Religious Uniformity & tolerance in

Ancient & Late Ancient India; Some

Reflections.
Kamal Hasan
P.G Student, CAS, Dept.Of History,
Aligarh Muslim University.

Abstract :
We are living in a time where there is a great need for wisdom and knowledge that teaches us
how to live in a diverse society with unity and tolerance. History justifies that religion has
proved to be one of the most essential subjects related to human civilization throughout the
ages. When on the one hand, religious discussion is being seen as disgusting and a sign of a
weedy brain and on the other hand, religion is used to fuel violence and divisive politics
across India, then the need of proper research and rational thinking about religion has arisen.
While the popular religions of ancient and late ancient India had some distinct differences,
they also had some similarities. Here, an attempt would be made to focus on the similarities.
The historical evidences of intercommunal harmony of ancient and late ancient India are
present in the manuscripts, which are preserved in various archives throughout the India.The
main aim and objective of this paper would be to have a thoroughly study about religion
based on scriptures & historical sources and to find out some aspects of religious uniformity
and tolerance prevailing in ancient and late ancient India. It should be remembered that, here,
in this paper more emphasis would be given to the primary sources which reflect first hand
information about the contemporary situation of the concerned subject.

Keywords : Religious Uniformity,Tolerance, India, Harmony, Historical facts, Primary Source.

Introduction :
Religion has always played a predominant role in the development of different ancient
civilizations of the world. It was an important focal point of ancient society. It's also the most
crucial & debatable tool which is used by various groups of people in order to serve their own
illusive interests. Hence, a scientific study of religion would be the best method in identifying
the truth, which also would be the practical implementation of Albert Einstein's word
‘Science without religion is lame, religion without science is blind’.1 However, there were
different other strategies & disciplines as well which often played a major role in the
progress & development of a civilization for which there is no respite for denying the fact. As
a matter of fact, religions of the ancient & late ancient India both agree and differ together in
many important points. Factual comparisons with points of real similarities and differences
must be brought about in making a real comparative study of the religions of ancient & late
ancient India.
Definition of "Religion " & method of comparative study :
The term religion comes from both Old French and Anglo-Norman (1200s AD) and means
respect for sense of right, moral obligation, sanctity, what is sacred, reverence for the gods.2 It
ultimately derived from the Latin word religio.3 In classical antiquity, religeo broadly meant
conscientiousness, sense of right, moral obligation or duty to anything.4

Religion is a modern concept.5 The concept was invented recently in the English language
and is found in texts from the 17th century due to events such as the splitting of Christendom
during the Protestant Reformation and globalization in the Age of Exploration which
involved contact with numerous foreign cultures with non-European languages.6 Some argue
that regardless of its definition, it is not appropriate to apply the term religion to non-Western
cultures,7 while some followers of various faiths rebuke using the word to describe their own
belief system.8 The concept of religion was formed in the 16th and 17th centuries, despite the
fact that ancient sacred texts like the Bible , the Quran and others did not have a word or even
a concept of religion in the original languages and neither did the people or the cultures in
which these sacred texts were written.9 For example, In the Quran, the Arabic word 'din' is
often translated as religion in modern translations, but up to the mid-1600s translators
expressed din as "law".10

The Sanskrit word Dharma, sometimes translated as religion, also means law. According to
the philologist Max Müller in the 19th century, the root of the English word religion, the
Latin religiō, was originally used to mean only reverence for God or the gods, careful
pondering of divine things, Müller characterized many other cultures around the world,
including Egypt, Persia, and India, as having a similar power structure at this point in history.
What is called ancient religion today, they would have only called law.11

In making comparisons, one is generally inclined towards taking one's own religion as the
standard of comparisons and judging other religion in the light of that (which should not be
done) which vitiates the real academic spirit of making a comparative study of religion. As a
precaution against such tendencies, Parriender very honestly and amply remarks,
‘Comparison, however to be justified seriously, must not imply judgment, and still less
depreciation of any faith’.12 Hence, instead of looking at the differences, we would be looking
for some of those historical facts which portray the religious uniformity & tolerance in
ancient & late ancient India.

