The Minimal Polynomial of a Linear Transformation

Author(s): M. D. Burrow
Source: The American Mathematical Monthly, Vol. 80, No. 10 (Dec., 1973), pp. 1129-1131
Published by: Mathematical Association of America
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2318550 .
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 CLASSROOM NOTES

EDITED BY ROBERT GILMER

MaterialforthisDepartment of Mathematics,
shouldbe sentto David Roselle,Department
BatonRouge,LA 70803.
LouisianaState University,

THE MINIMAL POLYNOMIAL OF A LINEAR TRANSFORMATION

M. D. BURROW, Courant Instituteof Mathematical Sciences

1. Introduction.It seems that none of the textbookson linear algebra gives a

directproofof thefactthattheminimalpolynomialm(x) of a lineartransformation
T is of degreeless than or equal to the dimensionof the vectorspace V on which
T acts. The usual proof depends on the fact that m(x) divides the characteristic
polynomialf (x), the degreeof whichis equal to the dimensionof V, and forthis
one needs theCayley-Hamilton theorem.In Theorem1 we givea directproofusing
mathematicalinductionon the dimensionof V. The inductionis broughtinto play
by the use of quotientspaces and linear transformations induced on themby in-
variantsubspaces. Theorem 2 shows that if m(x) is a power of an irreduciblepoly-
nomial p(x) of degreer, thenr dividesn, wheren is the dimensionof the vector
space V. This leads to an expressionforthe characteristicpolynomialf(x) in terms
of theirreduciblefactorsof m(x) in thegeneralcase.
2. THEOREM 1. Let V be a vectorspace of dimensionn over a field F. Let
T: V-+ V be a linear transformation.Then the minimal polynomialm(x), that
is the monic polynomial of minimal degreefor which m(T)V = 0, is of degree
less than or equal to n.
Proof. Suppose that dimV = 1. Then for any non-zerovectora in V we have
V = Fa. It followsthatTa = kac,wherek is someelementofF. Hence (T - kI) = 0
whereI is the identitymap on V. This shows that m(x) = x - k is the minimal
polynomialof T. Since degm(x) = 1 we see that the theoremis truefor the case
n = 1.
Now, to make an inductionon the dimensionwe assume that the theoremis
trueforall spaces W of dimensionless than n. Let dimV = n, and suppose thata
is a'non-zero vectorin V. Then the n + 1 vectorso, To, T2a, ..., Tn are linearly
dependentso that thereis a set {ao, a1, ,an} of elementsof F, not all of them
zero, such that

ao0+a,Th+ *+anTno=O.

Writingg(x) = ao + alx + .. + anXn,we see that degg(x) ? n and g(T)x = 0.

If g(T)V = 0, then,because m(x) is the minimalpolynomial,we have degm(x)

