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Application Characteristics of Permanent Magnet Synchronous and Brushless DC Motors For Servo Drives
Application Characteristics of Permanent Magnet Synchronous and Brushless DC Motors For Servo Drives
Application Characteristics of Permanent Magnet Synchronous and Brushless DC Motors For Servo Drives
5, SEPTEMBERIOCTOBER 1991
Abstract-The permanent magnet synchronous motor hd, hq stator d and q axis flux linkage, Wb-turn
(PMSM) and the brushless dc motor (BDCM) have many simi- air gap flux linkage, Wb-turn
larities; they both have permanent magnets on the rotor and hnl
require alternating stator currents to produce constant torque. er angle between stator phase A and the rotor, rad
The difference in these two machines is that the PMSM and the superscript indicating reference value
BDCM has sinusoidal and trapezoidal back emfs, respectively.
This means these two machines have different operating charac- I, INTRODUCTION
teristics and control requirements. For application considera-
tions, these two motor drives have to be differentiated on the
basis of known engineering criteria. Some of the criteria used to
assess these two machines include power density, torque per unit
T HE PERMANENT magnet synchronous motor (PMSM)
and the brushless dc motor (BDCM) have many similari-
ties [l], [2]; they both have a permanent magnet (PM) on the
current, speed range, feedback devices, inverter rating, cogging rotor and require alternating stator currents to produce con-
torque, ripple torque, and parameter sensitivity. Guidelines for stant torque. The difference in these two machines is that
the appropriate machine to be used for a given application are the PMSM and the BDCM have sinusoidal and trapezoidal
given based on the results of the criteria listed above.
back emfs, respectively. This means these two machines
have different operating characteristics and requirements.
NOMENCLATURE Although some of the fundamental differences [ 11- [5] be-
tween these two machines are known, no guidelines exist to
help the application engineer to compare and contrast these
a, b , and c phase back emfs, V
two servo drives for a given application. The aim of this
peak value of back emf, V
paper is to compare and present the application characteris-
a, b , and c phase currents, A
tics of these two motor drives. Selection criteria for compar-
d and q axis stator currents, A
ing and contrasting different motor drives have already been
peak value of current, A
presented [l]. This paper uses these criteria to compare and
vector sum of d and q axis currents, A assess the characteristics of the PMSM and BDCM drives for
stator d, q inductances, H
servo applications. Some of the criteria used include power
derivative operator
density, torque per current rating, speed range, feedback
number of pole pairs
devices, inverter rating, cogging and ripple torques, and
stator resistance, a
parameter sensitivity. Guidelines are developed to select the
electric torque, N-m
appropriate machine to be used for a given application based
load torque, N-m on the results of the comparison criteria listed above. An
total motor torque, N-m
attempt is made to present the results on a normalized basis
vd*' q d and q axis stator voltages
as far as possible so that the applicability of the results are
V dc bus voltage, V
essentially independent of the particular motor rating.
stator d , q reactances,
There are a variety of ac servo drives on the market
angle between magnet flux and is, rad
[1]-[5] competing with both the dc brush machine and other
'"r rotor speed, rad/s ac servo drives. The selection process of a servo drive for a
'"e synchronous speed, rad/s particular application in the fractional to 30-hp range can
mutual flux linkage between rotor and stator due
be represented by Fig. 1. From Fig. 1, it is clear that the
to magnet, Wb-turn
first decision to be made is whether to use a dc brush or a
brushless servo.
Paper IPCSD 91-24, approved by the Industrial Drives Committee of the The reasons for choosing brushless servo motor drives
IEEE Industry Applications Society for presentation at the 1987 Industry over the brush type dc motor drives are well known and
Applications Society Annual Meeting, Atlanta, GA, October 18-23.
