THE SPIRAL STAIRCASE (ppt) DNA strands wraps around proteins called

HISTONES.
DNA STRUCTURE - carries the genetic NUCLEOSOME – DNA strands and histones
information of an organism. Plays an The nucleosomes form a thicker strand
important role in the transfer of genetic called CHROMATIN.
materials from parents to offspring. During mitosis and meiosis, the chromatin
- found in the nucleus. coils again to form a thicker, more visible
- codes for genes. structure called CHROMOSOME.
- controls protein synthesis.
Complex biomolecules - nucleotides – 3 *WAYS in which chromosomes can be
components changed
Has two strands  Deletion
Prior to cell division, the cell makes a copy  Inversion
of its DNA through REPLICATICATION.  Translocation
 Duplication
PROKARYOTES – cytoplasm
EUKARYOTES – nucleus GENETIC ABNORMALITITES:
DNA Replication begins - unwinding of the Aneuploidy
double helix - monosomy
- Strands separate. - trisomy
- Unwound strand is kept apart. Inherited genetic disorder can be:
- Each strand is used as a template for new a. autosomal dominant
strand. b. autosomal recessive
- An enzyme moves along the exposed c. x-linked recessive
strands and add new nucleotides.
- one strand of DNA is in a 5’ to 3’direction (BOOK)
which is called the LEADING STRAND -
where synthesis of the new strands DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID (DNA) -
continues. biomoclecule that has an essential role on
- The other is the lagging strand in the 3’ to how or cells produce proteins.
5’ direction and is synthesized in fragments. - described as double helix, whose structure
is similar to a ladder.
MUTATIONS

GENE MUTATION - only one gene is

affected.
a. point mutation
b. frameshift mutation

Causes of mutation:
 radiation
 environmental agents – x-ray and uv
rays
 certain food additives
 drugs
 toxic chemicals 1995 - Frederick Griffiith
He hypothesized that there is a factor that
CHROMOSOMES - made up of nucleic acids can change a harmless bacteria into a
and proteins tightly packed together harmful one.
Structure starts with the DNA molecule 1944 - Oswald Avery
itself Discovered that the “transforming factor” is
the DNA.
1950 - Erwin Chargaff
Introduced the “Chargaff’s Rule,” which is
the basis of the base paring nucleotides.
1952 - Alfred Hershey & Martha Chase
Concluded that DNA is the genetic material
present in bacteriophages.
1952 - Rosalind Franklin & Maurice Wilkins
Studied the structure of DNA using x-ray
diffraction technique.
1953 - Francis Crick & James Watson
Created double-helix model of the DNA.
Every organism has DNA. DNA contains the
genes that carry the genetic information
that can be passed on from one generation
to another. DNA is made up of
nucleotides. Also contains nitrogen bases
that extend sideways. Each nucleotides
consists of a five-carbon sugar called
DEOXYRIBOSE (deoxy - means “without
oxygen”).
FOUR NITROGEN BASES
1. CYTOSINE ( C )
2. GUANINE (G)
3. ANDENINE (A)
4. THYMINE (T)
*G & A is considered as PURINES - because
their structures has two wings.
C & T are PYRAMIDINES - because their
structure has one ring.
DNA REPLICATION
REPLICATION - process wherein DNA
produces new copies of itself.
*this process is describes ad
semiconservative because, after DNA
replication, the mew copies contains both
old and the new strand.
A helicase (an enzyme) will attach to one
part of the DNA and opens it op (unzip),
exposing the nitrogenous bases. The
unxzipped parts will constitute the leading
strand and the lagging strand. The
ribonucleic acid primer will attach to one
part of the leading strand in a 3’->5’ (the
apostrophe is read as prime). It will
synthesized continuously by DNA
polymerase (another enzyme). this happens
simultaneously with the lagging strand of
the DNA in a 3’->5’ direction. Because
lagging srand cannot be synthesized
continuously, it creates Okazaki fragments,
which will be joines together by another
enzyme called DNA ligase.
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
RIBONUCLEIC ACID (RNA) - copies the
nucleotic sequence of DNA. Is a single-
stranded and is made op of a phospate
group and a five-carbon sugar called ribose.
It is also made of nitrogenous bases:
cytosine, guanine, adenine and uracil (U)
Parts of RNA:
1. MESSENGER RNA (mRNA) - acts as a
“messenger” that copies that nucleotic
sequence of the DNA inside the nucleus and
carries it out of the cytoplasm.
2. RIBOSOMAL RNA (rRNA) - site where the
proteins are assembled.
3. TRANSFER RNA (tRNA) - carries amino
acids and transfers them to the ribosome.
TRANSCRIPTION - protein synthesis starts
with this. This happens when the mRNA
enters the nuclues and copies the
nucleotide sequence of the DNA.
RNA POLYMERASE - attaches to one part of
DNA during transcription where promoter is
located.
During initiation, the RNA polymerase
attaches to the promoter in the DNA, which
will signal the start of RNA synthesis.
During elongation, the mRNA strand starts
to separate from the DNA template,
carrying with it the copied nucleotide
sequences.
Termination, the RNA polymerase reaches
the part of the DNA template called
terminator. This indicates the end part of
the DNA to be copied, allowing the
polymerase to detach from the RNA and
the DNA strand.
the mRNA). The mRNA n the ribosome will
be joined by a tRNAm carrying the
anticodon UAC that will complement the
codon AUG in the mRNA. This will produce
the amino acid methionine. This happens in
the P site. Meanwhile, another tRNA
carrying a different anticodon is waiting at
the A Site. The first tRNA moves to the E
site, transferring the amino acid to the next
tRNA that will occupy the P site. Translation
process will coninue until the ribosome
reaches the stop codon (UAA, UAG, or
UGA) in the mRNA. The long polypeptide
chain will then be released.
The process of transcription and translation
constitute the central dogma of molecular
biology, wherein the DNA is transcripted to
RNA, which will be translated into amino
acids, which makes up proteins.

TRANSLATION - the nucleotide sequence

carried by the mRNA will be used in the
process. Translation begins once mRNA
attachs to a ribosome.

THREE BINDING SITES in a ribosome:

1. PEPTIDYL-tRNA BINDING SITE (P Site) -
where tRNA of a growing chain of amino
acid or polypeptide chain is located.
2. AMINOACYL-tRNA BINDING SITE (A Site)
- which holds the RNA that carries the next
amino acid that will be added to the chain
and the exit site (E Site)
3. EXIT SITE (E SIte) - serves as a holding
place for the disharged tRNA before leaving
the riosome.

During translation, a tRNA carries anticodon

made ip of an amino acid and three
nitrogenous bases, which will complement
a codon (a set of three nitrogenous bases in
MUTATIONS

MUTATIONS - any incorrect pairing of

bases.

TWO TYPES OF MUTATION:

1. GENE MUTATION
2. CHROMOSOMAL MUTATION

GENE - a sequence of DNA that determines

a trait.
CHROMOSOME - be found inside the
nucleus, contains the genes, which are
transmitted from one generation to
another, especially during cell production.
CHROMOSOMAL MUTATION - either the
structure of the number of the
chromosome is affected.

KARYOTYPING - is easily check if there is a

problem in a complete set of human
chromosomes. It is a process.
- a process wherein the
chromosomes of an organism are arranged
by pairs, according to size and structure. It
is done in a medical or scientific laboratory
where a cultured blood sample is placed in
the centrifuge to separate the blood cells
from the fluid.

GENE MUTATION - affects the nucleotide

sequence in a gene.