Vladimir Kukushkin, Alexander Levenko, Oleg Uruskyi, Lyubomir Sabadosh

AEROSPACE
PLANE
The Time of Researches and Achievements

Dnepropetrovsk
«Dominanta Print»
2015

1
УДК 629.782
ББК 20.1
К 88

Kukushkin V. I. , Levenko A. S., Uruskyi O. S., Sabadosh L. Y.

К 88 Aerospace Plane. The Time of Researches and Achievements / Translating from Russian into English
V. V. Shepel. – Dnepropetrovsk: Dominanta Print, 2015. - 104 p.
ISBN 978-966-97486-4-5

This book reveals the history of creation of aerospace and some other types of jet planes. It is
validated the choice of the topic of creation of the modern reusable two-stage aerospace plane for placing
satellites into an Earth orbit on the basis of the developments of aerospace plane, which are available in
Ukraine.
There is presented in the book the information of technical specifications of the authors’
development of the Ukrainian aerospace plane.
The book is meant for broad masses of readers.

Ця книга розкриває історію створення аерокосмічних і деяких інших типів реактивних

літаків. Вона підтверджує доцільність вибору теми створення сучасного багаторазового
двоступеневого космічного літака для виводу супутників на орбіти Землі на основі розробок
аерокосмічного літака, що можливо в Україні.
В книзі представлена інформація про технічні характеристики авторської розробки
українського аерокосмічного літака.
Книга призначена для широких мас читачів.

ISBN 978-966-97486-4-5 УДК 629.782

ББК 20.1
К 88

Second edition, revised and supplemented

Translating from Russian into English V. V. Shepel

ISBN 978-966-97486-4-5 © Kukushkin V. I., Levenko A. S., Uruskyi O. S., Sabadosh L. Y., 2015

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 Leonid Danilovich Kuchma with authors of the first edition this book:
A. S. Levenko (left) and V. I. Kukushkin (right).

The first publication of this book has been supported by Presidential fund of Leonid Kuchma
“Ukraine”.
Leonid Danilovich Kuchma is prominent political leader; nevertheless he also remains a
technician in the field of rocket technology. His judgments about prospective developments, concerning
rocket-space sphere, are well-known. The quotation from the report he delivered while visiting the
National Aerospace University named after Zhukovsky M. E. “Kharkov Aviation Institute” in
September 22, 2006 is given below.

“ … our promising future is ahead, but under the certain term only: if we
will work in close collaboration with our partners, conquer with them the world
markets, reach with them the European norms of life and go to Europe – all
that we’ll do jointly with them …”.

L. D. Kuchma, President of Ukraine (1994-2005)

3
 CONTENT

Abbreviations 4

Introduction 6

WEAPON OF VENGEANCE

Chapter 1. The Third Reich Secret 7

Chapter 2. Rocket-plane “Burya” 12

THE ROAD TO A DREAM

Chapter 3. Space planes 14
Chapter 4. Reusable aerospace system “Spiral” 31
Chapter 5. Space plane “Buran” 39

SPACE SHUTTLE
Chapter 6. “Space Shuttle” 44

RUSSIA: THE COURCE TO AN ORBIT

Chapter 7. Multipurpose aerospace system “MAKS” 57
Chapter 8. Evolution of the project “Clipper” 64

CHOOSING THE PRIORITIES

Chapter 9. Space planes. Projects and perspectives; deficiencies of the existing developments 71

UKRAINIAN VERSION
Chapter 10. Ukrainian aerospace plane “Sura” 76
Chapter 11. Aerospace system “Black Sea” 87
Chapter 12. 2013. Project Ultra Light Launch Vehicle 88
Chapter 13. 2014. Small-sized Rocket Complex 94
2015. New time 100

REFERENCES 102

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 ABBREVIATIONS

AFL – antenna-feeder line PA – production association

ALSS – automatic life-saving system PFPA – powder fuel pressure accumulation
AOE – approaching and orientation engines PL – payload
ASP – aerospace plane POP – piloted orbital plane
ASS – aviation-space system PS – piloted spaceship
ASS – aerospace system PA – pressure accumulator
BRRJE – broad range ramjet engine RASS – reusable aviation-space system
CAHDI – Central Air-Hydro-Dynamic Institute R&DED – research engineering development
CCM – carbon-carbonic materials RBC – recoverable ballistic capsule
ChPS – chemical power source RDI – R&D institute
CIAM – Central Institute of Aviation Materials RJE – ramjet engine
CPS – correcting propulsion system RLS – Radio-Location Station
CRDMBI – Central R&D Machine-Building Institute RLV – reusable launch vehicle
DB – design bureau RMC – reusable maneuvering capsule
DMBP – Dnepropetrovsk Machine-Building Plant RSS – rocket-space system
EMBP – experimental machine-building plant RTS – reusable transporting system
ES – Earth satellite RTSS – reusable transporting space ship
FCC – flight control center RV – reusable vehicle
FV – flying vehicle RVOI – reusable vehicle of orbital injection
HC – holding company RW – runway
HMKS – heat mode keeping system SE – state enterprise
HBP – hypersonic booster plane SASAP – single-stage aerospace plane
HPDD – hybrid peripheral docking device SC – spacecraft
HRC – heat-resistant coating SDB – special design bureau
HSBP – hypersonic booster plane SFB – solid-fuel booster
HSFV – hypersonic flying vehicle SFB – suspended fuel bay
HSRJE – hypersonic ramjet (direct air feed) engine SFE – solid fuel engine
IRV – infrared vertical SFJE – solid fuel jet engine
ISS – international space station SFT – suspended fuel tank
IUB – instrument-unit bay SMASP – single-mission aerospace plane SODB –
LS – launching system state-owned design bureau
LOS – lunar orbital ship SOP – suborbital plane
LPJE – liquid propellant jet engine SPA – scientific-production association
LS – landing system SRES – searching-rescue emergency service
LV – launch vehicle (rocket vehicle, booster) SS – spaceship
LW – landing way SSRJE – supersonic ramjet (direct air feed) engine
MAF – military aviation forces SSTO – Single-Stage-To-Orbit
MLS – mobile launching system ST – space tug
MPASS – multimission aviation-space system TCSA – transporting cargo ship aircraft
MPChE – magnetic plasma-chemical engine TDPA – turbo-driven pump assembly
NDMH – nonsymmetrical dimethyl-hydrazine (fuel) TFDS – transportation and fuel decontamination system
NT – nitrogen tetroxide THQ – tracking headquarters
OJSC – open joint-stock company TJE – turbojet engine
OP – orbital plane TPC – thermal protection covering
OS – observation station TPSC – transporting piloted spacecraft
OS – orbital ship TPLSS – technological pre-launch servicing system
OSSC – orbital small spacecraft TRV – transporting research vehicle
OP – orbital plane WH – warhead

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INTRODUCTION
In 2003 it was celebrated all over the world the century of creation of aviation industry: in December 14
1903 brothers Wilbur and Orville Write (USA) in Northern Caroline realized the first guided flight on a plane
equipped with a motor: The plane took off and it was flying for 12 seconds!
But it was advisable to celebrate not only the aviation industry, but also the century of using a rocket not
as a military missile, but as flying research vehicle, because on the 5 of June 1903 Alfred Maul (Germany) had
patented a rocket for aero-photo survey of the Earth. The picture, shot by the camera, installed on the rocket, is
kept up to now (National Fir and Space Museum, Smithsonian Inst.). But prior to that event, in April 14 1903
Frederic Thompson got in the USA a patent #725509 for the attraction “Flight to the Moon” in the Luna-Park of
Buffalo, NY [1] – so fashionable and urgent was the topic of interplanetary flights in the beginning of XX century.
Mastering of the Space started due to pioneering of such enthusiasts as, for instance, K. E. Tsiolkovsky
(Russia), who made the first steps in the field of creation of the theory of space exploration. Now, up to 1897
Tsiolkovsky had published his principle works on interplanetary travels with the use of liquid propellant jet
engines.
On the 25 of August 1885 T. Griffiths and H. W. Beddoes Great Btritain) got the patent for the work
“Modernization of jet propulsion”. And a bit later, in January 1906 the American scientist Robert H. Goddard first
substantiated in theory the possibility of creation of ion electrical jet engine. And in March 2 the same year – the
possibility of creation of a jet engine on nuclear power for space trips. This idea was supported by many world
scientists: Robert Esnault-Pelterie (1912), K. E. Tsiolkovsky (1913), Gaetano Arturo (1923), Eugen Sanger (1933)
and Philip Cleator (1933). And on the first of October 1913 Robert Goddard had patented “Rocket Apparatus” – he
got his first patent #110253 for rocket-powered engineering. As a pre-image there was used a rocket scheme,
described in “Artis Magnae Artiltriae” by Kasimir Siemienowicz (Poland) in 1650. Since 1915 Robert H. Goddard
begins his field experiences with jet engines, and in March 16 his rocket with liquid fuel engine was taken off.
In 1923 German scientist Mr. Hermann Oberth published his work “The Rocket into Planetary Space”. In
1924 there was published in Germany the work “Advance into Planetary Space” by an author Max Valier.
On the 10 of April 1929 there was launched the first in Europe rocket with liquid propellant, developed by
Friedrich Sander, test was sensitive. It was reported in 1930 by Max Valier. The rocket diameter was 21 cm, length
– 74cm, mass of construction (without fuel) – 7kg, the thrust reached 50 kg for 2.2 minutes.
In December 1929 in Leningrad Gas-Dynamic Laboratory (Soviet Union) had started theoretical &
experimental work in the field of jet engines. Since 1932 there had been tested electrical and ion engines. On 29
July 1930 in Germany were carried out firing test of liquid propellant jet engine “Cone-jet”, developed by
Hermann Oberth (the Reich Institute of Chemistry and Technology).
On 12 November there was launched first experimental rocket of the American Rocket Society (Hugh F.
Pierce, G. Edward Pendray).
All those events, depicted above, happened in the beginning of scientific-technological boom of XX
century. And then followed impetuous, sweeping development of aviation and rocket production and conceptual
struggle. In this technical competition the planes got the first place, and rockets were being created in a parallel
way. Nevertheless the dream of a space plane, rising from the Earth surface to the Space and capable of returning
back on the Earth couldn’t be realized for long years. This dream was ahead of the time
The formal century of aviation birth day and unofficial one of rockets and spaceships, the authors of this
book celebrated in their own way: they delivered a report at the 54 th International Astronautical Conference about
aerospace system with the use of two-stage aerospace plane [2].
The book “Aerospace Plane” is dedicated to a vehicle, representing a plane and rocket-plane, which is
ranked between rocket vehicles and conventional planes.
The authors would like to express their gratitude to the administration of the State Enterprise “Production
Association Southern Machine-Building Plant named after A. M. Makarov”, on which there was manufactured the
first model (1:10) of aerospace plane; to the administration of the National Space Agency of Ukraine, which found
it possible to include the development of the aerospace plane into the section of R&D of the National space
program, and to the Information-Analytical Center “Space-Inform” for a support of the initiative of creation
aerospace plane in Ukraine.
The authors are grateful to Leonid Danilovich Kuchma for his support of the prospective line of the
Ukrainian rocket-space branch.
A reader, due to his knowledge and being well informed, and also to his desire to perceive new ideas, may
consider this book as substantiation of a serious technical application, which is patented in Ukraine by the authors,
or he can take it as an engineer’s science fiction.

6
 VENGEANCE WEAPON
Chapter 1.
The Third Reich Secret

On 23 January 1943, evening, in one of the buildings of the northern part of the launching site (ranger)
Penemunde (Uzedom Island, Baltic Sea), Verner von Brown had seen for the first time ober-lieutenant Rudolf
Shredder, clad in space costume. Ober-lieutenant was one of 100 military pilots, trained by Otto Scortseni for
flights in a rocket along suborbital trajectory, one of the astronauts of the Third Reich. Much more lately the first
American astronaut will fly along suborbital trajectory on the rocket of Verner von Brown, which he developed in
the USA.
Verner von Brown headed the work on creation of the first experimental German rocket since 1
November 1923 [3]. And since 1929 the secret group, headed by Captain Walter R. Dornberger in the ballistic
dept. of the arming board of Germany (chief of dept. colonel K. Bekker) started studying a possibility of using jet
engines in military aims.
W. R. Dornberger is well-known as a creator of a laboratory of liquid propellant jet engines and of the
rocket ranger Kummersdorf near Berlin. Just in this laboratory 23 July 1929 were carried out tests of the first
classical LPJE of German Oberth. The future general and doctor of sciences is much more famous as creator of
Penemunde – the Institute and rocket ranger (launching site).
Suggested in the USA at the postwar time by Dornberger jointly with Crafft A. Enrike, the former
technician of Penemunde project of the rocket plane became one of prototypes of Ukrainian two-stage aerospace
plane “Sura” [4]. They proposed the project of a rocket spaceship, the basis of which became the work, performed
in Penemunde during the World War II.
Apart from the known missile V-2 (the project A-4) in spring 1941 under management of Verner von
Brown and according the calculations of German Obert was designed intercontinental ballistic missile A-9/A-10. It
was two-stage rocket: the first stage – A-10, the second – piloted one – A-9. The pilot steers the missile for the aim
and after steering he ejects himself above Atlantic, where he will be picked up by a submarine. The strokes were
planned for New-York and Washington. The second stage A-9 is rather a rocket plane, than a rocket. Two of four
fins of a stabilizer turned to be swept-back wings [3].
After 48 launches (16 of them were failures) it was taken a decision about realization of piloted flight. Up
to that time there were already manufactured capsules for pilots, space suits, navigational system for firing
(shooting) at a radio beacon and there were trained 100 pilots.
In the morning of 24 January 1945 German Oberth, Verner von Brown and other rocket technicians of
Penemunde in the underground command post were monitoring the launch of the rocket. On the 10 th second of
flight the flight was interrupted, [3]. And even this flight wasn’t realized, it was supposed to be carried out.
The launches of nonpiloted vehicles in direction of the Northern Sea were carried out. It is possible, that 6
more launches were successful.
Rocket A-9/A-10 characteristics:
- length 43 m;
- rocket base diameter 4.15 m;
- stage A-10 – packet of six combustion chambers of LPJE with total thrust 160 tons and single nozzle;
- fuel – high-boiling components.
V. I. Kukushkin, one of the authors of this book, had acquainted in 1955 with materials, taken out from
German pathetic place by L. V. Vasilyev, Deputy Chief Designer M. K. Yangel, about the rocket A-9/A-10.
There was developed in Germany also piloted version of the rocket V-2 in the form of rocket A-4b with
the capsule for a pilot, and A-6 too.
In the late March 1936 from Austria was invited E. Zenger to visit Germany for a purpose of creating
R&D Institute of a missile technology. He started with building a plant for production of 56 tons of liquid
oxygen per day. He had built a special bench for conducting firing tests of LPJE with the thrust of 100 tons. By the
1939 the pressure in combustion chambers of LPJE models reached 100 kg/cm 2 and jet velocity from a nozzle – 3
km/sec. At that time jet velocity considered as the principle feature of a rocket engine.
The first rocket plane was designed and what’s more, was tested in Germany, by Max Valieu (1928).
After that there appeared and were tested project models of Zander and Lippish. The work was funded by Mr.
Oppel, he flew on a rocket glide in his own person, but after an accident, when he was saved by a miracle, (30
September 1929) after the flight for 10 minutes with the speed of 160 km/h, he rejected an idea of fitting the
conventional planes with rocket engines.

7
 Before projects of Zander, Lippish, Opel and Kattaneo (Italy, 1931) there existed other ones: flying jet
torpedo of Russian engineer Alexander Gorochov (1887), jet plane of Frenchman Rene Loren (1908), jet glider of
Frenchman Moris (1917) etc.
Rocketeer Eugen Zenger started his R&D activity with tests of rocket engines in Vienna University. The
thrust of these engines was equal to 25 kg and they could work from 15 seconds to half an hour. His first aviation
development was the project of stratospheric rocket plane, which became a prototype of the American X-1 (Bell
Aircraft Corporation).
Since 1936 in Germany started to appear the projects of aircraft schemes (lay-outs) and the plants had
begun to produce rocket planes by small series, equipped with the engines, manufactured on the Walter Plant in
Kiel: “Messerschmitt” Me-163B (“Comet”); reconnoitering airplane DFS-228; reconnoitering version of two-
engine bomber DFS-346, which is able (in theory) to climb and gain the altitude of 30 km and gather speed of
2700 km/h. But E. Zenger was dealing with other flight theory.
In 1944 doc. Zenger in collaboration with well-known mathematician doc. Irene Bredt suggested the
theory of returning the rocket to the Earth with nearly right angle [4]. According this theory, if the rocket will make
a reentry (at the height of 40 km) too fast and too steeply, it will ricochet. Having been “rebounded” from dense
layers of the atmosphere, the rocket must go up again for low-density layers. “In general its flight path will
represent a wavy line with gradually “damped” amplitude. According to Zenger and Bredt calculations, such
trajectory will increase the possible range of flight of a cruise missile very considerably” [3].
On the basis of such theory, E. Zenger created a concept of his bomber-antipode. The rocket plane must
weigh 100 tons, the maximal flight altitude – 160 km, the flight range – up to 23 500 km under an airspeed of
6 000 m/s and jet velocity from the nozzle of the jet engine – 3 000 m/s.
Fantastic and stunning results of calculations and projects of E. Zenger became classified and were
restricted for the access in Germany, but after the end of World War II they acted as a catalyst, which up to 2007
furthered the appearance a considerable amount of airspace and rocket-powered planes. And only by
the time of preparation of this book, the Zenger’s concept gained a practical realization in the American
“Space-Policeman” hypersonic bomber, according to the project “Falcon Hypersonic Technology Vehicle”. The
flight tests of the first plane were planned for September 2007 (CNews.ru: Главные новости /31.01.2006/ Falcon:
бомбардировщики уходят в гиперзвук (bombers are going hypersonic)), but the tests were delayed for 2008.

Verner von Brown has made his daydream come true: from the project of a
splendid missile A-4 (V-2) he advanced to the lunar rocket vehicle “Saturn-5”

V-2 Saturn-5 A-18, Verner von Brown, 1953

8
 Flight scheme and Eugene Zenger’s bomber-antipode scheme
X-15, USA
Scheme of the rocket plane
of Walter R. Dornberger and
Crafft A. Enrike. Walter R.
Dornberger became the vice-
president of the company “Bell
Aerosystems” and later on one of
pioneers of creation of “Space
Shuttle”.
Major-General Dr. Ing. h. c.
Walter Robert Dornberger was
a leader of Germany's rocket
program.
Dr. Walter Robert Dornberger
– Chief Constructor
German Rockets.
9
 Piloted stage A-9

Long range missile A-6

Horten Ho IX (Ho 229)

Flight of the stage A9

Piloted long range missile A-4b A-4b

10
 Plane-projectile “Reichenberg IV”
In the museum near Visern (La Coupole).
Photo by Martin van Rongen.

Lay-out diagram of the plane-projectile “Reichenberg IV”

(“Fi-103R-IV”): 1 - nose cone; 2 – recording instruments;
3 – blasting fuse; 4 – warhead; 5 – tubular load bearing spar;
6 – aiming unit; 7 – filler neck of fuel tank; 8 – fuel tank; 9 – fixing
device (to catapult); 10 – cockpit; 11 – pulsating air-feed engine
Argus As-014; 12 – ignition plug; 13 – driving rods of steering
planes; 14 – compressed-air tank of the engine; 15 – engine control
apparatus; 16 - rudder

German cruise missiles (planes-projectiles), used

during World War II:
1 – unmanned missile (rocket) “Fi-103” (“V-1”);
Piloted planes-projectiles: 2 – “Fi-103R-I”, 3 – “Fi-103R-II”,
4 - “Fi-103R-III”, 5 - “Fi-103R-IV”

11
Chapter 2.
Rocket Plane “BURYA”
From the point of view of early XXI century it’s hard to believe, that the developments of early and
middle of the last century in certain events only now could be realized. But there’s more, it deserves attention a
successful and fully developed in the USSR, but practically not implemented project of the rocket plane “Burya”.
The intercontinental supersonic cruise missile “Burya” was being created during the struggle against the
USA and was designed for delivery of nuclear weapon. It’s undoubtedly, that creation of the cruise missile was
going on under that huge impression, which exerted influence on Soviet aviation and rocket engineers due to the
data about the achievements of the fascist Germany in this field.
Their advances are unquestionable. Even if bear in mind just aviation and jet engines, commencement of
development and then usage of which started in 1936–1937. Impressive list of serially produced and designed
engines, and also rocket and jet airplanes, which advanced the time, indicates, that the Germany of the Third
Reich was the most technically developed country all over the world. To tell the truth, in fact it was really German-
fascist airplane DFS-346, the Germans just didn’t have enough time to accomplish the challenge. Nearly at this
time the airplane Su-9 (chief aircraft designer – Sukhoy, USSR) made its flight, but outwardly this plane was not
only indistinguishable from the German plane Me-262, but there were used the same engines Jumo 004. In 1949
near Moscow took off the Soviet turbojet airplane “Project 140”, i.e. German plane Ju-287. It may be of some
interest, that this plane was tested by B. Baade, former private pilot of Reich marshal Goering! In America took off
“Bell” X-5, in our country – Yak-15 (the prototype of both planes was German plane Me P.1101).
The Chief Designed of engines Isayev creates the first domestic jet engine RD-1 (its prototype was
Walter HWK 509). At the same time Soviet designer Chelomey creates the first pulsating jet engine D-3 (the
replica of the fascist “Argus AS-0142”) (http:/www.supergun.ru/publicist/index.php?publicist=kursk, according to
the book “Luftwaffe jet airplanes” of A. A. Zapolskikh. Minsk: “Harvest”.
In terms of the post-war advance was being created rocket plane “Burya” (factory index mark “350”).
Supersonic intercontinental cruise missile (chief designer N. S. Chernyakov) was performed as two stage
scheme. “The first stage included two boosters with four-chamber LPJE C.2.1150, chief designer – A. M. Isayev.
The second (mid-flight) stage was cruise missile, performed as a standard aircraft scheme with thin triangular
small-span wing with wing sweep of 70o along the front edge. The propulsion system of the cruise stage consisted
of a single supersonic ramjet (direct air feed) engine РД-012У, chief designer – M. M. Bondaryuk.
Launch of “Burya” was performed vertically from mobile railroad cars.
After reaching the speed of M = 3.3 and the altitude of 18 000 m the boosters were discarded. The flight
of the second stage was carried out at the altitude of 18 – 20 km with the constant speed of M = 3.1–3.2. Guidance
was realized with the help of the on-board navigational system. By approaching to the finishing point of the path,
the vehicle began to dive after the command, sent by an autopilot; while diving, the warhead is released.
Flight test of the vehicle “Burya” started in 1957. From September 1957 up to December 1960 there were
launched 18 rockets; four of them were launched for a long test path from Vladimirovka (Astrakhan district) to
peninsula Kamchatka. While the last two launches range of flight turned to be 6 500 km.
Nevertheless in the early 1960 it was shown the preference for a ballistic rocket P-7 (SS-6, Sapwood),
created under the leadership of chief designer S. P. Korolev. And from that time on the launches of “Burya” along
the long path were conducted as launches of the prototype of the unmanned vehicle for the purpose of
photoreconnaissance” (http://www.laspace.ru/rus/burya.php).
“Burya” is worthy to be proud of. It was designed and developed, it has shown good flight and functional
performance. But… the leader of the Soviet Union made his historical trip to the USA. To demonstrate technical
potentials and might of the USSR, N. S. Khrushchev flew to America by the airplane Tu-104, the first Soviet
passenger jet liner, converted from bomber. To displeasure of the general secretary of the Central Committee of the
CPSU, head winds above Atlantic Ocean had delayed his arrival by 40 minutes!
And may be due to that, N. Khrushchev concluded, that nuclear bombs on the USA must be delivered by
ballistic rockets. It could be one of the reasons, which negatively influenced on further fate of all rocket planes in
the USSR and, in particular, of “Burya”.
Intercontinental two-stage cruise missile “Burya” is unmanned rocket plane. Its further potential
modifications could advance the time of creation aerospace and orbital pilotless airplanes.
It was manufactured in total 19 missiles on two plants: #301 in Khimki (Moscow district), #18 in
Kuybyshev. SRJE for mid-flight stage were manufactured on the plant #24 in Kuybyshev, boosters for ICM
“Burya” on the plant #301 in Khimki [24].

