1

Internship Project
On

Nuclear Energy
For the partial fulfilment for the award of the degree of

Bachelor in Science

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
LUCKNOW UNIVERSITY
SESSION 2023-2024

SUBMITTED TO: SUBMITTED BY:

Dr. Vivek Kumar Singh Insha Alam
Professor Roll No. -2110011016832
Lucknow University Sem- V

Professor Signature Student Signature

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Abstract

I Insha Alam of BSc Semester V has completed my internship project on the topic “Nuclear Energy” allotted to me by
the department of Physics. I would like to convey my heartfelt gratitude to Dr. Vivek Kumar Singh (Professor of
Physics Department, Lucknow University) for providing me with this wonderful opportunity to work on this project. The
completion of the project would not have been possible without their help and insights. This project is the compilation of
my hard work and the tremendous guidance of the professor. I would like to acknowledge that this project was completed
and entirely by me and not by someone else.

Lastly, we would like to thank our families and friends for their unwavering support and understanding during the project.
Their encouragement provided the motivation needed to overcome challenges and persevere in our pursuit of knowledge.

This project has been an enriching experience, and we are thankful for the opportunity to delve into the complexities of
nuclear energy. The collective efforts of everyone involved have made this project a success.
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Table of Content
S.No. Title Page No.
1. Nuclear Energy 4-5

2. Nuclear Fission Mechanism

2.1 Radio Active Decay
6-16
2.2 Nuclear Reaction
2.3 Energetics
2.4 Binding Energy
2.5 Chain Reactions

3. Types of Nuclear Reactor 17-25

3.1 Pressurized Water Reactor
3.2 Boiling Water Reactor
3.3 Fast Breeder Reactor

4. Nuclear Fuel Cycle 26-33

4.1 Uranium Mining
4.2 Uranium Milling
4.3 Uranium Conversion
4.4 Uranium Enrichment
4.5 Uranium Reconversion and Nuclear Fuel Fabrication
4.6 At the Reactor
4.7 The Back and of the Nuclear Fuel Cycle

5. Future Aspects of Nuclear 34-35

Power
5.1 Energy by Fusion

6. Conclusion 36

7. References 37
4

Nuclear Energy

Introduction to Nuclear Energy: Powering the Future

In the quest for reliable, efficient, and sustainable sources of energy, humanity has continually sought innovative solutions
to meet the escalating global demand for electricity while curbing the adverse impacts of fossil fuel consumption. Amidst
this pursuit, nuclear energy has emerged as a formidable contender, wielding immense potential as a potent alternative to
traditional energy sources.

Nuclear energy harnesses the latent power residing within the atomic nucleus, unlocking a highly concentrated form of
energy through the process of nuclear fission. This transformative discovery, born from scientific revelations in the early
20th century, revolutionized the way societies perceive and utilize energy. The revelation of nuclear fission by Otto Hahn
and Fritz Strassman in the late 1930s, followed by the controlled nuclear chain reaction achieved by Enrico Fermi in
1942, paved the way for a paradigm shift in power generation.

The heart of nuclear energy lies in specialized facilities known as nuclear reactors, each designed meticulously to leverage
the heat generated from nuclear fission for multifaceted applications. Predominantly, these reactors serve as the
powerhouse for electricity generation. Among the varied reactor designs, the Boiling Water Reactor (BWR) stands as a
prominent exemplar, exemplifying the application of nuclear science in converting thermal energy into electrical power.

BWRs operate on the fundamental principle of controlled nuclear reactions, predominantly employing enriched uranium
fuel. Within these reactors, the fissile uranium atoms split, releasing an enormous quantum of heat energy. This released
thermal energy brings water to a boiling point, generating steam. The resultant high-pressure steam propels turbines that,
in turn, drive electrical generators, ultimately producing substantial amounts of electricity.

The allure of nuclear energy extends beyond its prowess in electricity generation. It presents an enticing prospect for
combating climate change due to its relatively low carbon emissions when compared to conventional fossil fuels. This
potential to mitigate environmental impacts by reducing greenhouse gas emissions has positioned nuclear energy as a
valuable player in the pursuit of cleaner, more sustainable energy sources.

However, the utilization of nuclear energy does not come devoid of challenges and controversies. Safety concerns loom
large, encompassing fears of catastrophic accidents, stringent nuclear waste disposal requirements, high initial
construction costs, and persistent public apprehensions regarding the inherent risks associated with nuclear power
5

generation.

Despite these challenges, the landscape of nuclear energy continually evolves, bolstered by technological advancements
and the pursuit of enhanced safety measures and innovative reactor designs. Governments, industries, and research
institutions worldwide persevere in their quest to refine nuclear energy technologies, aiming to strike an equilibrium
between reaping its considerable benefits and ensuring stringent safety protocols and stringent regulatory oversight.

In summation, nuclear energy epitomizes a significant and contentious frontier in the realm of power generation. Its
potential to revolutionize the energy sector, significantly mitigate climate change, and offer substantial electricity
generation capacities must harmonize with comprehensive safety measures and stringent regulatory frameworks. The
responsible and prudent utilization of nuclear energy stands as an imperative commitment in the global quest for a
sustainable and diversified energy portfolio.
6

Nuclear Fission Mechanism

Younes and Loveland define fission as, "...a collective motion of the protons and neutrons that make
up the nucleus, and as such it is distinguishable from other phenomena that break up the nucleus.
Nuclear fission is an extreme example of large- amplitude collective motion that results in the
division of a parent nucleus into two or more fragment nuclei. The fission process can occur
spontaneously, or it can be induced by an incident particle." Most of the energy from fission, about 85
percent, is found in fragment kinetic energy, while about 6 percent each comes from initial neutrons

and gamma rays, then Beta decay neutrons and gamma rays, plus about 3 percent from β decay
neutrino.

Fission product yields by mass for thermal neutron fission of uranium-235,

plutonium-239, a combination of the two typical of current nuclear power reactors,
and uranium-233 used in the thorium cycle.

2.1 Radioactive decay

Nuclear fission can occur without neutron bombardment as a type of radioactive

decay. This type of fission is called spontaneous fission, and was first observed in
1940.