Bharatavarsha, Hindustan, India ; Understanding the concepts :

Bharatavarsha, was a land that belonged to a bigger entity known as Jambu-dvipa. The term
is based on the concept of dvīpa, meaning "island" or "continent" in Ancient Indian
cosmogony. The term 'Jambudvipa' was used by Ashoka to represent his realm in the third
century BCE. The same terminology was used in subsequent texts, for instance Kannada
inscriptions from the tenth century CE which also described the region, presumably Ancient
India , as Jambudvipa.13

The word Jambudvīpa literally refers to "the land of Jambu trees" where jambu(Syzygium
cumini ) grows. According to some noted anthropologists, the Indo-Aryan inhabitants of the
modern day countries of India , Pakistan Bangladesh Sri Lanka , Maldives and Nepal are
considered to be part of the Jambudvīpan race. [dubious – discuss ]. According to the
Puranas, Jambudvipa is situated in the center of the earth (although it is not proved by recent
research ), in whose southernmost part lies Bharatavarsha. One of several explanations of the
name Bharatavarsha connects it with the Bharata people, descendants of the legendary king
Bharata, son of Dushyanta and Sakuntala. Thus, the first inscriptional evidence of the term
'Bharatavarsha' occurs in the Hathigumpha Inscriptions of Kalinga King Kharavela in
Udayagiri, Orissa (1st century BCE).

The term Hindustan is derived from the Persian word Hindū cognate with the Sanskrit
Sindhu.17 Hence, the Rigvedic term 'sapta sindhava' (the land of seven rivers) became' haptā
hindu' in the Avesta. In 515 BCE, the Achaemenid king Darius I (522-486. BCE) annexed
the Indus Valley including Sindhu, the present day Sindh , which was called Hindu in
Persian.18 During the time of Xerxes (486-465. BCE) the term "Hindu" was also applied to
the lands to the east of Indus. 19 In middle Persian probably from the first century CE, the
suffix -'stan' was added, indicative of a country or region, forming the present word
Hindūstān.

Thus, the earliest inscriptional evidence of the term 'Hindustan' occurs in the
Naqsh-e-Rustam inscription of Sasanid ruler Shapur l in c. 262 CE., indicating the area
around the Sindh.21 Historian B. N. Mukherjee states that from the lower Indus basin, the term
Hindūstān got gradually extended to "more or less the whole of the "subcontinent". The
Greco-Roman name "India" and the Chinese name Shen-tu also followed a similar evolution.
22
The Arabic term Hind, derived from Persian Hindu, was previously used by the Arabs to
refer to the much wider Indianised region from the Makran coast to the Indonesian
archipelago.23 But eventually it too became identified with the Indian subcontinent.

The words, 'India', 'Hindu', and 'Hindustan' originate from the name of the river Indus, or
sindhu, which originates in the Tibetan plateau, flowing 3,200 km south -west across fertile
plains before it merges with the Arabian Sea. Ancient Chinese Sources refer to the land of
'Shen-tu', Hellenistic Greek text mentions 'India', ancient Greek 'Indos', which translates as
"the people of the indus'. Thus, the word is clearly derived from Sindhu the old, as well as
the present, Indian name from the indus. From this Sindhu came the words Hindu and
Hindustan, as well as Indus and India.24
Some reflection of religious Uniformity:
Religions of the world can be broadly categorized into Semitic religions and non-Semitic
religions. Semitic religions are religions that originated among the Semites. According to the
Bible, Prophet Noāh (pbuh) had four sons called Shem, Ham, Japheth and Yam. The
descendents of Shem are known as Semites.Therefore, Semitic religions are the religions that
originated among the Jews, Arabs, Assyrians, Phoenicians, etc. Major Semitic religions are
Judaism, Christianity and Islām. All these religions are Prophetic religions that believe in
divine Guidance sent through the prophets of God.