Manuscript released for publication February 26, 1991, include robustness, higher torque and speed bandwidths, and
P. Pillay is with the Department of Electrical Engineering, University of lower maintenance. The mechanical commutator and brushes
New Orleans, Lakefront, LA 70148. of the dc motor also enforce severe limitations on its maxi-
R. Krishnan is with the Electrical Engineering Department, Virginia
Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24061. mum speed and overcurrent capabilities. Assuming that it has
IEEE Log Number 9100932. been decided to use a brushless servo motor drive. the next
QXA IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 21, NO. 5, SEPTEMBERIOCTOBER 1991
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PILLAY AND KRISHNAN: APPLICATION CHARACTERISTICS OF dc MOTORS FOR SERVO DRIVES 987
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988 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 21, NO. 5, SEPTEMBERIOCTOBER 1991
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PILLAY AND KRISHNAN: APPLICATION CHARACTERISTICS OF dc MOTORS FOR SERVO DRIVES 989
I
TI,TZ,T3,T4,TS,Th
are equal. Then, the relative power densities would be deter- if they have the same rated speeds. If their rotor inertias are
mined by the copper losses. The power output of these two equal, then the torque-to-inertia ratio of the BDCM can be as
machines is compared based on the equality of copper losses. much as 15% higher than the PMSM. It should be noted that
In the PMSM, sinusoidal currents of low harmonic content the PMSM and BDCM have a higher torque-to-inertia ratio
are obtainable from hysteresis or PWM current controllers than the induction motor [2].
such that the copper losses are essentially determined by the Speed Range
fundamental component of current. If the peak current is I,, ,
Servo drives operate in the constant torque mode of opera-
then the RMS current is Zpl/d2, and the machine copper
tion from zero to rated speed and in the constant power mode
losses are given by 3(Zpl /J2)2R,, where R , is the phase-A
of operation from rated to maximum speed. In the constant
resistance.
torque region, the air gap flux is held constant, whereas in
In the case of the BDCM that requires trapezoidal cur-
the constant power region, the air gap flux is weakened by
rents for constant torque, the losses are given by 3 (J21p2/
applying a stator flux in opposition to the rotor magnet flux.
J3)2R,, where Zp2 is the peak of the trapezoidal current.
This is also known as armature reaction and is illustrated in
Hence, assuming that the core losses of the two machines are
Fig. 4.
equal and the power density is determined by the copper
During constant flux operation, is is maintained at 90" to
losses
the rotor flux as shown in Fig. 4. In the flux-weakening
3(zpl/t'2)2R, = 3(J21p2/ J 3 ) 2 R , ( 1 ) mode, is is maintained at an angle greater than 90" from the
Zpl /J2 = J2Zp2 /J3
rotor flux. This allows a component of stator current id to
(2)
create a stator flux that opposes the rotor flux, and hence,
I,, = 2Zp2 / J 3 = 1 . 15Zp2. ( 3 ) air-gap flux weakening is obtained.
Now the ratio of the BDCM output power to the PMSM The magnitude of is, which is the vector sum of the direct
output power is given by and quadrature axis stator currents, has a fixed continuous
rating during steady-state operation. This can be exceeded for
2EpZp2/(3EpZPl/ J 2 J 2 = 4EpJ3Zpl/6EpZpl = 1.15 ( 4 ) short periods of time during transients. If a higher speed
that is, the BDCM is capable of supplying 15% more power range is required, a larger negative id is needed in order to
than the PMSM from the same frame size, that is, the power reduce the air-gap flux and i, should be lowered in order to
density can be 15% larger, provided the core losses are ensure that the continuous rating of is is not exceeded. The
equal. speed capability of a permanent magnet motor drive when
this method of flux weakening is used can be determined
Torque to Inertia Ratio from the two axis equations as follows [14]:
Since it is possible to get 15% more power out of the
BDCM, it is also possible to obtain 15% more electric torque + +
(0.636V/X,)2 = i i ( X d ( i d W ~ A , ~ / X , ) / X , ()5~)
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990 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 21, NO. 5, SEPTEMBERIOCTOBER 1991
O0 270' 540'
(a)
(b)
Fig. 4. Vector diagram of the PMSM during (a) constant flux and (b)
flux-weakening operation.
