion is not meant to convey that all men and women fit into these type
of categories or one style of communication is better from the other; instead, this is just meant to
describe two very general forms of communication so we can recognize them with the goal to
improve our.

Gender Barrier to Communication

1. Relationship Orientation
- Women are focused on relationships and men are focused on tasks.
2. Decision-Making Process
- Women are process-oriented and prefer to gather information, whereas men relt on
product drive communication style.
- A female leader is likely to seek advice of other colleagues. A male leader may view this
as a weakness and may believe that a leader should be able to make the decision his own,
without consultation.
- Women tend to discuss issues verbally, whereas men tend to communicate.
3. Non-verbal Communication Differences
- Women believe in non-verbal communication such as smile, a head word or direct eye
contact; while men remain still when listening to others.
4. Unequal Engagement
 - Men provide information; they rarely seek information. Men may consider it their
responsibility to lead a conversation or demonstrate competence.
“Can’t We Talk” by Deborah Tannen
1. Status vs. Support
2. Independence vs. Intimacy
3. Advice vs. Understanding
4. Information vs. Feelings
5. Orders vs. Proposals
6. Conflict vs. Compromise
Gender Fair Language
Importance of Gender Fair Language
1. Gender fair language minimizes unnecessary concern about gender in the subject matter.
example: The practice of using he and man as generic terms poses common problem.
2. Research finds that people who use gender inclusive language are not only aware of
gender based on inequalities, but also actively seek linguistics charge.
example: Fireman-firefighter
3. Gender fair language aims at reducing gender stereo typing and discrimination.
Strategies to apply when speaking or writing in English to be more gender-inclusive
1. Use non-discriminatory language.
1.1 Forms of address
2. Make gender visible when it is relevant for communication.
3. Do not make gender visible when it is not relevant for communication.
Difference between male and female in the way they use language to communication
1. Language and communication matter more to women than to men; women talk more than
men.
2. Women are more verbally skilled than men.
3. Men’s goal in using languages tend to be about getting things done; whereas, women
tend to be about making connections with other people.
- Men tells more about things and facts; whereas, women talk more about people,
relationships, and feelings.
 4. Men’s way in using language is competitive reflecting their general interest in acquiring
and maintaining status; women’s use of language is cooperative, reflecting their
preference for equality and harmony.
5. The difference routinely lead to miscommunication between men and women resulting to
misinterpret each others intentions.
Use of Gender Inclusive Language
Using gender neutral language has become a standard practice in both journalistic and
academic writing as you will see if you consult the style manuals for different academic
disciplines (APA, MLA, and Chicago for examples)
Here’s the lists gathered nouns and check a thesaurus for alternatives to gendered nouns
not included in this lists.

Titles and Names

Another example of gathered language is the way the titles “Mr.”, “Miss”, and “Mrs.” are
used.
“Mr.” can be refer at any man, regardless whether he is single or married.
“Miss” and “Mrs.” define women by whether they are married, which until quite recently
meant defining them by their relationship with men.
 Another ote about the titles, colleague students may call a faculty and staff including
married woman as “Ms.” or, if the term applies, “Professor” or “Dr,”

Pronouns
- Try making the nouns and pronouns plural.
Example: A student who loses too much sleep may have trouble focusing during (his/her) exams.
If we make “student” plural and adjust the rest of the sentence accordingly, there is no need for
gendered language.
The pronouns “He” and “His”
Alternative
1. The most common alternatives are he or she, he/she she or he and lately, s/he. Too much
of this can be awkward; so, use the following alternatives (for numbers 2-6), whenever
feasible.
2. The plural form may be substituted.
instead of…
The student must submit his paper on time.
Use…
Students must submit their papers on time.
3. The first or second person may be used instead, when appropriate.
Instead of…
The students must submit his paper on time.
Use…
Please submit your papers on time.
4. The pronoun his maybe replaced by an article or dropped altogether.
Instead of…
A researcher must acknowledge all his sources.
Use…
A researcher must acknowledge all sources.
5. The pronoun maybe substituted when warranted by the text.
Instead of…
The individual often wonders how he can help in this time of crisis.
Use…
One often wonders how one can help in this time of crisis.
6. The sentence may be recast in the form of an interpersonal of personal construction.
Instead of…
The students must submit his paper on time.
A researcher must acknowledge all his sources.
Use…
Papers must be submitted on time.
All sources must be acknowledged.
Generic Man
Problem
The term is often associated with the adult male and it is difficult to distinguish its generic use; it
reflects gender inequality if the women are never seen in terms of general or representative
humanity but always in terms of their gender.
Alternatives
1. Replace man with specific nouns or verbs that say explicitly what you mean.
Instead of…
Manpower to man
Use…
Labor, human sources, personnel to operate.
2. Use nouns that encompasses both man and woman
Instead of…
Mankind
Use…
Humanity
3. In making general statements, add women
Instead of…
Man is vulnerable.
Man is rational being
Use…
Women and Men are vulnerable
Women and Men are rational beings