12
 Soviet rocket plane “Burya”

Features of the Soviet rocket plane “Burya”

# Main parameters of ICM “Burya” Value

1 Boosters 2xC.2.1150
2 Thrust of the booster, kg 2x68400
3 Propulsion system of mid-flight stage RD-012U
4 Thrust of the mid-flight engines, kg 12 600
5 Length, m 19.88
6 Diameter of fuselage, m 2.2
7 Height, m 6.642
8 Wing span, m 7.746
9 Launching weight, kg 97 000
10 War charge weight, kg 2 350
11 Maximal speed M = 3.2
12 Flight altitude, km 18 – 24.5
13 Maximal flight range, km 6 500

13
 THE ROAD TO THE DREAM
Chapter 3.
Space Planes
Boom of designing the aero-space systems has been occurring for the last 50 years three times. In the
USSR it was always the response to the Western developments.
The first stage falls on 60–70 years of the XX century. The progress in the field of rocket technology,
space exploration and supersonic aircraft resulted in realization of the military projects X-15, X020 “Dyna Soar”
(USA), “Spiral” (USSR) and others. In this period there were created partially reusable aerospace systems “Space
Shuttle” and “Energiya-Buran”.
The second period begins from late 70 years XX century: at that time there were started, but not
completed the projects Hermes, Saenger, Hotol, Hope-X and others.
The third period was begun in 1986, after the program NASP was approved in the USA, according to
which there must be created single-stage airspace plane X-30.
NASP is National Aerospace Plane. The work on the space plane was closed because of high cost, but
gotten results were used as a basis for further developments and projects, for example VentureStar X-33, X-34
(SSTO – Single Stage to Orbit, reusable single-stage aerospace plane).
The first descent vehicle with load bearing body, which is necessary for reentry and landing, was
obviously M2-F1 (USA). It descended from the altitude of nearly four kilometers with subsonic regime of flight, as
the subsequent M2-F2.
Already in 60 years there were testing in the USA a hypersonic descent vehicle X-15 at the altitudes of
nearly 76 kilometers. The vehicle was launched from the plane B-52, design flight speed 7 200 km/h. In November
1967 while 191st flight at the altitude of 79.6 km broke down the third piloted plane X-15 [5]. X-15 reached the
altitude 101 km.
There was tested an unmanned descent vehicle SV-5D with bearing body. The vehicle entered the dense
layers of the atmosphere at the altitude of 80 km with the speed of eight kilometers per second. Heat shielding
under the temperature of 1 650oC was provided. The first successful flight was realized in December 21 1966; in
April 19 1967 the third descent vehicle was intercepted at the final part of the flight and kept for an analysis.
The vehicle X-24A (USA) is a piloted aircraft with the load bearing body in the form of monocoque
structure made of aluminum alloys and stainless steel. It was designed to resist velocity head (pressure) of 2 400 kg
per square meter. The tests were conducted since 1969 at the altitudes 14–20 km. On the first of August 1973 the
vehicle X-24B separated from the plane B-52 and landed for four minutes in the mode of gliding descent.
Later on the result of the activity in this field of the American technicians we know. Small as for its
overall dimensions plane (just the airplane with horizontal taking off!) was not created. The use-proven concepts
have been laid into the reusable transport space shuttle with conventional rocket launching.
The most interesting are certain projects, which can be shortly described
(http://solar.rtd.utk.edu/~mwade/soaceflt.htm, the journal «Новости космонавтики» (“Space exploration News”
#7/8, 17/18, 23/24, 1998).
Reusable aerospace vehicle X-20 “Dyna Soar”, USA, 1959
The project of the first one in the world reusable space vehicle with gliding descent and with delta wing
for the air force of the USA. The length is 10.8 m, wing span – 6.2 m. The crew consists of single pilot only. The
launch is vertical with the use of a booster “Titan-3”. Heat shielding system consists of metallic and ceramic
elements. It was planned horizontal flight tests of the plane after its separation from the bomber B-52, but the
program was closed.
Reusable space system “Hermes-Ariane”, France, 1979
The system consists of an orbital spacecraft “Hermes” and a rocket vehicle “Ariane-5”. It was developed
under the leadership of the National Space Agency of France (CNES) jointly with partners from ESA.
“Hermes is performed in accordance with aerodynamic scheme “tailless” with low wing of large sweep.
The wing is blunt-edged with big rounding-off radius; it is fit with single-sectional elevons. At the rear part of the
fuselage there is installed a balancing correction flap, which functions as controller of the balancing angle of
attack, such as it is usually provided for many other airspace vehicles. Due to technological problems in the field of
developing reusable heat shielding and to postponement of flight tests of the launch vehicle “Ariane”, the activity
with regard to implementation of the program were ceased in early 1992.
“HOTOL”, British Aerospace, Great Britain, 1982
The project “HOTOL” (Horizontal Tale-Off And Landing) provided for creation of entirely reusable

14
unmanned airspace vehicle, main function of which is putting of aircrafts in low Earth orbit and maintenance of a
space station, including delivery of astronauts in a piloted capsule, placed in a payload compartment. High
economy and efficiency of this project, in developers’ opinion, must be provided by elimination of single-mission
elements and systems from its construction and also by reducing expanses for pre-launch operations. Take-off
mass is 196–250 t.; touchdown mass – 34–47 t.; payload mass, placed in the orbit of 300 km – approximately 7–11
t.; the length – 60–62 m; wing span – 19.7–20 m; fuselage diameter – 5.7 m.
Within the scope of the program “Interim HOTOL” (1991), which was being carried out jointly with the
Central Air-Hydro-Dynamic Institute (CAHDI), Scientific Production Association “Molniya” (“Lightning”)
(Russian Federation) and ANTK after O. K. Antonov (Ukraine) there was considered the option of the airborne
launching from the modified airplane An-225 “Мрія”. It was planned to use fully new mid-flight oxygen-hydrogen
propulsion system, able to function in turns (sequentially) as air-fed (jet) and liquid engines.
The activity have been ceased in the middle of 90-s but the subject is going on be the developers.
Airspace system Saenger, Daimler-Benz Aerospace AG, Germany, 1985
Realization of the Program Saenger would guarantee an independent access to space for Western-
European countries with possible horizontal launching from ordinary airdromes’ runways in Europe (developer –
Daimler-Benz Aerospace AG).
According to primary development the vehicle had the following characteristics: take-off mass was 340 t.,
fuselage length – 81.3 m, wing span – 41.4 m, take-off speed – 500 km/h. The first stage with the mass of 259 t.
had maximal reserve of hydrogen up to 100 t. Cruise propulsion system was a pack of five combination turbo-
ramjet engines. The second stage was piloted space vehicle with big amount of fuel; full mass was approximately
90 t. Design time in orbital flight was 24 hours. The spacecraft receives the crew – two pilots aside from that, four
passengers and three tons of cargo. In a tourist option in the cabin can be placed up to 36 passengers.
The project “Saenger” fundamentally is a conceptual developmental work and didn’t reach a level of a
technical design.
Tu-2000, SDB named after A. N. Tupolev, USSR, 1986
Airspace system Tu-2000 was developed after the task of USSR Defense Ministry in response to
development of a trans-atmospheric plane X-30 (NASP). Single-stage reusable aerospace plane (ASP) Tu-2000
had to provide for an effective and energy-saving delivery of a payload into Earth orbit and also high-speed trans-
atmospheric intercontinental transportation and solving of military problems in both areas: in the atmosphere and
in near space.
The full project mass of the ASP estimated as 90 t, the “dry“ mass – 40 t, diameter – 13 m, wing span – 14
m, length – 60 m, the crew – 2 men. The work on the project were stopped due to lack opf financing and technical
problems in the field of creating combination propulsion system and cooling system of the ASP body with the use
of liquid hydrogen.
The vehicle with hybrid propulsion system (turbojet + BRRJE + LPJE) is built on the basis of
combination of turbojet, air-breathing jet and liquid propellant jet engines.
Using of atmospheric oxygen as oxidant for the engines of Tu-2000 decreases fuel consumption. Essential
reduction of the total mass is achieved by the use of BRRJE in broad range of Mach number during flight.
Using of liquid hydrogen as a coolant allows providing normal temperature condition of the glider
construction, which is performed by the conventional aviation scheme, RJE, equipment and also standard
conditions for the crew, cargo and passengers.
There were conducted R & D for creation of technology of producing and keeping aboard a supercooled
(sludge-like) hydrogen.
According to ANTK technicians’ data, R & D and engineering development can be carried out for 13 – 15
years from the beginning of required financing.
Supposed expenses for R & D and engineering development work make 5.29 milliard of USD; for
building a prototype plane 480 million USD more (rates refer to the second quarter of 1955). Expected cost of
launching – 13.6 million of USD with the rate of launches – 20 per year. Now all the activity on the project has
been frozen due to financing failure.
“Skylon”, Reaction engines Ltd, Great Britain, 1993
It is the developers’ opinion that single-stage reusable aerospace vehicle “Skylon”, is a successor of the
system “HOTOL” (developer is Reaction Engines Ltd.). The principle difference is multimode booster engines,
placed on the ends of wing cantilevers. The project authors expected that it is possible to realize the project within
the next ten years, and “Skylon” will be able to place a payload with the mass up to 12 t into an Earth orbit. It is
claimed, that it will have a low operating cost and due to that it will make possible to cover its development cost.
“Hope-X”, NASDA, NAL, Japan, 1995
Development of Japan reusable Vehicle “Hope-X” was being performed jointly by the State enterprises
NASDA and NAL. “Hope-X” is a pilotless aerospace vehicle, which was put into an orbit with the help of the
boosters (launch vehicles) H-2.
It was planned to use Hope-X” for delivery of payloads into Earth orbit and also for conducting of

15
scientific experiments. Before the work with the project started, there were conducted many terrestrial (ground)
technological experiments and flight tests with the “OREX”, “HYFLEX” and “ALFLEX”. During these
experiments there was used NASA experience.
The first experiment with the model “OREX” (Orbital Re-Entry Experiment) was carried out in 1994 for
evaluation of functioning of thermal overload protection in the atmosphere.
The second experiment with the model “HYFLEX” (Hypersonic Flight Experiment) was carried out in
1996. After the vehicle was launched by the booster H-2, there was being mastered the process of reentry and
hypersonic flight.
During the experiment with the model “ALFLEX” (Automatic Landing Flight Experiment) there was
being mastered horizontal automatic landing on the runway after separation of the model from a helicopter.
Now the activity with the project is frozen.
Single-stage aerospace plane “Neva”. HC “Leninets” Russia
Hypersonic vehicle “Neva” has been developed on the basis of the concept “Ayax”. There was proposed
by the institute of research of the hypersonic systems (branch of the St. Petersburg holding “Leninets”) an original
propulsion system for the space vehicle “Ayax” of their own development. The principle distinction between
suggested magnet-plasma-chemical engine (MPChE) and traditional ones is that, that there are no cryogenic fuel
components like oxygen and hydrogen. Instead of those it is suggested using decomposition of hydrocarbon fuel
(kerosene) into hydrogen and hydrocarbon under the influence of temperature (in the most heated points of the
glider) and catalysts with lesser molecular weight. It will save from supercooling and from of heating the fuel up to
boiling point.
It is assumed, that such RJE will work on the speeds from M = 6 up to M = 16.
Three original engineering decisions are realized in the ASP “Neva”.
First one: using laminate chemical elements, placed on the outside surface of glider body, as thermal
protection while hypersonic flight speeds in the atmosphere. These reagents take off the heat from the surface due
to endothermic reaction of high-temperature catalytic decomposition of hydrocarbon fuel, which flows within the
jacket space. The hydrogen, released during reagent decomposition, will be delivered into the combustion chamber
of the mid-flight propulsion system, which includes magnet-plasma chemical engine as a basic element. At the
same time it is an additional electric power source for a hypersonic glider.
Using an “endothermic” fuel will save from necessity of using cryogenic fuel components, i.e. hydrogen
and oxygen.
The second feature is the engine MPChE. In its foundation lay magnet-gas-dynamic brake and accelerator,
which provide effective control of gas-dynamic processes in the RJE circuit.
The third feature is guidance by streamlining flow over the surface of the hypersonic vehicle by way of an
impact of the on-board laser device directional radiation and also of an outer electromagnetic field of the vehicle
on the boundary layer and on compression leap of shock waves. For instance, if 10 million neutral molecules hold
only one electron, then airbraking force will be well reduced.
Combination of these engineering decisions, as designers put it, gives unique features to the vehicle in the
field of energy-weight efficiency, as well in the area of scope of its application.
The concept of this fully new hypersonic vehicle was put forward in late 80-s by V. L Fraishtadt, who was
working at Saint Petersburg R & D enterprise of hypersonic systems (NIPGC - R&D EHS) of HC “Leninets” at
that time.
He suggested not protect the vehicle, flying with huge speed, from the heat, but vice versa, let it in and
use it as additional energy. This method helped solve the problem of paramount importance as for cooling the
glider and many other problems. On the basis of this concept there is being developed HSFV “Ayaks”, which may
serve as the first stage of a reusable booster.
In the meantime many Russian technicians (CAHDI, CIAM etc.) take it as a moot point as for rationality
and efficiency of technical implementation of these proposals. To this very day none of those received generally
recognized acknowledgement. There is no financial support of the project from the government. For the reasons
given above, creation of the vehicle of this type (as “Neva”) seems to be highly unlikely
(http://www.ldomino.ru/russia/leninets/neva/neva.htm).
Some technical features of the ASP “Neva”:
- maximal launching weight – 364 t;
- payload weight for the orbit of 250 km – 3 t;
- flight speed at the altitude 100 km – 7 500 m/sec.
“VentureStar”, Lockheed Martin Corp., USA, 1993
The contract for building of RLV – a reusable spacecraft, pilot suborbital plane X-33, the company
“Lockheed Martin” received from NASA in July 1996. NASA was planning to spend for this project $ 941
million, and “Lockheed Martin” was going to invest in it at least $ 220 million. The first flight of the spacecraft X-
33 was scheduled for March 1999. T hen t h e la u nc h was d e la yed fo r J u l y, t h e n fo r De ce mb e r, a nd
after t h at i t wa s d e la yed fo r t he mi d d le o f 2 0 0 0 and so o n . T he d el a ys were ca u sed b y p o o r

16
reli ab i li t y o f f as te n i n g o f V - s hap ed nozzle components, which must endure high temperatures.
The plane X-33 wasn’t planned for putting into an orbit. It was designed for a number of flights in the
atmosphere above the western territory of the USA for testing all plane systems. Firstly it was planned to perform
15 test flights. Having been launched vertically from the air base “Edwards” in California, X-33 must develop the
speed M=15 at the altitude up to 100 km. Landing runways are situated on the testing area (proving ground)
Dugway, UT, and also on the air force base Malmstrom, MT. The building of the Center of X-33 test flights began
in November 1997 and was accomplished in a bit less than one year for this purpose there was assigned $32
million.
The plane X-33 is downsized two times less model of the future reusable spacecraft “VentureStar”. The
decision about creation of this craft had to be taken on the basis of the results of test flights. X-33 is nine times
lighter; its development cost is four times less. The vehicle was intended for testing a number of important
technologies, which were necessary for manufacture of future recoverable spaceships and their units, especially the
engine, thermal protection system, composite fuel tanks and aluminum fuel tank for liquid oxygen.
Propulsion system is an engine, developed by the company “Rocketdyne”, this is the daughter enterprise
of the corporation “Boeing”. The engine is LPJE XRS-2200 with the thrust: at sea level – 1 917 kN; in vacuum –
2 200 kN.
With the help of manufacturing technology of SSTO (Single-Stage-To-Orbit) NASA administration in
collaboration with USA aviation industry is planning reduce essentially the cost of payload orbiting (from $10 000
to $1 000 per one pound of payload weight and raise competitive capacity of the USA on the market of commercial
usage of the space).
For this purpose it was planned to create a reusable spaceship by 2004; the ship was named “Lockheed
Martin” “VentureStar”. It was intended to put into an Earth orbit a payload with the mass of 22.5 tons. According
to RLV program, there was additionally created the model X-34 for testing and confirmation of practical feasibility
of launching small commercial and scientific payloads by reusable rocket.
The cost of “VentureStar” development was estimated as $5 billion.
A peculiar feature of the project is the application of LPJE with outer expansion. The company
“Rocketdyne” has conducted 73 laboratory and ground launching tests, during which the engine worked more, than
4 000 seconds. It was spent at least $500 million for tests, development and polishing of the LPJE construction,
which works effectively in the broad range of altitudes and pressures – from the start to an orbit.
In 1997 started the next stage of flight tests of this engine with the speed M = 0.8–3.0 at the altitudes 6–24
km. On the NASA flying laboratory was set a container Linear Aerospike SR-71 Experiment (LASRE) with the
length of 12.3 meter, which was downsized (10 times less) X-33 model with eight engine units. The fuel is gaseous
hydrogen. Total mass – 5.8 t. Propulsion system thrust – up to 2 800 kg.
In the next project of the pilot plane X-34 there were joined the efforts of a number of aviation-space
companies (Orbital Sciences Corporation – OSC) under NASA patronage.
X-34 is unmanned pilot vehicle with single engine, intended for development of new recoverable boosters
(launching vehicles).
The construction features of X-34 allow orbiting of the Earth satellites when launching under any weather
conditions. The launching is realized from the plane-vehicle L-1011. After climbing to the certain altitude the
vehicle engine is started. The landing is carried out automatically in horizontal mode. The X-34 has been created in
the framework of the program Reusable Launch Vehicle. In June 1996 the company “Orbital Sciences
Corporation” (OSC, Dulles, VA) got the contract of $ 60 million for development, manufacture and test of the
plane X-34.
In late 1998 NASA and OSC came to an agreement to conduct 25 additional test-flights of X-34 a
prototype of reusable spaceship. According to preliminary agreement with OSC it was planned only two test
flights, but already at that time the both parties surmised, that some additional tests will be required.
In January 1998 NASA had changed the contract with OSC, in which there was included an item about
manufacture of the second plane X-34. This additional plane and flight tests increased the contract cost by $ 85
million.
X-24 is intended for checking the technologies, which were supposed to apply during manufacture of the
prospective small reusable spaceships. In particular, this spaceship must be able to fly under any weather
conditions, to land in automatic mode and, in addition to that, it must be equipped with life-saving means.
X-34 was designed for flights at the altitude of 75 km with supersonic speed at most M ≤ 8.
In March 1999 full-scale tests of the X-34 engine on the proving fire stand of the space center named after
Stennis (Stennis Space Center) in Mississippi were completed. The engine Fastrac, developed by NASA Space
Center named after Marshall was working for 20 sec. The thrust was 267 kN. The engine, working on kerosene and
liquid oxygen is very efficient. As project manager Danny Davis says, such engine will make it possible
considerably reduce cost of launching systems. Prior to installing it on X-34 it is planned to carry out at most 85
tests of the engine Fastrac.
On the 1st of March 1999 NASA agency informed, that X-34 entered the testing site of Dryden Flight

17
Research Center for conducting a test series. In the beginning the spaceship X-34 and the plane L-1011 from which
the X-34 will start, will pass the ground tests. Then X-34 will be fastened to the plane L-1011 for conducting with
it 6–7 test flights on testing site of the Researh Center after Edwards for check-up its flight features. The first flight
was planned for 29 June 1999. Separation from the plane was not planned. By the end of 1999 it was planned the
second series of flight tests in New Mexico on the White Sands Missile Range, and afterwards – in the Space
Center named after Kennedy in Florida. During these tests there had to be verified flight possibility under adverse
weather conditions while subsonic flights, possibility of automatic landing when there are no winds and heavy
winds and also possibility of being reusable. This plane is designed to make 25 flies per year.
The system for maintenance of small reusable spaceships with the cost of $8 million was planned to build
on Cape Canaveral in 2000 (http://www.Idomino.ru/usa/osc/x/34/x34.htm).
X-37 Future-X Pathfinder is a pilot spaceplane. In 1999 there has been signed an agreement between
companies Boeing and NASA about building and testing small spaceplane X-37, designed for testing the
technologies, which are to be used in reusable spaceships of new generation.
The ship X-37, previously known as “Future-X Pathfinder”, will be used to carry out a number of test
flights in the atmosphere and in space for checking more than 40 novelties, introduced into the ship’s frame
construction, into the engine, its thermal protection, into the fuel composition and into other systems. It is
expected, that this new ship will be more safe and reliable. And at that it is planned to reduce the cost of putting
into the space 1 kg of payload from $ 25 thousand to $ 2.5 thousand.
X-37 is a small spaceplane with the length of 8.3 m, wing span – 4.5 m. The first test flights of the X-37
were planned to be carried out from the USA air force base Edwards in 2001. The space plane climbs on the plane
B-52. Two orbital test flights were planned for 2002/2003. It was planned to orbit it by “Shuttle” or by rocket. The
vehicle was planned to fly in an orbit about three weeks.
In May 2000 the model of the reusable spaceship X-37 was delivered from the plant of Boeing
Corporation to NASA launching site in the space center Dryden. This model was named X-40A. Its dimensions
make 85% of X-37 ones. It was delivered to the site for carrying out a regularly scheduled series of tests.
Previously the tests of the X-40A were conducted on the USA air force base in Holloman. It was planned a number
of ground and air tests, including landing operations from a helicopter to check up on navigation and guidance
systems, which were to be used in X-37 (http://www.Idomino.ru/usa/boeing//x/37/x37.htm).
In NASA Flying Research Center named after Dryden, on the air force base Edwards (Ca) since 1999
were carried out test flights of the second model of the space vehicle X-38 – i.e. recoverable “life-boat” for the
International space station’s (ISS) crew. X-38 may be used as a vehicle, which is orbited by the booster (launch
vehicle) “Ariane-5”. The distinction of the second sample, conventionally symbolized as V-132, from its
predecessor is that, that it has an active guidance system, which will make it possible to maneuver while
descending with subsonic speed. During these tests X-38 was separated from the plane B-52 at the altitude of
6 700 meters. After a few minutes of coasting there was released a paraplane and X-38 landed with it. It was
planned to increase the altitude of separation up to 12–13.5 km.
X-38 doesn’t have its own engines; it is a vehicle with bearing frame. It will work in accordance with that
very scheme, as current “Space Shuttle”. For closing stages of a soft landing there is used a huge paraplane. The
“plug-and-play” “lifeboat” was suggested to place on the ISS in 2003. It was proposed to dock it to ISS in an
emergency and save the crew. It was suggested, that with the increase of the station dimensions and number of its
crew, the ship X-38 can play the role of “lifeboat”, which can take onboard up to 7 men and provide their safe
return.
The last experimental development for finishing HSRJE is the vehicle X-43, which gained the speed 8025
km/h in the atmosphere.
MiG-2000 – singlestage airspace plane, SDB named after A. I. Mikoyan, Russia, 1993
The analysis of development trends and capabilities of creation of Russian reusable means of orbiting
RVOI has been carried out in accordance with the State Space Program in the framework of R & D and
experimental work «Orel» being carried out in accordance with the order of the Russian Space Agency. From 1993
till 1996 activities on this subject were being conducted by such institutions, as CRDMBI, CAHDI named after
prof. N. E. Zhukovsky, Research Center named after M. V. Leldysh, CIAM after P. I. Baranov etc. Parametric
calculations and comparative researches, performed by CRDMBI of fully reusable single- and two-stage vehicles
with different engines showed, that while reduction of the “dry” weight of FV approximately by 30% compared
with “Space Shuttle” or with the system “Energy-Buran”, the single-stage carrier rocket with weight-bearing
capacity of 10 – 20 t must have an advantage over two-stage carrier of the same weight with respect to
development cost, as well as with orbiting specific cost.
Among suggested projects of single-stage aerospace planes (SASP) is MiG-2000. The foreign counterpart
– NASP (USA).
MiG-2000 is unmanned SASP with take-off weight 300 t, designed for orbiting a payload with weight of
9 t into an orbit of 200 km with orbit obliquity 51 o. After being accelerated by a booster up to the speed of M = 0.8,
SASP was sped up by RJE to the speed of M = 5. As a r o ck et fue l t h e re s ho u ld b e u sed s up er co o led

18
h yd ro ge n a nd liq u id o x y ge n . When returning, there was possible a side manoeuvre up to 3 000 km.
Fuselage length is 54.1 m, wing span – 19.7 m, payload weight – 6–9 t.
The project lost to Tu-2000.
«MIG АSS» (MiG ASS – Aviation-Space System, ANPC «MiG» after Mikoyan, IВТАN and
CAHDI, Russia, 1999.
Russian technicians came to a conclusion, that on the basis of long-term outlook technologies it is quite
possible to create two-stage, fully reusable aviation-space system (MiG ASS) with level launching, consisted of
hypersonic booster plane with combined propulsion system and rocket booster-orbital stage. Two-seater orbital
vehicle while descending is able to perform aerodynamic maneuver with azimuth deviation up to 2 000 km with
landing on a runway of 3 500 m length. The project, as though, continues development of reusable “Spiral” variant.
On RASS-99 the panel, consisted of АNPC “MiG after Mikoyan, IВТАN and CAHDI, presented an
original structural design. This panel suggests the technique of electromagnetic levitation for moving high-speed
railway expresses, and also for launching and returning to the Earth of different flying vehicles – from unmanned
ones up to spaceships sort of RTSS “Space Shuttle”, not to mention intercontinental hypersonic plane. These
vehicles must be able to take off and touch down from an “electromagnetic” runway, which allows to increase an
acceleration and provide for braking while landing with the help of well-known principle of interaction between
moving body and magnetic field. This idea was already tested in the laboratory on aluminum models of
“electromagnetic unmanned monoplane” with the weight from 2 to 10 kg, which was boosted and braked with the
help of working procedure «EТОL» on the runway with the length of 5 m.
Airspace plane, presented by this group in Zhukovsky, is based on the same procedure, which allows
creating reusable singlestage airspace transport eco-friendly vehicle and designed for observation, research and
also for cargo transportation.
Such vehicle would make it possible to enhance launches reliability and to reduce the specific cost of
placing payloads into low Earth orbits or to return them to the Earth. According to the authors of this project,
АNPC “MiG after Mikoyan and IВТАN conduct R&D and experiments in this field and, in particular, on the
runway with electromagnetic boosting, using linear engines with superconducting magnets.
Judging from the results of this work, the boosting runway, which substitutes the first stage of a booster
(launch vehicle), is formed of 40 components with rating power of 1 010 J, which will make it possible for 10–15
sec. taking off of the booster with the mass of 200–700 t. In addition, an acceleration will amount to 2–30 m/s2.
and speed – 300–500 m/s. There is possibility to reach the speed of a vehicle without chassis with the mass from
50 through 150 t up to 100 m/s. The same method of electromagnetic launches is proposed for multipurpose
pilotless plane (antiavalanche and antihail measures, geological survey and prospecting, ecological and forest
condition observation), and also for a plane, designed for sea life-saving planes with the mass from 15 through 40
t, which will be able to take off (and “land” there) from aircraft-carrier deck with electromagnetic runway with the
length of 150 through 200 m.
Russian and European projects of MTКS presuppose reducing specific cost of orbiting a payload
compared to that of traditional disposable boosters (launch vehicles, carrier rockets) 5–7 times less, when
launching fully reusable MTКS, increasing the probability of flight missions’ fulfilment and crew safety at least by
5 times, maximal reduction, down to full liquidation of the alienation zones along the launch routs, application of
non-toxic fuel components, orbiting the spacecrafts without fragments of used elements of the launch vehicle,
considerable reduction of labor-intensiveness of maintenance and service between launches and also while
preparation for launching, enhancing of automatic guidance (http://www.Idomino.ru/
russia/mikoyan/ask/migaks.htm).
Chinese airspace plane
Chinese technicians investigate the conception of two-stage space system with level launching and
landing. The first hypersonic speeding up stage or booster plane will have a fuselage with the length about 85 m
and width of 12 m. The propulsion system of the booster has six engines with the total thrust nearly 40 t (400 kN).
Taking-off weight is 330 t. If a crew consists of three persons, the airspace plane will be able to put into an orbit
payload with the mass of 6 t. The booster plane with taking-off mass of 198 t and landing mass of 79 t has fuselage
shape sort of “bearing body” and a triangle double arrow-shaped wing.
Chinese airspace vehicle looks like West Germany two-stage aerospace plane “Saenger”, but differs from
it, according to French technicians’ judgment, by original construction of hybrid propulsion system, which consists
of liquid and ramjet engines. In the bottom of the first stage are set 6 oxygen-hydrogen and oxygen-methane liquid
fuel engines with specific thrust of 370 sec and 8 hydrogen ramjet engines with specific thrust of 3 500 sec. The
second stage is an orbital plane with taking-off weight of 132 t and landing weight of 25.3 t, which is equipped
with four oxygen-hydrogen engines with specific thrust 460 sec.
During the speeding of the plane up to M = 0.8, only liquid fuel engines are working, and after that the
fuel begins to fill in combustion chambers of the ramjet engines. Up to the altitude of 9 km and the speed of M =
1.8–2 the liquid and ramjet engines are working in parallel way, and as the speed rises, the efficiency and thrust of
the ramjets rises too, and proportionally decreases the thrust of liquid fuel engines in order to keep the total thrust

19
force approximately on the same level. After separation, the first stage returns to the launching site on the ramjets
only. The second stage is placed in an elliptic orbit of 100–300 km, using only four oxygen-hydrogen engines with
the thrust of 2.1 t each and specific impulse 460 s. When in apogee, after characteristic speed increment by liquid
fuel engine, the plane reaches a circular orbit of 500 km.
The orbital plane looks similar to American “Space Shuttle”. After flight program fulfillment it leaves the
orbit, descends and makes landing just as hypersonic glider sort of “Space Shuttle”.
More generally, having compared airspace transport vehicles of vertical and level launching, Chinese
designers claim, that initial (starting) weights of both types are rather close. The mode of the level launching is
universal, provided that all suitable airdromes will be equipped with cryogenic systems; the weights of take-off and
touchdown chassis for level launching considerably exceeds those ones of vertical launching.
A peculiarity of the Chinese project is that, that for the model, which is being developed in Chinese
People Republic is unnecessary the carrier (booster, launch vehicle) and therefore it will be able to take off and
make landing as usual plane. According to the member of Chinese Academy of Sciences Zhuang Fenngunm,
intensive work is underway on certain key technologies, which will make a basis of the future flying vehicle. There
are no terms yet.

X-33

VentureStar X-30 NASP

20
 X-34

X-43

21
X-20

X-45

X-38
X-20

X-38

The Pentagon and NASA are realizing financing of several programs at once to create hypersonic flying
vehicles. So, a few years ago the agency of prospective defense developments of the USA Defense Ministry
declared about starting to realize the project Falcon: “Development of Hypersonic Bomber, capable to lend
immediate and multipurpose support to the USA troops in any region of the globe.
According to a technical task this plane must be able to gather speed at least M = 10–20 and global flight
range, to carry bomb load up to 5.5 tons. Site washprofile.org informs, that for September 2007 was planned the
first flight of the bomber, and during this flight it must gather speed M = 19.

Falkon
22
OTV-3

23
 Phoenix

24
 Hermes

Hope

25
Hotol

26
 Neva

MIG AKS

MIG-2000

Ayaks

27
Tu-2000

Korean People’s Democratic

Republic Space Shuttle

China Pilotless Launch Vehicle

28
XXI century:…

Dream Chaser

29
 Dream Chaser Flight Vehicle - is a reusable crewed suborbital and orbital vertical-takeoff, horizontal-
landing (VTHL) lifting-body spaceplane being developed by Sierra Nevada Corporation (SNC) Space Systems.
The Dream Chaser is designed to carry up to seven people to and from low Earth orbit. The vehicle will launch
vertically on an Atlas Vrocket and land horizontally automatically on conventional runways

Length 9.0 m, Wing Span 7.0 m, Volume 16.0 m3, Mass 11,300 kg.