2.2 Nuclear reaction

During induced fission, a compound system is formed after an incident particle fuses
with a target. The resultant excitation energy may be sufficient to emit neutrons, or
7

gamma-rays, and nuclear scission. Fission into two fragments, binary fission, is the most
common nuclear reaction. Occurring least frequently is ternary fission, in which a third

particle is emitted. This third particle is commonly an α particle.[4]:21–24 Since in nuclear

fission, the nucleus emits more neutrons than the one it absorbs, a chain reaction is
possible.

The most common fission process is binary fission, and it produces the fission
products noted above, at 95±15 and 135±15 u. However, the binary process
happens merely because it is the most probable. In anywhere from 2 to 4 fissions
per 1000 in a nuclear reactor, a process called ternary fission produces three
positively charged fragments (plus neutrons) and the smallest of these may range
from so small a charge and mass as a proton (Z = 1), to as large a fragment as
argon (Z = 18). The most common small fragments, however, are composed of 90%
helium-4 nuclei with more energy than alpha particles from alpha decay (so-called
"long range alphas" at ~ 16 MeV), plus helium-6 nuclei, and tritons (the nuclei of
tritium). The ternary process is less common, but still ends up producing significant
helium-4 and tritium gas buildup in the fuel rods of modern nuclear reactors.

Bohr and Wheeler used their liquid drop model, the packing fraction curve of Arthur
Jeffrey Dempster, and Eugene Feenberg's estimates of nucleus radius and surface tension,
to estimate the mass differences of parent and daughters in fission. They then equated this
mass difference to energy using Einstein's mass-energy equivalence formula. The
stimulation of the nucleus after neutron bombardment was analogous to the vibrations of
a liquid drop, with surface tension and the Coulomb force in opposition. Plotting the sum
of these two energies as a function of elongated shape, they determined the resultant
energy surface had a saddle shape. The
saddle provided an energy barrier called the critical energy barrier. Energy of about 6 MeV
provided by the incident neutron was necessary to overcome this barrier and cause the
nucleus to fission. According to John Lilley, "The energy required to overcome the barrier
to fission is called the activation energy or fission barrier and is about 6 MeV for A~240. It
is found that the activation energy decreases as A increases. Eventually, a point is reached
where activation energy disappears altogether...it would undergo very rapid spontaneous
fission."[9]

Maria Goeppert Mayer later proposed the nuclear shell model for the nucleus. The
chemical element isotopes that can sustain a fission chain reaction are called
nuclear fuels, and are said to be 'fissile'. The most common nuclear fuels are 235U
8

(the isotope of uranium with mass number 235 and of use in nuclear reactors) and
239

Pu (the isotope of plutonium with mass number 239). These fuels break apart into
a bimodal range of chemical elements with atomic masses centering near 95 and
135 u (fission products). Most nuclear fuels undergo spontaneous fission only very
slowly, decaying instead mainly via an alpha-beta decay chain over periods of
millennia to Ions. In a nuclear reactor or nuclear weapon, the overwhelming majority
of fission events are induced by bombardment with another particle, a neutron, which
is itself produced by prior fission events.

Fissionable isotopes such as uranium-238 require additional energy provided by fast

neutrons (such as those produced by nuclear fusion in thermonuclear weapons). While
some of the neutrons released from the fission of 238
U are fast enough to induce another fission in 238
U, most are not, meaning it can never achieve criticality. While there is a very small (albeit
nonzero) chance of a thermal neutron induced fission in 238
U, neutron absorption is orders of magnitude more likely.

2.3 Energetics
Input

The stages of binary fission in a liquid drop model. Energy input deforms the nucleus into a fat "cigar"
shape, then a "peanut" shape, followed by binary fission as the two lobes exceed the short-range nuclear
force attraction distance, then are pushed apart and away by their electrical charge. In the liquid drop
model, the two fission fragments are predicted to be the same size. The nuclear shell modelallows for them
to differ in size, as usually experimentally observed.
9

Fission cross sections are a measurable property related to the probability that
fission will occur in a nuclear reaction. Cross sections are a function of incident
neutron energy, and those for U-235 and Pu-239 are a million times higher than
U-238 at lower neutron energy levels. Absorption of any neutron makes
available to the nucleus binding energy of about 5.3 MeV. U238 needs a fast
neutron to supply the additional 1 MeV needed to cross the critical energy
barrier for fission. In the case of U235 however, that extra energy is provided
when U235 adjusts from an odd to an even mass. In the words of Younes and
Lovelace, "...the neutron absorption on a 235U target forms a 236U nucleus with
excitation energy greater than the critical fission energy, whereas in the case of n
238
+ U, the resulting 239.The U nucleus has an excitation energy below the
critical fission energy."

About 6 MeV of the fission-input energy is supplied by the simple binding of an extra
neutron to the heavy nucleus via the strong force; however, in many fissionable
isotopes, this amount of energy is not enough for fission. Uranium-238, for example,
has a near-zero fission cross section for neutrons of less than 1 MeV energy. If no
additional energy is supplied by any other mechanism, the nucleus will not fission,
238
but will merely absorb the neutron, as happens when U absorbs slow and even
239
some fraction of fast neutrons, to become U. The remaining energy to initiate
fission can be supplied by two other mechanisms: one of these is more kinetic
energy of the incoming neutron, which is increasingly able to fission a fissionable
heavy nucleus as it exceeds a kinetic energy of 1 MeV or more (so-called fast
238
neutrons). Such high energy neutrons are able to fission U directly (see
thermonuclear weapon for application, where the fast neutrons are supplied by
nuclear fusion). However, this process cannot happen to a great extent in a nuclear
reactor, as too small a fraction of the fission neutrons produced by any type of fission
238
have enough energy to efficiently fission U (fission neutrons have a mode energy
of 2 MeV, but a median of only 0.75 MeV, meaning half of them have less than this
insufficient energy).

Among the heavy actinide elements, however, those isotopes that have an odd
number of neutrons (such as 235U with 143 neutrons) bind an extra neutron with an
additional 1 to 2 MeV of energy over an isotope of the same element with an even
number of neutrons (such as 238U with 146 neutrons). This extra binding energy is
made available as a result of the mechanism of neutron pairing effects. This extra
energy results from the Pauli exclusion principle allowing an extra neutron to occupy
10

the same nuclear orbital as the last neutron in the nucleus, so thatthe two form a pair.
In such isotopes, therefore, no neutron kinetic energy is needed, for all the necessary energy is supplied by
absorption of any neutron, either of the slow or fast variety (the former are used in moderated nuclear
reactors, and the latter are used in fast-neutron reactors, and in weapons).
235
According to Younes and Loveland, "Actinides like U that fission easily following the absorption of a
238
thermal (0.25 meV) neutron are called fissile, whereas those like U that do not easily fission when they
absorb a thermal neutron are called

fissionable.

