5.

AXIALLY LOADED COMPRESSION MEMBERS

5.1 GENERAL
• There are several types of compression members, the column being the best known. Among the other types
are the top chords of trusses and various bracing members. There are four general modes by which axially
loaded columns can fail. These are flexural buckling, local buckling, torsional buckling and flexural
torsional buckling .

➢ Flexural buckling (also called Euler buckling) is the primary type of buckling. Members are subject
to flexure, or bending, when they become unstable.

➢ Local buckling (plate buckling) occurs when some part or parts of the cross section of a column are
so thin that they buckle locally in compression before the other modes of buckling can occur
(Figure-5.1).
➢ Torsional buckling deformations consist only of rotations of the cross sections about the longitudinal
axis of the member.

➢ Flexural torsional buckling may occur in columns that have certain cross-sectional configurations.
These columns fail by a combination of torsional and flexural buckling.
1
 • The longer a column becomes for the same cross section, the
greater becomes its tendency to buckle and the smaller becomes
the load it will support. The tendency of a member to buckle is
usually measured by its slenderness ratio (L/r).

• Loads that are exactly centered over a column are referred to as

axial, or concentric loads. It is doubtful that a perfect axially
loaded column will ever be encountered in practice.

• A column is a more critical member in a structure than is a beam

or tension member, because minor imperfections in materials and
dimensions mean a great deal. The bending of tension members
probably will not be serious, as the tensile loads will tend to
straighten those members; but the bending of any compression
members is a serious matter, as compressive loads will tend to
magnify the bending in those members
Figure 5.1: Local buckling of column under
axial compression load.

2
 5.2 RESIDUAL STRESSES
• Residual stresses and their distribution are very important factors
affecting the strength of axially loaded steel columns. A major cause
of residual stress is the uneven cooling of shapes after hot-rolling.
For instance, in an I-shape the outer tips of the flanges and the
middle of the web cool quickly, while the areas at the intersection of
the flange and web cool more slowly.
• The quicker cooling parts of the sections, when solidified, resist
further shortening, while those parts that are still hot tend to shorten
further as they cool. The net result is that the areas that cooled more
quickly have residual compressive stresses, and the slower cooling Figure-5.1: Salmon
areas have residual tensile stresses (Figure 5.1). The magnitude of
these residual stresses varies from about 69 to 103 MPa, although
some values greater than 138 MPa, have been found.
• When rolled-steel column sections with their residual stresses are
tested, their proportional limits are reached at P/A values of only a
little more than half of their yield stresses, and the stress–strain
relationship is nonlinear from there up to the yield stress (Figure-
5.2).
• Because of the early localized yielding occurring at some points of
the column cross sections, buckling strengths are appreciably Figure-5.2: Effect of residual stresses
3
reduced. on column stress–strain diagram.
• As a column load is increased, some parts of the column will quickly reach the yield stress and go into the
plastic range because of residual compression stresses. A column with residual stresses will behave as though
it has a reduced cross section.

• The buckling calculations for a particular column with residual stresses can be handled by using an effective
moment of inertia Ie of the elastic portion of the cross section or by using the tangent modulus. For the usual
sections used as columns, the two methods give fairly close results.

• In columns, welding can produce severe residual stresses that actually may approach the yield point in the
vicinity of the weld. Another important fact is that columns may be appreciably bent by the welding process,
which can decidedly affect their load-carrying ability.

• The welding together of built-up shapes frequently causes even higher residual stresses than those caused by
the uneven cooling of hot-rolled I-shaped sections.

• Residual stresses may also be caused during fabrication when cambering is performed by cold bending, and
due to cooling after welding. Cambering is the bending of a member in a direction opposite to the direction
of bending that will be caused by the service loads.

4
5.3 SECTIONS USED FOR COLUMNS

• The sections used for compression members usually are similar to those used for tension members, with
certain exceptions.