30
 On 26 October 2013, the first free-flight occurred. The test vehicle was released from the "skycrane"
helicopter, and flew the correct flightpath to touchdown less than a minute later. Just prior to landing, the left main
landing gear failed to deploy resulting in a crash landing. In a press teleconference a short while later, Mark
Sirangelo, corporate vice president of Sierra Nevada, told reporters that the view of the ETA was obscured by the
dust as it skidded off the runway, but that the vehicle was found upright, with the crew compartment intact, and all
systems inside still in working order. Sierra Nevada corporation engineers do not believe that the ETA flipped
over.

Dream Chaser - Chinese version

31
 Space Ship-Two – Virgin Galactic

EARL Project – Spacefleet Ltd, 2013

32
Chapter 4.
Reusable Aero Space System “SPIRAL”
In the USSR the work in the field of creation of a space plane had been conducting in the conditions of
strictest confidence. The idea of launching from any “invisible” airdrome, which could not be observed, was very
attractive (originally the launching vehicle was supposed to be bomber Tu-95). The project was termed as “Spiral”.
It was managed by aviation firm, not a rocket one. The work on the project “Spiral” had been being carried out by
SDB led by S. P. Korolyov, SDB-23 led by V. M. Myasishchev, SDB-52 led by V. N. Chelomey, SDB led by A.
N. Tupolev, but all designs were common in one idea: the launch was “rocket” one, and that did not lead, in
essence, to creation of a plane. And as a result of such “vision” of reusable space system, most likely, became
“Buran”.
But nevertheless there had been being developed the plane too, which had to perform take-off and landing
on an unpaved ground airdrome. Chief designer of this plane is Gleb Evgenyevich Losino-Losinsky (1909–2001),
patriarch of the native aerospace engineering, Chief designer of OJSC SPA “Molniya” (Lightning) (Russian
Federation). It was indeed DB “Molniya”, which projected the space plane, considerably outstripping the time as
for constructional problems.
G. E. Losino-Losinsky has begun his work activity in 30-s last century; he participated in designing of the
first powerful domestic steam-gas turbine. Following it, since 1932, in Kharkov Aviation Institute, he was
projecting … gas-turbine propulsion system for bomber of A. N. Tupolev. And since 1941 he devoted his life to
DB of A. I. Mikoyan, he took part in development of domestic turbine jet engines for planes Mig-15, Mig-17, Mig
-19, Mig -29 and became Chief designer of Mig-31 – hypersonic interception plane and of other models: from a
plane-taxi “Molniya-1” through hyper-heavy triplane “Heracle” with weight-bearing capacity of 500 tons; he also
chanced to be chief designer of “Buran”.
The designed weight of aerospace plane by the project “Spiral” was 115 tons. Out of them 52 tons –
bearing frame “without tail” with the length of 38 meters with the wing span 16.5 meters. It was hypersonic
booster plane, its speed might reach M = 6. From the “back” of the booster, at the altitude of 28–30 km had to start
ten-ton manned space plane with the following features: the length – 8 meters, wing span – 7.4 meters.
This system was fastened to orbiting unit, consisting of the fuel tank (oxygen + hydrogen) and two liquid
fuel engines, developed by the DB, led by V. P. Glushko, with the thrust of 100 tons each. It was supposed to
install on the space plane turbo-jet engine developed by DB led by A. M. Lulka , working on hydrogen steam.
The payload weight is 1.3 ton. Flights rate – 12-30 flights a year. It was supposed that the plane will
perform 2–3 revolutions along the Earth orbit, but amount of a fuel for orbital orientation engines was calculated
for two days and nights. Flight altitude – 130–150 km, LPJE could gain an altitude of 1 000 km.
Since there were introduced a lot of technical novelties in the project and therefore there were needed
considerable costs, due to that there were projected three plane-counterparts (analogs), for conducting flight tests,
and space models sort of «BОR» (Unmanned Orbital Rocket Plane).
Following the flight tests of the models and preproduction samples there were reached engineering
decisions, beating, as for all indexes, the USA counterpart at that time, i.e. ASP “DynaSoar” [5].
In the framework of the project there were carried out the secret tests in the field of raining the space
aviation pilots jointly with the conventional piloted flights. The same training was going on for “Buran”’ pilots.
For elaboration of the results of aerodynamic investigations and characteristics of flight stability and
controllability of the plane of orbital ASS “Spiral”, and also for studies of properties of new thermo-protection
materials, there were used results of measurements during launches of «BOR» series models, manufactured in
scales of 1:3 and 1:2. All the launches were realized on the boosters of «Кosmos» (Space) series, developed and
produced in Dnepropetrovsk by “Yuzhnoye” Design Bureau named after M. K. Yangel and State Enterprise
“Production Association Southern Machine-Building Plant named after A. M. Makarov”.
Model «BOR-1» with the length of 3 meters was manufactured entirely of wood on a scale of 1:3
compared to real orbital plane; the weight was about 800 kg, It was launched by the launch vehicle «Кosmos-2»
(11К65) on 15 July 1969 on the altitude 100 km, and was burned down while reentry with the speed of 13 000
km/h. But prior to beginning of burning, at the altitude of 60–70 km, was received telemetrical information,
showing a possibility of a stable guided descent of the bearing frame of the selected shape.
„BOR-2” and „BOR-3”, made on a scale of 1:3 and 1:2 against the orbital plane accordingly, were
manufactured of metal and were guided by software. These vehicles were launched into the space along the
ballistic path from launching site of Kapustin Yar towards the ranger of Sary-Shagan (Priosersk town on the
Balkhash lake beach, Kasakhstan) by the same booster (launch vehicle 11K65). RLS of long-range detection,
manufactured on Dnepropetrovsk PA DMBP, made it possible to monitor flight tests of rocket vehicles and
spacecrafts.
The advanced «BOR-4» was used with the purpose of testing and development of the new thermal
protection system, which features are close to those, used later on in the “Buran” construction. It was unmanned
pilot vehicle, which was reduced replica (1:3) of the piloted aerospace plane, being developed previously

33
according to the program “Spiral”, and was performed in accordance with aerodynamic scheme “bearing body”.
Its parameters are the following: length – 3.4 m; wing span – 2.6 m; weight – 1074 kg while in orbit and
795 kg after landing. The vehicle with splayed upward V-wings had the engines of gas stabilization, units of
autonomous guidance, thermal-protection shield and deorbiting discarded braking jet propulsion. War purposed
system was being developed since 1967 in the form of reusable two-stage complex, consisting of hypersonic
booster plane (HBP) and military orbital plane with rocket-powered booster (developer – SDB-155 of A. I.
Mikoyan).
Originally the launching was planned to be level with the help of booster cart (accelerating bogie); take-
off occurred at the speed of 380–400 km/h. After gaining due speed and altitude with the help of HBP engines, the
iorbital plane was separated, and further acceleration was realized with the help of rocket jet engines of the two-
stage booster, working on hydrofluoric fuel (F2 + H2).
The weight of the orbital plane was 8 800 kg, including 500 kg of war payload for variant of
reconnaissance and interception planes, and 2000 kg for bomber. The range of orbits was 130–150 km as for
altitudes, and 45–135o for orbit obliquity in northern and southern directions if launching from the USSR territory,
and to cap it all, the flight task should be performed for 2–3 revolutions (the third revolution is landing one).
Maneuvering features of the orbital plane with the help of its propulsion system, working on effective
high-energy fuel components, showed the possibility of performing composite maneuvers – simultaneous changing
of an orbit obliquity by 120o and climbing up to the altitude of 1 000 km. After performing the orbital flight and
starting the brake engines, the orbit plane will perform the reentry with large angle of attack, and guidance during
descending was foreseen by changing of bank angle while constant angle of attack. During descending the plane
could perform an aerodynamic maneuver as for a flight range of 4 000–6 000 km with side deviation of plus or
minus 1 100–1 500 km. The system “Spiral” was conducted up to a stage of horizontal flight tests of an orbital
plane-counterpart.
There is no doubt, that the project could be implemented, but USSR Defense minister in those days
reckoned, that rockets had to be dealt by missile specialists, and planes – by aviation engineers. Therefore the
aerospace “Spiral” was replaced by space “Buran”.
Testing the vehicles «BOR»
«BOR» vehicles are models-counterparts of military OP “Spiral”.
Prior to flight tests this plane was tested in CAHDI wind tunnels, and after those tests there were created
«BOR» models with participation of the Flying-Research Institute named after Gromov (manufacturer – Tushino
Machine-Building Plant).
The first test-flight of the vehicle «BOR-4» along a suborbital trajectory was performed on the 5-th of
December 1980 in the direction of Lake Balkhash. Six aircrafts «BOR-4» were launched in 1982–1984 by the
boosters (launch vehicles) “Kosmos-3M” (11К65М-РБ-5 or SL-8) from launching site Kapustin Yar. These
aircrafts were placed into artificial satellites’ orbits with the altitude nearly 225 km under the pretext of series
“Kosmos” satellites: “Kosmos-1374” (03.06.1982), “Kosmos-1445” (15–16.03.1983), “Kosmos-1517”
(27.12.1983), “Kosmos-1614” (04.07.1984; 19.12.1984; 20.10.1987).
Launches of “Kosmos-1614” on 04.07.1984 and 20.10.1987 were carried out for placing the aircrafts in
suborbital trajectory with reaching the altitude of 130 km. Test-flights’ program of spacecrafts «БОР-4» was
completed with the last flight in October 1987, and in November 15 1988 took place the first launch of the vehicle
“Buran”.
After bringing to perfection TPC on the spacecrafts «BOR-1» and «BOR-4», for checking aerodynamic
arrangement of “Buran”, there was created the sample «BOR-5», which in fact actually was the model-counterpart
of “Buran”.
From the launching site Kapustin Yar were launched six spacecrafts «BOR-5» in the direction of a ranger
Sary-Shagan, Kazakhstan. Maximal altitude – 210 km.
At the end of trajectory spacecrafts «BOR» were landing (splashing down) with the use of parachutes.
The spacecraft «BOR-4» was considered as variant of gliding military autonomous module with nuclear
warheads.
The spacecrafts can be compared in some degree as prototypes and counterparts (analogues) of the
Ukrainian ASP “Sura”.
Constructional features of orbital plane “Spiral” and spacecrafts «BOR»
The orbital plane “Spiral” is the second stage of the aviation-space system.
Propulsion system of the OP consists of the following power units:
- LPJE of orbital maneuvering with the thrust of 1.5 t (specific thrust – 320 sec, fuel consumption – 4.7
kg/sec) for maneuvering with the purpose of changing an orbital plane and for braking for deorbiting; afterwards it
was planned to install more powerful LPJE with the thrust in vacuum 5 t with smooth thrust regulation up to 1.5 t
for precise orbit correction;
- two emergency braking LPJEs with the thrust in vacuum of 16 kg each, fed from main LPJE fuel system
with pressing out component feeding system, working on liquid helium.

34
 - orientation LPJE assembly, consisting of six engines of rough orientation with the thrust of 16 kg each
and 10 engines of precise orientation with the thrust of 1 kg ea;
- SFJE with the bed thrust (on ground level) of 2 kg and specific fuel consumption 1.38 kg/kgthrust for
subsonic flight and for landing; the fuel is kerosene. At the bottom of the fin (keel) is mounted an adjustable
diffuser (air-intake) sort of bucket, which opens only before SFJE starting.
On the first models of the combat maneuvering OPs there was planned to feed into LPJE fuels “fluorine”
+ “ammonia”.
The navigation and automatic guidance system consisted of autonomous astro-inertial navigation system,
onboard digital computer, orientation LPJE, astronomic correction device, optical viewer and radio-vertical height-
indicator.
For guiding the plane trajectory when descending, in addition to main automatic guidance system was
planned backup steerage system by a pilot. For an emergency escape of a pilot on any part of a flight there was
foreseen a detachable cabin-capsule with guiding engines for reentry, landing with parachute at a speed of 8 m/sec
); energy consumption was on account of plastic strain of capsule honeycomb construction. Total cabin weight
with the pilot and systems was 930 kg.
The orbital plane was supposed to perform in different variants:
- combat one (due to reducing of the fuel it was even supposed to place on it the missile sort
“space-ground”);
- daylight photographic reconnaissance plane; its function – quick on-line reconnaissance and air
photography of ground-based objects from the altitude of 130 km with resolution capacity on the surface 1.2 m, the
caught area – 20 x 20 km. Visual observation of the Earth surface through the optical viewer with finding the
targets at the distance up to 300 km;
- radio-locating reconnaissance plane with an exterior unfolding disposable antenna with dimensions 12
x 1.5 m. The resolution of a snapshot of the ground – 20 – 30 m with the width of a survey strip as for ground
objects 25 m and up to 200 km when above the sea;
- attacking (assaulting) one – “threat to air-carriers” – for destructions of navy vessels by the missile sort
of “space-Earth”, with the weight of 1.7 t and nuclear warhead; shooting from behind the horizon under target
designations from a satellite or another orbital plane. The target will be destroyed if its speed is at most 32 knots
(60 km/h);
- capable of recognition, interception and destruction of two targets at the altitude up to 1000 km by
self-guided missiles.
Original construction of the nose cone of orbital vehicles’ “Spiral” and “BOR” is different from that one
of the vehicle “Buran”, which was developed later on. The used materials were: aluminum alloy 1201T1, Д16T1;
titanic alloy BT-23; steel ЭИ-696.
For thermal protection problem’s solution of the orbital plane “Spiral” there was developed a special
shape of the hottest element – nose cone – which led to a lesser heating of a cabin, than a nose cone (while reentry
the temperature reached up to 1400oC). Top surface was in a shaded zone and was heated at most up to 500 oC.
Therefore the frame was covered on I ts surface with plating of steel panels (steel ЭП-99 and ВНС).
The basis of the construction is a welded structure, to the bottom of which was fixed bearing thermal
protection screen, consisting of the plates of clad niobium alloy ВН5АП with covering of molybdenum disilicide,
arranged according the principle of “fish scales” (overlapping). The screen was fixed by ceramic bearings,
functioned as heat barriers. The thermal stress concentrations were taken off by thermal protection screen’s
movability with reference to the frame with keeping the outer vehicle shape the same (constant).
It was necessary to create for “Buran” a reliable reusable TPC of different types: a light ceramic plate,
flexible felt thermal protection, temperature-resistant construction of composite material “carbon-carbon”. For
bringing TPC to perfection there were used the data of vehicles «BOR-4» flight tests.
Thermal behavior of the orbital plane “Spiral”, «BOR». Thermal protection coverings
In the end of the vehicles «BOR» tests, according to OP projects “Spiral” and “Buran”, there were
obtained data of thermal behavior and stability of reusable TPC, used in pilot constructions, during flights of space
planes.
While designing of the orbital plane there were determined hypothetical thermal behavior and temperature
distribution on the vehicle surface while reentry.
On the first vehicle «BOR-4» was installed sublimely ablatitious thermal protection on the basis of
material brand of ПКТ-ФП, which consists of phenic-acid-formaldehyde fabric, saturated with mixture of phenic-
acid-formaldehyde resins (similar thermal protection is used on the descended spacecrafts of the space ships
“Soyuz”). Successful suborbital flight of this flying model confirmed the reliability of such thermoinsulation.
Ablatitious thermal protection remained in the construction of the vehicles «BOR-4», but its thickness
was decreased, and on its surface, on thin metal shell, made of the same aluminum alloy as the shell of glider
“Buran”, installed proper thermal protection: ceramic white and black plates on the basis of ultra-thin quartz fiber,
pads (mats) of flexible thermal protection on the basis of the organic fiber and nose cone made of composite

35
material “carbon-carbon”. The method of thermal protection gluing to the plane «BOR-4» was exactly as
“Buran”’s one. The nose cone of «BOR-4» was manufactured also in accordance with “Buran” technical
requirements, but it was set up on ablatitious substratum by heat-resistant metal fixing. The space between nose
cone and ablatitious coating was filled up with insulation temperature-resistant fibers.
For thermal protection of cantilever beams was chosen a different construction. It was caused by the
following: due to aerodynamic restrictions with regard to a wing thickness, there was not enough of comparatively
small, minimally permissible thickness of ceramic thermal protection plates. Due to that, the inner cavity of the
wing metal construction was filled up with porous felt material, soaked with a special chemical substance on the
basis of water. Vaporizing of the water, in the event of superheating of the metal construction, will provide an
effective cooling against Intensive heating when re-entry into the atmosphere.
The elements of the TPC, tested on the vehicles «BOR-4», were used on the vehicle “Buran”, the
developer – SPA “Molniya” (Lightning), Russian Federation.
Thermal protection elements against the temperatures up to 1650 oC
Heat-resistant elements of the construction of nose cone and wing front edges are made of “carbon-
carbon” material (УУМ - CCM) „ГРАВИМОЛ”, material developer – R&DED «Графит», ВИАМ and НПО
(SPA) «Молния». The fuselage nose cone is made of material „ГРАВИМОЛ”, sections of the wing edges – of
„ГРАВИМОЛ-B”. These materials differ in fabric filler: for the nose cone (hemisphere) is applied finer-grained
filler TKK-2, for wing edge details – filler ТНУ-4. Fixing the details of “carbon-carbon” is realized by bars of the
heat-resistant alloys with the protective coatings system.
“Carbon-carbon” materials are prepared of carbon fabrics and modified phenic-acid resins (pyrolysis
during high-temperature conversion). Semifinished material was subjected to pyro-compression and boron-
siliconizing. On the outer surfaces of “carbon-carbon” units was applied an antioxidizing coating on the basis of
molybdenum disilicide.
For prevention of heat transfer from the heated elements to the bearing interior ones and neutralization of
the thermal volume increase of CCM, there were used cut-off bridges of nitride constructional ceramic in fixing
elements of “carbon-carbon” unit.
CCM units were covered with TPC, and between them there was left minimum clearance with thermal
compression on the basis of whisker crystals of silicon carbide with the purpose of protection against heat-beaming
flow.
Thermal protection elements against temperatures with the range of 700–1 250 oC
The bottom and most part of side surface of the glider “Buran” in the zones of maximal aerodynamic
heating up to the temperatures of 700 – 1 200 oC was protected by reusable thermal protection in the form of
ceramic plates made of silicon dioxide fibers with anti-erosion coating.
Here was applied viscose quartz fiber of dispersed fines with thread diameter 1–2 μm. Breaking tensile
strength is 0.2 MPa. The load of ТПМ tensile separation from the surface – 0.02–0.025 MPa. Tensile separating
acceleration – at least 150 g. Due to high brittleness (frailty) of ТЗМ it was fastened to the metal surface by means
of damping felt substratum. The total strain value of ТЗМ tensile separation from the surface reached 0.8 MPa.
For “Buran” thermal protection were used the materials on the basis of quartz and silicon-earth fibers.
During further raising of the work temperature of similar materials it is necessary to replace the fibers SiO 2 (1 250
o
C) by more refractory ones Al2O3 (1 600–1 700 oC), ZrO2 (1 700–2 000 oC), SiC (1 400 oC), Si3N4 (1 600 oC).
In SPA “Molniya” have been developed outer coatings of increased crack growth resistance:
-“black” ones – ЭВЧ-4М1У-3 and ЭВЧ-6 with high radiating capacity – for protection of the glider
bottom part against low heat loads while descending;
- “white” one – ЭВС-6 – for protection of outer glider surface (limitation of heating) against solar
radiation.
Erosion resistant coatings against temperatures up to 1 250 oC, sort of ЭВЧ, ЭВС and ЭВГС, and also
repair coatings ВРЧ and ВРС have been developed.
Shortcoming of the developed type of TPC lies in high absorbency, it can absorb up to 750 % of water as
to the weight. For providing of anti-hydrous effect it must be treated with silicon-organic polymeric substance.
Thermal protection elements against the temperatures up to 700 oC
Windows of the “Buran” cockpit are three-coating ones. Two exterior layers consist of the thermal and
anti-meteorite protection.
Thermal protection elements against the temperatures with the range of 350-370 oC
Here is applied a flexible thermal protection of fiber organic materials АИМ-19ПКП (multi-coating ones
of heat-resisting organic fibers).

36
Bottom surface

Top surface

Space vehicle of «БОР-4” series:

1 - nose cone of ГРАВИМОЛ material with anti-oxidizing coating M-46; 2 - plate thermal protection ТЗМК-10 with
black coating ЭВЧ-4М1У3; 3 - plate thermal protection ТЗМК-10 with white coating ЭВС-4; 4 - soft flexible
thermal protection ATM-19 with white coating УФ-11; 5 - calorific transducers; 6 - thermo indicative paints on the
top and bottom surfaces; 7 - thermopairs set on the nose cone, TPC plates and on the bearing body;
8 - thermoindicators between plates.

«BOR-2»

«BOR-5»

«BOR-3» «BOR-6»
37
 Fearures Thermo insulation material

ТЗМК-10 Li-900 ТЗМК-25 Li 2200

(USA) (USA)
Density, g/cm3 0.15 0.144 0.25 0.35
Run-time temperature, oC up to 1 250 up to 1 260 up to 1 250 up to 1 260
Thermal conductivity W/M·K 0.05 0.05 0.06 0.06
(P=1 atm., T=20oC)
Tensile strength, MPa 0.2*; 10.35** 0.08; 0.32 0.4*; 1.0** 0.4; 1.0
Compressive strength, MPa 0.4*; 0.6** 0.4; 0.6 1.2*; 1.8** 1.2; 1.8
Heat expansion rate, 10-7 deg.-1 5.5+1.5 5.5 5.5+1.5 5.5
Dynamic elastic modulus, MPa 20 …110* 50 … 100 60 … 270 100 … 250
120 … 320** 150 … 300 300 … 600 350 … 650
* - perpendicular to the plane; ** - parallel with the plane

Features of thermal protection materials ГРАВИМОЛ and ГРАВИМОЛ-В:

Density, g/cm3 1.85

Limiting strength, MPa:
bending 100
compression 90
shearing fracture 20
tensile 35
Coefficient of thermal conductivity, W/M·K 25
Heat expansion rate in the temperature range of 20 … 2 000oC, deg.-1 (3 … 5) • 10-6

Lay-out of the vehicle «BOR-4»

1 – power source; 2 – spherical gas tank for the engines (9) of gas-dynamic stabilization; 3
– cantilever wings and fin; 4 – nose thermo protective cone;
5 – scientific instruments; 6 – escape system; 7 – guidance and navigation instruments;
8 – radio-telemetric assembly.

«BOR-4»

38
Some data about launches of the vehicles «BOR-4» and «BOR-5»

Vehicles БОР Flight Date Universal Orbit Reentry Altitude Orbital

Code name: stage time UTC parameters speed, M of orientation
USSR [USA] (altitude releasing fuel
100–30 the
km) parachute,
km/
Landing
speed, m/s
Космос- Launch 03.06.82 21:36 perigee, km 167 20-3 7.5–4/ NT +
13257(БОР-4) apogee, km 222 7–8 NDMH
[1374/1982- Landing 03.06.82 21:36 obliquity 50.6o
054А]
Космос- Launch 15.03.83 22:33 perigee, km 176
13883 (БОР-4) apogee, km 217 - - -
[1445/1983- Landing 16.03.83 00:25 obliquity 50.7o
017A]
Космос- Launch 27.12.83 10:04 perigee, km 180
14585 (БОР-4) apogee, km 221 - - -
[1517/ 1983- Landing 17.12.83 11:46 obliquity 50.6o
125A]
Космос- Launch 19.12.84 10.04 perigee, km 173
15442 (БОР-4) apogee, km 223 - - -
[1614/1983- Landing 19.12.84 05.26 obliquity 50.7o
126A]
Model Launch 04.07.83 - - 17.5–1.5 3/7–8 -
501 (БОР-5)
Model Launch 06.06.84 - - - - -
502 (БОР-5)
Model Launch 27.13.86 - - - - -
503 (БОР-5)
Model Launch 27.08.87 - - - - -
504 (БОР-5)
Model Launch 22.06.88 - - - - -
505 (БОР-5)

Project ”Spiral”

39
 Project “Spiral”

40
Chapter 5.
“BURAN”
Multipurpose rocket-space transport system “Energy” with reusable spaceship “Buran”, USSR, 1976.
On the 15-th of November 1988 at 6 o’clock was launched the universal rocket-space transport system
“Energy” with reusable orbital spaceship “Buran”. Its first orbital flight was experimental one; there was no crew
on board. The booster (launch vehicle) “Energy” delivered “Buran” to the altitude 150 km. After separation of the
second stage of the vehicle, the mid-flight engines placed the “Buran” into an orbit with perigee of 251.6 km,
apogee of 265.7 km, orbit obliquity of 51.6 o and the cycle (period of revolution) 89.5 sec. After two revolutions
around the Earth, the orbital spaceship “Buran” landed on the runway of the spaceport Baikonur at 9:25 AM. It
was for the first time in the global experience, that the landing of the orbital reusable spaceship was carried out in
the automatic mode. The program of the test flight was entirely fulfilled.
But before this flight, on the 15-th of May 1987, the launch of the “Buran” flying model (the vehicle
«Полюс») failed and fell into Pacific Ocean. The launch of “Buran” was planned on 29 October, but was
delayed due to storm warning.
The length of the orbital spaceship “Buran” – 36.4 m, wing span – 24 m, the height – 16.5 m. If the total
initial (launch) weight of the vehicle is 105 t, the payload with the weight of 30 t may be delivered to the
base circular orbit with the altitude of 250 km and obliquity of 51.6 o. In this case the weight of the fuel in the
ship’s tanks is 8 t. If the weight of the fuel in the tanks is 14 t, “Buran” will be able to reach the orbits with the
altitudes of 450 km and with the payload of 27 t. The combined propulsion system of the spaceship works on
oxygen-hydrocarbon fuel. Maximal duration of autonomous flight is seven days. It is supposed to increase it up to
30 days.
For landing the first spaceship “Buran” while it returns to the Earth was created and put into commission
an airdrome, situated near launching site on the spaceport “Baikonur”. The runway with the width of 80 m is about
5 km long answers the strict requirements as for covering quality. Very same airdromes were built in the USSR Far
East and near to Yevpatoriya. The landing speed of “Buran” is nearly 340 km/h.
The body of the ship may by provisionally divided into three bays: nose, middle (for payload) and tail
bays. Into the first bay is placed hermetic welded cabin with total volume of at least 70 m3, in which may by
situated the crew and certain part of automatic flight control instruments, providing the flight of the ship when in
assembly with the rocket-space system, automatic flight on the orbit, descent and landing. Outer surface is covered
with thermal protection coating. Depending on a place there are applied two types of coating: one in the form of
ultra-thin quartz fiber, and the other – flexible elements of organic fibeкs. In the most thermostressed areas of the
body surface (wing edges, nose cone, fin front edge) is applied constructional material on the basis of carbon. The
total weight of the thermal protection material on the spaceship “Buran” amounts up to 9 t. In accepted thermal
protection construction are installed all in all nearly of 39 000 plates, manufactured in accordance with special
programs, taking into consideration the concrete spot of their application on the body.
The reusable transport space system “Energy-Buran” is developed in collaboration, head of which was
SPA “Energy”. Development of the “Buran”’s glider was conducted by SPA “Molniya” (chief designer – G. Y.
Losino-Losinsky). The system was intended for defense problems solutions, Earth orbiting and maintenance of
space objects, delivery of modules and personnel for assembling large-scale structural systems and interplanetary
complexes on the orbit, return of faulty or having exhausted their resources satellites to the Earth.
The main constituents of the system were: the first stage, consisted of four liquid jet lateral boosters ,
working on highboiling fuel components (oxygen + kerosene); the secondcentral stage with liquid oxygen-
hydrogen jet engines, and the payload, i.e. orbital spaceship “Buran”. The total initial (starting) weight of the
system “Energy’Buran” amounted 2 4000 t, including orbital spaceship “Buran” with payload – up to 105 t. The
maximal weight of the payload, placed into the circular orbit with the altitude of 200 km and obliquity of 50.7 o is
30 t, and that one returned from the orbit – 20 t.
After the collapse of the USSR in 1992, in accordance with the decision of the Russian space agency, the
created constructions were sent for conservation.