Output

After an incident particle has fused with a parent nucleus, if the excitation energy is
sufficient, the nucleus breaks into fragments. This is called scission, and occurs at about
10-20 seconds. The fragments can emit prompt neutrons at between 10-18 and 10-15

seconds. At about 10-11 seconds, the fragments can emit gamma rays. At 10-3 seconds β

decay, β-delayed neutrons, and gamma rays are emitted from the decay products.

Typical fission events release about two hundred million eV (200 MeV) of energy, the
equivalent of roughly >2 trillion kelvin, for each fission event. The exact isotope
which is fissioned, and whether or not it is fissionable or fissile, has only a small
impact on the amount of energy released. This can be easily seen by examining the
curve of binding energy (image below), and noting that the average binding energy
of the actinide nuclides beginning with uranium is around 7.6 MeV per nucleon.
Looking further left on the curve of binding energy, where the fission products cluster,
it is easily observed that the binding energy of the fission products tends to centre
around 8.5 MeV per nucleon. Thus, in any fission event of an isotope in the actinide
mass range, roughly 0.9 MeV are released per nucleon of the starting element. The
fission of 235U by a slow neutron yields nearly identical energy to the fission of 238U by
a fast neutron. This energy release profile holds true for thorium and the various
minor actinides as well. When a uranium nucleus fissions into two daughter nuclei
fragments, about 0.1 percent of the mass of the uranium nucleus appears as the
fission energy of ~200 MeV. For uranium-235 (total mean fission energy 202.79
MeV), typically ~169 MeV appears as the kinetic energy of the daughter nuclei,
which fly apart at about 3% of the speed of light, due to Coulomb repulsion. Also, an
average of 2.5 neutrons are emitted, with a mean kinetic energy per neutron of ~2
MeV (total of 4.8 MeV).[16] The fission reaction also releases ~7 MeV in prompt
gamma ray photons. The latter figure means that a nuclear fission explosion or
11

criticality accident emits about 3.5% of its energy as gamma rays, less than 2.5% of
its energy as fast neutrons (total of both types of radiation ~6%), and the rest as
kinetic energy of fission fragments (this appears almost immediately when the
fragments impact surrounding matter, as simple heat).
Some processes involving neutrons are notable for absorbing or finally yielding
energy — for example neutron kinetic energy does not yield heat immediately if the
neutron is captured by a uranium-238 atom to breed plutonium-239, but this energy
is emitted if the plutonium-239 is later fissioned. On the other hand, so-called
delayed neutrons emitted as radioactive decay products with half-lives up to several
minutes, from fission-daughters, are very important to reactor control, because they
give a characteristic "reaction" time for the total nuclear reaction to double in size, if
the reaction is run in a "delayed-critical" zone which deliberately relies on these
neutrons for a supercritical chain-reaction (one in which each fission cycle yields
more neutrons than it absorbs). Without their existence, the nuclear chain-reaction
would be prompt critical and increase in size faster than it could be controlled by
human intervention. In this case, the first experimental atomic reactors would have
run away to a dangerous and messy "prompt critical reaction" before their operators
could have manually shut them down (for this reason, designer Enrico Fermi
included radiation-counter-triggered control rods, suspended by electromagnets,
which could automatically drop into the centre of Chicago Pile-1). If these
delayed neutrons are captured without producing fissions, they produce heat as
well.

2.4 Binding energy

The "curve of binding energy": A graph of binding energy per nucleon of common
isotopes.

The binding energy of the nucleus is the difference between the rest-mass energy of
12

the nucleus and the rest-mass energy of the neutron and proton nucleons. The
binding energy formula includes volume, surface and Coulomb energy terms that
include empirically derived coefficients for all three, plus energy ratios of a deformed
nucleus relative to a spherical form for the surface and Coulomb terms. Additional
terms can be included such as symmetry, pairing, the finite range of the nuclear
force, and charge distribution within the nuclei to improve the estimate. Normally
binding energy is referred to and plotted as average binding energy per nucleon.
According to Lilley, "The binding energy of a nucleus B is the energy required to
separate it into its constituent neutrons and protons."

BE = (m) c2 = [(Zmp + Nmn) – mtot] c2

where A is mass number, Z is atomic number, mH is the atomic mass of a hydrogen atom,
mn is the mass of a neutron, and c is the speed of light. Thus, the mass of an atom is less
than the mass of its constituent protons and neutrons, and assuming the
average binding energy of its electrons is negligible. The binding energy B is
expressed in energy units, using Einstein's mass-energy equivalence relationship.
The binding energy also provide s an estimate of the total energy released from
fission.
The curve of binding energy is characterized by a broad maximum near mass number 60
at 8.6 MeV, then gradually decreases to 7.6 MeV at the highest mass numbers. Mass
numbers higher than 238 are rare. At the lighter end of the scale, peaks are noted for
helium-4, and the multiples such as beryllium-8, Carbon-12, oxygen-16, neon-20 and
magnesium-24. Binding energy due to the nuclear force approaches a constant value for
large A, while the Coulomb acts over a larger distance so that electrical potential energy
per proton grows as Z increases. Fission energy is released when A is larger than 120
nucleus fragments. Fusion energy is released when lighter nuclei combine.[9]

Carl Friedrich von Weizsäckers semi-empirical mass formula may be used to

express the binding energy as the sum of five terms that includes volume energy, a
surface correction, Coulomb energy, a symmetry term, and a pairing term:
13

where the nuclear binding energy is proportional to the nuclear volume, while nucleons
near the surface interact with fewer nucleons reduces the effect of the volume term.
According to Lilley, "For all naturally occurring nuclei, the
surface-energy term dominates and the nucleus exists in a state of equilibrium." The
negative contribution of Coulomb energy arises from the repulsive electric force of the
protons. The symmetry term arises from the fact that effective forces in the nucleus are
stronger for unlike neutron-proton pairs, rather than like neutron-neutron or proton-
proton pairs. The pairing term arises from the fact that nucleons form spin-zero pairs in
the same spatial state. The pairing is positive if N and Z are both even, adding to the
binding energy.