Figure-5.3: Types of compression members 5

5.4 DEVELOPMENT OF COLUMN FORMULAS
• In 1729 Pieter van Musschenbroek, a Dutch mathematician, presented an empirical column formula for
estimating the strength of rectangular columns. A few years later, in 1757, Leonhard Euler, a Swiss
mathematician, wrote a paper of great value concerning the buckling of columns. The Euler formula, the
most famous of all column expressions, marked the real beginning of theoretical and experimental
investigation of columns.

5.5 THE EULER FORMULA

• The stress at which a column buckles decreases as the column becomes longer. After it reaches a certain
length, that stress will have fallen to the proportional limit of the steel. For that length and greater lengths,
the buckling stress will be elastic.
• For a column to buckle elastically, it will have to be long and slender. Its buckling load P can be
computed with the Euler formula that follows:

P: buckling load,
E: modulus of elasticity,
I : moment of inertia,
L : length of the column
6
• This formula usually is written in a slightly different form that involves the column’s slenderness ratio.
Since r = 𝐼/𝐴 , we can say that 𝐼 = 𝐴𝑟 2 . Substituting this value into the Euler formula and dividing
both sides by the cross-sectional area, the Euler buckling stress is obtained:

• If the value obtained for a particular column exceeds the steel’s proportional limit, the elastic Euler
formula is not applicable.

• To successfully use the Euler equation for practical columns, the value of L should be the distance between
points of inflection in the buckled shape. This distance is referred to as the effective length of the column.

• It must be noted that the buckling load determined from the Euler equation is independent of the strength of
the steel used.

7
8
5.6 END RESTRAINT AND EFFECTIVE LENGTHS OF COLUMNS

• The effective length of a column is the distance between points of zero moment in the column, that is, the
distance between its inflection points. In steel specifications, the effective length of a column is referred to
as KL, where K is the effective length factor. The magnitude of K depends on the rotational restraint
supplied at the ends of the column and upon the resistance to lateral movement provided.

• Columns with different end conditions have entirely different effective lengths. The smaller the effective
length of a particular column, the smaller its danger of lateral buckling and the greater its load-carrying
capacity will be.

• Two sets of K values are provided in the Table-5.1, the theoretical values and the recommended design
values, based on the fact that perfectly pinned and fixed conditions are not possible.

• If the ends of the column of Fig. 5.4(b) were not quite fixed, the column would be a little freer to bend
laterally, and its points of inflection would be farther apart. The recommended design K given in Table 5.1
is 0.65, while the theoretical value is 0.5. As no column ends are perfectly fixed or perfectly hinged, the
designer may wish to interpolate between the values given in the table, basing the interpolation on his or
her judgment of the actual restraint conditions.
9
Figure-5.4: Effective length (KL) for columns in braced
frames (sidesway prevented).

10
5.7 STIFFENED AND UNSTIFFENED ELEMENTS

• When thin plates are used to carry compressive stresses, they are particularly susceptible to buckling
about their weak axes due to the small moments of inertia in those directions.
• An unstiffened element is a projecting piece with one free edge parallel to the direction of the
compression force, while a stiffened element is supported along the two edges in that direction. These
two types of elements are illustrated in Fig. 5.5.

11
Figure-5.5
12
5.7.1 Classification of Compression Sections for Local Buckling

• Compression sections are classified as either a nonslender element or a slender

element. A nonslender element is one where the width-to-thickness of its compression
elements does not exceed r , from Table-5.1A of the ÇYHY. When the width-to-
thickness ratio does exceed r , the section is defined as a slender-element section.

13
14
5.8 LONG, SHORT, AND INTERMEDIATE COLUMNS

• As the effective length of a column increases, its buckling stress will decrease. If the effective length
exceeds a certain value, the buckling stress will be less than the proportional limit of the steel. Columns
in this range are said to fail elastically.
• Columns are sometimes classed as being long, short, or intermediate.

