(1a) **Carbohydrate** is a biological molecule consisting of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms.

It
serves as a major source of energy for living organisms.

(b) Carbohydrates can be classified into three types:

1. **Monosaccharides**: These are the simplest carbohydrates, consisting of a single sugar molecule.
Examples include glucose, fructose, and galactose. They are primarily found in fruits, honey, and some
vegetables. Monosaccharides serve as a quick and easily digestible source of energy.

2. **Disaccharides**: These are carbohydrates composed of two monosaccharide molecules. Examples

include sucrose (table sugar), lactose (found in milk), and maltose (found in some grains). Disaccharides
are obtained from various food sources, provide energy, and are broken down into monosaccharides
during digestion.

3. **Polysaccharides**: These are complex carbohydrates made up of long chains of monosaccharide

units. Examples include starch (found in grains, potatoes), glycogen (stored in muscles and the liver), and
cellulose (found in plant cell walls). Polysaccharides serve as a long-term energy storage form and
provide structural support in plants.

(c) Opium is a naturally occurring substance derived from the opium poppy plant (Papaver somniferum).
It contains alkaloids such as morphine and codeine, which possess medicinal properties. Opium has been
traditionally processed to create pharmaceutical drugs through the process of extraction. The dried latex
of the opium poppy is collected and subjected to various chemical processes to isolate and purify the
desired alkaloids. These isolated alkaloids are then used in the production of pain-relieving medications
and other drugs.

(2a) The biosynthesis of carbohydrates involves the assembly of monosaccharide units into larger
molecules. During this process, multiple monosaccharide units are linked together through glycosidic
bonds, forming disaccharides, oligosaccharides, or polysaccharides.

Carbohydrate biosynthesis is carried out by enzymes in various cellular compartments, including the
cytoplasm and the endoplasmic reticulum. The properties of carbohydrates include their role as an
energy source, structural components in cell walls, and as signaling molecules.

(2b) The sources of carbohydrates can be categorized as follows:

(i) **Synthesis source**: Carbohydrates are synthesized by plants through photosynthesis. They convert
carbon dioxide and water into glucose, which is then used for energy production and as a precursor for
other carbohydrates.

(ii) **Mineral source**: Carbohydrates can be obtained from sources such as grains, fruits, and
vegetables, which contain essential minerals like potassium, magnesium, and calcium. These minerals
are important for various biological processes in the human body.

(iii) **Human source**: Humans can obtain carbohydrates by consuming a balanced diet that includes
food items such as grains, legumes, fruits, and vegetables. The digestion and absorption of these food
sources provide the carbohydrates needed for energy production and other metabolic processes.

(iv) **Animal source**: Animals, including humans, can also obtain carbohydrates indirectly by
consuming plant-based food sources. For example, herbivores obtain carbohydrates by consuming grass
or leaves, and carnivores obtain carbohydrates by consuming the tissues of herbivores.

(3a) The definitive therapy of diabetes involves the management of blood glucose levels through lifestyle
modifications, medications, and insulin therapy. This therapy aims to prevent complications and maintain
optimal blood glucose control.

The key components of definitive therapy for diabetes include:

1. **Diet and lifestyle modification**: This involves adopting a healthy and balanced diet, regular
physical activity, and weight management. A combination of carbohydrate counting, portion control, and
balanced macronutrient distribution is often recommended.

2. **Medications**: Oral antidiabetic medications, such as metformin, sulfonylureas, or

thiazolidinediones, may be prescribed to help lower blood glucose levels. These medications work in
different ways to improve insulin sensitivity, reduce glucose production, or increase insulin secretion.

3. **Insulin therapy**: For individuals with type 1 diabetes or those with type 2 diabetes who cannot
maintain adequate blood glucose control with lifestyle modifications and oral medications, insulin
therapy is necessary. Insulin is administered via injections or insulin pumps to mimic the physiological
insulin secretion and regulate blood glucose levels.
(b) There are several types of insulin available, which differ in their onset, peak, and duration of action:

1. **Rapid-acting insulin**: It typically starts working within 15 minutes, peaks after 1-2 hours, and lasts
for about 3-4 hours. Examples include insulin lispro, insulin aspart, and insulin glulisine.

2. **Short-acting insulin**: It starts working within 30 minutes, peaks after 2-3 hours, and lasts for about
5-8 hours. Regular insulin (insulin R) is an example of short-acting insulin.

3. **Intermediate-acting insulin**: It starts working within 1-2 hours, peaks after 4-6 hours, and lasts for
about 12-18 hours. Examples include NPH insulin and insulin detemir.

4. **Long-acting insulin**: It has a slow onset of action, provides a steady release of insulin, and lasts for
about 24 hours. Examples include insulin glargine and insulin degludec.

Different types of insulin can be used in combination or administered individually, depending on the
individual's needs and treatment plan.

(4a) The process of extracting natural sources of antibiotics, like penicillin from fungi, involves several
steps:

1. **Cultivation of the fungi**: Fungi, such as Penicillium chrysogenum, are grown in controlled
laboratory conditions. They are provided with a suitable nutrient medium that promotes their growth
and production of the desired antibiotic.

2. **Fermentation**: The fungi are allowed to multiply and produce the antibiotic of interest during the
fermentation process. This can take place in large-scale bioreactors or culture flasks, where the
conditions are optimized for maximum antibiotic production.

3. **Isolation and purification**: After fermentation, the mixture containing the antibiotic is separated
from the fungal biomass. This can be done by filtration or centrifugation. The extracted antibiotic is then
purified using various techniques like chromatography to remove impurities and obtain a pure form of
the antibiotic.
4. **Formulation and production**: Once the antibiotic is purified, it is formulated into a suitable
dosage form, such as tablets, capsules, or injectables. Quality control measures are taken to ensure the
safety and efficacy of the final product.

The natural antibiotic penicillin, discovered by Alexander Fleming, revolutionized the field of medicine
and opened the door to the development of many other antibiotics.

(b) Digitalis is a drug derived from foxglove plants (Digitalis spp.) and is commonly used in the treatment
of heart conditions, specifically heart failure and atrial fibrillation. The mechanism of action of digitalis
involves its effect on the heart muscle and the electrical conduction system of the heart.

Digitalis works by:

1. **Inhibiting the Na+/K+ ATPase pump**: Digitalis inhibits the activity of the Na+/K+ ATPase pump,
which normally maintains the balance of sodium and potassium ions inside and outside the cardiac cells.
Inhibition of this pump leads to an increase in intracellular calcium levels, enhancing cardiac contractility.

2. **Slowing down the conduction through the atrioventricular (AV) node**: Digitalis exerts its effect on
the AV node, slowing down the rate at which electrical signals are transmitted between the atria and the
ventricles. This helps in controlling heart rate and improving cardiac function in certain heart conditions.

By increasing contractility and slowing down conduction, digitalis improves cardiac output and helps
alleviate symptoms of heart failure and atrial fibrillation. However, it is important to use digitalis under
medical supervision as it has a narrow therapeutic window and can cause toxic effects if not prescribed
and monitored carefully.