3.

Steelmaking-2

IRON AND STEELMAKING - 2

1
3. Steelmaking-2

FROM IRONMAKING TO STEELMAKING

Pig Iron from BF (Ironmaking)

Steel at BOF (Steel making)
Hot Metal Desulfurization
• Lime, calcium carbide, magnesium, or a
combination is added to the iron in a torpedo car.
Sulphur is reduced from 0.08 wt% to 0.01-0.02 wt%.

CaO + S → CaS + O
CaC2 + S → CaS + 2C2
Mg + S → MgS

2
3. Steelmaking-2

PIG IRON TRANSFER

3
3. Steelmaking-2

PIG IRON AND SCRAP CHARGING

Approximately 30% of
the charge is scrap steel,
which is added to control
the temperature, and to
recycle steel.

4
3. Steelmaking-2

STEELMAKING BY BASIC OXYGEN FURNACE (BOF)

• The materials belonging to the BF,
smelting reduction, and DRI/HBI
operations require the elimination
of undesired elements; this refining
is operated in the BOFs or EAFs.
Basic oxygen furnace (BOF) is a
pear-shaped furnace where the pig
iron from blast furnace, and ferrous
scrap, is refined into steel by
injecting a jet high purity oxygen
through the hot metal.
• C, Si, Mn, and P are removed using
a BOF.
Linz and Donawitz: • BOF is required to reduce the
carbon content from 3–4% to 1%, to
remove undesired impurities and
add required elements for a given
composition The converter volume
on charge ratio (m3/ton) is in the
range 0.65 0.75. The depth of the
metal bath is in the range 1–2 m,
and the furnace capacities are in
the range 60–400 ton.
5
3. Steelmaking-2
SCHEMATIC PICTURE OF BOF REFRACTORY LINING

6
3. Steelmaking-2
BOF OXYGEN LANCE
The oxygen lance, its design and blowing program related to blow velocity and lance height program plays
an important role in oxygen converting, affects the rate and oxidation order of iron melt constituents,
formation of iron droplets and their emulsification in the slag, slag foaming, splashing and sculling
phenomena. Lance tip and nozzle design play an important role in maximizing the control over the blow
but also in extending the lance life. The formation and stability of slag foam during the blow is greatly
dependent on oxygen jets from the lance. The lance design and control of blowing rate and lance height
during the blow play an important role in the refining of iron melt from impurities, but affect also
postcombustion degree and refractory lining wear. The lance tip of a typical modern oxygen lance consists
of 4–7 nozzles. Supersonic oxygen jets through the nozzles form cone streamline with expansion angle
from 20 to 30.
There are various lance designs
focusing to increase the
postcombustion of CO by blowing
oxygen through nozzles directed
to furnace atmosphere instead of
iron bath surface.
Oxygen flow rate is normally on a
level 6–10 m3 min-1 ton-1 of iron
melt and oxygen pressure 1–1.5
MPa. Service life of oxygen lance
is typically 400–600 heats.
Schematic presentation of LD/BOF
with conventional lance (a) and with
lance provided with postcombustion 7
nozzles (b).
3. Steelmaking-2
MAIN REACTIONS IN BOF
In basic oxygen steelmaking, the main targets are to decrease the carbon content of the liquid metal to
the required level and to reach the end temperature appropriate for further treatment of the steel.
These two targets are usually imposing the blowing practice.
Additionally, minor components (Si, Mn, P, Ti, V, etc.) in the metallic charge tend to oxidize forming
oxides, which then form slag jointly with burnt lime and other fluxes added into the converter.
Formation of slag and foaming slag–metal–gas emulsion are very essential phenomena in the converter
process.