5.8.1 Long Columns

• The Euler formula predicts very well the strength of long columns where the axial buckling stress
remains below the proportional limit. Such columns will buckle elastically.

5.8.2 Short Columns

• For very short columns, the failure stress will equal the yield stress and no buckling will occur. (For a
column to fall into this class, it would have to be so short as to have no practical application.)
5.8.3 Intermediate Columns
• For intermediate columns, some of the fibers will reach the yield stress and some will not. The members
will fail by both yielding and buckling, and their behavior is said to be inelastic. Most columns fall into this
range. 15
COLUMN FORMULAS

• ÇYHY provides one equation (the Euler equation) for long columns with elastic buckling and an
empirical parabolic equation for short and intermediate columns. With these equations, a flexural
buckling stress, Fcr , is determined for a compression member. Once this stress is computed for a
particular member, it is multiplied by the cross-sectional area of the member to obtain its nominal
strength Pn . The LRFD design strength and ASD allowable strength of a column may be
determined as follows:

16
• The following expressions show how Fcr the flexural buckling stress of a column, may be
determined for members without slender elements (ÇYHY, Section-8.2):

(ÇYHY, Eq-8.2)

>
(ÇYHY, Eq-8.3)

• ÇYHY-Eq-8.2 for inelastic and ÇYHY-Eq-8.3 for elastic behavior ( Figure-5.6, next slide).
• The factor 0.877 in Eq-8.3 accounts for the effects of any unintended but potential crookedness on
the strength of long columns ( Steel Structures, Ramuli Vinnakota)
• In these expressions, Fe is the elastic critical buckling
stress—that is, the Euler stress—calculated with the
effective length of the column KL. 17
 • These equations are represented graphically as shown below

(Bakanlık uygulama kılavuzundan)

Figure-5.6

MAXIMUM SLENDERNESS RATIOS

• According to ÇYHY, maximum slenderness ratio will be taken as L/r  200.

18
Example:
The member was supported with hinge supports about its both
principal axis at its both ends. The type of the member is HE 450 B.
Length of the column is 9m and the column is subjected to axial
compressive load of PG = 850 kN and PQ = 2400 kN. The column is
supported against to displacement and buckling in the direction which
is perpendicular to the y-axis (weak axis) at the midpoint of its length.

a) Determine the nominal compressive strength of the member.

b) Check the LRFD design strength of the member.
c) Check the ASD allowable design strength of the member.

(Table-2.1A , ÇYHY)

19
Solution:
➢ Classifying of the cross section for the limit state of local buckling:

For flange (Table 1.5A, Case-1),

⟹ Nonslender unstiffened flange element

For web (Table 1.5A, Case-5),

⟹ Nonslender stiffened web element

Nonslender cross section.

According to ÇYHY-8.2.1, compressive strength of the material shall be taken as the smallest value of
the strengths determined about x and y directions by considering the limit state of the flexural buckling.
Effective length:

20
Slenderness ratios:

Slenderness ratios satisfy the condition ÇYHY-8.1.1

➢ Nominal compressive strength of the column (Pn)

21
 LRFD ASD
Required compressive strength

b) Checking the LRFD design strength of the c) Checking the ASD allowable design strength
member. of the member

22
Example:
Examples will be solved in class!!

23
24
Alignment Charts or Nomographs
• The subject of effective lengths was introduced previously, and some suggested K factors were presented
in Table 5.1. These factors were developed for columns with certain idealized conditions of end restraint,
which may be very different from practical design conditions.
• The values in Table-5.1 are usually quite satisfactory for preliminary designs and for situations in which
sidesway is prevented by bracing.
• Should frames with diagonal bracing or rigid shear walls be used, the columns will be prevented from
sidesway and provided with some rotational restraint at their ends. For these situations, pictured in Fig. 5.7,
the K factors will fall somewhere between cases (a) and (d) of Table 5.1.