In fission there is a preference to yield fragments with even proton numbers, which is
called the odd-even effect on the fragments' charge distribution. However, no
odd-even effect is observed on fragment mass number distribution. This result is
attributed to nucleon pair breaking.
In nuclear fission events the nuclei may break into any combination of lighter nuclei,
but the most common event is not fission to equal mass nuclei of about mass 120;
the most common event (depending on isotope and process) is a slightly unequal
fission in which one daughter nucleus has a mass of about 90 to 100 u and the other
the remaining 130 to 140 u.
Stable nuclei, and unstable nuclei with very long Half-lifes, follow a trend of stability
evident when Z is plotted against N. For lighters nuclei less than N pf 20, the line has the
slope n=Z, while the heavier nuclei require additional neutrons to remain stable. Nuclei
that are neutron or proton rich have excessive binding energy for stability, and the excess
energy may convert a neutron to a proton or a neutron to a proton via the weak nuclear
force.

Neutron-induced fission of U-235 emits total energy of 207 MeV, of which about 200
MeV is recoverable, Prompt fission fragments amount to 168 MeV, which are easily
14

stopped with a fraction of a millimeter. Prompt neutrons total 5 MeV, and this energy
is recovered as heat via scattering in the reactor. However, many fission fragments

are neutron rich and decay via β- emissions. According to Lilley, "The radioactive
decay energy from the fission chains is the second release of energy due to fission.
It is much less than the prompt energy, but it is a significant amount and is why
reactors must continue to be cooled after they have been shut down and why the
waste products must be handled with great care and stored safely."

2.5 Chain reactions

A schematic nuclear fission chain reaction. 1. A uranium-235 atom absorbs a neutron

and fissions into two new atoms (fission fragments), releasing three new neutrons and
some binding energy. 2. One of those neutrons is absorbed by an atom of uranium-
238 and does not continue the reaction. Another neutron is simply lost and does not
collide with anything, also not continuing the reaction. However, the one neutron
does collide with an atom of uranium-235, which then fissions and releases two
neutrons and some binding energy. 3. Both of those neutrons collide with uranium-
235 atoms, each of which fissions and releasesbetween one and three neutrons, which
can then continue the reaction.
15

Several heavy elements, such as uranium, thorium, and plutonium, undergo both
spontaneous fission, a form of radioactive decay and induced fission, a form of
nuclear reaction. Elemental isotopes that undergo induced fission when struck by a
free neutron are called fissionable; isotopes that undergo fission when struck by a
slow-moving thermal neutron are also called fissile. A few particularly fissile and
233 235 239
readily obtainable isotopes (notably U, U and Pu) are called nuclear fuels
because they can sustain a chain reaction and can be obtained in large enough
quantities to be useful.
All fissionable and fissile isotopes undergo a small amount of spontaneous fission
which releases a few free neutrons into any sample of nuclear fuel. Such neutrons
would escape rapidly from the fuel and become a free neutron, with a mean lifetime
of about 15 minutes before decaying to protons and beta particles. However,
neutrons almost invariably impact and are absorbed by other nuclei in the vicinity
long before this happens (newly created fission neutrons move at about 7% of the
speed of light, and even moderation neutrons move at about 8 times the speed of
sound). Some neutrons will impact fuel nuclei and induce further fissions, releasing
yet more neutrons. If enough nuclear fuel is assembled in one place, or if the
escaping neutrons are sufficiently contained, then these freshly emitted neutrons
outnumber the neutrons that escape from the assembly, and a sustained nuclear
chain reaction will take place.
An assembly that supports a sustained nuclear chain reaction is called a critical
assembly or, if the assembly is almost entirely made of a nuclear fuel, a critical
mass. The word "critical" refers to a cusp in the behavior of the differential equation
that governs the number of free neutrons present in the fuel: if less than a critical
mass is present, then the amount of neutrons is determined by radioactive decay,
but if a critical mass or more is present, then the amount of neutrons is controlled
instead by the physics of the chain reaction. The actual mass of a critical mass of
nuclear fuel depends strongly on the geometry and surrounding materials.
Not all fissionable isotopes can sustain a chain reaction. For example, 238U, the most

abundant form of uranium, is fissionable but not fissile: it undergoes induced fission
when impacted by an energetic neutron with over 1 MeV of kinetic energy. However,
238
too few of the neutrons produced by U fission are energetic enough to induce
238
further fissions in U, so no chain reaction is possible with this isotope. Instead,
238 239
bombarding U with slow neutrons causes it to absorb them (becoming U) and
16

decay by beta emission to 239Np which then decays again by the same process to
239
Pu; that process is used to manufacture 239Pu in breeder reactors. In-situ
plutonium production also contributes to the neutron chain reaction in other types of
reactors after sufficient plutonium-239 has been produced, since plutonium-239 is
also a fissile element which serves as fuel. It is estimated that up to half of the power
produced by a standard "non-breeder" reactor is produced by the fission of
plutonium-239 produced in place, over the total life-cycle of a fuel load.

Fissionable, non-fissile isotopes can be used as fission energy sources even without a chain
reaction. Bombarding 238U with fast neutrons induces fissions, releasing energy as long as
the external neutron source is present. This is an important effect in all reactors where
238
fast neutrons from the fissile isotope can cause the fission of nearby U nuclei, which
238
means that some small part of the U is "burned-up" in all nuclear fuels, especially in
fast breeder reactors that operate with higher-energy neutrons. That same fast-fission
effect is used to augment the energy released by modern thermonuclear weapons, by
238
jacketing the weapon with U to react with neutrons released by nuclear fusion at the
centre of the device. But the explosive effects of nuclear fission chain reactions can be
reduced by using substances like moderators which slow down the speed of secondary
neutrons.
17

Types of Nuclear Reactor

Nuclear reactors are of many types according to use but there are mainly three types of
nuclear reactor

1-Pressurised Water Reactor

2-Boiling Water Reactor
3-Fast Breeder Reactor

3.1 Pressurized water reactor

A pressurized water reactor (PWR) is a type of light-water nuclear reactor. PWRs constitute the large
majority of the world's nuclear power plants (with notable exceptions being the UK, Japan and Canada). In
a PWR, the primary coolant (water) is pumped under high pressure to the reactor core where it is heated by
the energy released by the fission of atoms. The heated, high pressure water then flows to a steam generator,
where it transfers its thermal energy to lower pressure water of a secondary system where steam is generated.
The steam then drives turbines, which spin an electric generator. In contrast to a boiling water reactor
(BWR), pressure in the primary coolant loop prevents the water from boiling within the reactor. All light-
water reactors use ordinary water as both coolant and neutron moderator. Most use anywhere from two to
four vertically mounted steam generators; VVER reactors use horizontal steam generators.