41
42
43
44
Constructional-layout plan
of reusable SpaceShip “Buran”

45
 SPACE SHUTTLE
Chapter 6.
“SPACE SHUTTLE”

The orbital ship (SS, ASP) is hypersonic flying vehicle with delta wing; it carries a payload together with
its means of unfolding and maintenance when in orbit; it provides all necessary conditions for vital activity and
work of the crew of four persons (commander, pilot, flight program technician and payload specialist). When the
flight is realized in accordance with a specific program, or when rescue operations are needed, the ship may hold
up to ten men.
SS is 37,26 m long, wing span 23.8 m, the height as for its fin 17.27 m, initial (starting) weight with
payload 85–114 t, “dry” (no fuel) weight 68 t, landing weight with payload 84.8 t.
In 1988 the flights of RTSS were resumed, which were interrupted after the failure on the 28 of January
1986. In accordance with recommendations of the governmental committee, NASA had taken some measures to
heighten flights safety. There were developed new basic constructions of solid-fuel boosters’ joints, non-tightness
of which once caused failure. But the idea of applying the sealing mastic, protecting joints’ area against burning
hot gases, was rejected. Concurrently there was conducted a work on creating boosters (accelerators) of new type.
It was considered a possibility of creating a booster with solid-based fuel charge with monolithic body. But the
type of boosters with LPJE has not been studied yet. There were carried out about 60 improvements in the orbital
system construction, 20 of which refer to the main propulsion system. It was developed crew emergency escape
system, there were taken measures with regard to improving the organizational process of spaceships’ preparation
for launching, their maintenance, provision of spare parts.
The 26-th flight of RTSS. It was launched on 29 of September 1988 from Cape Canaveral. The orbital
stage “Discovery” in assembly with RTSS was used the 7-th time. The crew was as following: ship’s commander –
captain of the air force Hauck, Frederick Hamilton, pilot – lieutenant colonel of the air force Covey, Richard
Oswald, orbit technicians – corps captain of the marines Hilmers, David Carl. And civil persons Lounge, John
Michael, and Nelson, George Driver. All crew members already experienced space flights. A flight task contained
performing two operations: putting the satellite-retranslator into the orbit and test of modified RTSS. During this
flight the artificial satellite TDRS-C with attached tugboat separated from the ship, and then was tugged and put
into the Clark orbit (stationary orbit). And there were conducted a number of experiments. A crystal film was
grown up of organic substance out of steam phase. Experiment results can be applied when creating solid optical
switches for optical-fiber systems and for computers, in which light instead of electric current was used.
There was conducted an experiment on study of re-crystallization of titanium with regulation of crystal
growth (proposal of high school students in Saint Louis city. There were searched a number of phenomena,
including crystal growth of proteinous substance, splitting up of “two-phase” polymeric substance, which can be
applied in further searches in the field of biological cells reproduction, sticking together of erythrocyte (red blood
shells) for determination of blood viscosity in the conditions of weightlessness, possibility of using the infrared
radiation for in-cable communications, isoelectrical focusing, which can be applied in medicine (heating certain
tissues). There were conducted works on recording lightning discharges in the Earth atmosphere depending on
incidence angle of solar rays.
The equipment of the orbital station taken all in all functioned normally, with the exception of failures in
thermoregulation system, which caused rise of temperature in the crew compartment up to 30 oC, and also of
disturbances in telemetric system of directing the antenna of communication with the Earth, which caused
reduction of number of communications. On the 3-d of October the orbital stage landed on the air force base
Edwards, Ca. Both solid-fuel boosters were recovered. The state of joints between separate units was supposed to
be “excellent”. All in all the flight was estimated as successful one.
The 27-th flight of RTSS. It was launched on 2 of December 1988 from Cape Canaveral. The orbital stage
“Atlantis” in assembly with RTSS was used the 3-d time. The crew was as following: ship’s commander – captain
of the air force R. Gibson, pilot – lieutenant colonel of the air force G. Gardner, orbit technicians – the colonel of
air force R. Mullein, lieutenant colonel of the air force D. Ross, and captain of the air force W. Sheperd. The flight
was carried out in accordance with the program of the USA Defense Ministry.
The goal was to put reconnaissance satellite “Lacros” into an orbit. During the flight there was no
information about astronauts’ activity on the orbit. The communication between astronauts and control center was
realized through closed channels. On the 7-th of December the orbital stage landed on the air force base Edwards.
All in all the flight was estimated as successful one.

46
 Reusable transport space system “Space Shuttle”, USA, 1972
The system consists of two rescuable solid fuel boosters and orbital ship with three mid-flight oxygen-
hydrogen engines and suspended fuel tank which in fact are the whole unit and constitute the second stage. The
fuel tank is the only single disposable unit of the system (developer – Space Transportation System).
It was planned twenty-times using of boosters and hundred-times using of the orbital ship. The mid-flight
engines of the orbital ship, working on oxygen-hydrogen fuel, are designed for making 55 flights. According to the
project, this system with its initial weight of 1995–2050 t is capable to put into an orbit with obliquity of 28.5o a
payload of 29.5 t and return back to the Earth the payload of 14.5 t.
The loss of “Columbia” with 7 American astronauts, launched on the 1st of February, proved an
uncertainty of these spaceships.
The “space Shuttle” consists of nearly 2 million units and details and is considered to be the most complex
machine, ever created by human being.
The first in the world reusable spaceship was created with the purpose of reducing the cost of delivery of
payload into the space by 90% as against disposable rockets. It was supposed, that one launching if the shuttle will
cost $500 million. For today the costs reached on average $ 10.5 million for single launching ($ 240–750 million).
In 80’s of the last century NASA planned at least 500 launches, almost certainly each week. As a matter
of fact, in reality, after the first manned flight, for 25 years it was realized only 117 launches, nearly one per
quarter. But the safety system failed to come up to the expectations and proved to be unsafe. Catastrophes of
“Challenger” (1986) and “Columbia” (2003) claimed 14 astronauts’ lives.
Consequently, the Americans failed to achieve their goal – to carry out low-cost launches into the space,
commercial ones included. And this failure took place in spite the fact, that $ 50 billion were spent for creation and
improving the shuttles.
According to NASA plans, 17 spaceships “Shuttle” will be launched to International space station till
2010. And then they will be withdrawn from functioning because of exhaustion of their resource.
It is planned after 2010 to replace these ships by so called CEV (Crew Exploration Vehicle), which are
intended to keep the communication with ISS. But CEV, consisting of three separate modules (for the crew,
auxiliary and operational ones) will be able to deliver people into the Earth orbit in the distant future only.
NASA technicians suppose, that the first launch of such ship may take place in 2014.
***
The “Space Shuttle” program started in the late 1960, when the USA reached the summit of triumph of
the American National Moon Space Program. On the 20-th of June 1969 two American citizens – Neil Armstrong
and Edwin Oldrin landed on the moon surface. After success in the “moon racing”, America brilliantly proved its
superiority in this field, and due to that it (USA) solved its principle task of gaining the space, proclaimed by
President John Kennedy in his famous speech in May 25 1962: “I believe, that our people may set the task: till the
end of this century to land a man on the moon and successfully get him back on the Earth”.
Consequently, on 24 of July 1969, after the crew of “Apollo-11” returned to the Earth, the American
program lost its goal. This circumstance caused the necessity for reconsideration of further plans and reducing the
allocation for the “Apollo” program. And although the flights to the moon were going on, the USA put the
question: what will a man do in the space subsequently?
It was clear long before 1969 that sooner or later this question will emerge. And the first evolutional
attempt to answer was natural and smart: NASA suggested, by applying the developed for the “Apollo” program
unique technology, to expand the scope of activity in the space – to carry out a long-term expedition to the moon,
to build a base on its surface, to create manned space stations for regular observation of the Earth, to create plants
in the space and, the last one, to start piloted researches of the planet Mars, asteroids and other planets …
Even the program initial phase required keeping the expenses for a civil space on the level at least $6
billion a year.
But America, the richest country in the world, could not afford it: the president Lyndon Johnson needed
funds for realization of declared social programs and for waging war in Vietnam. Therefore, even on the 1st of
August 1968, 1 year before landing on the moon, it was taken a principle decision: to limit make-to-order
manufacturing of the boosters (launch vehicles) “Saturn”: for the first order – 12 vehicles “Saturn-1B” and for the
second order – 15 vehicles “Saturn-5”. It meant that the lunar technology will not be used any more, and out of all
proposals of the “Apollo” program further developments in the end remained only experimental orbital station
“Skylab”.
There were required new goals and new technical means for delivery of people into the space, and on the
30 of October 1968 two main NASA centers (Center of piloted Space Ships MSC in Houston and Space Center
named after Marshal MSFC in Huntsville) applied to American space firms with proposal to check the capability
of creation of reusable space system.
For the time being all the boosters (launch vehicles) were disposable: after putting the space objects into
an orbit, they were exhausted and unusable any more. The space ships also were disposable with unusually rare
exception in the field of piloted ships: two times flew “Mercury”, factory numbers 2, 8 and 14 and the second

47
“Gemini”. Now there was set a task: to create reusable system, in which the booster (launch vehicle) and spaceship
return after the flight to the Earth and can be used repeatedly, and due to that to cut down the cost of space
transport operations 10 times less, what was very topical in the conditions of a budget deficit.
In February 1969 was set a task: to choose the most suitable company out of four of them with the
purpose of concluding a contract. In July 1970 the two firms got orders for more detailed development. At the
same time there were being conducted researches in the technological directorate MSC under the leadership of
Maxim Fazhet.
The booster and the spaceship were thought up to be winged and piloted ones. They had to start vertically,
as a conventional launch vehicle. This vehicle served as the first stage, and after separation of the ship it landed on
the airdrome. The ship on its own fuel was inserted into orbit and after performing its mission was deorbited and
landed in “airplane” way. The system was titled as “Space Shuttle”.
In September Special space target group under the leadership of the vice-president S. Agnue, teamed up
for formulating new goals as for the space, suggested two options: “maximal” one: expedition to Mars; creation of
piloted station in lunar orbit; and creation of heavy Earth-orbit station for 50 persons, maintained by reusable
spaceships; “minimal” one: creation of space station and space shuttle only.
But President Nixon rejected all the options, because the cheapest one required $ 5 billion per year.
At that time NASA faced hard alternative: 1) starting of new large-scale development, which allows
keeping the staff and gained experience, or 2) to declare shutdown of the “piloted” program. It was decided to
insist on creation of the “Shuttle”, but suggest it to be not a transport ship for assembling and maintenance of the
space station (keeping this idea in mind in store), but as the system, which can bring returns (profits) and cover the
investments on account of orbiting commercial satellites. Economic evaluation, conducted in 1970 showed, that if
a number of terms (at least 30 launches per year, low operation costs and full rejection from disposable vehicles) is
fulfilled, in that case all the investments and costs may be covered.
It is very crucial moment as for perception of “Shuttle” development history. On the evolution stage,
during conceptual researches of new transportation system character, the principle approach to the process of
designing had changed: instead of creating the vehicle for certain goals within the limits of allowed funds, the
developers started at any price, by any way, violently, by adaptation of economic income-generating calculations
and prospective terms of running, to save the existing project of the “Shuttle”, keeping existing factory area
network, facilities and capacities together with workplaces. In other words, it was not “Shuttle” that was being
designed for certain tasks or missions, but missions were being fit for “Shuttle’s” project for the sake of saving the
branch and the American astronautics (space technology and exploration). Such an approach tried to wangle the
“space” lobby in the USA Congress, which consisted of senators – “airspace” states origins ones, in the first
instance – from Florida and California.
Such an approach embarrassed the Soviet experts, who didn’t understand real reasons of making the
decision to develop the “Shuttle”. Seeing as the checking calculations of declared economical efficiency of the
“Shuttle”, carried out in the USSR showed, that the costs of its creation and operation never will be covered, and
supposed payload transportation by the scheme “Earth-orbit-Earth” was not provided by the real or being designed
payloads.
Being ignorant of the prospective plans of creation of large space station, the Soviet experts involuntarily
formulated an idea that the Americans are preparing for some crucial actions: there was being created the space
vehicle, the possibility of which exceeded all foreseeable aims in the field of using the space. Participation of USA
Defense Ministry in determining prospective “Shuttle” features intensified mistrust, apprehension and uncertainty
in the Soviets. But it couldn’t be the other way: the reject from using disposable boosters (launch vehicles) meant,
that “Shuttles” will be used when launching all the prospective spaceships of the USA Defense Ministry, CIA and
agencies of national security. The requirements of military institutions were as the following ones:
- firstly, “Shuttle” was designed for inserting into orbit a satellite KH-II, being under development in early
1970s, intended for visual optical-electronic reconnaissance (military prototype of the space telescope “Hubble”),
with resolution on the Earth surface from an orbit at least 0.3 m, and series of interorbital tugs with engines on
cryogenic fuel. On the basis of geometrical dimensions and weight of secret satellite were determined overall
dimensions of the payload bay: length – at least 18 m and width (diameter) – at least 4.5 m. In the same way was
determined “Shuttle”’s ability to deliver a payload with the weight at most 29 500 kg into an orbit and bring back
to the Earth at most 14 500 kg.
All possible commercial payloads fitted into the bay without problems. But Soviet experts, watching
vigilantly for development of “Shuttle”’s project and being ignorant of a new American spy satellite, could explain
the aforesaid bay’s dimensions and “Shuttle”’ features only by wish of the American warmongers to inspect and, if
necessary, to deorbit (or, for sure, to intercept) Soviet piloted stations sort of ДОС (long-life orbital stations),
developed by ЦКБЭМ, and military OPS (orbital piloted stations «Алмаз» (Diamond), developed by SDB-52,
headed by V. Chelomey. By the way, on OPS, “for any case”, was mounted automatic gun, developed by
Nudelman-Rikhter;
- secondly, military officers required the yawing (side) manoeuvre of the orbital spaceship while

48
descending to be increased from 600 km up to 2 000–2 500 km for more opportunities of landing on limited
number of military airdromes. With the purpose of launching into polar orbits with obliquity of 56 – 104 o, the air
force command had decided to build their own technical, launching and landing complexes (facilities) on the
airbase Vandenberg, California.
The requirements of military department as for the payload predetermined the dimensions of the orbital
ship and initial starting weight of the entire system. For the purpose of increasing sideways deviation during lateral
manoeuvring on hypersonic speed, it was needed a considerable levitation force, so there were installed double
sweptback wing and strong thermal protection on the ship.
It became clear in 1971, that NASA won’t get $ 9–10 billion, which were needed for creation of entire
reusable system. It was the second crucial moment in the Shuttle’s history.
Before this moment the designers faced two more alternatives: to spend a lot of money on development
and building of reusable space system with not high cost of each launching and entire operation, or to try to save
some money on designing step and then spend a lot of money in the future by creating operationally expansive
system because of high cost of each launch.
High cost of each launching was caused by disposable elements, which constitute the whole. In order to
save the project, designers chose the other way: they refused expensive reusable system in favour of “cheap”,
semi-reusable one, so they rejected the idea about future covering the costs of the system.
In March 1972, on the basis of Houston project MSC-040C was approved that image of the “Shuttle”,
which we know today: the starting solid-fuel boosters, disposable fuel tank and orbital ship with three orbital mid-
flight engines without air fed jet engines for landing. The development of such system, which is reusable with the
exception of outer tank, was valued as $ 5.15 billion.
Under these terms, in January 1972, the President of the USA Richard M. Nixon declared about making a
decision on creation of the “Shuttle”. It had begun the election campaign, and the republicans were willing to
secure the support of “airspace” states’ voters. On 26 of July 1972 the department of the space transport systems of
the company “North American Rockwell” received the contract on $2.6 billion, including designing of the orbital
ship, manufacture of two bench and two flight ships. The development of mid-flight engines was entrusted to
“Rocketdyne” – this is a subdivision of the same “North American Rockwell”; the outer fuel tank – to the firm
“Martin Marietta”, boosters “United Space Boosters Inc.” and the very solid fuel engines – to “Morton Thiokol”.
From NASA side, leadership and control was realised by MSC (the orbital stage) and MSFC (the rest
components).
Initially the flying ships were termed by numbers OV-1901, OV-102 etc. Manufacturing of first two ones
had started at the plant #42 of the USA air force in Palmdale city in June 1974. The ship OV-101 was produced on
the 17 of September 1976 and was titled “Enterprise” after the name of a srarplane from the science-fiction TV-
serial “Star Trek”. After the level flight tests it was planned to reequip the plane for the orbital ship, nevertheless
the first one, inserted into orbit, must be OV-102.
The tests of the “Enterprise” in the atmosphere in 1977 and vibratory ones in 1978 showed, that the wings
and the middle part of the fuselage must be strengthened. These decisions were partly introduced in the
construction of OV-102 in the process of its assembling, but its weight-bearing capacity was reduced by 20 %.
The second flying vehicle should be a full one, able to launch heavy satellites, but in order to strengthen
the construction of OV-101, it would have to be disassembled. In late 1978 they came to a conclusion: it would be
quicker and lower in cost, if develop the vehicle STA-099, destined for static tests, into flying variant.
5 and 29 of January 1979 NASA concluded contract with “Rockwell International” for development of
the STA-099 into the flying ship OV-099 ($ 596.6 million as for prices of 1979), for modification of “Columbia”
after the flying tests ($28 million) and for manufacturing OV-103 and OV-104 ($1 653.3 million).
And on the 25 of January all four orbital stages received their own titles: OV-102 became “Columbia”,
OV-099 – “Challenger”, OV-103 – “Discovery” and OV-104 – “Atlantis”. Subsequently, for the expansion of the
navy fleet after the loss of “Challenger”, was manufactured ASP OV-105 “Endeavour”.
What on earth is “Space Shuttle”?
Structurally the reusable transport system “Space Shuttle” consists of two retrievable solid-fuel boosters,
which are in fact the first stage, and the orbital ship with three mid-flight oxygen-hydrogen engines and suspended
fuel bay, which are the second stage; the fuel bay is a single disposable component of the entire system.
It is foreseen twenty-times using of the solid-fuel boosters, one hundred-times – of the orbital ship an
oxygen-hydrogen engines are planned for 55 launches.
Development of such system is quite complicated and labor-intensive task; this statement is testified by
the fact, that currently there are not fulfilled set in the beginning of development indices about general costs of
creating the system, costs of its starting and the deadlines. For instance, the cost of the system rose from $5.2
billion (prices of 1971) up to $ 10.1 billion (prices of 1982); the cost of launching – from $ 10.5 billion up to $ 240
million (as minimum). To cap it all, the deadline of the first the experimental flight failed.
The composition of RTS “Space Shuttle”
The reusable transporting space system consists of reusable transporting spaceship (RTSS), space booster

49
unit – space tug (ST) and the system of ground, airborne and marine means, providing transportation, repairs &
restoration, preparation of RTSS for launching, and also operations of guidance, control and communication during
the flight of RTSS.
RTSS consists of the piloted orbital ship (OS), suspended fuel tank (SFT) and two solid fuel boosters
(SFB).
In order to increase running time of OS in the orbit or supply power for payloads, orbited with the help of
RTSS, there was developed power unit with rated power 25 kW and was supposed to develop the power unit with
rated power 200–500 kW. As a space tug vessel there were developed by USA air force and NASA two types of
disposable solid-fuel multistage tugs JUS and SSUS. Such a choice was made on the first step due to low cost,
simplicity and high reliability of SFJE. For the future it was accepted the plan of development and commissioning
by 1986 reusable tug-vehicle of the second generation OTV with LPJE on liquid oxygen and hydrogen, but
catastrophe of the orbital ship “Challenger” cancelled these plans.
Tug vessels JUS and SSUS provide delivery of payloads with the weight of 2.3 t into geostationary orbit
(Clark’s orbit), 2.72 t into 12-hours orbit and at least 5 t on interplanetary trajectory.
Functional scheme of RTSS
In the process of delivery, RTSS works as if it is a booster in disposable transporting space systems. In the
orbital ship are accommodated a crew and a payload. Suspended fuel tank is filled with oxygen-hydrogen fuel,
which is used in the process of delivery into the orbit. Two solid-fuel boosters provide additional thrust on the
initial part of trajectory and guaranteed speed needed for the rescue of the orbital ship on the initial part of
delivery. At the moment of RTSS take-off point there are working propulsion systems simultaneously of the first
and second stages, at that the steering was realised by engines’ thrust vector deflection, and on the atmospheric part
of the flight – additionally by deflection of the OS’s rudder of direction.
On the 125 second of flight, when the speed of 1 390 m/s and the altitude of ~50 km were reached, the
solid-fuel boosters are discarded with the help of eight SFJE.
The further unguided flight of SFB is going along ballistic trajectory; then parachute systems are
activated: braking parachute at the altitude of 7.6 km and the main parachute at the altitude of 4.8 km. Landing of
these SFB on the surface of water occurred on the 463 second from the moment of starting and at the distance of
256 km from that launching site. Then solid-fuel boosters are tugged to a shore with the purpose of repairing and
restoration to reuse them on RTSS.
Three main engines of OS are working on, fed by fuel of SFT and provide nearly orbital speed. On the
480 second of flight, when all fuel is used up, SFT is jettisoned and falls apart in the dense strata of atmosphere
along ballistic trajectory in the Pacific or Indian Ocean; recovering is not foreseen.
OS orbital manoeuvring system engines produce additional impact to increase speed, needed for reaching
the basic support orbit. The same engines are used for manoeuvring in the event of emergency during flight on the
initial part of delivery into an orbit, for shifting the orbits, for approaching and producing of braking impact for
deorbiting and following landing. With the certain amount of energy in store, by braking and manoeuvring on the
atmospheric part of trajectory while descending, the OS reaches the side and longitudinal range for providing the
landing on a runway of starting-landing complex or on emergency airdrome without motors.
From the moment of taking-off up to landing all the flight includes the following parts: gaining of altitude
and speed; separation of SFT and inserting the OS into orbit; orbital flight; deorbiting; flight in the atmosphere
while descending; landing.
The peculiar requirement was set toward the RTSS “Space Shuttle”, that if an emergency during delivery
or landing, there must be provided rescue and return to the Earth of the whole OS and the crew, who remains in the
OS cabin during rescue, and payload, because conventional methods of emergency rescue of disposable ships for
OS of RTSS principally unsuitable (loss of OS “Challenger” jointly with the crew while delivery into orbit
occurred because there was no reliable accident prevention system).
For enhancing of reliability of whole system there were used backup of onboard systems; solid fuel
boosters, reliability of which is close to 1.00; effective system of diagnosis, which permits cutting off faulty engine
without its destruction; 9% in store of main engines’ thrust forcing, which makes it possible partly offset a thrust
loss of one cut-off engine (for this purpose there is left reserved fuel in the SFT). All this, depending on the
moment of emergency, must help realize different variants of escaping OS:
- stopping of acceleration and delivery; return on runway, situated on the launching site;
- continuation of the flight with inserting into single-revolution trajectory with subsequent landing on
launching site’s runway after proper reentry and manoeuvres;
- insertion into orbit with following return (after a few revolutions in waiting mode) on the runway or
emergency airdrome, or carrying out rescue operations in the orbit.
On the first flights, as a measure of additional safety, there were provided ejection seats.
After catastrophe for ASP “Challenger”, killed seven astronauts, there was developed a scheme of
escaping from ASP on the atmospheric part of flight, if it is impossible due to some unknown reason normal
landing of ASP on the runway.

50
 A peculiar feature of this method of escaping is that, that crew abandon the ASP independently on their
own, in turn, one after another, with the help of a flexible soft pole, having been turned along the stream, the main
function of which is to lead astronauts away under the wing to avoid collision with the front edge
(http://www.buran.ru/htm/shuttle.htm).

Their first flight the crew of RTSS “Space Shuttle” performed on the 12 of April 1981 (ASP “Columbia”).
The crew: Commander John W. Young (left) and the pilot Robert L. Crippen. Flight duration – 2 days, 6
hours, 20 minutes and 53 seconds. By the moment of releasing this book, in December 2006 was launched for its
next regular flight “Shuttle” “Discovery”-117.
(http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemission/index.html).

51
52
53
The first orbiter, Enterprise, was built purely for Approach and Landing Tests and had no capability to fly into
orbit. Four fully operational orbiters were initially built: Columbia, Challenger, Discovery, and Atlantis. Of these,
Challenger and Columbia were destroyed in mission accidents in 1986 and 2003 respectively, in which a total of
fourteen astronauts were killed. A fifth operational orbiter, Endeavour, was built in 1991 to replace Challenger.
The Space Shuttle was retired from service upon the conclusion of Atlantis' final flight on July 21, 2011. First
flight - April 12, 1981. Last flight - July 21, 2011.
54
 The crew of the 116th “Space Shuttle” mission (117th flight of RTSS, 33-rd flight of “Discovery”,
10.12.2006) in Johnson Space Center. From left to right: astronauts Robert L. Curbeam, flight program technician,
board-engineer, space operations technician;
Sunita L. Williams, board-engineer, space operations technician; William. A. Oefelein, pilot; Mark L.
Polansky, commander; Joan E. Higginbotham, Nicholas J. M. Patric Fuglesang (Sweden, space operations
technician), all the technicians are on the flight program.
http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/index.html).
(Photo credit: NASA/JSC + View High-res Image).

55
1 - Forward Reaction Control System (RCS); 2 -Front landing gear; 3 - Front landing gear; 4 - Windows; 5 -
Control panel; 6 – Commander; 7 – Pilot; 8 - Entrance hatch; 9 - Hatch to middeck; 10 - Payload bay doors; 11
- Payload bay; 12 - Remote Manipulator System (SRMS); 13 – Radiators; 14 - Three RS-25 Space Shuttle
Main Engines (SSME); 15 - OM Engine; 16 - Aft Reaction Control System (RCS); 17 - OMS/RCS propellant
tanks; 18 - OMS/RCS helium tanks; 19 - Vertical stabilizer; 20 – Rudder; 21 – Wing; 22 – Elevon; 23 - Main
landing gear; 24 - Ground umbilical attach point.