I (b)
where V is the dc bus voltage, X , , X , are the stator d, q Fig. 5. (a) PMSM back emf and current waveforms and (b) BDCM
axis reactances, i d , i, are the stator d , q axis currents, w e is waveforms during flux-weakening operation.
the inverter frequency, and Xu, is the mutual flux linkage
between the rotor and stator due to the magnet. By setting whereas i d , and i d B are the direct axis currents of the
i, = 0 and id equal to the continuous current rating of the PMSM and BDCM, respectively. Therefore, the speed range
machine, the inverter frequency and, hence, motor speed can of a PMSM would be higher than that of a BDCM of the
then be determined. Since the motor is locked in at the same parameters. The speed range of a permanent-magnet
synchronous speed, the actual maximum motor speed is given machine therefore depends on the motor parameters, its
by w e / P , where P is the number of pole pairs. For typical current rating, the back emf waveform, and the maximum
PM motor parameters, it has been found that [15] around 1.5 output voltage from the inverter.
times rated speed can be attained. In practice, it would be
difficult to force is to operate at 180" to the magnet flux, and Torque Per Unit Current
the practical maximum speed would be less than that obtained Very often, servo motor drives are operated to produce the
in (5). maximum torque per unit current out of the machine. This is
The above discussion applies equally well to the PMSM done because by minimizing the input current for a given
and the BDCM. The practical limitation on the maximum torque, the copper, inverter, and rectifier losses are mini-
speed is obtained when the back emf of each machine be- mized. In addition, lower current ratings of the inverter and
comes equal to that of the dc bus. Because of the difference rectifier are needed for a given output; this reduces the
in the waveshape of the back emf of the PMSM and the overall cost of the system.
BDCM, the voltdrop that is available to force current flow is The torque-angle curve of a PM machine is shown in Fig.
different in each machine in a given period, as shown in Fig. 6 . The total motor torque consists of electric and reluctance
5. Fig. 5(a) shows the desired current relative to the back torque components. The electric torque is produced as a
emf in order to obtain the maximum speed in the PMSM. At result of the interaction of the stator current with the airgap
this operating point, the peak of the back emf is equal to that flux while the reluctance torque is produced as a result of
of dc bus. In the BDCM, on the other hand, current can only reluctance variation due to rotor saliency. As shown in the
be forced into the motor when the back emf is less than the vector diagram of Fig. 4, the d axis is chosen to be aligned
dc bus voltage, as shown in Fig. 5(b). Assuming that the along the magnet axis. The permeability of the magnet in the
forced current is rectangular in shape, with a peak equal to d axis is approximately that of air. If the length of the airgap
the rated value of the BDCM, it is possible to find the on the quadrature axis is equal to that of the magnet plus air
fundamental component of this current, which becomes id in gap on the direct axis, then there is no appreciable reluctance
(5) with i, = 0. Comparing a PMSM and a BDCM with the difference between the d and q axes. Hence, the reluctance
same parameters, but taking into account the current wave- torque is approximately zero, and the total motor torque is
forms shown in Fig. 5 , from ( 5 ) , it can be shown that equal to the electric torque only, where the maximum is
produced at a 6 of 90°, i.e., when is is perpendicular to the
@ e P / w e B = fo'( - ' d i d B ) / ( 'uf - L d i d P ) = 1*46 ( 6 ) rotor flux. This is normally true of projecting surface-mounted
for the motor parameters given in Appendix I. o e pand oeB machines. In buried permanent-magnet machines, however,
are the maximum PMSM and BDCM synchronous speeds, the reluctance variation between the d and q axes can be
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PILLAY AND KRISHNAN: APPLICATION CHARACTERISTICS OF dc MOTORS FOR SERVO DRIVES 99 1
,
The equation for the total torque produced by a PM machine
is as follows:
I 2
3 4
The equation for the electric torque only, which is produced Kqd
at an angle of 90", is Fig. 7 . Ratio of total torque over electric torque as a function of inductance
ratio.
T, = 3P(Xafi,sin6)/2. (8)
Hence, the ratio of the total to the electric torque is vector can be determined from the above equations and
T f / T , = 1 + ( L d - L,)i,sin26/(2Xafsin6). (9) graphs.
When comparing a PMSM and a BDCM that have the
Since L, is always less than or equal to L,, this ratio is same peak value of back emf, the torque/(unit peak current)
always greater than or equal to 1 if 6 is greater than or equal is higher in the BDCM by a factor of 1.33. It is assumed here
to 90" and less than 180". Defining the ratio of the quadra- that the peak of the sinusoidal current of the PMSM equals
ture to direct axis inductances as K q d ,a graph of T, / T, as a the peak of the rectangular current of the BDCM. The factor
function of K,, is given in Fig. 7. Values of Kqd up to 2.5 of 1.33 comes from finding the fundamental component of
have been practically realized in buried permanent-magnet the rectangular current waveform of the BDCM since it is the
machines, whereas this value is approximately 1 for surface- product of the fundamental component of current and the
mounted machines. Hence, the range of K,, considered is fundamental component of the back emf that develops the
from 1 to 3. From the graph, it is clear that for a K,, of 3, steady torque in the BDCM.