PWRs were originally designed to serve as nuclear marine propulsion for nuclear submarines and
were used in the original design of the second commercial power plant at Shipping port Atomic Power
Station.

PWRs currently operating in the United States are considered Generation II reactors. Russia's VVER
reactors are similar to US PWRs, but the VVER-1200 is not considered Generation II. France
operates many PWRs to generate the bulk of its electricity.
18

Design

Pictorial explanation of power transfer in a pressurized water reactor. Primary

coolant is in orange and the secondary coolant (steam and later feed water) is in
blue.

Primary coolant system showing reactor pressure vessel (red), steam

generators (purple),Pressurizer (blue), and pumps (green) in the three
coolant loop Hualong One design.
Nuclear fuel in the reactor pressure vessel is engaged in a controlled fission chainreaction, which
produces heat, heating the water in the primary coolant loop by thermal conduction through the
fuel cladding. The hot primary coolant is pumped into a heat exchanger called the steam
generator, where it flows through several thousand small tubes. Heat is transferred through the
walls of these tubes to the lower pressure secondary coolant located on the shell side of the
exchanger where the secondary coolant evaporates to pressurized steam. This transfer of heat is
accomplished without mixing the two fluids to prevent the secondary coolant from becoming
radioactive. Some common steam generator arrangements are u-tubes or single pass heat
exchangers.
19

In a nuclear power station, the pressurized steam is fed through a steam turbine which drives
an electrical generator connected to the electric grid for transmission. After passing through the
turbine the secondary coolant (water-steam mixture) is cooled down and condensed in a
condenser. The condenser converts the steam to a liquid so that it can be pumped back into the
steam generator, and maintains a vacuum at the turbine outlet so that the pressure drop across
the turbine, and hence the energy extracted from the steam, is maximized. Before being fed into
the steam generator, the condensed steam (referred to as feed water) is sometimes preheated
in order to minimize thermal shock.

The steam generated has other uses besides power generation. In nuclear ships and submarines, the
steam is fed through a steam turbine connected to a set of speed reduction gears to a shaft used for
propulsion. Direct mechanical action by
expansion of the steam can be used for a steam-powered aircraft catapult or similar applications.
District heating by the steam is used in some countries and direct heating is applied to internal plant
applications.[citation needed]

Two things are characteristic for the pressurized water reactor (PWR) when compared with
other reactor types: coolant loop separation from the steam system and pressure inside the
primary coolant loop. In a PWR, there are two separate coolant loops (primary and
secondary), which are both filled with demineralized/deionized water. A boiling water
reactor, by contrast, has only one coolant loop, while more exotic designs such as breeder
reactors use substances other than water for coolant and moderator (e.g. sodium in its liquid
state as coolant
or graphite as a moderator). The pressure in the primary coolant loop is typically 15– 16
megapascals (150–160 bar), which is notably higher than in other nuclear reactors, and nearly
twice that of a boiling water reactor (BWR). As an effect of this,
only localized boiling occurs and steam will recondense promptly in the bulk fluid. Bycontrast, in a
boiling water reactor the primary coolant is designed to boil.

Advantages

PWR reactors are very stable due to their tendency to produce less power as temperatures
increase; this makes the reactor easier to operate from a stabilitystandpoint.

The PWR turbine cycle loop is separate from the primary loop, so the water in the secondary loop is not
contaminated by radioactive materials.
20

PWRs can passively scram the reactor in case offsite power is lost to immediately stop the primary
nuclear reaction. The control rods are held by electromagnets and fall by gravity whencurrent is lost; full
insertion safely shuts down the primary nuclear reaction.

PWR technology is favored by nations seeking to develop a nuclear navy; the compact
reactors fit well in nuclear submarines and other nuclear ships.
PWRs are the most deployed type of reactor globally, allowing for a wide range of
suppliers of new plants and parts for existing plants. Due to long experience with their
operation they are the closest thing to mature technology that exists in nuclear
energy.

PWRs - depending on type - can be fueled with MOX-fuel and/or the Russian Remix Fuel
(which has a lower 239Pu and a higher 235U content than "regular" U/Pu MOX-fuel) allowing for
a (partially) closed nuclear fuelcycle.

Water is a nontoxic, transparent, chemically unreactive (by comparison with e.g. NaK) coolant that is
liquid at room temperature which makes visual inspection and maintenance easier. It is also easy and
cheap to obtain unlike heavy water or even nuclear graphite.

Disadvantages

The coolant water must be highly pressurized to remain liquid at high temperatures. This requires
high strength piping and a heavy pressure vessel and hence increases construction costs. The higher
pressure can increase the consequences of a loss-of-coolant accident. The reactor pressure vessel is
manufactured from ductile steel but, as the plant is operated, neutron flux from the reactor causes
this steel to become less ductile. Eventually the ductility of the steel will reach limits determined by
the applicable boiler and pressure vessel standards, and the pressure vessel must be repaired or
replaced. This might not be practical or economic, and so determines the life of the plant.

Additional high pressure components such as reactor coolant pumps, pressurizer,and steam
generators are also needed. This also increases the capital cost and complexity of a PWR
power plant.

The high temperature water coolant with boric acid dissolved in it is corrosive to carbon steel (but
not stainless steel); this can cause radioactive corrosion products to circulate in the primary coolant
loop. This not only limits the lifetime of the reactor, but the systems that filter out the corrosion
products and adjust the boric acid concentration add significantly to the overall cost of the
reactor and to radiation exposure. In one instance, this has resulted in severe corrosion to control
rod drive mechanisms when the boric acid solution leaked through the seal between the mechanism itself
and the primary system.]
21

Due to the requirement to load a pressurized water reactor's primary coolant loop
with boron, undesirable radioactive secondary tritium production in the water is over
25 times greater than in boiling water reactors of similar power, owing to the latter's
absence of the neutron moderating element in its coolant loop. The tritium is created
by the absorption of a fast neutron in the nucleus of a boron-10 atom which
subsequently splits into a lithium-7 and tritium atom. Pressurized water reactors
annually emit several hundred curies of tritium to the environment as part of normal
operation.