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July 21, 2011

58
 RUSSIA: TOWARDS ORBIT
Chapter 7.
“Multipurpose AeroSpace System “MAKS”
Multipurpose AeroSpace system (MAKS) is two-stage system, consisting of carrier-plane Аn-225 „Мрія”
(the first stage), designed by ANTK after O. K. Antonov (Ukraine); on this carrier-plane is mounted the orbital
plane, which has two special replaceable modules (manned and unmanned versions) with outer fuel tank, filled
with cryogenic fuel components, or delivery unit with payload (the second space stage).
To the MAKS functional system (facility) also belong the following: airdrome and technical logistics and
the means of automated guidance system.
The system is based on the conventional 1st class airdromes, additionally equipped with refueling means,
needed for MAKS, ground technological and landing systems and fits in well, on the whole, into existing means of
the ground facility of space systems’ guidance.
The main components of the system are reusable, with the exception of outer fuel tank and delivery unit
for insertion into orbit. The system is being created on the basis of science and technology latest achievements in
the field of aviation and space technology and exploration.
There were developed the following MAKS versions, differing as for the second stage and the orbital
plane modifications:
- version with orbital plane amongst the second stage;
- piloted version (piloted second stage, piloted orbital plane – POP);
- pilotless transport version MAKS -T with disposable unit of delivery of heavy payloads;
- prospective pilotless transport version MAKS -M with completely reusable second stage.
All MAKS versions are based on unified elements:
- carrier plane – the first stage Аn-225 „Мriya”;
- on-board launching system;
- cruise propulsion system of the second stage;
- assembly of tanks “hydrogen-oxygen-kerosene”;
- fittings for fuel tanks;
- fixtures and devices for power and communicational links between carrier plane and second stage;
- main on-board equipment, constructional and thermal protective materials;
- ground guiding system;
- takeoff-landing and ground technological systems;
The function of MAKS.
MAKS is designed for solving wide scope of problems in the space, including:
- insertion into low Earth orbit different payloads and a crew;
- logistics of different space objects, including recovery of payloads from orbit to Earth;
- emergency rescue of piloted space objects’ crews;
- carrying out science & technology experiments in orbit; growing crystals, biological preparations and
other substances in conditions of vacuum and micro gravitation;
- implementation of international supervision over the space; realization of specific programs in the
framework of international collaboration and providing of shared security;
- ecological supervision over the space and the Earth surface, efficient reconnaissance of areas with
industrial and natural states of emergency; remote Earth sounding and research of the air-space around the Earth.
- assembly of large-scale objects of delivered modules in orbit;
- taking solution of a wide scope of problems to guarantee national security of Russia;
- cleaning out the space around the Earth of technological litter;
- MAKS has got principle advantages over being used and designed systems nowadays, which make it
competitive:
- cardinal reduction of specific cost of placing payloads in orbit (up to $ 800–1000 per 1 kg), as against
disposable boosters (launch vehicles) ($ 12 000–15 000 per 1 kg), and reusable means of orbiting of the first
generation (“Buran”, USSR and “Space Shuttle”, USA);
- using of mobile airborne launching the orbital stage from carrier plane; there is no need of spaceports
and space launch facility;
- number of possible reuses:
* carrier plane – up to 1 000 times;

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 * orbital plane – up to 100 times;
* mid-flight LPJE – up to 15 times;
- capability of launching in any horizontal direction;
- capability of placing objects into orbits with needed phasing and parallax, regarding an airdrome, from
which the plane flied out;
- minimal acoustic effect on the Earth surface while starting the second stage;
- capability of performing broad maneuvering in longitudinal and lateral planes (up to 2 000 km) while
deorbiting;h
- short periods of preparation for the repeated flights; high efficiency of application, especially for rescue
operatioins:
* arrival at set (prescribed) ground or marine regions for 2–3 hours;
* approaching to space objects for 2–6 hours;
* urgent delivery of information to the Earth stations;
- capability of recovery of payloads (at most of 4.6 t) and reuse them;
- capability of recovery of MAKS in the event of cancellation of launching the orbital plane;
- enhancement of reliability and safety of conducting apace operations;
- ecological requirements (limitation of stages’ falling areas without permanently restricted zones of
alienation; no toxic fuel);
- no production facilities are needed for implementation of the project while long-term (many years’)
guarantied charging at least 400 thousand of workplaces in Russia and Ukraine.
The state of development
The activity on the project MAKS have been conducted by the Open Joint-Stock Company Scientific &
Production Association “Molniya” (Russia) since completion of development of the orbital ship “Buran”. In 1988
a big cooperative enterprise (nearly 70 aviation and space enterprises) was developed conceptual design, consisting
of 220 volumes.
The development of the design is based on combination of the most effective scientific & technical
achievements, mastered during creation of the reusable orbital ship “Buran” and prospective technologies. For
validation of the project technical characteristics there was carried out a great amount of the experimental
researches in the field of aerodynamics, gas dynamics, construction elements’ strength and in other fields. Life-
sized models of the orbital plane and outside fuel tank are being manufactured. The first exemplar of the base plane
An-225 “Mriya” is being flight-tested. The development of the constructional documentation of the orbital plane
and fuel tank is practically completed. High level of being realizable is provided by created science-technological
foundation and is backed up by carried out in Russia and Ukraine considerable amount of organizational, R & D
and experimental work. For the time being it is spent for MAKS development nearly $ 1.5 billion in current prices.
MAKS life cycle
Estimations of a life cycle of existing systems of placing payloads into Earth orbits show for sure 30 years
of using them. This estimation is reliably validated by continuing successful usage of a number of domestic
disposable boosters (launch vehicles), created on the basis of the rocket vehicle P-7 (the first flight in 1957), and
also by plans of the further modification and usage of the American reusable ship “Space Shuttle” (the first flight –
12.04.1981) up to 2010–2015.
At the same time there have been tendencies towards increasing of the life cycle of complex and costly
space systems with lengthy cycle of R & D, connected with the cease of the space confrontation between
superpowers (USSR and USA) and cutting down the budgets. While arising of financial limitations, the first task is
effective usage of the existing developed constructions, causing their periodical modernization and increasing their
life span.
In accordance with prospective plans of using MAKS, there are foreseen periodical (once per 5 years)
major repairs of MAKS components (planned cost of repair is at the most 15 % of manufacture costs) and deep
fundamental modernizations of the components (planned cost of modifications is at the most 30 % of manufacture
costs) once per 10 years of usage. If these measures are fulfilled, in the event of commercial needs, the total
durability of MAKS life cycle may be increased up to 50 years. In the suggested production cycle there is foreseen
building of 6 serial orbital planes, which provides the term of work of MAKS without fundamental modification at
the most 40 years, if the rate of launches is 30 per year (among them 16 with the booster unit and 14 – piloted
ones) and if estimated number of flights of each plane is 100.
In 1996 there was carried out a great amount of tests on blowing through aerodynamic tubes on the orbital
plane scaled models of the multipurpose aviation-space system with hypersonic speeds; in the course of these
experiments there were researched different configurations of the fuselage, with different position of moving wing
cantilevers. As a result of these and other researches in 2000 there was determined the MAKS finished
configuration with immovable wing cantilevers.
And what is really MAKS? Partially it repeats the concept of “Spiral”, something mean as for dimensions
and weight-bearing capacity between “Spiral” and “Buran”; while manufacturing MAKS it is supposed to apply

60
the last developments of “Scientific & Production Association Molniya and its related companies in the field of
materials (for example, aluminum-lithium alloys), new three-component oxygen-hydrogen-kerosene engines,
electronics on a new element base.
For instance, if the automatic landing system of “Buran” weighed 2.5 t, then the same system of MAKS
is, at the most, 250 kg. As a result, the airspace vehicle must be extremely light, reliable and profitable
(http://www.buran.ru).

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The tank of the AeroSpace plane MAKS,
manufactured in the shops of the
SE “PA Yuzhmash after A. M. Makarov”

62
 Main phases of MAKS
flight

1 – Takeoff
2 - Separation of the second stage from the carrier plane
3 - Flight of the second stage along the trajectory to an orbit
4 - Separation of the orbital plane from the fuel tank
5 - Orbital plane
6 - Deorbiting braking
7 - Flight along descending trajectory
8 - Landing

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MAKS comparative features

Feature ОС-П ОС-Б МАКС-Т МАКС-М

Takeoff weight 620 620 620 620

on the runway, t

Starting weight 275 275 275 275

of the second stage, t

Weight of the 26.9 26.9

orbital plane, t

Payload weight
(H=200km), t:
orbit i=51o 8.3 9.5 18 5.5
orbit i=28o 19
orbit i=0o 19.5 7.0

Payload weight
(i=51o), t:
orbit H=400 km 6.9 8.0 17.3
orbit H=800 km 4.3 5.4 16.1
Clark orbit at the most 5,0
(H=36 000 km, i=0o)

Crew, number of men 2

Working orbits’ 140…1500 140 … 1500 140 … 36 000

altitudes’ range, km

Payload bay length, m 6.8 8.7 13 7

Payload bay diameter, m 2.6 2.7 5 4.6

Range of possible
orbits’ obliquities, deg.:
launching site
latitude 46o 28 ….97 28 … 97 28 … 97

launching site
latitude 18o 0 … 97 0 … 97 0 … 97

Lateral deviation up to 2000 up to 2000 up to 1200

while descending
from an orbit, km

Landing speed of
the orbital plane, km/h < 330 < 330 < 330
Flight duration, d. 5 30

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MAKS weight summary, t

Component By estimation of British

( base variant) SPA “Molniya” Aerospace
(BAe)
Takeoff weight 275
Orbital weight
(i=51o, H=100 ·200 km) 37.72
Weigh of orbital plane 26.9
Weight of outer fuel tank 10.82 11.99
Orbital plane:
construction and thermal
protection 6.37 6.71
equipment 3.74 4.5
engine and fuel system 5.68 5.99
weight reserve 0.96 1.2
fuel and gas 1.49
crew 0.16
payload 8.5 6.8
payload of pilotless variant 10 8.05
Outer fuel tank:
construction 5.68
equipment and fuel system 2.08
weight reserve 0.5
remained (not consumed) fuel 2.56

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Chapter 8.
Evolution of the “CLIPER” Project
It is evidently, that realizing the necessity of creation of reusable space vehicles was formed with the
development of space services.
The three-seats reusable space ship “Soyuz”, the only one which is in use today, was thought up in early
1960 as lunar orbital ship (LOS), which firstly had to fly round the Moon (manned LOS) in the framework of the
project of the Soviet piloted flight to the Moon with using the booster (launch vehicle) P-7A amongst the
expedition system 7K-9K-11K (variant 7K). In the next project – to deliver two astronauts into Lunar orbit with
the use of a booster (launch vehicle) H1 amongst the expedition system (complex) Н1–Л3 (variant LOS), and then,
after landing one of them on the Moon surface, – to return all the crew on the Earth.
The first developments on the theme “Soyuz” (assembling in the lunar orbit with the help of a few
launches of the vehicle P-7A of the expedition system (complex) 7K-9K-11K for flight round the Moon) started
by SDB in 1960, and for 5 years (up to 1965) the spaceship 7K evolved from the first constructional drafts up to
flight tests (variant LOS), which never has been in the space because of four failure of the launch vehicle H1.
Exactly at that timhe, in the first half of 1960, there were made all the final decisions on the spaceship “Soyuz”.
In the USSR SPA “Energy”, the developer, best of all others understands the necessity of replacement of
“Soyuz” (taking into account “Buran” developments), and in early 1980 it initiated the activities for creation
reusable spaceship «Zariya» (article 14Ф70). The full activity started after publication of Government Decree of
January 27 1985. This Decree ordered the creation of reusable spaceship with total weight up to 15 t, designed to
be delivered into space by new LV (booster, launch vehicle) “Zenith” (LV developer – SDB “Yuzhnoye”, Ukraine.
In the option of maximal capacity (maximal content) of the ship, there may be a crew at the most of 8 persons.
The project was developed as far as releasing shop drawings, but then it was stopped due to insufficient
financing. As a result, SPA “Energy” (Russia), having been faced again with necessity of creation of “Soyuz”
successor, in late 1990 on its own initiative started project developments of prospective spaceship of new
generation. The experience in the field of operating orbital systems “Mir” and the international space station, and
also tendencies of piloted space technology and exploration progress, showed expediency of designing a piloted
ship with increased crew and weight of delivered and returned payloads, and also with improved features, in the
first instance with lesser accelerations in piloted variant while descending and with more landing accuracy. At the
same time, taking into consideration financial reality, the new ship must have lesser weight and dimensions, by
comparison with SS “Zariya”.
By this time SPA “Energy” had large foundations in the field of developing maneuvering piloted capsules,
manufactured according the scheme “bearing body”. As for logic of development of piloted vehicles they should
become “continuation” of “Soyuz” in the sequence of developments of descending objects with gradual enhancing
of the aerodynamic feature («Vostok»/«Voshod»→«Souz»/«Zariya»→vehicles after the scheme “bearing
body”→”Buran”) for enhancing comfort of descending, increasing lateral manoeuvring , landing accuracy and
reusability. R & D in the field of the vehicles “bearing body” had started in CDBEМ before “Buran” appeared and
then continued in SPA “Energy”.
On the first phase of this activity, in the late 1980, there were developed recoverable ballistic capsules
(RBC) «Raduga», on the basis of which there was planned creating a family of autonomous pilotless space
vehicles for performing the technological and other experiments in the state of weightlessness with following
returning obtained data to the Earth. Such space vehicles, termed OSSC (orbital small spacecraft) were designed to
be launched by the boosters (launch vehicles) «Kosmos-3М» (two modifications for high and low orbits) and
«Cyclon», moreover, more powerful «Cyclon» could carry an increased variant of «Raduga».
RBC looks like a cylinder with spherical nose and conical rear part with total weight of 350 kg.
Only capsule «Радуга» got its practical realization; it was tested on the transport cargo ship (TCS)
“Progress-M” with the purpose of urgent delivery of experimental results from the orbital complex “Mir”.
Orbiting, deorbiting and recovery of the capsule was realized with the help of TCS “Progress-M”; for this
purpose the capsule was divided into two parts and was put into inhabited cargo bay of the ship. Before undocking
the TCS, the station crew inserted materials with researches’ results into the capsule, then joined both capsule parts
together and fixed it on the docking hatch flange of the ship. After checking the readiness of all its systems for
performing relevant operations for returning on the Earth and follow-on undocking from the station, the cargo ship
sent a braking impulse, and then, before the reentry, the capsule was pushed out by a spring mechanism from the
cargo bay, reentered and descended along ballistic path. At the altitude of 17 000–11 000 m there was released the
parachute, and the capsule landed with the speed of 8 m/s.
The first launch of recoverable ballistic capsule «Радуга» was realized on the TCS “Progress-M5”
09.27.1990, landing – 11.29.1990. In spite of maximal cargo-bearing capacity (150 kg), after the first flight only
26 kg of finished shooting by photo device «Priroda-5» of the orbital system “Mir” film were returned on the
Earth. The remaining capsule volume was filled with telemetric equipment for recording parameters of capsule
descending.

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 The total number of capsules, which were orbited and then deorbited and returned to the Earth is nine
ones (one of them wasn’t found after landing). More, than 500 kg of materials, keeping recorded results of
searches, were delivered to the Earth with the help of these capsules.
Because of “zero” hypersonic quality, these ballistic capsules have one serious deficiency – large landing
site. Landing accuracy along the flight trajectory made plus or minus 125 km, and lateral deviation – plus or minus
15 km. It was possible to enhance the accuracy of landing by soft control of aerodynamic levitation force, applied
to the capsule body while descending in the atmosphere. But for arising of this aerodynamic force the capsule must
have positive hypersonic aerodynamic quality. Therefore the reasonable development of the ballistic capsules
became developments of descending objects designed in accordance the scheme “bearing body”.
On the basis of R & D in early 1990 the leading aerodynamic technician of SDB “Energy” A. G. Reshetin
suggested new configuration of a descending apparatus with hypersonic aerodynamic quality, equal to one (1).
Such shape of the space object with the weight at the most 15 t made it possible to realize lateral manoeuvre up to
plus or minus 1000 km from flight trajectory and decrease landing site area up to 5 x 5 km. Owing to elongated
asymmetric shape, the suggested descended apparatus, manufactured according to scheme “bearing body”, is an
intermediate version between “winged” “Buran” (aerodynamic quality number is 1.3 while hypersonic and 5.6
while subsonic speeds) and nearly ballistic capsule of “Soyuz” (aerodynamic quality is about 0.3).
For creation of a new configuration of a descending vehicle, the developers’ team (V. A. Bolotin, V. E.
Minenko, A. G. Reshetin, A. P. Skotnikov, A. N. Shchukin) submitted a patent application “Spaceship designed
for descending in the planet atmosphere and a way of descending” #2083448 RU. The spaceship feature is
biconical bearing thermoinsulated frame (body) with blunt nose cone, constructed as joined upper and bottom parts
with differently profiled surfaces. The bottom surface, facing towards the stream flow, is covered by the bottom
screen and has a stern shield which, jointly with bottom surface and bottom screen, is made as elements of
spherical segment. The shield is composed of two separate sections, which makes it possible to guide the vehicle
during descending in the atmosphere as for a pitching channel (if sections are moving jointly, as a whole) and
rolling channel (if sections are moving in opposite direction). The vehicle is landing on its bottom surface with the
use of parachute.
In a similar way to RBC, on the grounds of the descended vehicle suggested configuration, termed as
“Reusable Maneuvering Capsule” (RMC), it was planned to create a family of spaceships for the boosters (launch
vehicles) «Cyclon», «Soyuz» and «Proton».
The version of RMC of the size for the booster «Cyclon», for which (the capsule) was released
preliminary design, and conceptual projecting was performed, got its own name «Zarnitsa». On its basis was
developed transport research vehicle (TRV), designed for unmanned flights. The rest ships were designed for
piloted flights; moreover, it may be that by the title «Zarnitsa» was termed the all family of the suggested RMC. It
is worthy to be remembered: initially it was planned, that all the space ships, apart from RMC, are equipped with
disposable instrument-unit bay (the version of the future assembly of “Cliper”.
The following researches of this variant with the purpose of using it on the booster (rocket vehicle)
“Zenith” allowed to develop the concept of the transporting piloted spacecraft (TPSC), consisted of piloted
reusable manoeuvring capsule, docking unit and instrument-unit bay (IUB).
RMC was the apparatus (vehicle) made in accordance with biconical scheme “bearing body”. The total
capsule length is 6 200 m, maximal body diameter – 2 800 m.
In the working version the crew included three persons, and in the emergency-escaping variant – up to
seven ones.
The landing system is chute-jet braking one; in shock absorption system might be used honeycomb (cell)
panels or inflatable landing device with using the effect of air cushioning.
There was foreseen a manhole, intended for passage into the docking bay, which had one roll-out (push-
out) hybrid peripheral docking device HPDD (in a similar way to “Buran”’s docking module). Just as on “Buran”,
HPDD was positioned at the right angle with longitudinal axis, and before docking it was pushed out (according
nonconfirmed data, for 2 000 mm) into working position out of external surface of TPSC.
There was another version of arranging the HPDD, taken from connecting sections of the long-life orbital
stations “Salut”/“Mir”. Nonhermetic instrument bay was similar to that of “Soyuz”, but its weight was a few times
less. Inside the units’ module there were placed conventional oxygen and hydrogen tanks of “Soyuz”, correcting
propulsion system (CPS), approaching and orientation engines (AOE), chemical power sources (ChPS) and the
fuel tanks for refueling, and on the outer space were fixed antenna-feeder lines (AFL), radiators of heat mode
keeping system (HMKS), infrared vertical (IRV), oriented carbon-plastic solar batteries with photo-electric
converters made of amorphous silicon.
The capsule had variable aerodynamic quality due to the balancing plate shield (horizontal bottom tail) in
the range of 0–1.2, if the speed is M < 6 and angles of attack 0o – +40o. The maximal aerodynamic quality was
reached with the angle of attack 25o. Owing to enhanced aerodynamic quality, the capsule significantly surpassed
the descending “Soyuz” apparatus as for maneuver features: the aiming range in the orbital plane was at the most
5 000 km, maximal lateral maneuver – 1500 km. An estimated accuracy of point of landing – plus or minus 200

67
meters, which made it possible to operate the vehicles on two regular landing sites. It was planned to build three
more reserved emergency landing sites. The capsule was designed to be reused twenty times, other components
were disposable.
After the activity in the field of maneuvering capsules was stopped in 1955, the remained project
materials were used for proposals’ development of “Cliper”.
At the initial stage of the R & D on the new ship (since 2000P) there were analyzed all domestic and
foreign spaceships projects with returnable (reusable) vehicles (RV) of three main types, principally differing by
aerodynamic shape and landing ways:
1. Axially symmetrical descending vehicles (apparatus), sort of “fara” (headlight) with vertical
(parachute) landing.
2. Vehicles “bearing body” with vertical (parachute) landing.
3. Winged vehicles with high aerodynamic quality with level (airplane) landing.
Having compared engineering-operational estimations of this types of the ships, designers of the SDB
“Energy” concluded, that apparatus “bearing body” is the most preferable version for the further development as to
be a prospective spaceship.
On the basis of these developments started in 2002 R & D on the ship with returnable apparatus with
constructional form “bearing body”. The activities were conducted according following principle directions:
- development of key requirements to the ship and determination of the composition of onboard
systems;
- determination of constructional-arranging (lay-out) ship scheme;
- research of aerodynamic features of the returnable apparatus and separable head unit while ALSS
is working;
- research of motion stability and controllability of the reusable vehicle; determination of structure
components and features of aerodynamic and jet-propelled guide actuators while descending;
- ballistic analysis of RV descending trajectory, including ALSS functioning;
- determination of heat exchange features of returning vehicle during descending and choosing of
thermal protection covering;
- research of landing gears construction concept; analysis and selection of such means;
- estimation of features, processability and technological provision for manufacturing the ship on
experimental machine-building plant (EMBP), entering into the SDB “Energy”.
Research and analysis of aerodynamic features of the returnable vehicle, its motion stability and
controllability when flying in the atmosphere were performed in two stages in 2002–2003 in CAHDI.
Blowing tests of the returnable scaled model were carried out in 2003 in a wind tunnel in the CRDMBI.
Researches and project estimations of parachute systems construction versions for returnable vehicle sort
of “bearing body” were carried out in 2003 in RDI of parachute-building. The results of these researches were
presented in appropriate scientific-technological reports.
On this very stage, in spite of secrecy screen, in the mass media (in the first instance in the Internet)
started to appear the first information about development of a new spaceship.
Up to 2003 the activity in the field of “Cliper” were being carried out by enthusiasts, but constant lack of
funding the space branch thwarted any hope for project realisation; nevertheless in 2003 the situation was
successfully changed due to «Rosaviakosmos», which become interested in new ship. By this time the designers,
having determined the ship’s form, started to determine its interior arrangement. This phase is the most
complicated and interesting. During the work it became clear, that arranging of fully reusable ship with chosen
dimensions and weight is impossible task.
In order to not repeat the situation, arisen while designing West European reusable ship “Germes”, when
steady increase of the weight during projecting the ship in the end killed the project, the “Cliper” designers made a
decision to arrange the ship by making it of two functional parts (bays): reusable returnable vehicle and disposable
service-aggregate bay, separated and jettisoned after braking impulse for deorbiting (remember, that all space
vehicles with RBC had the disposable instrument-aggregate bays). Such a concept lies between fully reusable
“Buran” and disposable “Soyuz”, discarding prior to braking impulse, utensil, and then prior to reentry – service-
aggregate bays.
It was considered two versions of placing non-hermetic service-aggregate bay – in front and at stern of the
returnable apparatus (vehicle). The position of service-aggregate bay is very crucial one, because an exterior and
interior arrangement of the returnable vehicle depends on it.
The original “Cliper” arrangement repeated the general “Soyuz” arrangement (to be precise – its version
7К-Л1 – the vehicle 11Ф9 for piloted flight round the moon with the use of the booster (launch vehicle) «Proton»
(УР-500К)). The service-aggregate bay was positioned at the tail end of the ship, being connected by the exploding
bolts with returnable bay at its rear part., coated with thermal protection covering. With such “Cliper” arrangement,
astronauts were seated (two rows of three ones) with the same orientation, as in “Soyuz” one – with their backs
toward the thermal protection screen, which provided optimal direction of accelerations’ effect (direction: breast –

68
back) during starting and landing. With the purpose of easier endurance of accelerations by the crew, returning
home after long-term space missions, it was foreseen a change of seats’ tilt by 30o during descending. It is caused
by a circumstance, that returnable vehicle “Cliper”, which is made in accordance with the scheme “bearing body”,
descends and is braked in the atmosphere by a drag force with large angles of attack, compared with vehicle
“Soyuz”, and original position of the “Cliper” seats became nonoptimal.
Position of the crew, facing toward the docking unit, is standard one for performing some dynamic
operations (approaching, docking etc.).
The authorship of suggested “Cliper” arrangement (developers Y. P. Semenov, N. A. Bryukhanov, V. A.
Bolotin, O. E. Makaryev, N. K. Petrov, A. G. Reshetinm, B. I. Sotnikov and V. V. Tsvetkov) was confirmed by the
patent #2220077 RU of 12.29.2001, but apart from all its advantages, it has some principle shortcomings.
For valuable operations in an orbit there was needed one more closed inhabited (manned) living
compartment, which could function as a locking chamber, while crew exit into an open space. Serious difficulty
was also caused by proper ALSS arrangement for providing crew safety while delivering into an orbit. The locking
problem could be solved by embedding living compartment of “Soyuz” into the ship’s construction. In this event
“Cliper” becomes just profound modification of “Soyuz” with alteration of the service-aggregate bay and also with
essential enhancing of aerodynamic quality number, dimensions and weight of descended apparatus which, having
become reusable, now termed as returnable one. But such application of having been checked on “Soyuz”
constructive solutions required powerful and heavyweight ALSS, which must quickly remove the living and
returnable compartments with total weight of 12 t from a launch vehicle.
The solution was found in combining the hermetic living and nonhermetic service-aggregate
compartments in one united single orbital unit, discarded before leaving an orbit after braking impulse.
With such arrangement the orbital compartment might remain on launch vehicle, and only recoverable
bay should be removed with the help of ALSS. Now ship’s terms became quite clear: “nose” and “tail”, constant
for all parts of the flight – from launching to landing. The crew faced forward all the time, but docking should be
done “backwards» by instruments or by the panel in the living compartment.
The new crew position was nonoptimal from the viewpoint of the influence of deceleration while
descending, but its direction “head-legs” may be changed for the close one “breast-back” by the seats by 90o.
After choosing the general arrangement, on the next stage of development, there was carried out repeated
optimization of flying-technical and weight-dimensional characteristics of the spaceship (parametric analysis),
bearing in mind continuing activity in the field of elaboration of “Cliperr”’ mission and choosing of onboard
equipment complex.
Approximately at the same period (2003–2004) in SDB “Energy”’ subsidiary firm, consortium «Space
Regatta» on their own initiative was suggested new conception of a reusable spaceship, termed “Hybrid”, which
combined in itself features and advantages of spaceships of two main types: capsule and winged ones. The main
idea was that, that the ship wings were made as folding ones, and while descending in the atmosphere they were
protected by a frontal screen and after its releasing the wings must unfold for landing on the runway.
There were considered different ship versions: with the weigh of 7, 12 and 20 tons with the crew from two
to eight persons, but the activity was stopped on the stage of technical proposals.
In early 2004 SDB “Energy” released final report “The results of project developments and researches of
piloted spaceship with recoverable vehicle of construction form “bearing body”.
This project of the piloted spaceship (PS) was termed as “Cliper”, it was its official name. The final report
was submitted to “Rosaviakosmos”, afterwards – the Federal Space Agency FSA, which had foreseen an allocation
of some budget funds for continuation of preliminary researches and building the full-scale “Cliper” model.
14 of February 2004, during press-conference, held in ITAR-ТАSS (Russian Telegraph Agency – Main
News Agency of the Soviet Union), General Director of “Rosaviakosmos” Y. N. Koptev for the first time declared
to a broad community about prospective spaceship “Cliper”. This news caused a sensation.
The efforts of SDB “Energy” for the project advance of the new ship were not in vain: already in April
2004 Nikolay Moiseyev, the first deputy director of FSA, informed about inclusion of the project of creating the
“Cliper” into the Russian Federal Space Program for 2005–2015.
Function of “Cliper”
According to final report “Results of the project study in details …”, the PS “Cliper” is reusable multitask
spaceship, which might be used in tow modes: piloted and non-piloted ones. It is being developed as a transport
system component for service and maintenance of orbital systems (stations) on Earth orbits with the heights at the
most 500 km, and it performs the following missions:
- delivery of the crew and payload to the orbital station and then recovery them to the Earth;
- delivery research and experiments results to the Earth;
- functioning as a rescuer ship for escaping the station crew the Earth while emergency (when the ship is
on the station);
- carrying out certain flight operations when on duty, being on the station, in the limits of the ship’s
resources;

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 - removal of the used equipment, wastes of life activity etc. from the station.
PS “Cliper” with the help of some necessary additional equipment provides the following actions:
- performance of special piloted flights, providing experiments and researches in the autonomous
flights, including development and verification of the systems and elements of prospective space vehicles;
- maintenance of cooperated SS (regular and repair-restoring work);
- commercial space flights (e.g. visit of an orbital station by a team of tourists).
Additional spaceship equipping for performing different special tasks is supposed to conduct, mainly, by
developing the aggregate bay. And what’s more, it is admitted excluding from the ship construction the systems
and units, providing an interaction with the station, for instance, docking system, mutual measurements system,
connection means etc.
Modifying the project
In 2004 SDB “Energy” started preproject development of elaborating the constructional-arranging ship
scheme and onboard system structure. As a result there were inserted some variations in the original project. In
particular, there was cardinally reworked emergency rescue system, there was changed the order of approaching
and orientation engines; as for power supply there was made a decision to reject solar batteries and instead of them
use electro-chemical generator.
In 2004m, apart from the main spaceship version of the scheme “bearing body, there were started R & D
in the field of the winged version jointly with DB named after P. O. Sukhoy: it was begun the development of the
ship “winged scheme”, because this version mostly meets a condition of comfortable ship descent in the
atmosphere and landing: the cruise (winged) returnable vehicles have high aerodynamic quality number both at
hypersonic and at subsonic speeds, and owing to that, the crew undergoes insignificant accelerations while
descending.
And besides, there is provided a capability of performing aerodynamic manoeuvre (1500–2000 km) and
level airplane landing on an airdrome with using wheel chassis.
The landing on the airdrome removes the necessity of application of costly searching-rescue emergency
service (SRES). The “winged” scheme has the following advantage: large reusableness factor, and besides,
disposable units, which are to be replaced after each flight, i.e. the parachute system, soft landing engines and
landing device, are not needed.
But the “winged” scheme has the following disadvantage: nonguided descent of the ship is impossible,
and therefore this version imposes stricter requirements as for reliability of the onboard systems while deorbiting
and landing. If emergency of descent, there will be needed additional reserved airdromes. It is worth to note, that
the “winged” (cruise) version will be a bit heavier, than that made in accordance with the scheme “bearing body”
because it has the wings with thermal protection covering and landing gear, though there is no parachute system,
soft landing engines and landing device.
Consequently, at present the SDB “Energy” is conducting preliminary design work on two “Cliper”
version: “bearing body” and “Winged” type. It may be chosen one version only.
For the first time the model was exhibited for the vast community on the briefing, held for mass media
representatives in SDB “Energy” in November 30 2004 on the area of its control-testing station. And then also for
the first time there was submitted comprehensive information about the project, including the information of the
“winged” ship version, being developed in a parallel way with the version “bearing body”.
On the first of June SDB “Energy” ceased all the work on piloted spaceship “Cliper”.
Closed competition of the Federal Space Agency for choosing the form of the new Russian piloted
spaceship (theme “Cliper” included) is not completed and is cancelled.
It is possible, that the “Cliper”, as a new reusable ship, will not exist…
The SDB “Energy” designers are dealing with profound modification of the “old dear Soyuz” which,
being new as for equipment and onboard systems, as a matter of fact, is continuation of the concept of forty years’
long standing, and it impedes Russian space technology and exploration development for scores of years ahead,
freezing its today’s, not the best state.
According to the off-the-shelf data, the new “Soyuz” is an original, peculiar compromise between Russian
wishes and the real financial, but technically modest constructional capabilities of the European Space Agency.
Fancy the present “Soyuz”, but 1.5 times bigger due to service-aggregate bay and descent apparatus,
moreover instead of the usual living compartment there will be orbital module, and for its creation could be used
construction-manufacturing foundations of the Western-Europe cargo-carrier ATV. In other words, all the
prehistory of the Russian piloted space engineering was at first a peer racing with variable success, and then with
mutually profitable collaboration with Americans.
The Chief Scientific Adviser of the SDB “Energy” Boris Chertok told about that situation: “These
ambitious projects could fail due to Russia’s technological lagging only. And while Russia is a raw material’s
appendage, any program of mastering the Moon or Mars is impracticable. We degenerated in adjacent fields, for
instance, in electronics (http://www.buran.ru).
In any case a new spaceship will not be reusable.

