Philosophy
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WEEK 4 6. Against the person (Argumentum ad
Fallacies
- a defect in an argument other that its false
premises
Types of Fallacies
1. Appeal to Pity (Argumentum ad
misericordiam)
- Trying to win an argument using feelings or
pity.
- Example: Please do not give me a failing
grade, my mother who is sick will be heart
broken.
2. Appeal to Ignorance (Argumentum ad
ignorantiam)
- Whatever has not proven false must be true,
and vice versa.
- Example: There is no evidence that there
are no other beings in the universe.
Therefore, there are other beings in the
universe.
3. Equivocation
- reasoning of a term or a word several times,
but giving the particular word a different
meaning each time
- Example:
Human beings are bright people.
Bulbs emits a very bright light.
Therefore, Human beings are bulbs.
The word “bright” in the first and second
premise have different meanings. But they
are used equally and interchangeably.
4. Composition (Inductive)
- something is true of the whole from the fact
that it is true of some part of the whole.
- from your observation to generalize
- Example:
Many people are holding umbrellas.
The ground is wet.
Therefore, it’s probably raining.
5. Division (Deductive)
- reasons that something is true of a thing
must be true to all or some of its parts
- generalize to specific
- Example:
My flock of sheep is well behaved.
Therefore, every single sheep is well
behaved.
hominem)
- a literary term that involves commenting on
or against an opponent
- attacking the opponent personally
- Example:
“He’s not a great athlete; he’s a fraud, a
cheat and a liar. That’s why not everybody is
‘happy for Lance.”
7. Appeal to Force (Argumentum ad
baculum)
- one appeals to force or the threat of force to
bring about the acceptance of a conclusion
- using force or threat to the opponent
- Example:
The senator was told that if she did not
support the tax reformation bill, her chances
of being re-elected next fall would be very
low.
8. Appeal to the people (Argumentum ad
populum)
- a conclusion is true because most,
all, or even an elite group
people irrelevantly think, believe, or feel that
it is
- Example:
Most people think that Jollibee is better than
McDonalds.
So, Jollibee have more delicious food
compared to McDonalds.
9. False Cause (Post Hoc)
- false accusation
- an informal fallacy that states: "Since event
Y followed event X, event Y must have been
caused by event X."
- It is often shortened simply to post hoc
fallacy.
- Example:
Watching TV that close will make you go
blind, so move back.
10. Hasty Generalization
- One commits errors if one reaches an
inductive generalization based on insufficient
evidence.
- generalizing
- Example:
Christine has a terrible experience with a
boyfriend. She decides that all boys are
mean.
11. Begging the Question
- a fallacy in which a claim is made and
accepted to be true, but one must accept the
premise to be true for the claim to be true.
Philosophy
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-Example: - conveys the basic ground concept of the
“Killing people is wrong, so death penalty is
wrong”.

Determining the Truth from

Opinion
Cognitive Meaning
- a statement is to inform or state a fact, some
of its words must refer to things, events, or
properties
Emotive Meaning
- have the power to move the emotion of word’s literal meaning which means
people “climbing or going beyond”.
- could persuade a stance or follow a certain
way of thinking Hinduism
- The symbol on the right
Attributes of a Critical Thinker side is the sacred sound
- Look for evidence to support assumption that is considered the
and beliefs greatest of all mantras in
- Adjust opinions Hindu tradition: Om
- Looks for proofs (Aum)
- Examines problem - Hindu tradition is the root of universe and
- Rejects irrelevant and incorrect information. everything that exist
- Hinduism, the major religion in India, is one
Fact of the oldest religion in the world.
- objective information based on data and - Brahman or Atman is what is what Indians
observation consider as god from which all reality and all
- Example: Your name (Can be verified in souls ultimately came from and will return.
PSA) - According to Hinduism, human beings have
dual nature:
• 1. Spiritual and immortal essence
Opinion (soul)
- unverifiable and subjective • 2. Empirical life and its traits
- Subjective is based on or influenced by - Hindus generally believe that the soul is
personal feelings and taste. eternal but bound to the law of karma (action)
- Example: I am beautiful. to the world of matter.
- Good Karma
If a person commits good, he gets good
WEEK 5 karma, and this karma will give him rewards.

- Bad Karma
Transcendence
- If a person commits wrong to himself and
others, he gets bad karma and receive
punishment and bad results.

-Hinduism holds that humanity’s life is a

continuous cycle (samsara).