The non-Semitic religions are divided into Aryan and non-Aryan religions. Aryan religions
are the religions that originated among the Aryans, a powerful group of Indo - European
speaking people that spread through Iran and Northern India in the first half of the second
Millennium BCE (c.2000 to 1500 BC).The Aryan Religions are further subdivided into Vedic
and non-Vedic religions. The Vedic Religion is given the name Sanātana dharma, and later
during the British colonial rule it was termed as Hinduism or Brahmanism . Raja Rammohun
Roy was the first to use the term ‘Hinduism’ in 1816-17 AD. The non-Vedic Religions are
Buddhism, Jainism, etc. Zoroastrianism is an Aryan, non-Vedic religion, which is not
associated with Hinduism. It claims to be a prophetic religion.25

The term Sanātan dharma doesn't appear in the vedas. According to some scholars it was
first mentioned in the Ramaāyanā (Bala Kanda, 25 Sarga) and Bhāgavād Gita. Later, The
phrase dharma sanātana occurs in classical Sanskrit literature, for example, in the
Manusmriti (c. 1st – 3rd century CE) and in the Bhāgavatā Puranā 26(c. 8th – 10th century
CE). Thus, the term Sanatana dharma denotes the “eternal” or absolute set of duties or
religiously ordained practices incumbent upon all Hindus, regardless of class, caste, or sect.27

Similarity on the concept of GOD :

God Consciousness was an important aspect of human thinking throughout the ages. In this
case, two groups have been seen among humankind. One group claims that God Himself has
revealed his identity through sending his revelations upon the prophets & sages at different
times and in different regions from which some were memorized and some were recorded in
various texts. Another group has thought or conceived God's nature by their own perceptions
or imagination partly diverting from God's revelation or without totally concerning God's
revelations. Besides, those who believe in God are further divided into two major groups, one
is monotheistic ( those who believed in one God) and another is polytheistic( those who
believed in more than one God).

Thus, the famous earliest Indian literary Hindu text Rig Veda [1.164:46] goes on to assert
the monotheistic view of God that " there is one true being (God), whom the sages ( learned
priest ) called by many names" ( ekam sad vipra bahudha vadanti ). The following verses
from the Yajurveda echo a similar concept of God: "na tasya pratima asti " There is no
image of Him.' [Yajurveda 32:3] ; "shudhama poapvidham" "He is bodiless and pure."
[Yajurveda 40:8] ". The following verses from the Upanishads refer to the Concept of God:
"Ekam evadvitiyam" "He is One only without a second." [Chandogya Upanishad 6:2:1] ;
"Na casya kascij janita na cadhipah." 'Of Him there are neither parents nor lords.'
[Svetasvatara Upanishad 6:9]; "Na tasya pratima asti" "There is no likeness of Him."
[Svetasvatara Upanishad 4:19].

The following verses from the Upanishad allude to the inability of man to imagine God in
a particular form: "Na samdrse tisthati rupam asya, na caksusa pasyati kas canainam."
"His form is not to be seen; no one sees Him with the eye." [Svetasvatara Upanishad 4:20]
The most popular amongst all the Hindu scriptures is the Bhagavad Gita which clearly says
"Those whose intelligence has been stolen by material desires surrender unto demigods and
follow the particular rules and regulations of worship according to their own
natures."Bhagavad Gita 7:20] The Gita states that people who are materialistic worship
demigods i.e. ‘gods’ besides the True God.

Islam with its final form emerged as the last major revealed religion of the world during
the 7th century in Arabia. Most historians now agree that India's introduction to Islam was
through Arab traders and not by the Muslim rulers, as is generally believed. With the coming
of Islam in India the first Arab Muslims began settling in the towns on the Indian coast in the
last part of the 7th century." They married Indian women and were treated with respect and
allowed to propagate their faith.28 The Holy Qur'an which was the last & final revealed book
of Islam clearly states about God's identity in the following verses : "Qul hu wallahu ahad"
(Say, [ O Muhammad to the people that ] He is Allah, who is the one ) ; "Allah hus-samad"
( Allah, the Eternal Refuge); "Lam yalid walam yulad "(He neither begets nor is born) ;
Walam yakul-lahuu kufuwan ahad "( Nor is there to Him any equivalent or any companion )
[Al- Qur'an - 112:1-4]. In another place the Qur'an says-" Laitha Kamithlihi Shay'wu Wa
Huwas Samîul Basir" ( There is nothing like unto Him, and He is the All-Hearing, the All-
Seeing ).