3.2 Boiling water reactor

A boiling water reactor (BWR) is a type of light water nuclear reactor used for the generation of
electrical power. It is the second most common type of electricity- generating nuclear reactor after the
pressurized water reactor (PWR), which is also atype of light water nuclear reactor.

The main difference between a BWR and PWR is that in a BWR, the reactor core heats water,
which turns to steam and then drives a steam turbine. In a PWR, the reactor core heats water, which
does not boil. This hot water then exchanges heat with a lower pressure system, which turns water
into steam that drives the turbine.
The BWR was developed by the Argonne National Laboratory and General Electric (GE) in the mid-
1950s. The main present manufacturer is GE Hitachi Nuclear Energy, which specializes in the design
and construction of this type of reactor.

A boiling water reactor (BWR) is a type of light water nuclear reactor used for the generation of
electrical power. It is the second most common type of electricity- generating nuclear reactor after the
pressurized water reactor (PWR), which is also atype of light water nuclear reactor.

The main difference between a BWR and PWR is that in a BWR, the reactor core heats water,
which turns to steam and then drives a steam turbine. In a PWR, the reactor core heats water, which
does not boil. This hot water then exchanges heat with a lower pressure system, which turns water
into steam that drives the turbine.
The BWR was developed by the Argonne National Laboratory and General Electric (GE) in the mid-
1950s. The main present manufacturer is GE Hitachi Nuclear Energy, which specializes in the design
and construction of this type of reactor.
22

Advantages of BWR

● Simplicity of Design: BWRs have a relatively simple design compared to

some other types of reactors. They have fewer components, which can result in
potentially lower construction and maintenance costs.
● Efficient Energy Production: BWRs can efficiently produce electricity. The
nuclear fission process generates a significant amount of heat, which is used to
produce steam, turning turbines that generate electricity.
● Fuel Efficiency: BWRs have good fuel efficiency. They use enriched uranium
as fuel, and the reactor design allows for the efficient utilization of this fuel
source.
● Moderate Operating Pressures: BWRs operate at lower pressures compared to Pressurized Water
Reactors (PWRs), simplifying the design and potentially reducing the risk of certain types of
accidents.
● Sustainable Energy Generation: Like other nuclear reactors, BWRs produce low-carbon
electricity, which helps reduce greenhouse gas emissions and contributes to sustainable energy
production.
● Reliability: BWRs are known for their reliability in terms of providing a consistent source of
electricity. When properly maintained and operated, they can run for extended periods without
interruptions.
● Safety Features: Over the years, BWRs have undergone advancements in
safety features and technology to improve their overall safety. Many modern
BWR designs incorporate passive safety features that can help in the event of
an emergency or shutdown.
● Economic Benefits: When considering the entire lifecycle of a BWR, including initial
construction, operation, and decommissioning, they can offer economic advantages compared to
some other forms of energy generation, particularly in regions where uranium is readily
available.
23

Disadvantages of BWR

● BWRs require more complex calculations for managing consumption of

nuclear fuel during operation due to "two-phase (water and steam) fluidflow"
in the upper part of the core. This also requires more instrumentation in the
reactor core.
● Larger reactor pressure vessel than for a PWR of similar power, with
correspondingly higher cost, in particular for older models that still use a main
steam generator and associated piping.
● Contamination of the turbine by short-lived activation products. This means
that shielding and access control around the steam turbine are required during
normal operations due to the radiation levels arising from the steam entering
directly from the reactor core. This is a moderately minor concern, as most of
the radiation flux is due to Nitrogen-16 (activation of oxygen in the water),
which has a half-life of 7.1 seconds, allowing the turbine chamber to be entered
within minutes of shutdown. Extensive experience demonstrates that shutdown
maintenance on the turbine, condensate, and feed water components of a BWR
can be performed essentially as a fossil-fuel plant.

3.3 Breeder reactor

A breeder reactor is a nuclear reactor that generates more fissile material than it consumes. These
reactors can be fueled with more-commonly available isotopes of uranium and thorium, such as
uranium-238 and thorium-232, as opposed to the rare uranium-235 which is used in conventional
reactors. These materials are called fertile materials since they can be bred into fuel by these
breeder reactors.

Breeder reactors achieve this because their neutron economy is high enough to create
more fissile fuel than they use. These extra neutrons are absorbed by the fertile
material that is loaded into the reactor along with fissile fuel. This irradiated fertile
material in turn transmutes into fissile material which can undergo fission reactions.

Breeders were at first found attractive because they made more complete use of uranium fuel than
light-water reactors, but interest declined after the 1960s, as more uranium reserves were found,
and new methods of uranium enrichment reduced fuel costs.
24

All current fast neutron reactor designs use liquid metal as the primary coolant, to
transfer heat from the core to steam used to power the electricity generating
turbines. FBRs have been built cooled by liquid metals other than sodium—some
early FBRs used mercury, other experimental reactors have used a
sodium-potassium alloy called NaK. Both have the advantage that they are liquids at
room temperature, which is convenient for experimental rigs but less important for
pilot or full-scale power stations. Lead and lead-bismuth alloy have also been used.

Three of the proposed generation IV reactor types are FBRs:

● Sodium-cooled fast reactor(SFR) based on the existing liquid-metal
FBR (LMFBR) and integral fast reactor designs.
● Gas-cooled fast reactor (GFR) cooled by helium.

● Lead-cooled fast reactor(LFR) based on Soviet naval propulsion units.

FBRs usually use a mixed oxide fuel core of up to 20% plutonium dioxide (PuO2) and

at least 80% uranium dioxide (UO2). Another fuel option is metal alloys, typically a
blend of uranium, plutonium, and zirconium (used because it is "transparent" to
neutrons). Enriched uranium can also be used on its own.