70
71
72
 CHOOSING OF PRIORITIES
Chapter 9.
Space Planes. Projects and Prospectives. Shortcomings of Current Designes
Main problems of creating orbital and suborbital air-space planes are determined [16] and they were well-
known long before the “Space Shuttle” first flight.
One of those problems was providing the possibility of landing a space vehicle on the Earth surface with a
certain speed, in a set spot, under the effect of dense air stratums (aerodynamic heating and possible fracture). And
it was also considered the necessity of providing proper conditions for the crew.
Another problem was about consumption of kinetic and potential energies of the vehicle up to the value of
near-zero, in the conditions of limited fuel volume, by using air braking and levitation forces.
The recoverable apparatus is experienced big accelerations, and there is a necessity to perform a lateral
manoeuvre and leave an initial orbit plane. Therefore, the aerodynamic quality (feature), for instance, of warheads
and space vehicles, nearing to zero (for the capsule of the recoverable booster rocket “Apollo” the feature is < 0.5
with the lateral off-path deviation from an orbit plane 100–200 km), is unacceptable for airspace planes. For
example, for the OP “Buran”, aerodynamic feature at hypersonic speeds was 1.5, at subsonic – up to 5. It allowed
to lower the requirements of reentry parameters and enhanced landing accuracy.
During descent along the ballistic trajectory, the flight range and lateral deviation of the vehicles with
bearing body can reach the following values:
- if aerodynamic feature is 1–2, the range is at the most 5 500 km, the lateral deviation – 650–1500 km;
- if aerodynamic feature is 2–3, the range is 15 000–17 000 km, and lateral deviation from an orbital plane
– 1 800–5 500 km.
Initially the longitudinal flight range after leaving an orbit can be regulated by the braking impulse with
fuel consumption by brake engines.
Nevertheless, there are well-known descent variants with increasing range while simultaneous
performance of lateral manoeuvre, which enhances the landing accuracy. Here is used counteractive effect of the
dense air strata, and this effect was used while landing one of USA orbital planes. At the same time this effect
makes it possible to extend flight time without reaching maximal speed and, consequently, to decrease thermal
stress with cooling vehicle surface by heat radiation into the outside ambient. Such a method is not entirely
accepted at present in military field, therefore it is not in use, although it was developed in early XX century for
increasing the flight range of the bomber-antithesis up to 23 500 km with reentry in dense air strata at the altitude
of 40 km (flight scheme of Eugen Saenger, Germany).
Along with increasing aerodynamic feature it is necessary to take into account complication of flying
vehicle stabilization.
The problem of arising accelerations may be solved by construction simplification with enhancing its
strength and by choosing a pilotless version. According to technical requirements, the instruments are able to
withstand acceleration overloads at the most 50 g. A pilot – 3–4 g, and for short duration – up to 12–25 g. Kinetic
energy of the vehicle, returning from an orbit depends on the flight speed, which is close to the 1-st cosmic one.
Potential energy depends on a vehicle position referring to the Earth. Arising in front of the vehicle shock wave
heats the air up to plasma state. In the dense atmospheric strata the heating of the vehicle is going on more and
more and at the same time it is braking by aerodynamic force.
The vehicle is being cooled due to heat radiation into the outer space, and highly compressed plasma layer
in the chock wave moves far away from the apparatus and takes away the heat: the shock wave holds a big amount
of it (heat). The vehicle surface is heated mainly due to friction forces. And therefore for airspace plane is
preferable spherical blunt nose cone: the shock wave is much stronger and more powerful there, than that of
conventional airplane structures. ASP may be unattractive from the viewpoint of aviators.
Heat absorption from the vehicle surface is possible for massive constructions only. Small-scale ASP
doesn’t have such feature, and therefore there is an issue of heat radiation into the outer space and of insulation of
inner units from the body; the insulation material is chosen according to thermal behavior. The outside surface
preferably must have layer taking the heat away. The optimal heating as for current materials is a heating of ASP
body up to 1 650 Co.
Again, enhancing the vehicle work quickness decreases the time of heating effect on it.
Flight conditions of the descending vehicle with needed landing accuracy require flight guidance
accuracy, but for this purpose the usual means of airplane control (fins, ailerons, flaps etc.) are of a little fitness.
The steering jet rocket nozzles can be used for this purpose. As a source of power can be used body coolant,

73
superheated due to aerodynamic heating of the vehicle. It allows combining flying vehicle thermoregulation with
factual lack of onboard fuel, needed for steering – the necessity of steering by engines with fuel consumption
usually leads to insoluble contradiction between dimensions, weight and ASP operation features. A method of
guidance (in the limits of optimal trajectory), based on control of ASP body surface temperature changing rate,
may be regarded as prospective.
While designing an ASP we must take into account the fact that the airspace plane flies in two mediums:
in the atmosphere and in vacuum. Due to different conditions there may be two solutions: to use two-stage design
or two-mode engines (nowadays not applied). Flight speeds are the following: orbital, hypersonic, supersonic,
subsonic, intersonic, landing ones. The range of the angle of attack variations is significantly broader, than that
with conventional planes.
As a matter of fact, ASP is neither a plane, nor a rocket in usual interpretation of the term, it is not a
satellite or a booster. The ASP is a special apparatus of its own class.
For damping the acceleration overloads at hypersonic speeds, when there is no aerodynamic damping, it is
possible to use automatic guidance system on the rocket scheme. This system makes it possible to guide the
vehicle under an unstable flight in the conditions of undying harmonic oscillations and in vacuum.
Application of aerodynamic means for the purpose of steering (aerodynamic stabilizing fins etc.) is
impossible due to their heating, so the most efficient is a change of thrust vector of jet engines in automatic mode.
But it is impossible for piloted version.
There are different reasons, which impede creation of reliable and low-cost airspace vehicles. Here are
some of them in current conditions:
- insufficient funding;
- slow progress in the field of designing of ASP with high payload-to-starting weight ratio;
- lack of constructional materials for application in the outer space and in the conditions of aerodynamic
heating etc.
Nevertheless it is always possible to find the optimal option, which can be created by using available
technologies and current technical means. This version may serve as a basis of the next modernizations and will
make it possible to organize ASP market.
One of crucial ways of upgrading the reusable airspace transport systems is application of the propulsion
system, using the atmospheric oxygen as fuel component. It is well-known, that the main jet engine consumes
nearly 80% of the fuel up to the altitudes of 60 km and the speed – up to 2.3 km/h, i.e. on that part of the trajectory,
where atmospheric oxygen can be used. Using the atmospheric oxygen allows to reduce fuel consumption two
times less and also to decrease the starting weight of the vehicle.
Nevertheless there are going on the discussions about expedience of designing launch vehicles for space
apparatus in general. Is the reusableness beneficial?
It is assumed, that the starting weight of launch vehicle is two times bigger, than that of disposable one.
Keep in mind, that the launch is vertical one, the volume of filled fuel is proportional to the rocket weight,
industrial capacity and experimental base are specialized, and rocket systems’ reliability is assumed to be equal to
0.9. The feature of a reusable rocket, in principle, is connected with presence on its board of the means of returning
all system components and with necessity of carrying out certain amount of work after landing, e.g. restoration of a
part of elements and systems, prevention and preparation for the next launching.
For realizing 10 launches of reusable booster (carrier rocket), it would be needed, on the basis of accepted
reliability level, eleven disposable rockets. After those launches the carrier rockets will put into an orbit 300 t of a
payload. For reusable system in the similar operation it will be necessary, taking into consideration the calculated
reliability, two rockets.
If accept a reusable carrier rocket, then work inputs for manufacture of a number of rockets, needed for
reusable system must be increased by 40%. This sum of money meets the average amount of work, needed for
restoration of the rocket for the next launching. In accordance with such estimations, for manufacture of reusable
launch vehicle there will be spent the costs for production of 5–6 disposable rockets.
Nevertheless, for the time being, nobody is going to shift the booster rocket (launch vehicle) for ASP.
France and Russia started developing a reusable booster (launch vehicle) “Ural” – this rocket is needed for
inserting 30-tons’ payloads into the Earth orbit.
R & D showed, that usage of disposable systems is more beneficial than that of reusable transport systems
for launch rate schedules at the most 5 launches a year. If launches rate is at least 75 per year, then for 15 years
reusable systems are more preferable; affordability of using them will grow with number of launches.
ASP is worthy to take its own place, taking into account its efficiency, maneuverability, its own abilities
and features, its capacity of being returnable from an orbit to the Earth. A rocket is never able to properly and
valuably carry out the function, close to that of the function of the classical plane.
Each of the projects was the next step toward creation of ASP.
Among many of the projects there is an original one, it is WIG Sea Launch. T here i s a ver sio n o f
ma k i n g le v el ta ke -o f f and l a nd i n g o f re us ab l e sp ace ap p a rat u s wi t h t he u se o f ”sc ree n -

74
p la ne s” (WIG is wing-in-ground craft) as booster-receiver stage for launching and receiving ASP.
Bearing in mind additional speed, gained due to launch from equator, initial ASP speed was about 600
m/s.
Application of receiver-booster’ screenplane allows increasing a payload weight up to 40 %.
The additional advantage of the scheme is that ASP propulsion systems start working at subsonic speeds,
quite sufficient for starting ramjet engines (RJE), which are mid-flight engines on the atmospheric part of ASP
flight trajectory. Using RJE instead of turbojet engines (TJE) allows significantly reduce the weight of ASP
propulsion system, simplify its construction and enhance its reliability.
It leads to fuel saving, if the speed is at the most 150 m/s; it allows increasing payload weight.
The screenplane is made according to the scheme “compound multipart wing” with two frames-fuselages,
analogous to catamaran type vessels. In its front part between fuselages there are positioned 6 engines. Their burnt
fuel gas streams, while acceleration and take-off of the screenplane, and also while take-off –
landing of the ASP, are directed by special deflectors under the central wing, arising levitation force for
the screenplane without any effect on the ASP. It is able to move for a long time on a water surface in water-
displacement mode.
The ASP is located on the central wing. To make it easier moving away and approaching of the ASP, the
screenplane tail end is made as double one, with double vertical tails.
is two-stage aviation-cosmos system, consisting of piloted supersonic plane (booster stage) and piloted
orbital stage with payload bay. The ASP aerodynamic scheme is as deltaplane one.
The results of the experiments on flying vehicles’ taking-off and landing from and on the moving
screenplane, obtained from the tests on the pilotage test bench with the help of instrument measurements, and also
from test pilot, confirm the possibility of controlling the movements both of the screenplane and flying vehicle
simultaneously on all stages of the process. The most complicated (difficult) for a pilot is control and regulation of
the ASP as for its height over the screenplane; it requires exact information about the height.
The system total weight is 750 t, the weight of twostage ASP – 300 t (orbital plane – 100 t). Payload
weight – 6 t. The screenplane has six TJE with the thrust of 35 t each; as for ASP: the first (suborbital) stage has
four RJE, orbital stage has two RJE and two LPJE (Афрамеев Э.А. Вестник авиации и космонавтики/ЦНИИ
им. Крылова. – 2001 . – №4, http://www.Idomino.ru/review/wsl.htm).
It was carried out the comparison of the Ukrainian airspace plane “Sura” (Airspace plane. V. I.
Kukushkin, A. S. Levenko. Patent # UA18699 U of November 15 2006) with the most well-known and efficient
ASP and LV. The anlysis of a table data allows to conclude about advantages of selected project features of ASP
“Sura”:
1. Minimal cost of development; it is 1.75 times less, than project “MAKS”.
2. Time of ASP development is similar to other projects, but deadlines of starting flight tests are minimal.
3. Launch cost is minimal, (267 times less than minimal cost of launching the “Space Shuttle”).
4. Specific cost of orbiting the orbital plane, which is thoroughly completed satellite, is minimal out of all
known ones and amounts $530/kg.
5. ASP manufacturing cost is the smallest one.
6. The vehicles of the ASP “Sura” have the following aerodynamic quality number: the first stage
(suborbital stage) at least 2 while hypersonic flight speed, and at least 5 at subsonic speed; the second stage (orbital
plane with bearing body) – not less, than 2 at hypersonic and subsonic speeds with steering by gas-jet nozzles.
Such flying vehicles with landing on parachutes require the area of 5 x 5 km. The lateral manoeuvre reaches
23 000 km, which makes it possible to make landing in any set area. Therefore, here can be concluded, that there is
no necessity for alienation of certain areas for ASP “Sura” launching and landing. For this purpose may be used
any territory of Ukrainian artillery testing sites with the areas of 5x18 km, or the territory of Pavlograd Mechanical
Plant, where, in the times of existing the USSR, were held the bed tests of mid-flight SFJE.
The cost of ASP “Sura” technical maintenance for repetitive usage is included into the cost of launching
and is tolerable for covering the cost.
The take-off weight is minimal, the ASP “Sura” overall dimensions are less than those of the transport
plane An-3.
The weight of the orbited satellite is that about of the booster (launch vehicle) “Pegasus-XL”, which
schedule is fully loaded up with launching tasks and missions (but without return of previously launched satellite).
Flight safety is provided by the absence of “human factor”, causing certain risk of failure.
The lateral range while descending from an orbit and returning of the first stage exceeds all others.
Vertical landing speed is minimal; this speed is provided by parachute systems.
Reusableness of application is the most effective: it allows weekly launching. The number of launches per
year is maximal; the total number of launches till technical re-equipment is on the level of other ASP.
Returnable payload weight corresponds to previously orbited one by 100%, and that outclasses any other
ASP.
Net profit of ASP commercial operation covers its manufacture cost; it is impossible for other ASPs.

75
 N u mb er o f la u n c hi n g o p er at io ns are mi n i ma l v s. t hat o f a n y o t her ASP .
It should be taken into account, that the market of launching small satellites, which can be inserted into an
orbit by ASP, is being organized currently. For creation of such market, Japan space agency launches the satellites
with the weight of a few kg, for free. Such a market may be formed only together with creation of a launch vehicle
– airspace plane. For this purpose there are also being created aviation-space systems on the basis of fighter-planes,
for instance, project “Ishim”, Kazakhstan.
Table shows comparison of the ASP “Sura” project indices with those of the best in the world current
project “MAKS”, applied by the system “Space Shuttle”, its historical analogue “Energy-Buran” and the most
effective current boosters.

Original project of aerospace system

WIG – wing-in-ground craft

Notes for the table:

* - project;
** - orbital plane of the aerospace plane “Sura” is transformed, when in an orbit, into the full space
apparatus – satellite, able to perform all the complex of orbital missions, as for those of satellites’ tasks, orbiting
and deorbiting of satellites to return them to the Earth;
*** - if the fleet of the ASP “Sura” is 20 ones, and launching rate is 1 per week, then net profit will m
reach $ 0.288 billion due to launching commercial satellites only;
**** - $1 billion a year under providing 15 % of the world market volume of launching services, and $ 2
billion under providing 25 % of those;
***** - depending on the level of launch vehicle ruddiness;
“?” – absent, inexact or ambiguous data.

76
 Feature “Sura”* «МАКС» Space Energy- Pegasus- Booster Ariane-5 Zenith-3SL
SE “PO * OP-B Shuttle, Buran, SPA XL, Orbital (launch EKA Sea Launch
YMZ” (ОС-Б) NASA, “Energy”, Siences vehicle) Arianespace Limited
SPA USA USSR Corporation, “Dnepr”, Partnership
“Molniy”, USA MKK
Russia Kosmotras
1. Cost of
development and 2 3.5 50 ? ? ? 9 ?
manufacture, $
billion:
Including: 40 2
- stmanufacture of the
1 stage, ea 40 3 6
- manufacture of the
2nd stage (OP, OS)
2. Term of 10 9 From 12 6 From 1978 up 23 (6–3SL
development, years, 1972 up to the present included)
including beginning 3 (6) 6.5 (7) to the (finishing) (28)
of flight tests in present ?
years (commercial (34)
ones)
3. Cost of 0.9 ? 240 (up - ? ~10 ? ?
commercial to 750)
launching, $ million
4. Specific cost of 530** ? ? ? - - - -
inserting the OP
into orbit, $ / kg
5. Specific cost of 3 000 – 1000 12 000 – 12 000 – 12 000 2 800 7 200 6 400
orbiting of 18 000 15000 15 000*
commercial payload
(satellite), $ / kg
6. Cost of 10 ? ~825 ? ? No account ? ?
manufacture of the
launch vehicle, $
mil. (commercial (2) (?) (?) (?) (?) (?) (?) (?)
market cost of
the aerospace
system, $ billion)
7. Lives’ insurance, ? - - - - -
$ million, - -
astronauts’ life 14 - -
insurance (number
of persons)
8. Cost of ecology ? ? ? - - (fine) ?
violation, $ million
9. Durability (life 40 10 3 – 12 - Disposable Disposable Disposable Disposable
span), years (factuall)
10. Cost of 0.3 ? ? - - - - -
maintenance
(servicing) for No reuse
reuse, $ million
11. Cost of land ? ? ? - ? ? ?
alienation
(detaching), $
million
12. Launch weight, t 60 620 2 022 2 419 ? 210.8 ? 470.7
13. Start weight of - 275 - - - - - -
the second stage, t
14. Weight of the 8 (1.7) 26.9 94.8 105 (65) - - - -
orbital plane
(construction), t
15. Payload weight 0.3 9.5 Up to Up to 30 0.27 3.5 18 12.5
(300 km), t 28.5
16. Crew, number of - - Up to - - - - -
persons ten
17. Range of work 300 – 140 – 202 250 – 200 – 1 000 200 – 300 200
orbits’altitudes, km 1 000 1 500 (factuall) 1 000 1 000
18. Payload bay 1 6.8 18 18.55 - - - -
length, m
19. Diameter of 0.7 2.6 4.5 4.7 - - - -
payload bay, m
20. Lateral deviation 23 500 At the At the At the most - - - -
after deorbiting and most most 1 700
landing, km 2 000 2 500
21. Landing speed 1.97 – 330 max 343 – 263 – 362 - - - -
of OP, km / h 0.3 364
22. Number of 100 [100 [100] [100 ] - - - -
launches (per year) (48) (25)]
[of OP]
23. Weigh of 0.3 4.6 14.5 20 no no no no
returnable payload, t
24. The orbited 8 (13) 37.72 ~120 ~82 (3.3) - - - -
weight, t (% of (6) (6)
launching one)
25. Net profit of 0.0144 2**** no - ? ? ? ,
utilization per year, ***
$ billion
26. Cyclic sequence weekly 25 per 0.21 20 days* ? No ***** No ***** No *****
of launches year Per year

77
 UKRAINIAN VERSION
Chapter 10.
Ukrainian AeroSpase Plane “SURA”
The project of the aerospace plane “Sura” belongs to rocketry field, and particularly to reusable boosters
of space apparatus and orbital planes.
ASP may be used for insertion space apparatus (satellites) into the Earth orbit, their orbital maintenance
and for returning them to the Earth in automatic mode. It also may be used independently for performing special
missions, being in the Earth orbit.
The attempts to create an aerospace plane (or aviation-space system) were made since thirties of the XX
century, but up to the present they have not been used, in fact, except for apparatus “Space Shuttle”, operational
cost of which proved to be 5–15 times bigger, than expected (by some evaluations it’s more, than 100 times
bigger), and which reliability is not sufficient for piloted version.
The well-known aviation-space systems, the most close to ASP “Sura”, are considered below.
The project of two-stage jet (rocket) ship, developed by doc. Walter R. Dornberger and Craft A.
Enrike. This is two-stage structural system, which has the device of starting the engines of both stages; f second
stage jet engines are fed with fuels from the first stage tanks. Mechanism of stages separation during a flight with
landing both stages is applied here [12].
Two-stage aviation-space system “Spiral” (1967, developed by SDB-155 named after A. I. Mikoyan,
USSR) with mechanical stages separation during flight. There is foreseen landing of stages. There are also used jet
engines for the second stage and jet and air-jet ones for the first stage. The construction has, as the first stage,
reusable hypersonic booster plane, and as the second stage – reusable orbital plane with disposable jet booster and
it is able to descend and land after leaving an orbit.
The project of the large-size booster plane is carried out in accordance with a scheme of “bearing body”
with fixing on it an orbital plane of lesser size [1, 5].
The project «МАКS» (1986, developed by SPA “Molniya”, USSR). It is universal multimission
aviation-space system in the form of airborne starting complex; launch is realized from the booster plane An-225
“Mriya”, developed by ANTK named after O. A. Antonov; there is installed reusable orbital plane on it, this plane
has a disposable outer fuel tank [We are eager to create “MAKS”! //Новости космонавтики (news in space
technology and exploration) – 1999, April 4 – p. 47 – 49; E. Devyat’yarov, I. Afanasyev. MAKS: The way through
power labyrinths// in the same place: p. 46; Internet-publication “From SPIRAL to MAKS” –
http://www.buran.ru].
The well-known developments of reusable aerospace apparatus have the following defects: their low
energy or not using the atmospheric oxygen energy; low rocket speed and low rapidity of acceleration in the
piloted version; overheating of the construction during long-term movement with height speed; low flight altitude
for possible use in space; heavy launch weight of the aerospace system (on the Earth) with regard to that of a
satellite in an orbit; low level of safety for passengers and a crew; high prime cost and demand for large amount of
special scarce materials, which are necessary for manufacture of components.
To use for the basis of creating the ASP “Sura” there was set a task of creation of multistage reusable
unmanned aerospace plane, intended for inserting space apparatus into the Earth orbit, their maintenance and
returning them to the Earth with considerable lowering of investments in its manufacture, re-equipment for
relaunching, and also for lowering the costs of launch services. The second stage can be applied as independent
space apparatus (satellite), and the first stage – as suborbital transport cargo reusable plane. It is foreseen dynamic
hot separation of its components. It means that there is set a task to create a booster for space apparatus, which is
close as for its function and operating conditions to conventional planes with that distinction, that it can be used
beyond the Earth atmosphere.
The set task can be achieved by creation of airspace plane “Sura” with using for its manufacture serial
constructional materials and components.
The ASP consists of the following modular parts and units:
- first stage of the ASP, which is a reusable suborbital transport plane, designed for bringing the second
stage of the ASP, which is reusable hypersonic automatic or orbital plane, to a set altitude;
- second stage of the ASP, in fact, is the space apparatus, on which the nose cone, after orbiting (in the
space) is shifted by special mechanism, so that its inward modules are open for the space.
The ASP is designed for using it many times with minimal number of details (modules) to be replaced, for
instance, it is possible replacement of comparatively inexpensive combustion chambers of LPJE after each
launching.
In the base model there are applied serially produced in the rocket-space branch and in aviation industry

78
of Ukraine and other countries units and instruments, which have been offered by the world market.
For this purpose may be offered a four-chamber steering LPJE RD-855, which is serially produced in
Ukraine by SE “PA Southern Machine-Building Plant named after A. M. Makarov (developed by the state-owned
DB “Yuzhnoye”).
It is allowed to use modules, their components, different as for construction, but keeping main features
stable, which provide ASP functional characteristic.
The bodies are manufactured with using composite materials, which technologies are mastered in
Ukraine.
For launching the ASP it is unnecessary create special launching facilities as launching sites for boosters
on the space port, or building a special airdrome.
The orbital plane can be used independently in the form of a space or orbital multifunctional plane
(unmanned analogue of the USA project “Falcon Hypersonic Technology Vehicle”) and can be placed into the
Earth orbit or orbits of the solar system’s planets by conventional system, having booster.
The ASP can be applied for insertion into an orbit, orbital service (maintenance) and return to the Earth of
prospective mini-, micro-, nano-, femto-satellites and other space apparatus of small weights and sizes; for creation
of modern, state-of-the-art orbital systems, for example, for placing into the Earth orbit a Ukrainian mini-satellite
MS-2-8.
The ASP can be applied for realization of the State Space Program for remote telemetric Earth sounding,
as a carrier of satellites, intended for such a sounding, and also as a space apparatus, which can independently
provide sounding of the Earth surface from an orbit for different economic, scientific and other objectives.
Airspace planes may be manufactured at rocket- and plane-building plants.
Key specifications of the airspace plane “Sura”
The project is open, it does not contain secret information, it is intended for peaceful mastering of the
space during international collaboration.
The ASP is being created on the basis of construction, patented by the authors.
ASP launch weight is 60 tons; engines total thrust – 119.3 tons. The exceeding factor makes 1.99. At the
moment of launching there are started all of ASP engines. Stages separation occurs at the altitude of 90–100 km.
ASP is flying vehicle of its own class; it is neither rocket nor plane, and during its developing you should
give up traditional ideas about creation of both rocket-space and aviation technology.
ASP “Sura” is one of kinds of such a class. But the analogies with rockets, planes and other technical
means do exist! They must be taken into account while designing.
Flight of the ASP
1. Vertical launching (analogue is starting of a rocket vehicle with tilting after losing the contact with a
launching pad (analogue is tilting of the missile of the railroad complex “Scalpel”; here the ASP is functioning
like a rocket (missile)
2. Climbing up to 30 km with using a wing aerodynamic force and atmospheric oxygen for providing the
work of air fed jet engines. Here during 60 – 400 seconds the ASP is a plane.
3. Shutdown the air fed jet engines and transition to vertical climbing by jet engines up to stages
separation at the altitude of 90 – 100 km, continuation of climbing with transition to orbital trajectory of the second
stage (i.e. orbital plane) – here the ASP is a rocket again.
4. The ASP, being in the orbit, is an orbital plane (analogue of a satellite or other space apparatus) – it is
already neither rocket nor a plane.
5. Return on the Earth of both stages (of the orbital plane after deorbiting; of the suborbital plane – the
first stage – along ballistic trajectory is realised after airbraking: in this event the analogue may be meteorite or
warhead. The orbital plane has streamlined shape and it is selforiented in the atmosphere.
6. After re-entry, at the altitude of 35 – 30 km the braking parachute of both stages is released. This
parachute stabilizes the flight and decelerates the ASP up to the altitude of 6 km – here, as an analogue may be a
floating anchor of a vessel (the vessel is turning against the waves to prevent rolling.
7. At the altitude of 6 km the main parachutes of the aero-elastic landing system are released and then
ASP is landing. Before touching the Earth surface, solid-fuel braking jet engines are started, and the planes are
landing. The analogue may be well-known aero-elastic systems for landing discarded cargoes (for instance, tanks).
8. There is no task, facing the ASP, to make the following launching immediately; it is being sent to be
reequipped for next launching.
On the basis of all the aforesaid, the next conclusion may be drawn: if compare, for example, an ASP with
a plane, the ASP is partly a plane during a few scores of seconds when climbing.
The orbital plane (OP)
Total weight of the OP – 8 tons, the weight of the second stage with the exception of the payload (at the
moment of re-entry) is 1.7 t; with returnable satellite – 2 t. LPJE full thrust on the Earth surface level – 29.1 t.
T he o r b i ta l p la n e a ct ua l l y i s t h e seco nd s ta ge, wh ic h i s c li mb ed b y t h e LP J E to t h e
alt it ud e o f 3 0 0 k m. The LPJE is functioning as a steering engine. B e i n g i n a n o r b it, t he o ut er fr a me