1129

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1130 M. D. BURROW [December

< degg(x) < n and so the theoremholds. Suppose now that g(T)V # 0. Let
U = {x: g(T)o = 0}. Then U is a propersubspace of V and dimU = r < n. By
theinductionalassumptionthereis a polynomialml(x) of degreeless thanor equal
to r such that m1(T)U = 0. Moreover,TU c U, since g(T) commuteswith T,
so that U is an invariantsubspace of V. Now considerthe quotientspace V/U.
We have dimV/U = n - r < n and so, by the inductionalassumptionagain, there
is a polynomialm2(x) of degree < n - r such that m2(T)V/U = 0. This means
that m2(T)V c U, so that m1(T)m2(T)V = 0.
Writingh(x) = m1(x)m2(x) we have h(T)V = 0 so that if m(x) is the minimal
polynomial
degm(x) < degh(x) = degml(x) + degm2(x) ? r + n - r = n.
Thus the theoremholds in all cases and the proofis complete.
NOTE: If ml(x) and m2(x) are the minimalpolynomialsof T restricted
to U
then h(x) = m1(x)m2(x)coincides with the minimalpoly-
and V/U respectively,
nomial of T.
THEOREM 2. Let V be a vectorspace of dimensionn over a field F, and let T
be a linear transformation on V. If the minimal polynomial m(x) = (p(x))s,
wherep(x) is irreducibleand of degreer, thenr dividesn.
Proof. Let B = {a1, x2, c* n} be a basis of V. We assertthatthereis one of
thesevectors,which,withno loss of generality, may be taken to be ac,, such that
the set G = {C,XTaj, ..., T"-'oc,} is linearlyindependent.
Suppose the statementis false; then for everya in V, p(T)Jm?= 0 for some
je < s. This is so because the annihilatingpolynomialof minimaldegree (given
here by the assumed dependence)of a vectordividesany otherannihilatingpoly-
nomial,and in particular,then,divides(p(x))s. Thus p(T)s- 1V = 0, a contradiction.
Let U be the subspace of V generatedby the set G. Then dimU equals rs. If
U = V, thenrs = n so thatr dividesn and we are finished.To completetheproof
we use an inductionon n. Suppose that U # V. First note that TU c U, since
foreveryj < rs - 1, T(T(x 1) = T!+ 1x1is a basiselementof U, whereas(p(T))sa1 = 0
gives Tcal in termsof the basis elements.We go now to the quotientspace V/U.
Since TU c U we can considerthetransformation T1 inducedon V/U by T. Since
(p(Ti))s also annihilatesV/U, the minimalpolynomialof T1 is (p(x))t for some
t ? s. Now dimV/U = n - rs < n so that the inductionalhypothesismakes r
dividen - rs and thisimpliesthatr dividesn, completingtheproof.
COROLLARY. Let V be a vectorspace of dimensionn overa fieldF and let T be
a linear transformation on V. If the minimalpolynomialm(x) = (p(x))s, where
p(x) is irreducibleand of degree r, thendeterminant(xI- T) = (p(x))ntr.
Proof. Assumethatthestatementis trueforall spaces of dimensionless thann.

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 1973] CLASSROOM NOTES 1131

The case n = 1 is trivial.Let T1 and T2 be the lineartransformations

inducedon
U and V/U respectively by T. Since dimU < n and dimV/U < n, the inductional
hypothesisgives
det(xI- T1) = (p(x))rslr and det(xI- T2) = (p(X))(n rs)/r

But then
det(xI - T) = det(xI - T1)det(xI - T2) = (p(x))nlr.

REMARK. det(xI - T) = f(x) is, of course,the characteristic

polynomialof T.
The corollaryextendsat once to the following:
THEOREM 3. Let the minimal polynomial of T be
m(x) = (p1(x))sl(p2(x))52 ... (Pk(X))",

whereeach pi(x) is irreducibleof degree ri. Let Vi be the null space of (pj(x))5i
and let ni be the dimensionof Vi, thenfor i = 1,2, ', k we have that ri dividesni
and
f(x) = (pi(X))n,Ir, lI. (P (X))nk/rk
This is immediatefromTheorem2 and its corollary,since V is the directsum
of the Viand each (pi(x))si is the minimalpolynomialof the transformation Ti in-
duced on Vi by T. By Theorem 1 we have risi < ni so that si < nJIriand hence
m(T)V = 0 implies thatf(T)V = 0. Thus the Cayley-Hamiltontheoremfollows
as a consequence.
Note thatthe vectoro1 of Theorem2 is annihilatedby no polynomialof degree
< rs, and in fact that its order(i.e., annihilatingpolynomialof minimaldegree)
is the minimalpolynomialm(x). For the generalcase, in each Vi thereis a vector
ci whose order is the minimalpolynomial(pj(x))si and the vectors(xi given by
i= ( + + (x, for j = 1,2, ..,k, have orders flHj=I(pm(x))si: Thus a-=k
has order m(x), the minimalpolynomialof T.

ANOTHER PROOF OF THE RATIONAL DECOMPOSITION THEOREM

H. G. JACOB,University
of Massachusetts

1. Introduction.The Rational Decomposition Theorem states that a finite

dimensionalvectorspace under a linear transformation decomposesinto a direct
sum of cyclic subspaces. There are at least two ratherwell-knownproofsof this
theorem.The moreelegantone applies,to thecase of a singlelineartransformation,
the theoremthat a finitelygeneratedmodule over a principalideal domain is the
directsum of cyclicsubmodules[3, p. 386]. The moredirectproofinvolvesshowing
thata cyclicsubspaceof maximumdimensionis a directsummandin a decomposition

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