Slag is mainly responsible for

removal of impurities, phosphorus
as the most important one but Ti
and V in certain cases too. Strong
interaction between slag and metal
is also related to the exchange of
iron between metal and slag via
oxidation of Fe to “FeO” and inverse
reduction back to metal, as well as
to the role of emulsified metal
droplets in the slag phase. Except
for chemical phenomena, there are
numerous mechanical and thermal
phenomena occurring in the
converter process.
8
3. Steelmaking-2
CHEMICAL AND THERMAL PHENOMENA
AND THE MAIN REACTION ZONES IN BOF

9
3. Steelmaking-2

STEELMAKING:
ELECTRIC ARC FURNACE (EAF)
Most of the electric arc furnaces use alternate current (AC). Nevertheless, in the 1990s,
active interest was targeted at development of direct current (DC) EAFs. The drivers were
less electrode consumption, less energy consumption, and less flickering.
Not all the expectations of the DC EAFs were met. The benefit of lower electrode
consumption is offset by the higher specific cost of large diameter electrodes. Some of the
anode designs have had a short life. The chopper technology had higher losses, higher
equipment costs, lower reliability, and excessive maintenance cost compared with
thyristor rectifier.

DC EAF with one electrode and AC EAF with three electrodes.

bottom anode. 10
3. Steelmaking-2

RAW MATERIALS USED AT EAF

Most of the metallic needs of the EAFs are met with scrap.
Scrap being charged to the EAF can be divided by origin roughly in three classes:
• Obsolete scrap (old cars, appliances, machinery)
• Industrial scrap (generated during processing of strip or bars)
• Internal scrap (quality rejections, tundish bottom, steel recovered from slag)
Obsolete scrap may be prepared for charging in different ways
• By fragmentation in a shredder
• By pressing, forming bales
• By cutting with oxygen

Typical dump shredder design

11
3. Steelmaking-2

CURRENT EAF STANDARD DESIGN

(1) Transformer, (2) flexible cable connection, (3) electrode arms, (4) electrodes clamping, (5)
arms, (6) cooled off-gas duct, (7) cooled panels, (8) structure, (9) basculating structure, (10)
rack, (11) cooled roof, (12) basculating device, and (13) hydraulic group. 12
3. Steelmaking-2

MELTING PRACTICE AND FOAMING SLAG IN EAF

Although Ultra High Power (UHP) furnaces are used, fast melting
by using only electric power is difficult and not the most
economic practice either. Importing extra energy and assisting
melting technique can greatly accelerate scrap melting and bring
economic benefits. Accordingly, the current state of the art in
EAF steelmaking is to use as much as possible chemical energy,
besides electric energy, to accommodate tap-to-tap times to the
pace of the downstream continuous caster. Chemical energy is
introduced by oxygen, carbonaceous materials, and natural gas,
more and more through injectors rather than lances.
The energy-generating reactions are:

The refining step usually does not require full power, which with already flat bath could be dangerous
for the lining. At that time, the foaming of the slag is a must. For the slag to foam, the production of
CO gas is necessary, by means of the injection of carbon and oxygen through lances or burners. For
foaming purposes, several carbonaceous materials are useful, depending on local cost and availability:
anthracite, petroleum coke, coke breeze.

Bath seen from the slag door.

Left: unfoamed slag;
right: foamed slag.

13
3. Steelmaking-2

REFINING IN EAF
For most steelmaking operations, refining in the EAF is limited to dephosphorization, decarburization,
and temperature adjustment. Phosphorus in the charge could be at higher than usual levels for DRI,
HBI, pig iron, and hot metal, depending on the iron ore source. Some steels require particularly low P
levels to avoid too high ductile/brittle transition temperature or tempering brittleness. From the
equilibrium point of view, lower temperatures, high slag basicity, and high oxidation of the bath favor
dephosphorization. Slag/metal interaction is important from a kinetic point of view but is not always
attainable in the EAF.

Decarburization is carried out as a refining task. If the charge is 100% scrap, carbon in the metallic
charge should be relatively low. This is not the case when charging a high percentage of DRI (if
produced in a gas-based unit), HBI, pig iron, or hot metal, with carbon contents between 1.6 and 4.5.
Usually, due to productivity reasons, steelmakers prefer to achieve a carbon content of around 0.05
before tapping. Lower contents may imply a too high oxidation level.