Qur'an also asserts the identity of God in the following way - Allahu laaa ilaaha illaa
huwal haiyul qai-yoom. ( Allah! there is no deity worthy to be worship but He, -the Living,
the self-sustaining ) ; laa taakhuzuhoo sinatunw wa laa nawm ( No slumber can seize Him
nor Sleep.); lahoo maa fissamaawaati wa maa fil ard ( His are all things in the heavens and
on earth) ; man zallazee yashfa'u indahooo illaa be iznih (Who is there that can intercede in
His presence except as he permitteth?) ; ya'lamu maa baina aideehim wa maa khalfahum
(He knoweth what (appeareth to His creatures As) Before or After or Behind them); wa laa
yuheetoona beshai 'immin 'ilmihee illa be maa shaaaa ( Nor shall they compass aught of
His knowledge except as He willeth.); wasi'a kursiyyuhus samaa waati wal arda wa la
ya'ooduho hifzuhumaa (His throne doth extend over the heavens and on earth, and He
feeleth no fatigue in guarding and preserving them); wa huwal aliyyul 'azeem( For He is the
Most High, the Supreme in glory). [Al-Qur'an - 2: 255]
Similarity on the concept of Hereafter :
The concept of life after death was very common in almost all the major religions of the
world except few. All the major religions believe that the life of man doesn't end with the
physical death. The immortal soul of man endures even after the death of his physical body.
But what happens to the soul after the death of the body? In what form or state does it endure
after the physical death? The Vedas seem to imbibe the idea of heaven and hell but not of
rebirth.29 The Vedas believe that after death the spirit of man is sent to heaven or hell in
consequence of good or bad actions done by him on earth. A benediction hymn. “madhu
naktam utoshaso madhumat parthivam rajah; madhu dyaurastu nah pita” — “May the night
and day be sweet (i.e. helpful) to us, may the earth’s dust be sweet to us, may our father's
heaven be sweet to us” is an indication of it. [ . R.V 1.90.7 ]

In Buddhism also there was a concept of heaven and hell. It is certified from the story
mentioned in Anguttara Nikaya, where one day, the Buddha visited the home of
Anathapindika, the famous gahapati of Shravasti. He found the house very noisy. On making
enquiries about the source of the noise, he was told it was Sujata, daughter-in-law of the
house. The Buddha told Sujata that there were seven kinds of wives, some approved of and
others not so : 1) The vadhaka (slayer) wife ; 2) The chorasama ( thief -like) wife; 3) The
ayyasama (mistress like) wife; 4) The matusama (mother- like),; 5) The bhaginisama
(sister-like); 6) The companion- like wife; 7) The dasisama ( slave like) wife. The first three
types of wives are said to go to hell after they die, while the other four go to heaven. 30

As mentioned earlier, Islam had already penetrated into the Indian subcontinent by the 7th
century. Islam also gives importance to the concept hereafter. In fact, this concept is one of
the six fundamental beliefs in Islam, without believing properly on them one can not be a
Muslim. According to Islamic Sharia (Islamic law) this concept was named as Aakhiraah,
which means hereafter. There are a number of verses of Holy Qur'an and Prophetic Hadith
which talk about this. Thus, the Qur'an says: "The present, worldly life is nothing but a
pastime and play, but the abode of the Hereafter is truly alive. If they knew. " (Qur’an,
Surah al-ʿAnkabut, 29: 64)

Narrated By Abu Huraira: The Prophet (‫ )ﷺ‬said, "Whoever believes in Allah and the
Last Day, should not hurt his neighbor and whoever believes in Allah and the Last Day,
should serve his guest generously and whoever believes in Allah and the Last Day, should
speak what is good or keep silent." ( Sahih al-Bukhari 6136)
Some aspects of tolerance :
Indians see religious tolerance as a central part of who they are as a nation. Across the
major religious groups, most people say it is very important to respect all religions to be
“truly Indian.” And tolerance is a religious as well as civic value: Indians are united in the
view that respecting other religions is a very important part of what it means to be a member
of their own religious community .First instances of religious tolerance in ancient India found
in the middle of the third century BCE, Ashoka (c. 268- 232 BCE), ruler of Mauryan Empire,
had the following inscribed at various sites across his kingdom:

“The king … honors all religious sects … with gifts and with honors of various kinds. But he
does not value gifts or honor as much as the promotion of the essentials of all religious sects.
The root of this is guarding one’s speech so that neither praising one’s own sect nor blaming
others’ sects should occur on improper occasions; and it should be moderate on every
occasion. And others’ sects should be honored on every occasion. Acting thus, one both
promotes one’s own sect and benefits others’ sects. Acting otherwise, one both harms one’s
own sect and wrongs others’ sects. For whoever praises their own sect or blames another’s
sect out of devotion to their own sect with a view to showing it in a good light, instead
severely damages their own sect. Coming together is good, so that people should both hear
and appreciate each other’s teaching.” (Major Rock Edict 12)

Although some scholars have argued that this aspect of Ashoka's dhamma has often been
referred to as ' religious tolerance ', it is a poor understanding of Ashoka's policy. Rock edict
12 makes it clear that the king expected people to exercise restraint in criticizing other sects
and in praising their own. But he was also asking for something positive. He was urging
people to honor and try to understand the dhamma of others. He considered it possible to
promote the essential of the different dhammas of different people through such means. 31 On
the other hand, Thapar has underlined the political rationale behind the propagation of
dhamma. According to her,' Dhamma was an ideological tool used by Ashoka to weld and
consolidate his far -flung empire. However, it failed as a unifying strategy ' 32

A broad picture of religious tolerance of Islam was found within a hundred years of the
death of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) (c.7 June 632 AD) when in 712 AD, the nephew and
son-in-law of Hajjaj bin Yusuf (694-714 AD ), the governor of Iraq, Muhammad bin Qasim
(712-15 AD) was appointed commander. He came from Arabia and conquered India's Sindh
province .When Muhammad bin Qasim was already in the border with Sindh, he received
support from over 6,000 camel-mounted soldiers and eventually captured Sind, having to
pass through the Makran desert first and conquer the cities of Fannazbur and Lasbela that had
previously been conquered by Arab-Muslims.33

The Hindus appealed to Bin Qasim for their religious security. Muhammad bin Qasim
followed Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) and gave freedom and security to Hindus and
Buddhists to practice their religion.34 At Multan he declared, "Like the Christian churches,
the Jewish synagogues and the altars of the Persian priests, the Hindu temples will be sacred."

Muhammad bin Qasim also allowed the inhabitants of Sindh to repair the temples,35 and
took measures to ensure that their temples and places of worship could not be attacked by the
enemy for any reason. According to William Moore, this religious tolerance was a significant
feature of Islamic governance. He said, the understanding with pagans introduced by
Muhammad bin Qasim guided later Muslim rulers. As soon as he recognized the Hindus as
'Zimmi’s' or 'protected' citizens, Bin Qasim granted more privileges to the Sindhis than the
Muslim jurists favored granting them.

With the conquest of Sindh, Muhammad bin Qasim showed that Islamic law‟s protection of
religious minorities was for the Christians, Jews, Buddhists and Hindus in the
subcontinent.They were given religious freedom and were not forced to convert. It is seen as
a clear and indisputable fact that the religion of Islam was not spread through violence,
coercion, fear, or bloodshed.36

Although the new territory was governed by shariah (Islamic law), Hindu communities still
maintained their local independence and were able to resolve their disputes according to the
dictates of their own faith, just as it was granted to Christians and Jews at other times of
Islamic history, also maintaining their traditional hierarchical and leadership institutions.
However, there were not only Hindus among non-Muslims, but also Buddhists, who, like
Hindus, were incorporated and included in the new administration and respected if they
fulfilled their legal obligations. 37

Conclusion :
Thus, based on the above discussion it is obvious that there was enormous similarity &
tolerance prevailed at the religious sphere in ancient and late ancient India. We see that the
fundamental beliefs of ancient religions were similar in various aspects and some rulers
were also following the policy of tolerance. Now it is our duty to search for ' Unity in
Diversity ' in the current scenario, so that we can live in peace and together our efforts should
be to build and develop a progressive India.