the total torque produced from the motor can be 40% larger
than the electric torque alone. This value of K q d would exist Braking
only in buried PM machines, whereas for inset PM surface- Since both the PMSM and the BDCM have permanent-
mounted machines, the total torque can be 10-15% larger magnet excitation, braking in inherently easier than with
than the electric torque. It should be remembered that this drives that face the possibility of loss of excitation due to a
improvement in the torque is a result only of changing the power supply failure. Hence, all the advantages and disad-
location of the stator current vector from 90" to a value vantages that apply to the PMSM also apply to the BDCM.
larger than 90" with the magnitude of the current vector In both the PMSM and the BDCM, braking can be achieved
remaining constant. The actual angle that provides this maxi- by adding a resistor in series with a transistor, which are
mum torque can be obtained by finding the first derivative of connected just before the inverter power circuit. During
(7) and setting it to zero to obtain motoring operation, this transistor is off, thus disconnecting
COS 6 = - X - J ( X 2 + 0.5) the resistor from the supply. During braking, the rectifier is
turned off, and the braking transistor is turned on in conjunc-
X = Xaf/(4(~,- ~ q ) i s ) * ( 10) tion with the inverter power transistors. The trapped energy
Hence, for maximum torque per ampere rating, and given the in the motor forces a current to flow through the motor coils
quadrature-to-direct axis inductance ratio, the torque en- and through the braking resistor. Braking is achieved by the
hancement and the angular position of the stator current dissipation of heat in the braking resistor.
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992 IEEE TRANSACTIObIS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 21, NO. 5 , SEPTEMBERIOCTOBER 1991
0
Cogging and Ripple Torques N I '
shape rather than the desired rectangular shape needed for Fig. 9. Start-up torque of a BDCM.
constant torque. It is this deviation that causes the BDCM to
exhibit commutation torque ripples that are absent in the current controllers. These can be reduced by using smaller
PMSM drive. At high speeds, these ripples would be filtered hysteresis windows or a higher PWM switching frequency.
out by the rotor inertia, but at low speeds, they can affect the However, the torque pulsations in Fig. 11 due to the commu-
performance of the drive severely. In particular, the accuracy tation of the phase currents are clearly evident and are much
and repeatability of position servo performance would deteri- larger than that produced as a result of the current controller
orate. It should be noted that in addition to the current action.
deviating from the desired rectangular shape, the actual This phenomenon has been observed by others [5]. It is
current oscillates around the reference value at a high fre- therefore preferable to use the BDCM for lower performance
quency, depending on the size of the hysteresis bands in a speed servos and position servos of low resolution, whereas
hysteresis current controller or the switching frequency of a the PMSM should be used for high-performance speed and
ramp comparison controller. The net effect of this high- position servo applications like robotics. This is a significant
frequency current oscillation is to produce a high-frequency advantage of the PMSM over the BDCM.
oscillation in the torque, the magnitude of which would be
lower than that produced by the commutation of the current. Choice of Feedback Devices
This high-frequency torque oscillation is also present in the The fact that the PMSM requires sinusoidal currents while
PMSM since a hysteresis or ramp comparison current con- the BDCM requires rectangular currents leads to differences
troller is also needed here to maintain the current flowing into in the feedback devices necessary for the proper operation of
the motor as close to sinusoids as possible. In practice, these these machines. The current conduction pattern in the BDCM
torque oscillations are small and of sufficiently high fre- is as follows: Each phase conducts for 120" and then remains
quency that they are easily damped out by the rotor inertia. nonconducting for 60". Current transitions occur every elec-
Figs. 8 and 9 show the starting torque of the PMSM and trical 60"; therefore, it is only necessary to detect these
BDCM, respectively. Both are subject to the high-frequency points on the periphery of the motor to commutate the
torque pulsations due to the hysteresis or ramp comparison currents. Hence, rotor position detectors are needed only
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PILLAY AND KRISHNAN: APPLICATION CHARACTERISTICS OF dc MOTORS FOR SERVO DRIVES 993
every electrical 60"; in addition, only two phases conduct at parameter sensitivity that can be experienced in a buried
any given time. The PMSM, however, requires sinusoidal PMSM is studied next [14].