Desulphurization is usually carried out at tapping

and during ladle metallurgy, as in those stages
the steel is deoxidized and the slag has high
basicity and low oxygen potential (low content
of oxidizing components, “FeO,” MnO, etc.).
Nowadays, all other refining operations, except
decarburization and dephosphorization, are
performed in ladles and the electric arc furnace
can act as a fast “melting machine.”

The theoretical C–O equilibrium

is compared with plant values. 14
3. Steelmaking-2

REFINING STEPS IN EAF

Oxidizing Stage:
❑ As soon as the liquid metal forms, oxidizing stage starts. At this stage
excessive carbon, phosphorous, silicon and manganese oxidize.
❑ Also oxygen can be blown at this stage.
❑ Basic oxidizing slag which is composed of CaO (lime) and FeO is used.
❑ What is slag? A molten mixture of oxides on the top of liquid iron.

Removal of Phosphorus:
❑ The oxides formed are absorbed by the slag. The removal of phosphorus is
at this stage.
❑ If the slag containing P is not removed, then it may return back to liquid
steel.
❑ Why phosphorus must be removed?

15
3. Steelmaking-2

PROCESS CONTROL IN EAF

Use of injectors to introduce oxygen, carbon, natural gas,
and lime in the electric arc furnace.

16
3. Steelmaking-2

ENERGY BALANCE OF EAF PROCESS

A typical energy balance of a scrap-based modern electric furnace is seen in the figure. Major energy
input is electric energy, followed by chemical energy. Other energy inputs are combustion of natural
gas, metal oxidation, burning of volatiles from the scrap, and burning of electrodes. The main part of
energy output is included in liquid steel. Then the second largest energy output is the heat loss and
chemical energy (unreacted gases) in the off-gas, which is of the order of 35–38%. This is valid for
furnaces with intensive combustion. If a major part of melting energy were from electricity, the losses
by off-gas would be low. Other losses are heat loss to the furnace walls, water cooling, electrical
losses, and slag losses. In the example, there was no energy recovery from the off-gas. The role played
by chemical heating had become more and more important with time. First, it was used as a tool for
cutting the scrap and to accelerate decarburization. But now an important part of the energy needed
for melting is supported by oxygen injection due to improved economy (high price of electricity).

Example of an energy balance of a scrap-based electric arc furnace

17
3. Steelmaking-2
TAPPING AT THE END OF THE EAF PROCESS
1. Spout tapping (old-fashioned)
- The furnace is tilted through an angle of about 45 degree
for tapping steel.
- Easy to maintain the tapping hole
- With the tilting angle wide, the water-cooling rate in the
furnace body is low, making the refractory consumption
rate higher.
- Upon tapping, the slag is tapped from the furnace as well,
which may have a negative effect on steel quality.
- The entire amount of steel and slag is tapped from the
furnace, making it easier to manage the furnace.
2. Eccentric bottom tapping (New method adopted by most
of electric arc furnaces)
- The furnace is tilted through an angle of about 25 degree,
and the steel is tapped out of the tap hole in the eccentric
bottom.
- The slight tilting angle makes the water-cooling rate in the
furnace body high, possibly decreasing the refractory
consumption rate.
- Upon tapping, the steel is tapped from the furnace
without the inflow of slag, reducing inclusion in the steel
and thus making it more likely to produce clean steel.
- Upon tapping, the ferroalloys are put into the ladle, which
can enhance the recovery of the ferroalloys.
- As the residual steel iron remains in the furnace, it is
difficult to manage the furnace.
- Due to the residual steel iron in the furnace, the retaining
heat at the high temperature helps increase heat efficiency. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8nbsPXqr_4A 18
3. Steelmaking-2