Figure-5.7: Sidesway inhibited. 27

• The alignment charts, or nomographs, are an alternate method for determining the effective length factor, K.
These nomographs take into account the restraints provided at the ends of the column by the beams or
girders framing into the columns. They provide more accurate K-values, but require knowledge of the sizes
of the beams, girders, and columns.
• Two charts are presented in the ÇYHY sidesway inhibited (i.e., buildings with braced frames or shearwalls),
reproduced in Chart-5.8, and sidesway uninhibited (i.e., buildings with moment frames), reproduced in
Chart-5.9.
• To use these charts, the relative stiffness, G, of the columns, compared to the girders (or beams) meeting at
the joint at both ends of each column, is calculated using Equation-6.4 from ÇYHY:

(Eq-6.4, ÇYHY)

Ec Ic : Flexural rigidity of the column

Lc : Length of the column
Eg Ig : Flexural rigidity of the beam
28
Lg : Length of the beam
 • The subscripts A and B refer to the joints at
the top and bottom ends of the columns,
respectively.

• For the sidesway inhibited frames the value

of K can also be determined by the Eq-6.5
from ÇYHY:

(Eq-6.5, ÇYHY)

• For the sidesway uninhibited frames the

value of K can also be determined by the
Eq-6.6 from ÇYHY:

Figure-5.8: Sidesway inhibited Figure-5.9: Sidesway (Eq-6.6, ÇYHY)

(Braced Frame) uninhibited (Moment Frame)

2
9
• Although the theoretical G-value for a column with a pinned base (e.g., column supported on spread
footing) is infinity, a practical value of 10 is recommended in the ÇYHY because there is no perfect
pinned condition. Similarly, the G-value for a column with a fixed base is theoretically zero, but a value of
1.0 is recommended for practical purposes.

• Table 5.3 presents correction factors to be multiplied by calculated beam stiffnesses, for situations where the
beam end conditions are different from those assumed for the development of the charts (ÇYHY-6.4.3-2b,c)

Table 5.3

30
 Example:
Determine the effective length factor for each
of the columns of the frame shown in Fig.-5.10
if the frame is not braced against sidesway. Use
the alignment charts.

Figure-5.10
Solution:
E is assumed to be same for all members and is therefore neglected in the equation to calculate G.

31
• Column K factors from Chart-5.9
Note: For most buildings, the values of Kx and Ky should
be examined separately. The reason for such individual
study lies in the different possible framing conditions in
the two directions. Many multistory frames consist of rigid
frames in one direction and conventionally connected
frames with sway bracing in the other. In addition, the
points of lateral support may often be entirely different in
3
the two planes. 2
Example:
Determine K factors for each of the columns of the frame shown in figure. Here, W (I-shaped) sections have been
tentatively selected for each of the members of the frame and their I / L values determined and shown in the figure.

33
Solution:
First, the G factors are computed for each joint in the
frame. In this calculation, the I / L values for members
FI and GJ are multiplied by the appropriate factors.
• For member FI, the I / L value is multiplied by
2.0, because its far end is fixed and there is no
sidesway on that level.
• For member, GJ, is I / L multiplied by 1.5, because
its far end is pinned and there is no sidesway on that
level.

34
• Finally, the K factors are selected from the appropriate alignment chart.

35
REFERENCES

1) Structural Steel Design (Fifth Edition), Jack C. McCormac, Stephen F. Csernak

2) Steel Structures: Design and Behavior, Charles G. Salmon, John E. Johnson, Faris A. Malhas
3) Structural Steel Design, Abi Aghayere, Jason Vigil
4) Steel Structures: Behavior and LRFD, Sriramulu Vinnakota
5) Aydın R., Günaydın A., Çelik Yapılar-Tasarım Kuralları ve Uygulama Örnekleri,
Güncelleştirilmiş 3.Baskı, Birsen Yayınevi, 2017.

36