currents, the magnitudes of which depend on the instanta- Parameter sensitivity effects in a servo drive can be studied
neous rotor position. All three phases conduct simultane- with the speed loop open (torque servo) or with the speed
ously, and a continuous rotor position feedback is needed. If loop closed (speed servo). By expressing the actual machine
the PMSM is being used as a position servo, then the angular variable with parameter change over the original unchanged
position encoder used for rotor position feedback can be used variable, normalized curves are generated that give an indica-
for commutation purposes as well, and there is no advantage tion of how other machines of different power ratings would
of the BDCM over the PMSM in this regard. However, for behave. The ambient or unsaturated value of a variable is
speed servos, the high-resolution rotor position transducer is superscripted with a "*." This is referred to as a reference
still necessary in the PMSM, whereas the low-resolution value.
transducer would suffice in the BDCM. This makes the Saturation on the q axis of the machine is represented by
BDCM preferable for speed servos, provided the commuta- defining the variable P , where /3 is the ratio of the saturated
tion induced torque ripple is tolerable. q-axis inductance to the unsaturated value. Similarly, the
Two current transducers would suffice in either drive since reduction of magnet flux linkage as temperature increases is
in the BDCM, the current in one conducting phase is the represented by defining the variable CY to be the ratio of the
negative of the other, whereas in the PMSM, the sum of the magnet flux at elevated temperature to the value at ambient.
three phase currents must equal zero. Hence, the third phase P can range from 0.7 to 1.0, indicating as much as a 30%
current can always be inferred from the other two phases. reduction in the q-axis reactance, particularly for machines
with a cage rotor, whereas for low-performance magnets like
Parameter Sensitivity ferrite, CY can be as low as 0.75, indicating a 25% loss in
Parameter changes in all electrical machines occur due to magnet flux. Hence, the range of P chosen is 0.6 to 1.0 and
changes in temperature, current level, and operating fre- that of CY is 0.7 to 1.0. This study in parameter sensitivity is
quency [ 181. In permanent-magnet machines, an increase in carried out at the maximum torquelunit current point, which
temperature results in a partial loss of flux density of the can be calculated from (10).
permanent magnets and an increase in stator resistance. If the Fig. 10 shows the ratio of the actual torque to the reference
permanent-magnet machines are rated at the maximum oper- value as a function of a , with 0 varying between 0.6 and 1.
ating temperature, then at ambient temperature, higher than For a given value of a , a larger /3 results in a larger value of
rated output would be obtainable due to the increase in flux the ratio between the actual and reference torques. In fact, a
density relative to the rated conditions. Conversely, if the change in /3 of 0.2 produces approximately a 0.1 p.u. change
machine is rated at ambient temperature, the output at ele- in T, / T;" for a given a. This is because an increase in the
vated temperatures would be reduced. saturation (lower P ) results in a lower reluctance torque
Higher-than-rated current values saturate the machine in- component. The stator current magnitude is held at 1 p.u. in
ductances. The saturation of the leakage inductances would this study.
cause a reduction in their value, thus allowing a greater Fig. 11 shows the same results as Fig. 10 but with the x
potential difference between the dc bus and the back emf and, axis as /3 and with CY varying between 0.7 and 1. This is
hence, providing greater current control. done so that the application engineer need not have to back
Changes in machine parameters (notably stator resistance) calculate these values from Fig. 10. Fig. 12 shows the effects
due to increase in frequency is a secondary effect and can be of different stator current magnitudes on T, 1 T,*. At higher
taken into account at the system design stage for proper currents, the reduction in T, f T: is lower for a given a . This
performance. The majority of permanent-magnet machines is because the reluctance torque increases as a square of the
are surface mounted [ 171. Hence, the reluctance torque term current, whereas the electric torque increases only linearly.
in (7) is essentially zero, and the motor torque is produced by Hence, the effect of the reduction of magnet flux with tem-
the interaction of the magnet flux and stator current vector. perature is less on the total motor torque at higher current
During current source operation, i s is controlled, but the levels.