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is mo ved b y t he p n e u ma tic s ys t e m (pneumatic power train) and OP becomes a space apparatus, which:
- places the satellite into an orbit;
- takes down previously orbited satellite from an orbit;
- carries out the Earth sounding by radiolocation method etc.
While orbiting the OP, after stages separation, aerodynamic forces are equal to zero, so they can’t be used.
The flight aerodynamic characteristics are used during flight of the ASP as a unified whole structure
(suborbital and orbital planes as a whole unit). After leaving an orbit and braking by the LPJE, the following
braking and orientation are realized in the atmosphere by aerodynamic forces, depending on a shape of the body.
For orientation in the atmosphere, steam-gas nozzles of an engine of atmospheric orientation are used.
The steam is formed while superheating of the water, filled in the body, as a result of aerodynamic heating
of the glider surface.
Landing is performed in accordance with Eugene Zenger scheme – i.e. with the sequential braking and
reaching high altitudes for cooling down because of radiation.
The construction of the second stage of the airspace plane, having reference name “Sura” (hypersonic
automatic glider, the orbital plane) has got the following features:
- thin-walled sandwich body of carbon-carbon material is not linked to construction of the inner modules,
and being in an orbit moves by pneumatic system without constraints for the purpose of the inner modules were
open to the outer space;
- the construction of exterior body makes it impossible to convey the heat from the surface by way of
absorbing it by the construction mass of the apparatus;
- inner modules are protected against effect of the environment by flexible foil covering, similar to
spacesuit for an astronaut;
- inside of insulated bay for interior modules is applied automatic thermostatic regulation;
- cooling of the OP body, when in the atmosphere, is carried out by forced cooling of heat carrier by way
of heat removal while pumping the heat-carrier sandwich structure;
- thermal protection of glider outer surface against high temperature while hypersonic flight speed in the
atmosphere is realized by applying in the construction material ”Carbon + Carbon” and high-temperature-resistant
steel; by application of sublimating double-layer coating on the outer surface – pyrolytic graphitized layer with
particles’ dimensions about one micron with following oxygen-fuel dusting of teflon on the graphite surface;
- protection of the apparatus construction from solar radiation is realized be well-known method: surfaces,
facing the sun are light-coloured (teflon coating); surfaces, facing the Earth are black ones (there is used the effect
of sun rays reflection from light colour surface and of radiation of received heat by black surface with the integral
radiation factor of nearly 0.8 – i.e. Teflon coating with graphite fragments);
- there is no aerodynamic projections or openings on the exterior surface of non-hermetic body in the front
part (subjected to aerodynamic heating), where could take place aerodynamic heating: this is a “cocoon” of
aerodynamic shape/ having no any projections, hatches or openings; the rear part of the glider with nozzles of
swinging LPJE does not experience a direct aerodynamic pressure and heating.
With the purpose of lessening of the heating effect there are taken a number of measures: there are no
links between exterior body and interior modules + cooling of the exterior body by water, flowing through inner
channels + application of heat-resistant materials + application of sublimating sandwich coating on the body
(teflon + graphite) + thermostatic regulation of the interior modules + subsequent braking by entering into dense
layers of the atmosphere and following climbing up into layers with lesser dense + cooling of the exterior surface
of the body by heat radiation while braking in the atmosphere + application of the traditional light-coloured coating
for the surfaces, facing the sun when in an orbit, and black ones, facing the Earth.
The time of flight boost phase in the atmosphere (with working engines) with maximal heating effects is
about 25 seconds.
Maximal temperature of the exterior body surface of the constructional material “Carbon + Carbon” is
1 260 °C ÷1 650 °C. Interior part of the body is cooled by water to the temperature of 500 °C.
Graphite sublimation temperature on the exterior surface is 3 700 °C. The graphite surface is protected
from oxidation with gas-thermal coating of Teflon, having sublimation temperature of 700 °C. The same coating is
applied.
Also for protection OP body from heat radiation, being in an orbit.
The inner modules are thermally regulated to have temperature 20 ÷30 °C.
Combustion chambers of the LPJE are disposable. LPJE are reusable ones.
For landing there is used aeroelastic system, which include braking and guided landing parachutes.
The guiding system is similar to that of the launch vehicle “Циклон” and “Сич-1”
Suborbital plane (SOP)
Suborbital plane (the first stage of the ASP) delivers OP to the altitude at least 90 km.
The weight and power:
- the weight of jet engine (reference name: VKS-LV-1) makes 30 tons jet propulsion thrust – 58.2 tons;

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 - the weight of single SSRJE is 2.3 tons, the weight of single equipped cartridge with four SSRJE – 10
tons, the weight of two cartridges of SSRJE of ASP – 20 tons; the total thrust of SSRJE of ASP – 32 tons;
- the weight of ASP suborbital plane body is 1 ton;
- the weight of modules and that not taken into account is 1 ton.
The full weight of the SOP is 52 tons, the total thrust of engines is 90.2 tons.
V-shaped wing functions as tail fin of SOP (the plane without tail scheme).
The swept-forward wing makes it possible to reach the required flying features while flying in the
atmosphere with the speed in the range of M = 2–6, to provide a vertical launching from the launching pad with
possible plane tilting, if starting is realized in the limits of efficiency of steering LPJE with swinging combustion
chambers.
Above the wings there are installed SSRJE nacelles. Their arrangement in the zone of rarefied air above
the wings provides the effect of negative resistance due to the shock wave, going from the nacelle, falls on the rear
edge of the wing. While projecting it is possible to set the cassettes along the wing axis. There are installed in the
cassette several ampoulized SSRJEs (in the base option – 4 ea) for the purpose of reducing the engine length. The
nacelles are of discarded type and have reusable aeroelastic landing system, but SSRJEs are disposable ones.
The rocket propulsion system of SOP is a modernized first stage of the launch vehicle «Циклон-3».
For landing there is used airelastic system, which includes the brake and controlled landing chutes.
The guidance system is similar to that of the carrier rocket «Циклон».
The fuel for airjet engines
As the fuel for SSRJE it is used kerosene + air oxygen.
When evaluation of the prospective SSRJE and HSRJE it was considered the option with using solid fuel
+ air oxygen and the option of non-discarded, two-mode (two-regime) engine (SSRJE and HSRJE) with using the
fuel on the basis of kerosene and liquid oxidisers.
The fuel for jet engines
Applied in XX century by Ukrainian rocket builders fuel components AT + НДМГ (nitric tetroxide +
nonsymmetrical dimethyl-hydrozine, against fixed traditions), and having been created on their basis elements are
used for LPJE of the ASP for both stages. It creates the conditions for reducing the terms of development and
project cost, for using the current technologies and operations, and allows reaching a high level of the ASP
reliability.
While projecting there was conducted comparative evaluation of objective data on MPC - Maximum
Permissible Concentrations of substances, of the fuel components, and are chosen the prospects of transition to
ecologically safer chemical substances (oxidizer – hydrogen dioxide etc.; fuel – kerosene, methane, polyethylene,
ethanol, methanol etc.; solid and paste-type fuel, hybrid fuel).
SSRJE
As SSRJE for the first stage of the ASP (SOP) it can be used the engine, similar to that, applied in the
anti-boat cruise missile P-800 «Yahont» (the exported modification of the missile «Onicsс»), «Yahont-А» is
aviation option (full weight is lighter by nearly 500 kg than anti-boat cruise missile «Onics»), the developer - SPA
“Мashinostroenie“, Reutov City, Russian Federation, the chief designer – G. A. Yefremov. «Yahont-А» consists
of liquid ampoulized SSRJE with solid fuel booster and guidance system of armament equipment (www.sinor.ru,
ts.vpk.ru).
Anti-boat cruise missile of the first generation «Yahont» has light weight and small dimensions (first of
all – its diameter), high aerodynamic features and supersonic flight speed.
At the moment of launching there is started solid-fuel boosting unit, set in the combustion chamber of the
mid-flight cruise engine. For a few seconds of its work the rocket gains the speed of M = 2. Then the solid fuel
boosting unit is cut off and is discarded out of mid-flight engine by the air stream, and the rocket continues its
flying with the speed of M = 2.5 (average speed is 750 m/s), provided by the liquid ram air jet engine.
The flight range of the rocket reaches 300 km along the combined high-altitude trajectory, and 120 km if
flying at altitude range of 5–15 km. The main part of the trajectory goes at the altitude of 15 km.
The rocket «Yahont-А» without warhead and aiming system is actually ampoulized SSRJE.
While projecting, it makes sense to choose ASP flight regimes, which provide SSRJE effective work at
the altitude up to 30 km while increasing Mach number.
LPJE
As OP propulsion system it is applied modified steering LPJE РД-855 (thrust on the Earth level is 29.1 t).
As LPJE of SOP there is applied modification of the LPJE of the first stage of the launch vehicle
«Cyclon-3» on the basis of LPJE RD-855 (one set of four combustion chambers functions as steering engine; the
second set with fixed-position nozzles is middle-flight one). LPJE RD-855 is equipped with the turbo-driven pump
system for feeding the engine with self-inflammable fuel components; it is performed according the scheme
without full burning out of generator gas.
The working gas for the turbo-driven pump assembly (TDPA) is generated by the gas-generator during
main fuel components are being burned. In order to start the engine, the pyrostarter turns the TDPA rotor.

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 Large number of valves is triggered from pyrodrives. As for pressurization of oxidizer tank, after proper
valves are opened, oxidizer and fuel are being extracted and delivered to the gas generator for pressurization of the
oxidizer tank; and similarly generator’s gas and fuel are going into the mixer for fuel tank pressurization.
In modernized option the pyrovalves are replaced with electro-pneumatic valves, and pyrostarters of
turning TDPA are backed up.
Using of maximal unification and application of already developed units, designed for other engines,
makes it possible to use (for development of propulsion system for SOP of the ASP) modified booster in the form
of module; the propulsion system’s reference name is VKS-LV-1.
Diameter of the body of the first stage of the launch vehicle «Cyclon-3» has been reduced from 3 000 mm
to 1 600 mm, and also reduced the length up to 1 400 mm.
Instead of mid-flight engine of Russian development RD-251 there is installed additionally Ukrainian RD-
855 with fixed nozzles. The module VKS-LV-1 is inserted into the body SOP.
It is possible automatic experimental development of VKS-LV-1, flight tests included. VKS-LV-1 may be
used as a booster for experimental tests of the OP up to SOP is brought to perfection.
Engines of atmospheric orientation
The nozzles of steam-air steering engines of atmospheric orientation are fixed in the rear part of the
exterior body of the OP and they are directed to the plane axis at the angle, close to 90 °C. In its simplest form it is
a Laval nozzle, in which after its cylindrical part goes expansion part, where potential energy is transformed into
kinetic one. After a certain command superheated steam from its accumulator is delivered under pressure to a
certain group of nozzles with the purpose of getting the proper orientation. In this way the energy of heated
exterior body of the ASP second stage, while re-entry, is transformed into superheated water steam, which is used
in gas-jet-propelling engines.
For SOP the additional engines of the atmospheric orientation are not used: the vehicle is descending
along ballistic trajectory in selected direction, after re-entry (in dense atmosphere layers) the stable movement is
provided by the brake chute, and landing is performed with the help of guided air-elastic system.
Engines of orbital orientation
For orbital orientation there are used existing engines, developed by the State-owned Design Bureau
“Yuzhnoye” (DBY).
Engines of firing dynamic separation and detachment
Installation of SSRJE in cassettes makes it possible to realize droppable variant of those, when after
cutting off the engines, the cassettes are detached and shot off from the ASP first stage and landed to be reused.
Reusing of SSRJE is not foreseen – they are made as disposable ones. It can be explained not by a short duration of
their reliable work (up to 400 sec), but by the features of ampoulized construction.
While shooting off and removal of the cassettes (cartridges) of the SSRJE from the ASP, and here works
the Newton’s second law: the ASP gains acceleration while shooting off the cassettes. Such separation is termed in
rocket technology as “mortar launching”, and in aviation-rocket design bureaus – as “dynamic firing separation”.
Here is double effect: the construction becomes lighter at least by 18.5 tons, and the ASP gains additional
speed.
It has been foreseen dynamic firing separation of the SOP and OP with the purpose of gaining an
additional speed of the OP and braking of SOP.
As the means of dynamic firing separation and detachment there is foreseen the use of solid fuel jet
engines (SFJE) and powder fuel pressure accumulator (PFPA).
Powder fuel pressure accumulations
In the construction of the ASP there are applied pressure accumulators, developed by State-owned Design
Bureau “Yuzhnoye”.
Pressure accumulators
Are being developed on the basis of pneumatic systems with high pressure spherical tanks.
Electric power batteries
Are selected from among existent ones.
Onboard source of power
Is developed for hydro-pneumatic manipulators of a payload unit (orbiting and deorbiting), or is chosen
from finished ones, developed by the state-owned Design Bureau “Yuzhnoye”.
Drive for moving out OP body
Is developed on the basis of gas-hydraulic drive, created by the state-owned Design Bureau “Yuzhnoye”
for moving out nozzle’s muzzle of the solid-fuel engine RD 15Д339.
Payload bay
Is developed for placing a standard satellite into an orbit and return it on the Earth.
Modular scheme of arranging the airspace planes.
Generalized technological assembly scheme.
ASP modular construction makes it possible to install certain finished units into the OP and SOP bodies:

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LPJE, guidance system, parachute systems, SSRJE etc. It allows shortening a time, needed for preparing each ASP
with its parts to reuse them: the thermal protection covering of the body is restored; the rest units can be replaced
with interchangeable ones, taken from the set of reusable units.
Particular feature of a two-stage construction of the ASP is full interchangeability of the stages, which
makes needless their docking in the plant conditions, because both stages are separate units for the maker
(manufacturing plant).
ASP assembly technique in the main assembly shop was specialized for two units: SOP (ASP first stage)
and OP (ASP second stage). Both planes are named in usual technical terms of production as («изделия»)
“products”. The possibility of making of ASP was determined on the stage before the stage of projecting in
conformity with technical production possibilities of the State Enterprise “Production Association Southern
Machine-Building Plant named after A. M. Makarov”. As for each ASP stage, constituting those constructive
modules, in technological process are termed as “units”. In each product of ASP it can be determined a number of
assembly groups:
- SOP – 10 groups;
- OP – 3 groups.
The number of units, constituting directly assembly groups (subgroups of the first order):
- SOP – 34 subgroups of the first order;
- OS – 23 subgroups of the first order.
Currently it can be determined the number of subgroups of the second order, constituting subgroups of the
first order:
- SOP – 0 subgroups of the second order;
- OS – 29 subgroups of the second order.
The subgroups of the third order have not been determined so far.
While assembling ASP in the main assembly shop, mechanical operations, adjustments, references are not
needed: all groups are interchangeable.
The base groups of ASP products are their assembled bodies.
ASP fuselages. Thermal protection coating and thermostatic control
For ASP efficiency, the body of the plane is not connected directly with the inner parts and units. It allows
to avoid direct heat transmission from the body to the inner parts while its aerodynamic heating.
The principles of projecting and designing of an OP and SOP are the same.
Outer surface of the OP is highly heat loaded; on the basis of telemetric measurements’ results of
apparatus «BOR» flight tests in the USSR, its surface can be heated up to 1 650 °C. And at the same time there
may be possible short-term heating of outer surface up to 3 000–6 000 °C.
Longitudinal channels inside the construction are directed from the nose cone to the tail unit. Into these
channels is delivered the water, and as it is heating, while body construction is cooling, the water becomes a
vapour under pressure. Forced cooling of the fuselage body is realised as may be necessary and when set limit
temperature is reached. It is regulated by delivering the water under steam pressure. Thermostatic control of the
inner modules is realised in accordance of the scheme of conditioning.
The guidance is realised by changing the thrust vector direction of steering LPJE.
Guidance requirements
It is being used a steering LPJE RD-855.
For the rocket class «Циклон» the guidance system for LPJE RD-855 brought to perfection. The guidance
system is developed also for air launching of lightweight missiles.
Existing guidance systems should be modernized.
Valuation of operating speed of an unmanned version
ASP is an apparatus, capable to enter an Earth orbit just for a few minutes. Its return to the Earth surface
can be carried out by manoeuvring with quick-changing flight parameters. Presence of a man on the ASP board to
perform set tasks makes no sense at all, because in the state-of-the-art conditions automation replaces the pilot
entirely. Moreover the weight of an apparatus is reduced, and there is a possibility of further modernization in the
field of reduction of its dimensions and weight. The absence of a pilot makes it possible to increase accelerative
forces up to the level, permissible for instruments and mechanisms. Such level is determined as 50 g.
It means, that when the second stage engine thrust exceeds its weight at the initial segment of airborne
autonomy as much as 3.64 (at the terminal segment of the airborne autonomy this ratio reaches the number 14)
there will be provided a flight with operating speed, much more than that of any piloted apparatus.
ASP launch type
The launching is vertical one from a launcher (launching pad, discharger etc).
Note, that ASP overall dimensions are smaller, than those of the plane An-3T. There is possibility of
launching of ASP from any small area.
At the design stage there is being considered the variant of transporting the unfuelled ASP to the
launching site on one of transport planes of AN type.

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 There is being considered the variant of launching by way of releasing the ASP from a transport plane,
type of Lockheed-1011, and also the possibility of launching the ASP by starting its engines from the top part of
the fuselage of the transport plane of An type.
During the stage of designing, there is being analyzed the versions of autonomous use of the SOP (solo
start) and OP (launching by rocket booster).
1. Air-space complex is based on the ASP: baseline and alternative standard-type ASS of the baseline
version: launching is realized from the starting device of one of the Ukrainian artillery testing sites; control
(guidance) – from the self-controlled FCC and National Space Facilities Control and Test Center – NSFCTC;
landing of the discarded cassettes HSRJE, SOP and OP is realized on the testing site with the help of aeroelastic
guided systems.
2. Alternative standard-type version: launching from launcher-plane out of the a chosen area; control
(guidance) – from the self-controlled FCC and NSFCTC; landing of the discarded cassettes HSRJE, SOP and OP
is realized with the help of aeroelastic guided systems in special separate areas. This version can be applied for any
type of a booster with airborne launching.
ASP flight scheme
After launching of ASP and its stage the flight speed is equal to M ≥ 2.
Landing of SOP and OP is similar.
After reentering into the dense layers of the atmosphere it is realised in the boost phase an aerodynamic
self-orientation of the descent module under air resistance pressure from 10 up to 100 kg/m 2 in the longitudinal
channel.
At the altitude of nearly 30 km the tail part of the apparatus releases braking parachute for reducing the
speed up to 600 km/s (from 3000 m/s).
At the altitude of 6–7 km the main parachute is released with the purpose of speed reduction up to nearly
7 m/s.
At the altitude of h ≥ 1m braking SFJE is started, and the landing speed is reduced up to 1 m/s.
Requirements imposed on the ASP payload
Using the ASP makes it necessary to standardize SC – i.e. satellites with preferable weight of 1–50 kg and
with dimensions fit into payload bay. It should be foreseen a possibility of automated orbiting and deorbiting a
satellite for its return to the Earth.

2
1

5
3
4

Layout of the airspace plane “Sura”:

1 – body of suborbital plane of the ASP with

the inversed sweeping (negative sweepback)
(SOP);
2 – Orbital plane;
3
3 – SSRJE cartridge (cassette) of SOP;
4 – engine VKS-LV-1 of SOP;
5 – resettable aerodynamic fairing.

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 SOP module structure:
1 – RLS module of panoramic radiolocation; 2 – on-board power source module; 3 – microwave
transmitter and stand-by electronic computer module; 4 – module of guidance system with on-board
electronic computer and gyroscope; 5 – OP fuel-feeding system module; 6 – LPJE module;
7 – SSRJE module; 8 – aerodynamic thermal protection bearing carbon-plastic body of the booster; 9 –
module of parachute releasing system; 10 – module of braking parachute.

Steam-gas channel Cooling channels

Construction of the wall of multi-layer glider body of the

second stage of the airspace plane: 1 – material “carbon-carbon”; 2 – graphite; 3 – fluoride-plastic;
4 – heat collector.

85
 Overall dimension of the ASP plane “Sura”

Orbital plane modular structure:

1 – aerodynamic thermal protection bearing carbon-plastic body of the OP; 2 – module of pneumatic drive of
moving out OP body; 3 – RLS module of panoramic radiolocation; 4 – stand-by PFPAs module;
5 – module of high pressure spherical tanks; 6 – module of parachute releasing system; 7 – microwave transmitter
and stand-by electronic computer module; 8 – module of guidance system with on-board electronic computer and
gyroscope; 9 – payload module; 10 – RLS module of side view; 11 – on-board power source module;
12 – instrument module of HAG (hypersonic automatic glider); 13 – LPJE module; 14 – braking parachute module;
15 – stand-by power sources; 16 – module of TV cameras and guidance system of satellites orbiting; 17 – navigation
orbital control module; 18 – LPJE of the orbital orientation.

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 Speeds of ASP “Sura” flight on different trajectory segments

Boost phase (powered trajectory)

# Altitude, km Speed, km/h Much number, M Speed, m/s Note
(speed of sound, m/s)
1 0 0 0 0 Launching
device
2 0 - 15 2 448 0 – 2.5 680.0 ASP
(0 – 295.1)
3 20 4 284 4.03 (295.1) 1 190.0 ASP

4 30 8 025 7.33 (304.2) 2 229.17 ASP

5 90 24 480 19.6 (347.1) 6 800.0 ASP - OP
6 120 30 600 19.48 (436.3) 8 500.0 OP
7 300 37 080 - 10 300.0 OP

Passive flight (unguided trajectory)

8 90 5 800 SOP
9 30 3 000 SOP
10 6 20.0 SOP
11 0 7.0 – 1.0 SOP
12 300 7 000 OP
13 120 6 000 OP
14 90 5 000 OP
15 30 3 000 OP
16 6 20.0 OP
17 0 7.0 – 1.0 OP

Orbital orientation gas-jet engines

Parameters Values
Working substance Air, nitrogen, argon
Titanium tank volume, l 2; 3.5; 11; 25; 35
Maximal gas pressure in the tanks, MPa 23
Rated gas pressure before engines, MPa 0.3
Engines’ rated thrust, N 0.1 – 0.2
Thrust error, % ±25
Engines’ specific thrust in the air under 20 oC, s 710
Maximal frequency of starting the engines, Hz 10
Lagging of starting or cutting off the engines, s 0.02
Secure number of starting of each engine 1•106
Total thrust impulse, N•s 250 – 7 000
Rated power source voltage, V 28
Power, consumed by each engine under 20 0C, W 14
Technological lifespan, years 15
Warranty (reliability) 0.99

1 – water/steam tank;
2 – flexible tank membrane;
3 – rigid (hard) separating grating (grill) of the tank;
4 – PFPA for pressurizing steam section of the tank;
5 – control electro-pneumatic valve;
6 – check valve;
7 – pipe-lines of the heat exchanger in the glider
body;
8 – gas channels of nozzles of orientation engine;
9 – nozzles of orientation engine.
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The model of the airspace plane “Sura” at Avia-Space saloon „Авиасвіт-XXI” (Gustomel city, 2006)
interested professionally the pilot-cosmonaut of the USSR Alexey Leonov.
Photograph “Space-Inform”

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Chapter 11.
AirSpace System “BLACK SEA”
Airspace system (ASS), conditionally termed by authors as “Black Sea”, consists of the following units:
- two-stage reusable airspace plane “Sura” with reusable orbital plane, which is the second stage of the
ASP, for sending into the space space apparatus (spacecrafts-satellites);
- launching system (LS) while using launch vehicle for OP or mobile launching system (MLS) for ASP;
- flight control center (FCC);
- observation stations (OS);
- landing system (LS);
- transportation and fuel decontamination system (TFDS);
- technological pre-launch servicing (TPLSS) and preparation systems for reusing (next launching).
The ASS “Black Sea” can be considered as an analogue of the system “Energiya-Buran”. The difference
is that, that there is used the full reusable ASP. The ASP provides the orbital maintenance of a space apparatus and
return of previously placed into an Earth orbit space apparatus to the Earth and independently performs the
functions of returnable SC to the Earth. The ASP is the reusable apparatus with combination of the experience of
ballistic missiles automatic launching and aerodynamic plane features.
Such a system can and must be created in the conditions of an international collaboration.
Its feature lies in that circumstance, that it is in essence a peacemaker. The space already became an area
of an interest of certain states and it was militarized long ago. The priority of certain countries in this case
inevitably leads to police services towards the other ones. Such situation can be avoided only if an Earth orbit
would become the zone of a mass application of commercial satellites and space apparatuses. When commercial
interests become prevalent over military ones, a number of peaceful satellites will exceed a critical level and will
not permit to realize dictation over separate states or even separate persons. One of the terms of such mastering the
space is the return of orbited satellites to the Earth, which is also provided by ASS on the basis of the airspace
plane “Sura”.

The scheme of the airspace system on the basis of the ASP “Sura”:
1 – start of the ASP; 2 – firing dynamic separation of SSRJE cassette cartridges of SOP of the ASP and
their landing with using aeroelastic systems; 3 – firing dynamic separation of the OP and flight trajectory of SOP
with landing by using aeroelastic systems in the version of OP “Buran” trajectory (dotted line, deorbiting of the
OP); 4 – points of starting of OP engines, orbiting and deorbiting of space apparatus; 5 – work orbit; 6 – trajectory
of returning from an orbit of the OP “Buran”; 7 – OP descending trajectory with ricocheting in the dense layers of
the atmosphere (dotted line) for braking and cooling the body with providing the needed lateral removal and the
following landing by the aeroelastic system. The white line shows the flight scheme of the OP “Buran”.

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Chapter 12.
2013. Project Ultra Light Launch Vehicle (LR-1)
Nowadays there is a huge demand on cost-effective launching of small compact satellites capable of
performing various function such as telecommunications and navigation; remote sensing and exploration of the
Earth; search of regions with mineral resources; agricultural and forest production; town planning cadastre;
detection of emergency situations, etc.
The Ukraine is known all over the as the country, which has a great potential in the field of aerospace
industry. For example, in the State Enterprise “Production Association Southern Machine-Building Plant” and
State Design Bureau (SDB) “Yuzhny” in collaboration with other enterprises, there were created scores of missiles
and spacecrafts, which were the best ones among the world analogues.
In the Project, we propose design and development of Ultra-Light Launch Vehicle (ULLV) for Earth's
orbiting of micro-, nano-, pico-, and femto-satellites and orbiters (OS), that include manufacturing and launching
of two ULLV samples, portable Launch Facility and Flight Control/Communication Equipment (Chief
Constructor Kukushkin Vladimir Ivanovich) [33].
In the Project we suggest a novel concept for creation of cost-efficient ultra-light rocket and related
facilities, having high ecological, functional and commercial performances. To the date, such a rocket does not
exist in the world space industry, but it is very much needed for cost-efficient launching of micro-, nano-, pico-,
femto-satellites ang orbiters.
A single rocket launch can put into a Low Earth Orbit a set of micro-, nano-, pico-, and femto-satellites,
designed for the above applications.