Many designs surround the core in a blanket of tubes that contain non-fissile
uranium-238, which, by capturing fast neutrons from the reaction in the core,
converts to fissile plutonium-239 (as is some of the uranium in the core), which is
then reprocessed and used as nuclear fuel. Other FBR designs rely on the geometry
of the fuel itself (which also contains uranium-238), arranged to attain sufficient fast
neutron capture. The plutonium-239 (or the fissile uranium-235) fission cross-section
is much smaller in a fast spectrum than in a thermal spectrum, as is the ratio
between the 239Pu/235U fission cross-section and the 238U absorption cross-section.

This increases the concentration of 239Pu/235U needed to sustain a chain reaction, as well as
the ratio of breeding to fission. On the other hand, a fast reactor needs no moderator to
slow down the neutrons at all, taking advantage of the fast neutrons producing a greater
number of neutrons per fission than slow neutrons. For this reason ordinary liquid water,
being a moderator and neutron absorber, is an undesirable primary coolant for fast
reactors. Because large amounts of water in the core are required to cool the reactor, the
239
yield of neutrons and therefore breeding of Pu are strongly affected. Theoretical work
has been done on reduced moderation water reactors, which may have a sufficiently fast
spectrum to provide a breeding ratio slightly over 1. This would likely result in an
25

unacceptable power derating and high costs in a liquid-water-cooled reactor, but the
supercritical water coolant of the supercritical water reactor (SCWR) has sufficient heat
capacity to allow adequate cooling with less water, making a fast-spectrum water-cooled
reactor a practical possibility.
The type of coolants, temperatures, and fast neutron spectrum puts the fuel cladding
material (normally austenitic stainless or ferritic-martensitic steels) under extreme
conditions. The understanding of the radiation damage, coolant interactions,
stresses, and temperatures are necessary for the safe operation of any reactor core.
All materials used to date in sodium-cooled fast reactors have known limits, as
explored in ONE-RRR-088 review. Oxide Dispersion Strengthened (ODS) steel is
viewed as the long-term radiation resistant fuel-cladding material that overcomes the
shortcomings of today's material choices.
There are only two commercially operating breeder reactors as of 2017: the BN-600
reactor, at 560 MWe, and the BN-800 reactor, at 880 MWe. Both are Russian
sodium-cooled reactors.
26

Nuclear Fuel Cycle

The nuclear fuel cycle consists of two phases: the front end and the back end. Front-end
steps prepare uranium for use in nuclear reactors. Back-end steps ensure that used—or
spent—but still highly radioactive, nuclear fuel is safely managed, prepared, and disposed
of. Nuclear power plants primarily use a specific type of uranium (U-235) for nuclear
fission because its atoms are easily split apart. Although uranium is about 100 times more
common than silver, U-235 is relatively rare, at just over 0.7% of natural uranium. The
U-235 is separated from uranium ore at uranium mills or from a slurry at in-situ leaching
facilities to produce uranium concentrate, which can be used as a fuel. The uranium
concentrate is first processed in conversion and enrichment facilities to increase the level
of U-235 in the uranium to 3%–5%, and then in reactor fuel fabrication plants, where it is
made into reactor fuel pellets and fuel rods.

Nuclear fuel is loaded into reactors and used until the fuel assemblies become highly
radioactive and must be removed for temporary storage and eventual disposal.
Spent fuel material could be processed to recover any remaining uranium that could
undergo fission again in a new fuel assembly (spent fuel reprocessing), but it is not
permitted in the United States.
27

Source: Pennsylvania State University Radiation Science and Engineering Center

(public domain)

The front end of the nuclear fuel cycle

Exploration
The nuclear fuel cycle starts with exploring for uranium and developing mines to extract
uranium ore. A variety of techniques are used to locate uranium, such as airborne
radiometric surveys, chemical sampling of groundwater and soils, and exploratory drilling
to understand the underlying geology. Once uranium ore deposits are located, the mine
developer usually follows up with more closely spaced in fill, or development drilling, to
determine how much uranium is available and what it might cost to recover it.
28

4.1 Uranium mining

When mine developers find ore deposits that are economically feasible to recover, the next
step in the fuel cycle is to mine the ore using one of the following
techniques:

● Underground mining

● Openpitmining

● In-place(in-situ) solution mining

● Heap leaching

Before 1980, most U.S. uranium was produced using open pit and underground
mining techniques. Today, most U.S. uranium is produced using a solution mining
technique commonly called in-situ-leach (ISL) or in-situ-recovery (ISR) mining. This
process extracts the uranium that coats the sand and gravel particles of groundwater
reservoirs. The sand and gravel particles are exposed to a solution with a pH that
has been elevated slightly by using oxygen, carbon dioxide, or caustic soda. The
uranium dissolves into the groundwater, which is pumped out of the reservoir and
processed at a uranium mill. Another similar process, heap leaching, involves
spraying an acidic liquid solution onto piles of crushed uranium ore. The solution
drains down through the crushed ore and leeches’ uranium out of the rock, which is
recovered from underneath the pile. Heap leaching is no longer used in the United
States.
29

4.2 Uranium milling

After the uranium ore is extracted from an open pit or underground mine, it is refined
into uranium concentrate at a uranium mill. The ore is crushed, pulverized, and ground
into a fine powder. Chemicals are added to the fine powder, which causes a reaction that
separates the uranium from the other minerals. Groundwater from solution mining
operations is circulated through a resin bed to extract and concentrate the uranium.
30

Despite the name, the concentrated uranium product is typically a black or brown
substance called yellowcake (U3O8). Mined uranium ore typically yields one to four
pounds of U3O8 per ton of ore, or 0.05% to 0.20% yellowcake. The solid waste material
from pit and underground mining operations is called mill tailings. The processed water
from solution mining is returned to the groundwater reservoir where the mining process is
repeated.

4.3 Uranium conversion

The next step in the nuclear fuel cycle is to convert yellowcake into uranium hexafluoride
(UF6) gas at a converter facility. Three forms (isotopes) of uranium occur naturally: U-
234, U-235, and U-238. Current U.S. nuclear reactor designs
require a stronger concentration (enrichment) of the U-235 isotope to operate
efficiently. The uranium hexafluoride gas produced in the converter facility is called
natural UF6 because the original concentrations of uranium isotopes are unchanged.

4.4 Uranium enrichment

31

After conversion, the UF6 gas is sent to an enrichment plant where the individual
uranium isotopes are separated to produce enriched UF6, which has a 3% to 5%
concentration of U-235.