SECONDARY STEELMAKING:
LADDLE FURNACE PROCESS (LF)
The ladle furnace (LF) makes it possible
to divide the steel melting operations,
carried out in EAF, from those of treatment
and refining. The liquid steel produced by
the EAF is poured into the ladle, which
serves as a reactor for metallurgical
operations at the treatment stations. The
ladle is transported under the LF hood,
where alloying and reheating operations are
performed to target values for the next
process station.
Steel, when poured into a teeming ladle, has
an oxygen content of 0.04-0.1 wt%. This would
cause blow holes if the steel were allowed to
solidify.
• This is removed by adding aluminum,
ferrosilicon, or carbon to precipitate the
oxygen as part of a condensed oxide.
• When aluminum is the deoxidizing agent the
steel will have fine grained tendencies;
this is attributed to the very fine distribution of
aluminum oxide which acts as nuclei to
promote a fine grained structure. 19
3. Steelmaking-2

REFINING IN LF - I
❑ Molten steel in a ladle may be treated (refined) in a device called Ladle
Furnace (LF).
❑ The ladle is transported to the Ladle Furnace stand where it is placed
under a cover equipped with three graphite electrodes.
❑ There is a porous ceramic plug at the bottom for argon supply.

❑ Degassing, deep desulphurization and alloying additions can be done in

ladle furnace.
❑ Lime and calcium silicide is fed through a metallic tube into the liquid
steel. Also the desulphurizing agents are fed as a metal coated wire.
❑ The purpose is to further reduce the sulphur and to catch the fine non-
metallic inclusions. Vigorous mixing is applied via gas bubbles.
❑ Why the desulphurizing agents are fed through a tube or coated wire?

❑ Also, as a last stage calcium silicide is added to react with Al-Oxide

inclusions and convert them to larger inclusions which can flow to the slag.
Also, the sharp edged Al-oxide inclusions become rounded Al-Ca-Oxide
inclusions.
20
3. Steelmaking-2

REFINING IN LF - II
Reducing Stage:

❑ The conditions favorable for removing phosphorus are the opposite of

those promoting the removal of sulphur.

❑ New slag composed mainly of lime (CaO), CaF2 (as slag fluidizer) is added
at this stage for formation of basic reducing conditions. Basic slag is a slag
containing mainly basic oxides: CaO, MgO, MnO, FeO.

❑ The most popular method of desulfurization is removal of sulpur from

molten steel to the basic reducing slag.

❑ Transition sulphur to the slag:

[S] + (CaO) = (CaS) + [O]

❑ As seen, desulfurization is effective in deoxidized (low (O)) basic (high

(CaO)) slags.

21
3. Steelmaking-2

DEOXIDATION OF STEEL - I
❑ The dissolved oxygen in steel will yield a poor quality ingot.

The sources of dissolved oxygen in liquid steel is:

❑ Oxygen blowing (example: BOF);
❑ Atmospheric oxygen dissolving in liquid steel during pouring operation;
❑ Oxidizing refractories (lining of furnaces and ladles);
❑ Rusted and wet scrap.

❑ Solubility of oxygen in molten steel is 0.23% at 1700°C. However it

decreases during cooling down and then drops sharply upon solidification
reaching 0.003% in solid steel. The excess oxygen transforms to gas state
and forms bubbles.
❑ The result: A spongy steel ingot with many residual porosity.

❑ Therefore, the oxygen must be taken out with the help of elements which
have a higher affinity for oxygen: Aluminum and ferro-silicon
Al + O >>> Al2O3 Si + O >>> SiO2
22
3. Steelmaking-2

DEOXIDATION OF STEEL - II

❑ Other de-oxidation elements used: Mn, Ca and Ce. These reactions cause
formation of fine ceramic particles. It is expected that the non-metallic
inclusions flow to the surface, i.e. to the slag.

❑ Slag is also very effective in absorbing the de-oxidation products.

❑ However, if the amount of dissolved oxygen is high, higher amount of de-

oxidizing agents must be added: There will be too much non-metallic
inclusions and some of them will remain in the steel after de-oxidation.

❑ Then diffusion de-oxidation can help. When the oxygen activity in the slag
is reduced oxygen ions dissolved in steel begin to diffuse from the steel
into the slag, and the equilibrium conditions are restored. In other words,
deoxidation of slag results in deoxidation of the steel. Carbon (coke),
silicone, aluminum and other elements are used for slag deoxidation.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k_mfMFKrsTI
23
3. Steelmaking-2

RESULTS OF DEOXIDATION OF STEEL

If dissolved oxygen is not removed it is called Rimmed Steel.