magnet flux can change due to changes in temperature. This In a closed-loop speed servo, the speed controller ensures
is true of both the PMSM and the BDCM, and hence, each that the actual motor torque equals that of the load. However,
machine is equally sensitive to parameter changes in the due to parameter changes, the reference torque will have to
magnet flux due to temperature changes. Depending on the be different from the actual value, the difference being depen-
type of magnet, a 100" increase in the temperature can dent on the load torque. As P reduces, higher values of the
produce a 2 to 20% loss in magnet flux for samarium cobalt reference torque is needed. This is because the reluctance
and ferrite magnets, respectively. Since the PMSM is capable torque contribution to the total motor torque is reduced as /3
of a higher speed range than the BDCM, it tends to be used reduces. Similarly, the electric torque is reduced as a re-
for high-speed applications. It may then become desirable to duces, again demanding a larger reference torque for a given
use a buried magnet configuration to make the machine more load torque.
mechanically robust. In this case, the reluctance torque term Rectifier 1Inverter Rating
in (7) is not negligible and saturation of the machine induc- For the inverter circuit given in Fig. 3, the reverse block-
tances can affect the total output torque. The degree of ing capability of the transistors is not of particular importance
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994 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 21, NO. 5 , SEPTEMBERIOCTOBER 1991
Fig. 10. Torque reduction as a function of flux-reduction coefficient. machine. Let a given inverter have a continuous current
rating of I,,, and suppose it can tolerate a maximum back
emf of Ep for proper current control. Then, when driving a
PMSM, the maximum possible output is
3E, I, / J 2 J 2 = 3E, Zp 12.
0.9.. If it drives a BDCM, then the output is 2 E,, Zp. Therefore, a
given current-regulated inverter (ramp comparison or hys-
teresis), with a continuous current rating of I,, can drive a
BDCM of 33% higher power output than a PMSM. This
T- 0.8- value would be reduced somewhat by the increased core
losses of BDCM, as will be discussed in the next section.
The rectifier must be capable of holding the dc bus voltage
within limits while the inverter is supplying its peak current
0.7- capability. Since in this section the comparison was done on
the basis of the inverter supplying the same peak current, the
rating of the rectifier is the same whether a BDCM or a
PMSM is used.
0.67-
1 : Losses and Thermal Capability
0.6 0.8 I .o
5 The electrical losses in a PM machine takes two forms:
copper and core. Copper losses are fairly easy to compute,
Fig. 11. Torque reduction as a function of the saturation coefficient.
given the stator resistance and the magnitude and shape of the
even during freewheeling or braking. The inverter device stator current. Core losses are much more difficult to calcu-
ratings that are of interest are the forward voltage blocking late because they are dependent on the molecular characteris-
and the current rating. Generally, current ratings of interest tics of the steel, whether the magnetization is pulsating or
are the continuous and the pulsed values. When the com- rotating, and is quite heavily dependent on the ability of the
manded torque of the servo is much larger than the actual manufacturer to prevent burrs that form short circuits be-
value, i.e., during startup, the peak current rating of the tween adjacent laminations. The core losses can be divided
motor can be demanded for extended periods of time. The into hysteresis and eddy currents. For sinusoidal excitation,
BDCM requires a trapezoidal current, and the continuous the hysteresis loss is given by
rating of the inverter should be the peak of this waveform. Ph = K , f B x W l k g ( 12)
On the other hand, the PMSM requires sinusoidal currents.
However, for a zero speed command, dc currents flow in the where x lies between 0.5 and 2.3 and is normally around 2.
PMSM (which can also be considered to be the ac of zero The eddy current loss is given by
frequency). Hence, the continuous rating of the inverter must P, = K , f 2 B 2 .
be the peak of the sinusoid. Current control in a current-regu- (13)
lated inverter is only maintained if there is sufficient voltage In the PMSM, the flux density is sinusoidal, whereas in the
differential between the dc bus and the back emf of the BDCM, it is trapezoidal. Each of the harmonics of the flux
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-
PILLAY AND KRISHNAN: APPLICATION CHARACTERISTICS OF dc MOTORS FOR SERVO DRIVES 995
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996 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 21, NO. 5, SEPTEMBERIOCTOBER 1991
Authorized licensed use limited to: Indian Institute of Technology (ISM) Dhanbad. Downloaded on January 30,2024 at 04:08:33 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.