- Transmigratory / Metempsychosis
- a doctrine that adheres to the belief a soul
passes into other creatures, human or animal
Philosophy
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- Moksha
- also called mukti, in Indian
philosophy and religion, liberation from the
cycle of death and rebirth (samsara).
- Derived from the Sanskrit word muc (“to
free”), the term moksha literally means
freedom from samsara.
- Saṃsāra
- a Sanskrit/Pali word that means "world"
- also the concept of rebirth and "cyclicality
of all life, matter, existence", a fundamental
belief of most Indian religions. In short, it is
the cycle of death and rebirth.
Buddhism
- Buddhists follow the teaching of its founder
Siddhartha Gautama.
- Siddhartha Gautama was a prince of the
Sakya Clan in the kingdom of Magadha.
- Gautama began searching for answers to
riddle of life’s sufferings, disease, old age,
and death.
- At the age of 29, Siddhartha left his wife and
son to wander as a monk.
- Siddhartha travelled throughout north-
eastern India for about six years. He
experienced enlightenment.
- He tried different ways to find the truth, he
finally achieved this in his rest and meditation
in grove of trees.
- Siddhartha believed that he had discovered
why life is full of suffering and how people
could escape from this unhappy existence.
- When people learned of his discovery, they
called him Buddha, which means Enlightened
One.
- From here on, Gautama’s life was devoted
to sharing his “Dharma” or way to salvation.
- Siddhartha was convinced that the way to
escape from pain and misery lay in the
transformation of one’s mind and that
liberation of could come sloughing off of all
vain clinging to the things of this life (worldly
desire)
- Reduced to its simplest form, the teaching
of Buddha has been set forth traditionally in
“Four Noble Truths” leading to the “Eightfold
Path” to perfect character “Arhatship”, which
turn gave assurance of entrance to “Nirvana”
at death.
Four Noble Truths
- 1. Life is full of Suffering;
- 2. Suffering is caused by passionate
desires, lust, and cravings caused by the
bodies and emotions of people;
- 3. Only as these emotions, desires, and
wants are obliterated will suffering ceases;
and
- 4. Such eradication of desire be
accomplished only by following the Eightfold
Path of earnest endeavor
EIGHTFOLD PATH
- 1. Right belief in and acceptance of the
Fourfold Truth
- 2. Right aspiration for one’s self and for
other
- 3. Right speech that harms no one
- 4. Right conduct, motivated by goodwill
toward all human beings
- 5. Right means of livelihood or earning one’s
living by honourable means
- 6. Right endeavour or effort to direct one’s
energies toward wise ends
- 7. Right mindfulness in choosing topics for
thoughts
- 8. Right meditation or concentration to the
point of complete absorption in mystic
ecstasy
Precepts of Buddhism
- 1. Refrain from destroying life
- 2. Refrain from taking what is not given
- 3. Refrain from a misuse of the sense
- 4. Refrain from wrong speech (do not lie or
deceive)
- 5. Refrain from taking drugs that tend to
cloud the mind
Buddhists practice the four states of
sublime condition:
- 1. Love
- 2. Sorrow of others
- 3. Joy in the joy of others,
- 4. Equanimity as regards one’s own joy and
sorrow.
The Biblical God and Humanity
- Religious people do not treat God’s
existence as a hypothesis.
Philosophy
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- God is a constant presence rather than a
Being whose existence is accepted as the
best explanation of available evidence
- For biblical writers, proving God’s existence
would be as pointless as trying to prove the
existence of the air we breath.
- In Old Testament, the religious problem
reflected is polytheism and not atheism.
- In New Testament, the reality of God is
unquestioned due to the conviction that in
Jesus of Nazareth the eternal God became
flesh and dwelt among human beings.
- Augustine
- philosophy is amor sapiental, the love of
wisdom; its aims to produce happiness.
- Happiness means fullness of living, a
feeling and state of goodness experience not
in the body and mind but also in one’s
finances and relationships.
- wisdom is not only the an abstract
construction but also substantially existent as
the divine logos or the very knowledge of
God.
- Teachings of Christianity are based on the
love of God.
- Love means faith in His existence,
goodness, and commands.
- For Augustine, Christianity, as presenting
the full revelation of the true God is the only
full and true philosophy.
- Where does knowledge comes from? It
begins with the faith and is made perfect by
understanding.
- All knowledge leads to God.
- Augustine spoke of Platonic phrase of
humanity as a rational soul using a mortal
body.
- Augustine believes that “Man is a rational
substance constituted of body and soul”.
- Thomas Aquinas “human beings have the
unique power to change themselves and
things for the better
Faith
- is the motivation and guide that points
reason to right places to gain knowledge
about the world and people.
WEEK 6
FORGIVENESS
- When we forgive, we are freed from our
anger and bitterness because of the actions
and/or words of another.
Sebatu (2009)
- negative minds, feelings, and attitudes are
signs of masochism
- Masochism
- is the enjoyment of what appears to be
painful or tiresome.
Hatred
- is the form of anger that is directed inward.
It is a suicidal act.
Methods of Forgiveness and
Healing (Sebatu, 2009)
• Counselling
- Requires active listening
- Allowing the counselee to talk will
help him in letting go of all his hurts
and negative feelings.
• Talking to God
- In this stage you are not alone,
God/Jesus is presented as counselee.
• Emmaus Method
- This process makes us reflect on our
hurts and obstacles as we aspire to be
good
• Forgivesness Method
- Forgiveness is difficult but, at the end
of the day, if hatred overcomes us, it
would affect our relationship with
other people, our sleep, and our
health.
Vulnerability
- To be invulnerable is somehow inhuman. To
be vulnerable is to be human.
Loneliness
- With our loneliness, we can realize that our
dependence on other people or gadgets is a
possessiveness that we can be free from.
Failure
- Our failures force us to confront our
weaknesses and limitations.
- Marcus Aurelius
- “Be not discouraged, nor
disgusted, nor dissatisfied. If you
do not succeed in doing everything
according to right principle”
Beauty and Nature
Philosophy
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- The nature of man is characterized by its
beauty resulting mainly from the wonderful
diversity of living organisms that exist in
various parts of the earth, as well as the
unique terrain of mountains, water, plateaus
and forests.

Love
- Our self-conception must be regulated by
temperance.

Buddhist View
- the more we love, the more risks and fears
there are in life
Christian View
- the soul is like a lover who longs to return to
God. In unity with God, the self does not
assert it own will rather the self is sensitive to
the spirit guiding a person secretly in the
depths of his hear

Confucion Jen
- is equal to Christian love. Jen deals with
relationships which can be rooted from the
love of one’s parents, brothers, and sisters.