ENDNOTES
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2.Harper, Douglas. religion, Online Etymology Dictionary
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6.Morreall, John; Sonn, Tamara, Myth: All Societies Have Religions, 50 Great Myths about
Religions. Wiley-Blackwell. 2013, pp. 12–17.
7. Ibid., pp-12-17.
8.Pasquier, Michael (2023), Religion in America: The Basics. Routledge, pp.2 . (Religion is a
modern concept. It is an idea with a history that developed, most scholars would agree, out of
the social and cultural disruptions of Renaissance and Reformation Europe)
9. Dubuisson, Daniel, The Western Construction of Religion: Myths, Knowledge, and
Ideology. Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2017
10. Nongbri, Brent. Before Religion: A History of a Modern Concept. Yale University Press.
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11.Max Müller, Introduction to the Science of Religion: Four Lectures Delivered at the
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Longmans Green And Co. publishers, p. 28
12. Parriender,G. Comparative Religion, ( George Allen & Unwin, 1962, p.12)
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Vol. 49, No. 1 (2002), pp.. 3.
15. Parpola, Asko. The Roots of Hinduism: The Early Aryans and the Indus Civilization
(2015), Chapter 1.
16. Sharma, A. On Hindu, Hindustan, Hinduism and Hindutva, Brill Publishers, 2002, Vol.
49, No. 1 (2002), pp.. 3.
17. Mukherjee, B.N. The Foreign Names of the Indian Subcontinent, Place names society
of India publishers, 1889, Mysore, , p. 46
18. Ibid., pp- 46
23. Wink, Andre. “ Al-Hind, the Making of the Indo-Islamic World: Early Medieval India and
the Expansion of Islam 7Th-11th Centuries, Brill, Volume 1 (2002), p. 5.
24. Nehru, Jawaharlal. "Discovery of India " ,Penguin Random House India Private Limited,
2008. pp- 69-70
25. Magnusson, D, Andrew (2022) "Zoroastrians in Early Islamic History: Accommodation
and Memory " Edinburgh University Press 2022
26. Prabhupada, Swami, "Bhaktivedanta", "Srimad-Bhagavatam (Bhagavata Purana)
(8.14.4)
27.Sanatana dharma | Hinduism". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 4 July 2021.
28. .Rawlinson, H.G. ." Ancient and Medieval History of India', Bharattiya Kala Prakashan,
2003
29.Tiwari, K.A. " Comparative Religion" , Motilal Banarsidas Press, p.26
30. Wagle,N.N."Society at the Time of the Buddha" Bombay, Popular Prakashan, 1966, pp 91.
31. Singh, Upinder. " A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the stone Ages to
the 12th century ", Pearson Publishers, 2009, pp- 352.
32. Thapar, Romila. " Asoka and the Decline of the Maryas". 7th rep. Oxford University
Press, Delhi, 1963.
33. KENNEDY, Hugh. The Great Arab Conquests. Da Capo Press. 2007.
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Historians’, Vol.I, London, 1867, pp.185-186; Muhammad bin Qasim said in a proclamation,
"He (Muhammad bin Qasim) ordered nobles, chief residents and Brahmins to build temples,
trade with Muslims, live fearlessly and compete for self-improvement. He kindly ordered the
maintenance of poor Brahmins, the performance of ancestral rites, and the offering and
meditation of Brahmins according to the ancient custom.” (Ibid., p 186) ; Historian Ishwari
Prasad also mentions the granting of religious freedom to non-Muslims by Bin Qasim in the
province of Sindh. (See Ishwari prasad, A Short History of Muslim Rule in India, The Indian
Press Private Limited, Allahabad, 1962, p. 36).
35. S.M. IKRAM, ‘ History of Muslim Civilization in India & Pakistan’, Lahore, 1962, pp.9;
Abdul Karim, Bharatiya Upomohadeshe Muslim Shashan, Dhaka, 2015, pp.7
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