Two types of uranium enrichment processes have been used in the United States:
gaseous diffusion and gas centrifuge. The United States has one operating
enrichment plant, and it uses a gas centrifuge process. Enriched UF6 is sealed in
canisters and allowed to cool and solidify before it is transported to a nuclear reactor
fuel assembly plant by train, truck, or barge.

Atomic vapour laser isotope separation (AVLIS) and molecular laser isotope
separation (MLIS) are new enrichment technologies under development. These
laser-based enrichment processes can achieve higher initial enrichment (isotope
separation) factors than the diffusion or centrifuge processes and can produce
enriched uranium more quickly than other techniques.

4.5 Uranium reconversion and nuclear fuel fabrication

Once the uranium is enriched, it is ready to be converted into nuclear fuel. At a nuclear
fuel fabrication facility, the UF6, in solid form, is heated to gaseous form, and then the
UF6 gas is chemically processed to form uranium dioxide (UO2) powder. The powder is
then compressed and formed into small ceramic fuel pellets. The
pellets are stacked and sealed into long metal tubes that are about 1 centimeter in
diameter to form fuel rods. The fuel rods are then bundled together to make up a fuel
assembly. Depending on the reactor type, each fuel assembly has 179 to 264 fuel rods. A
typical reactor core holds 121 to 193 fuel assemblies.

4.6 At the reactor

Once the fuel assemblies are fabricated, trucks transport them to the reactor sites. The
fuel assemblies are stored onsite in fresh fuel storage bins until the reactor operators
need them. At this stage, the uranium is only mildly radioactive, and essentially all
radiation is contained within the metal tubes. Typically, reactor operators change out
about one-third of the reactor core (40 to 90 fuel assemblies) every 12 to 24 months.
32

The reactor core is a cylindrical arrangement of the fuel bundles that is about 12 feet in
diameter and 14 feet tall and encased in a steel pressure vessel with walls that are several
inches thick. The reactor core has essentially no moving parts except for a small number of
control rods that are inserted to regulate the nuclear fission reaction. Placing the fuel
assemblies next to each other and adding water initiates the nuclear reaction.

A nuclear fuel assembly

4.7 The back end of the nuclear fuel cycle

Interim storage and final disposal in the United States
After use in the reactor, fuel assemblies become highly radioactive and must be
removed and submerged in a pool of water for several years at the reactor site.
33

Although the fission reaction has stopped, the spent fuel continues to give off heat from
the decay of the radioactive elements that were created when the uranium atoms were split
apart. The water in the spent fuel pool serves to both cool the fuel and block the release of
radiation. From 1968 through December 31, 2017, a total of 276,879 fuel assemblies had
been discharged and stored at the sites of 119 closed and operating commercial nuclear
reactors in the United States.

Within a few years, the spent fuel cools in the pool and may be moved to a dry cask
storage container at the power plant site. Many reactor operators store their older,
spent fuel in these special air-conditioned concrete or steel containers.

The final step in the nuclear fuel cycle is to collect the spent fuel assemblies from the
interim storage sites for final disposition in a permanent underground repository. The
United States currently has no permanent underground repository for high-level
nuclear waste.
34

Future Aspects of Nuclear Power

5.1 ENERGY BY FUSION

Fusion power is a proposed form of power generation that would generate

electricity by using heat from nuclear fusion reactions. In a fusion process, two lighter atomic
nuclei combine to form a heavier nucleus, while releasing energy. Devices designed to harness
this energy are known as fusion reactors. Research into fusion reactors began in the 1940s, but
as of 2023, no device has reached net power.

Fusion processes require fuel and a confined environment with sufficient temperature,
pressure, and confinement time to create a plasma in which fusion can occur. The
combination of these figures that results in a
power-producing system is known as the Lawson criterion. In stars, the most common fuel is
hydrogen, and gravity provides extremely long confinement times that reach the conditions
needed for fusion energy production.
Proposed fusion reactors generally use heavy hydrogen isotopes such as deuterium and tritium
(and especially a mixture of the two), which react more easily than protium (the most common
hydrogen isotope), to allow them to reach the Lawson criterion requirements with less extreme
conditions. Most designs aim to heat their fuel to around 100 million degrees, which presents a
major challenge in producing a successful design.

As a source of power, nuclear fusion has a number of potential advantages compared to fission.
These include reduced radioactivity in operation, little
35

high-level nuclear waste, ample fuel supplies, and increased safety. However, the necessary
combination of temperature, pressure, and duration has proven to be difficult to produce in a
practical and economical manner. A second
issue that affects common reactions is managing neutrons that are released during the
reaction, which over time degrade many common materials used within the reaction
chamber.

Fusion researchers have investigated various confinement concepts. The earlyemphasis was on
three main systems: z-pinch, stellarator, and magnetic mirror. The current leading designs are
the tokamak and inertial confinement (ICF) by laser. Both designs are under research at very
large scales, most notably the ITER tokamak in France and the National Ignition Facility
(NIF) laser in the United States. Researchers are also studying other designs that may offer less
expensive approaches. Among these alternatives, there is increasing interest in magnetized
target fusion and inertial electrostatic confinement, and new variations of the stellarator.
36

Conclusion
In conclusion, nuclear energy presents a promising solution to meet the growing global demand for electricity while
reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Throughout this project, we've explored the advantages of nuclear energy,
particularly focusing on the Boiling Water Reactor (BWR) technology. BWRs offer simplicity in design, efficient energy
production, fuel efficiency, and a relatively reliable and sustainable source of electricity.

However, it's crucial to acknowledge the challenges associated with nuclear energy. Safety concerns, proper waste
management, regulatory complexities, and public perception issues regarding accidents are critical aspects that must be
addressed and managed meticulously. Advancements in technology and stringent safety measures continue to enhance the
safety and reliability of nuclear reactors, including BWRs.

The decision to pursue nuclear energy should consider a comprehensive approach that balances its advantages with the
associated risks. Continued research and development are necessary to improve reactor designs, enhance safety protocols,
and find solutions for radioactive waste disposal.
37

REFERENCES
It is to be found in: -
1. education.nationalgeographic.org
2. Introductory nuclear Physics(1987 originally published) by Kenneth
S. Krane
3. Reports and technical documents from organizations such as
international atomic energy agency (IAEA)
4. www.world-nuclear.org
5. Pennsylvania State University Radiation Science and
Engineering Center
38