Ultra Light Launch Vehicle. Technical Performance:

Function Ultra Light Orbital Launcher LOX/RP stands for

Dimensions Liquid Oxygen/
Height 17.2 m Refined Petroleum
Diameter 1.68 m fuel which is the
Mass 21,500 kg cheapest, safest, and
Number of Stages 2 eventually the
Capacity preferred oxidizer for
space launchers,
Payload to LEO (<900km) < 200 kg
though it is
First stage
moderately
Engine 1 RD-28
cryogenic.
Thrust 28,000 kgf
Specific impulse 342 s (sea level)
Burn time 154.41 s
Fuel LOX / RP-1
Second stage
Engine 1 RD-8
Thrust 8,000 kgf
Specific impulse 342 s (vacuum)
Burn time 387.36 s
Fuel LOX / RP-1

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 The engineering proposal on creation of light launch vehicle, the proof and substantiation of design
solutions, directed for providing a possibility of launching and orbiting the satellites has been considered in this
project.

“The Ukraine is known all over the world as the country, which has great space potential. In the State
Enterprise “Production Association Southern Machine-Building Plant” and “Southern” State Design Bureau, in
collaboration with other enterprises, there were created scores of missiles and spacecrafts, which were the best
ones among the world analogues. But the time flows, and the world scientific & technical progress is advancing!
And if not to attend due care for these problems, in this case the Ukraine might be badly lagging behind other
countries and stay on the verge of failure.
But the rocket-space branch of industry has the most powerful innovational potential. Just there, in this
industry, are being created and introduced (implemented) the most advanced high-tech developments. Moreover
there is formed an innovational order for many adjacent industrial economics’ sectors, such as machine-building,
nonferrous metallurgy, composite materials, electronics, informatics, nanotechnologies.
The last world crisis, which affected the Ukrainian economy very badly, has confirmed the urgent
necessity of innovational modernization. I am deeply convinced, that space machinebuilding is an advanced and
justified line of such modernization. In particular for the Ukraine, which has vast and sufficient material &
technological basis, experienced engineers and traditions.
This Project is intended for solving these problems. It contains conceptual solution of creation of high-
efficient and high-economical, ecological, functional, commercial rocket, which does not exist in the world yet. A
spaceport is not needed for such rocket: it may be launched from a sea platform. This rocket can put into an Earth
orbit a lot of light-duty satellites, designed for the Earth exploration, monitoring of many surface processes, such
as climate, regions and extraction of mineral products, agricultural and forest production, town planning
cadastre, road-building, emergency situations. On the basis of such rocket it is possible to revive the space
industry and give impetus to the development of its perspective directions”.

President of Ukraine in 2004 – 2005 Leonid Kuchma.

A need to create a light launch vehicle for scientific explorations, formation and maintenance of the
National systems for Earth Remote Sensing (ERS) from the Space.
Up to 2012 in the independent Ukraine there was clearly determined an advanced direction of
development of the rocket-space industry branch: creation and utilization of space systems for ERS with
conducting proper scientific exploration, needed for this purpose. Such concepts as space systems, systems of
orbiting satellites came into being.
The function of ERS was determined by the National scientific programs, issued by the National Space
Agency of Ukraine on the basis of the concepts of development and new Ukrainian laws (which are in process so
far), relating to the State control of space activity.
The information, received from the space systems of ERS is becoming more and more crucial element of
the informational-analytical provision in the field of a State decision making. Vast application of the ERS data in
geo-informational systems for state control of the leading countries of the world became one of the most urgent
world tendencies. The immediate access to the geo-space information allows getting quick objective information
about a state and conditions of country regions, necessary for making proper decisions.
More than 30 countries and enterprises are using their own ERS systems now (about fifty reconnaissance
satellites and nearly 50 civil ERS satellites).
Many advanced countries in the world have formed information-analytical centers on the basis of the their
national space agencies; these centers, with the help of modern means of communication, are linked with a broad
circle of consumers and are united into state control structures.
Application of the ERS data in the governmental organs of all levels is provided by creation of a National
system of space monitoring, which is, as a matter of fact, hierarchical structure of the program-technical tools,
providing a reception, processing and analysis of ERS data, giving out necessary data to the governmental organs
of control for making proper decisions.
Keeping this direction must be a complex one and it is impossible without serial production of
microsatellites, which are similar to “Sich-2” as to their mass features. It must be taken into account the world
tendency towards miniaturization of the spacecrafts. Accordingly, for forming orbital systems and their
maintenance it is needed the national launch vehicle (LV), which is the basis of national launch service. Such
rocket must provide timeliness of launching a satellite into an orbit in the limits of Ukrainian borders.
Since the Soviet period in Ukraine has been created a lot of rocket vehicles, which are being utilized up to
present; in the “Southern” State Design Office has been prepared a number of new projects of launch vehicles,

91
which are being used so far; t he d e ve lo p me n t o f t he i nt er na tio n al p ro j ec t “T s i clo n” i s go i n g o n .
Unfortunately, it is impossible launching these rockets from Ukrainian territory. All the rocket vehicles
and the projects are commercial ones and do not belong to Ukraine as a state. And moreover, a mistaken idea about
necessity of creation of commercial vehicles with middle and big weight-carrying ability, which was formed in the
first years of the state independence, is the same for the time being. Though it is well known, that Ukraine, even
for 10 years will not be able to produce such number of satellites, which may be put into an orbit by one launch
with the help of any launch vehicles, made according to commercial projects: “Dnepr”, “Sea Launch”, “Land
Launch”, “Tsiclon-4”, and made according to the “Mayak” type and others. Loading such vehicles with
commercial satellites will generate doubts, caused by the requirement of high reliability of the launch vehicles.
This reliability should be confirmed by 100 successful serial launches of the certain rocket. A rocket vehicle should
meet missions and demands of Ukraine.
Proceeding from the idea that microsatellite should serve as the ERS one for the next 50 years we might
say, that for launching our own satellite, the Ukraine needs to have a launch vehicle with lifting power of 135 –
200 kg.
Such a vehicle should be launched after manufacture of each new satellite and put it into an orbit for
forming the National space system and maintaining its efficiency. The launch vehicle should be started for
maintaining the orbital segment of the ERS space system (for servicing certain satellites, it will be possible in the
nearest years, and for expansion of an orbital grouping and other missions).
Taking into consideration, that Ukraine has signed an international agreement of ballistic rocket launches
limitation from its territory, i.e. from the land (launch vehicles can be considered as the ballistic military ones), the
launching of a rocket vehicle should be done from the water area: there are no limitations. And of course, launches
may be done from foreign spaceports.
The situation of Ukraine amidst other countries causes a necessity of creation of special small areas of
alienation for starting the rocket launch vehicles in southern direction only: in the Azov and Black seas. Minimal
areas of the stages falling zones are determined by small sizes of the rocket vehicles and by parachute system for
recovering the first stages.
New Ukrainian rocket vehicle must be eco-friendly by using proper fuel components. These components
should be inexpensive and available not only for airspace activity, but for other branches of industry.
With the assumption of such backgrounds it may be concluded that it is necessary to create in Ukraine a
light launch vehicle with lifting power at least 135 kg (design weight of the satellite ERS MS-2-8) up to 200 kg; it
allows launching other spacecrafts with lesser weights: nanosatellites, femtosatellites, picosatellites, which are
going to be created by the global community. This vehicle should be started from the launcher (for instance, the
sea one) and must not require an infrastructure as a conventional launching site or spaceport.
Launching from water area of the Black Sea for peaceful purpose has been mastered by Romania. The
processes of designing the vehicle are described in the science-engineering literature, and the standard-technical
requirements have been put into the standards, including requirements of the technical proposals. It must be noted,
that even in the Soviet period not a rocket was being created for a certain production facility, but a production
facility was being “adapted”, retooled for a new rocket. Therefore, it is postulated that in new economical term,
when the State order is defined on the basis of tender, it is possible to attract in the purpose of creating a national
Ukrainian light small-budgetary rocket new manufacturers parallel with universally well-known State Enterprise
“Production Association Southern Machine-Building Plant named after A. M. Makarov” (UMZ) and the “Yangel
Southern State Design Bureau” which were created for production of intercontinental ballistic missiles. It means,
that it is possible to create a competition precedent as a “driving force” of progress. It may include a possibility of
creating a rocket vehicle with participation of space branches of other countries, friendly to Ukraine.
The development of a light rocket for serial production will serve as the starting point of full and joint
reconstruction of Ukrainian enterprises of airspace departments with assigning certain plants, consisting of
subdivisions of SSDB and shops of UMZ each one with its own specific character. Such reorganization will make
it possible to unite all the enterprises of the rocket-space branch in one financial corporation with its own bank of
reconstruction and development. This is the future not only of their survival, as it is going now, but of development
and evolution under the governmental support of production of serial ERS satellites, light rocket booster, and of
creation of space ERS systems with their space and ground segments.
The technical proposal of creating the Ukrainian national small-budgetary light launch vehicle in case of
its realization will allow Ukraine remain the Space Power for long years with keeping continuity in the rocket
technology progress.
The preparation of the Technical Proposal of creation of the light or lightest Rocket booster is based on
the following:
- possibility of creation in Ukraine;
- minimal starting weight (simplified starting and minimal cost);
- low toxicity of fuel;
- availability of production facility for liquid propellant jet engines;

92
 - application of new methods of rocket guidance not allowing its military launches etc.
This Technical Proposal is an alternative versus existing developments.

The first predecessor of all launch rockets produced in XX century was German missile “Agregat-4”. Its
constructional scheme does not seem outdated for the time being. This missile, created by highly skilled engineers
and enthusiasts of rocketry reached a lower border of near space and due to its technical perfection made huge
impression on contemporaries. All calculations were performed by professor G. Obert.
Then the rocket technology was being developed for the military purposes (missile technology) and only
by the end of XX century the purposes changed in the direction of peaceful application of rocket vehicles. The
conversion of military technology made it possible to transform war missiles into peaceful rocket vehicles. In
Ukraine the process of conversion was being introduced into practice long before directives of the USSR
government mainly due to understanding of the National problems by such managers, as M. K. Yangel and V. F.
Utkin.
Launch vehicles with liquid rocket engine (LRE) were being developed in the “Yuzhnoye” Design Bureau
at the time of Ukrainian independence too in international. Main manufacturer of rocket technology in Ukraine is
“Southern” Machine-Building Plant in Dnepropetrovsk, which crossed the Rubicon, separating serial production of
missiles from production of peaceful boosters.
At the beginning of the XXI century everybody was sure, that rocket vehicles are being created for
mastering the space, for scientific explorations. But it has begun already an irrevocable process of introduction of
space data and technologies into existing ground-based technologies. Space systems are being transformed into
technological structures. For their formation and maintenance a new type of launch vehicle is needed (with payload
weight from scores of tons to a few scores of kilograms when it is necessary, i.e. immediately and efficiently).
Commercialization of launches’ services and creation of heavy boosters even if there is excess of the
launches’ services caused waiting turns for launching; it was caused by economical expediency of full loading of
boosters with payload, which is formed nowadays of scores of spacecrafts. In such conditions the efficiency of
servicing and maintenance can not be reached.
The lightest launch vehicle is needed for practical mastering of the near-Earth space.

93
Chapter 13.
2014. Small-sized Rocket Complex
As a result of the conducted researches, the constructive scheme of the two-stage launch vehicle and the
orbital apparatus is chosen (Chief Constructor Levenko Alexander Sergeevich) [34, 35].
The first stage of the rocket consists of:
- tail compartment with the four-chamber liquid rocket engine, swing of combustion chambers in one
plane, on a tangent to the case of the rocket;
- fuel tanks;
- tanks with helium of high pressure for increasing pressure in fuel tanks;
- automatic equipment elements;
- parachute system of a landing of the first stage after branch of stages.
Second stage:
- tail compartment with the single-chamber liquid-propellant rocket fixed in kardanny subweight, swing of
combustion chambers in two planes of orientation, the combustion chamber are equipped to high-rise sliding
telescopic nozzle;
- fuel tanks;
- cylinder with helium of high pressure for increasing pressure in fuel tanks and management of the
second stage on a list;
- system avionics & environmental control
Head part:
- aerodynamic protective casing;
- the adapter under payload installation;
- payload – the orbital plane (the low-orbital pilotless aircraft - LO USC, with the single-chamber liquid
rocket engine fixed in kardanny subweight for swing in two planes of orientation).
Components of fuel of liquid-propellant rocket of a space-rocket complex:
- oxidizer, water solution of hydrogen of peroxide of the ПВ-100 brand (98% of H2O2) in accordance with
State Standard P 50632-93;
- fuel, water solution of ethanol (98 % of C2H5OH).
The chosen components of fuel allow us to receive a high specific impulse of the engine (speed of the
expiration of gaseous products of combustion from a nozzle of the rocket engine) at a comparative low temperature
in the combustion chamber (2238 oК) at the expense of pressure increase in chamber combustion to 200 kg f/cm2.
As a result. the combustion chamber has small dimensions, which is made of a steel alloy. The nozzle part of all
liquid-propellant rocket of a space-rocket complex is made of the material “carbon + carbon”. Engines of a
modular and folding design also are intended for repeated use. The combustion chamber of the single-chamber
engine of the second stage is equipped with sliding high-rise telescopic nozzle.
In construction of the drive gazo-hydraulic gas-thermal evaporation of bronze (bronze powder БрА10
fraction of 50/160 microns) on piston part of a rod is applied, normal couple of friction “bronze – a solid chromic
covering” is organized in case of the minimum overall dimensions. The thickness of the chromium layer on the
inner surface of the cylinder 50 microns.
On an outside surface of a rod, the covering nitride of titanium 9 microns thickness is applied to lower
friction coefficient, tightness by air and wear resistance increases by the cathode in case of a high speed of
movement. Pillar of a rod at movement is bronze bearings of slipping. Nitride of titanium provides friction
coefficient on rubber sealings and a bronze reference surface at the level of polytetrafluorethylene. A gas supply of
the drive is carried out through a single system of a gas supply of the drives located opposite to RD-10. The system
is executed in the form of a steel pipe of small thickness and diameter (for example: S = 1.0 mm, Dт = 8 mm) in
average part of which the solid-propellant gas generator is located. The accumulator can be executed without the
critical section of the expiration of gases. Operation of the accumulator is carried out during ≈1sec, and for this
time pressure in a gas cavity of feed system and gas cavities in two cylinders of the drive has been 30/50 of
kgf/cm2.
In an initial position, advanced movable part of nozzle RD-10 is retained by two pyrotechnic fasteners,
located from the opposite sides on an axis turned concerning an axis of layout of drives, on 90о. The internal liquid
cavity of the drive gazo-hydraulic is filled with pressure fluid by means of vacuum filling. Pressure fluid–the РМ
State Standard 15819-85 distillate oil (MГ-7-Б, designation in accordance with State Standard 17479.3) is applied.
High pressure in the fuel tanks of the second stage of the rocket executes function of submission of
components of fuel in RD-10. Besides, before separating from the rocket LO USC, from tanks helium of the
second stage in the tanks fuel on the LO USC comes helium for submission of components of rocket fuel in RD-
0,5. High pressure system uses compressed helium gas. Pressure in cylinders is 320/350 kgf/cm2. Previously fuel
tanks have been filled in LO USC helium from terrestrial system. The system of the relay with electropneumatic by
valves for submission helium under pressure in fuel tanks is used.

94
 Low Orbital Unmanned Space Craft
The main design features of LO USC are patented regarding the orbiting airplane of the AeroSpace “Sura”
and described in references.
In the real operation possibility of creation of the mini-orbiting missile airplane whose output is carried
out in a space by the two-stage small-size launch vehicle is considered. Construction can be compared with data on
Orbital Test Vehicle Boeing X-37B.
Normal spacecrafts – satellites – have well-known shortcomings now:
- the satellite that is passive in an orbit, can't make maneuvres in a space;
- a quitted maintenance mode satellites turn into space debris;
- left in an orbit or burned when lowered in the atmosphere satellites have big cost, re the satellites are not
used.
LO USC has no specified shortcomings.
Time of staying of LO USC in an orbit can be restricted in limits till 10 years. It can return to Earth and be
restarted as required. As much as possible finding time in a space is caused by the selected components of fuel on
the basis of the peroxide high-concentrated hydrogen and ethanol. The long flight in a “sleeping” mode with
readiness for use is possible: for example, when flying to planets of solar system. In a “sleeping” mode of a
component of fuel (hydrogen peroxide and ethanol) can freeze without destroying the structure of the orbiter. Their
volume does not increase at freezing, and components can be frozen and defrozen in a design of the device.
If necessary, it can be considered and more increased time of maintenance which is confirmed by practice
of using Space Shuttle, maintenance of satellites (for example: Landsat-5) and finding periods on fighting watch of
ballistic missiles – at level about 30 years.
The outside LO USC casing isn't connected with the construction of the replaceable working module
(contained in its structure other modules: module of the propulsion system, module of parachute system, payload
capacity module, module of remote sensing of Earth, module of an onboard locator of the side review and so etc.).
The outside casing is executed in the form of integral construction from the material “carbon + carbon” and isn't
subjected to corruption in case of aerodynamic heating.
LO USC braking in the atmosphere in case of a landing is carried out by application of a spherical blunt
surface of front part of the outside casing. Forced cooling of nasal part of LO USC is carried out by a coolant
which evaporates and used in nozzles of atmospheric orientation. As a result, harmful influence of aerodynamic
heating is made as a source of external power supply and reception of energy of space-rocket system. The nasal
aerodynamic needle regulated on length is in addition applied to lowering heating in front part of the LO USC
casing in case of hypersonic flight in the atmosphere when braking isn't required. The saltus of multiplexing on a
point of a needle is taken away from a surface of front part of the device, and coefficient сх of head resistance is
minimum, transmission of heat to the aircraft casing decreases.
The summary heat flux which approaches to the aircraft casing with an aerodynamic needle in case of
hypersonic speeds of flight in the atmosphere, decreases by 2/4 times in comparison with option without a needle.
Needle application in LO USC has also other feature: the needle reduces aerodynamic resistance by 10 times.
Needle length regulated for different flying speeds, a needle deviation from the LO USC axis allows creating
necessary positive or negative lifting force. For temperatures of 900/2300 °C, it is preferable to use steel or titanic
construction of a needle with gas-thermal evaporation on its surface of an oxide of zirconium (metal ceramics).
Such technology is mastered in Ukraine (gas-thermal evaporation of oxides on steel and titanium), construction
saves durability and acquires heat resisting properties on a surface. Thus the metal ceramics possesses low heat
conduction, reducing a heat transfer to construction.
After separation from the launch vehicle, LO USC yourself came out to a predetermined low-Earth orbit.
Weight LO USC with the fuel tanks is 900 kg.
System for controlling the direction of the thrust vector of the liquid-propellant engine LO USC, what
fixed in the cardan a suspension, has on two helmsmen hydraulic drive for Steering Management in each plane.
The directions of application of effort are selected from pair of drives for the turn to the opposite sides. It reaches
stability of management system by a thrust vector, danger of origin of oscillations (the hydraulic stabilizer)
decreases, the accuracy and high-speed performance of system increase. Combustion chamber turns in each plane
on an angle ± 6о suffices. Orientation in space is exercised by gas nozzles with a supply from system of high
pressure of helium.
Flight Trajectory
For confirmation of correctness of the selected constructive decisions calculation of a flight trajectory of
the launch vehicle, LO USC output into a circle orbit and its descent from an orbit for a landing are carried out.
Lowering for a landing of LO USC is carried out by a method of preliminary descent from height of a
working orbit into the intermediate orbit with a low perigee (about 150 km).
The landing is carried out on a parachute from height about 5 km. Flight time before opening the
parachute 825 seconds, the total time for a touchdown in 1231 sec.
The main canopy is made of fabric caproic. The surface density of the fabric is 59 g/m 2. The weight of the

95
main and chimney parachutes of a landing of LO USC will be about 4,6 kgf.
Weight parachute system is 23 kgf, which is about 6.12 % by weight of the construction LO USC. In case
of density of laying down (molding) of parachute system of 1,1 g/cm3, proceeding from the summary weight of 23
kgf, the volume of parachute system is about 4181 cm3.
Conclusions
Time of the active section of flight of the launch vehicle is 353.4 s. RD-40 147.6 sec. is operating time
with (before division of missile stages of the launch vehicle), RD-10 141.2 sec. (before LO USC separation), RD-
0.5 65.5 sec. (to an output into the intermediate orbit 200 km high). The flight LO USC intermediate orbit before
reaching a height of 1400 km equals 3,026 sec. The landing from a height LO USC working orbit 1,100 km is
1231 sec..
The small or light launch vehicle in a combination to LO USC, represents an operational rocket system of
low-orbit maintenance and is expected perspective of mastering of near-earth space by serviced orbiting groups of
spacecrafts, includingthe possibility of resetting to Earth surface. LO USC represents maneuvering in an orbit and
in the atmosphere the returned device for execution of different missions, including remote sensing, service of
artificial satellites of Earth and planets of solar system, an output in a space of technological laboratories, etc. [36,
37, 38]

Technical Characteristics of the

Space-Rocket Complex
Function Orbital Launch Vehicle +
LO USC
Country of origin Ukraine
Сharacteristics
Height 21.77 m
Diameter 1.68 m
Mass with LO USC 25,450 kg
Stages 2
Payload to LEO 600 kg (LO USC)
Status Project
Launch sites Black sea
Fest stage
Engine 1 RD-40
Thrust 40,000 kgf
Specific impulse 291.62 s (sea level)
Burn time 147.6 s
Fuel 98 % H2O2 / 98 % C2H5OH
Second stage
Engine 1 RD-10
Thrust 10,819 kgf
The Orbital Launch Vehicle and Combustion Specific impulse 338.44 s (vacuum)
Chambers of liquid-propellant Rocket Engine Burn time 141.2 s
Fuel 98 % H2O2 / 98 % C2H5OH
Low orbital Unmanned SpaceCraft
Engine 1 RD-0.5
Thrust 504 kgf
Specific impulse 338.285 s (vacuum)
Burn time 65.5 s, all burn time 241 s
(up to 200 km)
Fuel 98 % H2O2 / 98 % C2H5OH
The scheme of Nozzle part of RD-10
to the Advanced Hige-Rise telescopic nozzle

Diagram of flying speed of LO USC Diagram of the velocity pressure in case

in case of descent, m/sec of descent of LO USC, Pa
96
The Scheme of Functioning of the Space-Rocket Complex with the Small-size Launch Vehicle and LO USC

Results of calculation of an output of LO USC into a circle The generalized results of Ballistic
orbit up to 1400 km high Calculation

Parameters of a basic orbit The height of the circular 200

Eccentricity 0.0003 reference orbit LO USC, km
Inclination, degrees 83.38 Height of the circular orbit LO 1,100
Perigee, m 195,496.9 USC, km
Apogee, m 199,686.4 The maximum possible height of 1,400
The speed at apogee, m/s 7,782.11 the circular orbit LO USC, km
The parameters of the orbit transition Gomanovskoy The minimum flight altitude LO 5
Perigee, m 199,686.4 USC, km
Apogee (the height of the circular 1,405,799.5 Removing LO USC upon landing 12,000
orbit), m the plane deorbiting, km
Fuel weight for the first correction 75.216 Landing LO USC by
pulse, kg parachute
Time for the first pulse, s 50.5 Management of a drag coefficient regulated
Fuel weight for the second correction 63.434 Corps LO USC сх and the lifting aerodynam
pulse, kg force when maneuvering in the ic needle
Time for the second pulse, s 42.6 atmosphere

97
 Launch Vehicle without turbopump
assembly on the first
and second stages LV-1.2Р

Fuel tanks are made of carbon fiber for high

operating pressure. Pressure cylinders is provided with
compressed helium (gas pressure of 320-360 kgf/cm2 LV
design reinforced tubular of aluminum alloy.
Starting weight LV-1.2P increased to 31.316
tons (compared to LV-1.2 - near 21 tons). LV length 24
m, a maximum diameter of 3 m.
No need to design and manufacture turbo pump
assemblies.
LV consists of three main elements:
- of one type of spherical tanks for fuel
components and helium (hardware and software available
in the Dnepropetrovsk Manufacturing Engineering
Research Institute - is possible to supply the equipment
set);
- combustion chamber of the liquid rocket
engine of the same type (the LV first stage is used cluster
LPRE, the second - single chamber; LPRE orbiter USC is
used single chamber); LPRE is used for the manufacture
of conventional equipment engineering plant;
- fittings and automatic equipment (valves,
regulators purchased on the world market equipment).
In an ideal used LPRE ecological fuel: ethyl
alcohol and hydrogen peroxide contained in the bodies of
living beings.
First, both of these components are used with a
concentration of ≈ 100%.
This allows to maximize the energy of the
chemical reaction of hydrogen peroxide vapors + ethanol.
The temperature in the combustion chambers almost
LPRE 1000 оК lower than in pairs “LOX + kerosene”.
Fuel components are not used in cryogenic and
normal climatic conditions.
Increasing the pressure in the combustion
chamber rocket engine to 150-250 kgf/cm2 achieves the
velocity of the gas from the nozzle at a pair of "LOX +
kerosene".
The creation of small LV manufacturing cost
which is about $ 3 million. Cost start LV less $ 1 million
(including the cost of fuel components and helium cost
deductions for return on investment, including the cost of
launch equipment and mobile mission control center).
4. Material combustor steel. Nozzle material
carbon + carbon.

98
Unmanned SpaceCraft (USC) with RD-0.5 for Small-Sized Launch Vehicle
(Complex LV-1.2Р) USC with fixed LRE and two steering rocket engines
)

Liquid propellant engine RD-05:

Thrust (vac.) P = 500 kgf,
Isp (vac.) = 338,28 c (3.318 km/с)
Propellant: С2Н5ОН (100%) + Н2О2 (100%).
High-altitude Steering liquid propellant
engine LRE-10N-H:
Thrust (vac.) P = 10 N (1,02 kgf),
Isp (vac.) = 322,71 c (3.166 km/с).
Propellant: С2Н5ОН (100%) + Н2О2 (100%).

View from a stern.

In hydrogen peroxide nozzles orientation
decomposes on silver catalysts

99
2015. New time
The Intermediate
eXperimental Vehicle (IXV) is an
European Space Agency (ESA)
experimental re-entry vehicle to
validate European reusable launchers,
evaluated in the frame of the Future
Launchers Preparatory Programme
(FLPP), and developed under the
leadership of the NGL Prime SpA
company. The IXV successfully
completed its 100-minute mission on
11 February 2015.
It inherited the principles of
previous studies such as CNES's Pre-
X and ESA's AREV (Atmospheric
Reentry Experimental Vehicle), and
the successful Atmospheric Reentry
Demonstrator (ARD) flown in 1998.

100
101
 REFERENCES

1. Авиационно-космические системы // Cборник статей под ред. Г. Е. Лозино-Лозинского и

А. Г. Братухина, М.: Изд-во МАИ, 1997. - 416 с.
2. Алексеев Ю. С., Кукушкин В. И., Левенко А. С. Перспектива ракетно-космической отрасли
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 Popular science publication

KUKUSHKIN Vladimir Ivanovich

LEVENKO Alexander Sergeevich
URUSKYI Oleg Semenovich
SABADOSH Lyubomir Yurievich

AEROSPACE PLANE
The Time of Researches and Achievements

Editor A. S. Levenko
Translating from Russian into English V. V. Shepel

Пiдписано до друку 19.05.2015. Формат 60х841/8. Гарнитура «Times New Roman».

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ТОВ «Домінанта Прінт», 49094, м. Дніпропетровськ,

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