Depending amount of removal, it is called Semikilled or Killed steel.

24
3. Steelmaking-2
ALLOYING OF STEEL
Common Alloying Elements in Steel, Their Influences, and Applications

Chapter-1-6---Secondary-Steelmaking_2014_Treatise-on-Process-Metallurgy 25
3. Steelmaking-2
VACUUM DEGASSING (VD)
Vacuum degassing is a procedure that is used to improve the internal cleanliness of steel after the initial
melt has occurred. The principle of the process is to reduce the atmospheric pressure above the liquid
steel in the vacuum remelt furnace. The pressure over the molten steel is reduced to approximately 1 mm
of mercury (Hg). Generally, the vacuum degassing furnace is fitted with a vacuum-tight lid over the molten
steel, and the degassing procedure is started.
This method of cleaning the steel will not remove all of the potential gaseous impurities present, but it
will remove approximately 50% of the gaseous impurities down to a level of approximately 30 ppm of
oxygen and down to approximately 2.5 ppm of hydrogen.
The RH process (Ruhrstahl–Heraeus) is Schematic of RH degassing and
literally a circulation process: it has two tank degassing equipment
snorkels or legs. Steel from the ladle is
raised along one leg to the vacuum
chamber and then it falls back through
the second leg into the ladle after short
degassing passage over the bottom of the
vacuum chamber.
Ladle degassing is principally the easiest
way to make vacuum treatment. There
the ladle is put inside a vacuum chamber
(tank) or alternatively there is vacuum-
tight lid set on the ladle. Anyway vacuum
is pumped inside the space so that the
ladle top is under vacuum.
26
3. Steelmaking-2
REMOVAL OF GASES IN VD

❑ The ladle is put in a vacuum environment, so that the dissolved gases like
O, N, H can be taken out.

❑ Vacuum treatment of molten steel decreases the partial pressure of CO, so

the oxygen in liquid steel react with C and form CO.

❑ This means that less amount of de-oxidation additives and much cleaner
steel

Argon Treatment:

❑ Argon gas is blown into the ladle. The gas bubbles act as nucleation agent
for the dissolved gases. De-oxidation is carried out. It also helps stirring
the liquid steel

27
3. Steelmaking-2
EFFECT OF HYDROGEN IN STEEL
Why Hydrogen is harmful?
1. If the hydrogen content of the molten steel exceeds the solubility limit of
hydrogen in solid iron, the hydrogen will be rejected during solidification,
and this leads to pinhole formation and porosity in steel.
2. Just a few parts per million of hydrogen dissolved in steel can cause
hairline cracks (flakes), hydrogen embrittlement, hydrogen blistering and
loss of tensile ductility, particularly in large steel castings ingots, blooms
and slabs.

Solubility of Hydrogen in pure iron or low-alloy steel at 1 atm pressure of H2

28
3. Steelmaking-2
EFFECT OF NITROGEN IN STEEL
Why Nitrogen is harmful?
1. Nitrogen, in dissolved form is responsible from strain ageing. After strain
ageing, the steel looses its ductility which may cause difficulties in
deformation processes.
2. Nitrogen react with boron (B), Aluminum, Titanium, Niobium (Nb) and
Vanadium to form NITRIDES (BN, VN, AlN TiN).
❑ Ti, V and Nb are important elements in High Strength Low Alloy steels
(HSLA). Therefore, their soluble amount must be known strictly.
❑ Boron is an important element for hardenability of steel. A 30 ppm B
has nearly the same effect as 1% Cr as far as hardenability is
concerned. However, the B atom must be in solid solution for this
effect. The formation of BN decreases the amount of B in solid
solution. Therefore, there must be no N left for reaction before the B is
added to liquid steel.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ey0q-N57ngQ
29
3. Steelmaking-2

COMPLETION OF STEELMAKING BY SOLIDIFICATION:

INGOT CASTING (IC)
Traditionally, the next step in the steelmaking process is the shaping of the molten steel into a solid form
(ingot) for such further processing as rolling it into shapes, casting it into semifinished forms, or forging it.
The molten metal is poured (teemed) from the ladle into ingot molds, in which the metal solidifies. Molds
usually are made of cupola iron or blast-furnace iron with 3.5% carbon. They are tapered in order to
facilitate the removal of the solidified metal. The bottoms of the molds may be closed or open; if they are
open, the molds are placed on a flat surface. The cooled ingots are removed (stripped) from the molds
and lowered into soaking pits, where they are reheated to a uniform temperature of about 1200°C for
subsequent processing by rolling. lngots may be square, rectangular, or round in cross section weighing 5-
20 tons for rolling whereas few hundred to 300 tons for forging.

https://doi.org/10.31399/asm.hb.v15.a0005295 Steel Ingot Casting Chapter 30

3. Steelmaking-2
TEEMING IN STEEL INGOT CASTING

31
3. Steelmaking-2
INGOT CASTING PROCESS CYCLE

32
3. Steelmaking-2
STEEL INGOT TYPES BASED ON STEEL DEOXIDATION - I
Depending on the amount of gas evolved during solidification, three types of steel ingots can
be produced: killed, semi-killed, and rimmed.
I. Killed Steel. Killed steel is a fully deoxidized steel; that is, oxygen is removed and the
associated porosity is thus eliminated. In the deoxidation process, the dissolved oxygen in
the molten metal is made to react with elements such as aluminum, silicon, manganese,
and vanadium that have been added to the melt. These elements have an affinity for
oxygen and form metallic oxides. If aluminum is used, the product is called aluminum-
killed steel. The term killed comes from the fact that the steel lies quietly after being
poured into the mold.
II. Semikilled Steel. Semi-killed steel is a partially deoxidized steel. It contains some porosity
(generally in the upper central section of the ingot), but it has little or no pipe. As a result,
scrap is reduced. Although the piping in semiskilled steels is less, this advantage is offset
by the presence of porosity in that region. Semi-killed steels are economical to produce.
III. Rimmed Steel. In a rimmed steel, which generally has a low carbon content (less than
0.15%), the evolved gases are only partially killed (or controlled) by the addition of other
elements, such as aluminum. The gases produce blowholes along the outer rim of the
ingot--hence the term rimmed. Rimmed steels have little or no piping, and they have a
ductile skin with good surface finish. However, if they are not controlled properly,
blowholes may break through the skin. Furthermore, impurities and inclusions tend to
segregate toward the center of the ingot. Thus, products made from this steel may be
defective, and thorough inspection is essential.
33
3. Steelmaking-2
STEEL INGOT TYPES BASED ON STEEL DEOXIDATION - II
IV. Capped Steel. Production of capped steel is a variation of rimmed steel production
practice. The rimming action is allowed to begin normally but is then terminated after
about 1 minute by sealing the mold with a cast-iron cap. In steels with carbon content
greater than 0.15%, the capped ingot practice is usually applied to the production of
sheet, strip, wire, and bars.

Killed steel marked N°1, semi-killed steel marked N°2, capped steel N°5, and rimmed steel N°7.
34
3. Steelmaking-2

COMPLETION OF STEELMAKING BY SOLIDIFICATION:

CONTINUOUS CASTING (CC)
Continuous casting is the important linking process between
steelmaking and rolling. In the ingot casting route, individual molds
are filled with molten steel to produce steel ingots. The continuous
casting method has a lot of benefits compared to the older ingot
casting methods. The major advantages are improvement of steel
quality, better yield, and savings of energy and manpower. Today,
about 95% of the world’s steel production
is made by continuous casting and a great number of steel qualities
are cast in very wide variety of dimensions.
The liquid steel in a ladle is transferred to the casting machine.
When the casting operation starts, the nozzle at the bottom of the
ladle is opened and the steel flows at a controlled rate into the
tundish and from the tundish through a submerged entry nozzle
(SEN) into one mold or several molds. The molds are generally
water-cooled copper molds. The first solidification takes place at
the metal/mold interface. The thickness of the solidified shell
increases progressively when it is withdrawn through the machine.
At the mold exit, the shell must be thick enough to support the
liquid pool. Below the mold, the shell is cooled by spraying water. A schematic representation of
The mold cooling is called the primary cooling and the spray cooling the one strand, curved
the secondary cooling. At the machine end, the strand is cut off and continuous casting process.
transferred to a rolling mill.
35
3. Steelmaking-2
CONTINUOUS CASTING (CC) MACHINE

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d-72gc6I-_E

Metallurgical length in continuous casting:

It is the distance from the mold to the
point where there is no longer a liquid
center in the casting.
36
3. Steelmaking-2

ELECTROMAGNETIC STIRRING IN CONTINUOUS CASTING

The application of EMS technique promotes the formation of an equiaxed
crystallite zone in the strand. It causes the refinement of the solidification
structure, the reduction in the content of inclusions, and improvement in the
quality of the surface, sub surface, and the inner structure of the cast product.

37
3. Steelmaking-2
TYPES OF CONTINUOUS CASTING MACHINES (CCMs)
1. Simple vertical casters
2. Bent casters with straight mold (“vertical bending casters”)
2.1. with bending and straightening of the solid strand
2.2. with bending while there is liquid inside the strand and straightening with the solid strand
2.3. bending and straightening while there is still liquid inside the strand
3. Bow-type casters with curved mold
3.1. with straightening of the solid strand
3.2. with straightening while there is still liquid inside the strand

38
3. Steelmaking-2
SEMI-FINISHED PRODUCTS OF CONTINUOUS CASTING
Type dimensions of continuously cast semi-finished products

39
3. Steelmaking-2

THERMOMECHANICAL SHAPING OF STEELMAKING PRODUCTS:

HOT ROLLING
❑ The process of deforming a metal plastically (as is done in any metal forming process) by passing it
between rolls (roll arrangement) is called rolling in simple terms. The friction and the squeezing
action between the rolls decreases the thickness or changes the cross section and also help in
imparting special properties to the material undergoing the explained process. In current scenario
applications, rolling is one of the most important metal working operation. All metal products
require rolling to be performed at some point of their manufacturing process. Most of the
materials are subjected to rolling before they can be converted into proper raw materials.
❑ Usable shapes of rolled metals are plate, sheet, strip, foil, different sections like rail, beam,
channel, angle, bar, rod, and seamless pipe, etc., as shown in the figure below.

Flow diagram showing Rolling of different products. 40

3. Steelmaking-2

HIERARCHY OF ROLLING OPERATIONS IN

MODERN MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY

41
3. Steelmaking-2
ROLLED PRODUCTS

42
3. Steelmaking-2
REDUCTION RATIO DURING ROLLING

• Rolling, the most widely used deformation process, consists of passing a piece of metal
between two rolls; a reduction in thickness results from compressive stresses exerted by
the rolls

• Plate, sheet, round bars, flat bars, I-

sections and sections like that of railroad
track are shaped by rolling
• Figure shows the rolling of billet with an
initial thickness t0. The billet emerges
from the rolls with a lesser thickness t1, a
reduction of Δt = t0 - t1
𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑡1
• Reduction ratio: 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝑡0

Reduction in thickness during rolling.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6xnKmt_gsLs
43
3. Steelmaking-2

THERMOMECHANICAL SHAPING OF STEELMAKING PRODUCTS:

HOT FORGING (OPEN DIE)
Open die forging involves the shaping of heated metal parts between a top die
attached to a ram and a bottom die attached to a hammer, anvil or bolster.

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PROS VS. CONS OF OPEN DIE FORGING
OPEN-DIE FORGING PROS
• Little or no tooling cost
• Reduced lead time
• A variety of size options, from a few centimeters to nearly 100 feet

OPEN-DIE FORGING CONS

• Not suitable for forming intricate, precision parts or other close-tolerance
applications
• Machining is often required to complete open-die forgings
• Process doesn’t always produce consistent results or desired features

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