SET – A `

SECTION A
1. To determine resistivity of two wires by plotting a graph for potential difference versus
current.
2. To find resistance of a given wire/standard resistor using metre bridge.
3. To compare the EMF of two given primary cells using potentiometer.
4. To convert the given galvanometer (of known resistance and figure of merit) into
voltmeter of desired range and to verify the same.

SECTION B
1. To find the focal length of a convex lens by plotting graphs between u and v or between
1/u and 1/v.
2. To find the focal length of a concave lens, using a convex lens.
3. To determine angle of minimum deviation for a given prism by plotting graph between
angle of incidence and angle of deviation.
4. To draw the I-V characteristic curve for a p-n junction diode in forward bias and reverse
bias.
 SET – A `

EXPERIMENT 1
OBJECTIVE: To determine resistivity of two wires by plotting a graph for potential difference
versus current.

APPARATUS: Two resistance wires, a voltmeter (0-3V) and an ammeter (0-3A), a battery
eliminator, a rheostat, a metre scale, one-way key, connecting wires, screw gauge and a piece of
sand paper.

Theory: According to the Ohm’s law, the current flowing through a conductor is directly
proportional to the potential difference across its ends, provided the physical conditions such as
temperature, dimensions, pressure etc. of the conductor remain the same. If ’I’ be the current
flowing through a conductor and ‘V’ be the potential difference across its ends, then according
to Ohm’s law,

I∝ V or V∝I

OR V = IR
Where, R is the constant of proportionality. It is known as resistance of the
conductor.

R depends upon the nature of material, temperature and dimensions of the

conductor.

In SI units, the potential difference ‘V’ is measured in volt and the current ‘I’ in ampere, the
resistance R is measured in ohm.

a) To establish the current-voltage relationship, it is to be shown that the ratio V/I remain
constant for a given resistance. Therefore, a graph between the potential difference ‘V’
and the current ‘I’ must be straight line.
b) The constant ratio gives unknown value of resistance.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
 SET – A `

OBSERVATIONS:

1. Length of wire:
a. Length of wire A = l1 =__10__ cm
b. Length of wire B = l2 = ___20_ cm

2. Range
Range of the given ammeter = ----0-3 A
Range of the given voltmeter = ------- 0-3 V

3. Least Count
Least Count of the given ammeter = ----0.1 A
Least Count of the given voltmeter = ------- 0.1 V
Least Count of screw gauge = ______0.01 mm

4. Zero error
Zero error in the given ammeter = e1 = ----0--- A
Zero error in the given voltmeter = e2 = -------0 V
Zero error in screw gauge = e3 = ______ 0 mm
 SET – A `

5. Zero correction
Zero correction for given ammeter =c1 = -e1 = ------- 0 A
Zero correction for given voltmeter =c2 = -e2 = ------- 0 V
Zero correction for screw gauge =c3 = -e3 = ______ 0 mm

Table for diameter of wire A:

S.No. Linear Scale Circular Scale Observed Diameter Corrected Diameter

Reading N(mm) Reading, n = N+n(LC) D1= N+n(LC) + c3
1 1 12 1.12 1.12
2 1 13 1.13 1.13
3 1 11 1.11 1.11

Table for diameter of wire B:

S.No. Linear Scale Circular Scale Observed Diameter Corrected Diameter

Reading N(mm) Reading, n = N+n(LC) D2= N+n(LC) + c3
1 1 10 1.10 1.10
2 1 12 1.12 1.12
3 1 16 1.16 1.16

Table for Ammeter and Voltmeter reading for wire A:

S.No. Ammeter Reading I (A) Voltmeter Reading V (V)

Observed Io Corrected IA = Io + c1 Observed Vo Corrected VA = Vo + c2
1 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2
2 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
3 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8
4 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
Table for Ammeter and Voltmeter reading for wire B:

S.No. Ammeter Reading I (A) Voltmeter Reading V (V)

Observed Io Corrected IB = Io + c1 Observed Vo Corrected VB = Vo + c2
1 0.2 0.2 0.4 0.4
2 0.5 0.5 1.0 1.0
3 0.8 0.8 1.6 1.6
4 1.0 1.0 2.0 2.0
 SET – A `

CALCULATION : Plot a graph between potential difference and current, taking V along x-axis
and I along y-axis. The graph comes to be a straight line.
∆𝑽
Resistance, R = ∆𝑰

∆𝑽 ∆𝑽
Therefore, R1 = = ______ 1 ohm and R2 = = ______ 2 ohm
∆𝑰 ∆𝑰

𝜋𝐷12 𝜋𝐷22
Resistivity, 𝜌1 = R1∙ = 9.4 x 10-6 ohm – m and 𝜌2 = R2∙ = 9.39 x 10-6 ohm - m
4𝑙1 4𝑙2

RESULT :

1. Resistance of given wires A and B are _____ 1 ohm and _____ 2 ohm respectively.
2. Resistivity of given wires A and B are 9.4 x 10-6 ohm-m and 9.39 x 10-6 ohm-m
respectively.

PRECAUTIONS :

1. The connections should be neat, clean and tight.

2. All the plugs in the resistance box should be tight.
3. Voltmeter and ammeter should be of proper range.
4. A low resistance rheostat should be used.

SOURCES OF ERROR:

1. The instruments screws may be loose.

2. Thick connecting wires may not be available.
3. Rheostat may have high resistance.
 SET – A `

EXPERIMENT 2
OBJECTIVE: To find resistance of a given wire/standard resistor using metre bridge.

APPARATUS: A metre bridge, a battery eliminator, a galvanometer, a resistance box, a jockey, a

one way key, a resistance wire/standard resistor, connecting wires and a piece of sand paper.

THEORY: The unknown resistance ‘X’ is given by,

(𝟏𝟎𝟎−𝒍)
X= ×𝑹
𝒍

where R is known resistance placed in the left gap and unknown resistance X in the right gap of
metre bridge and l cm is the length of metre bridge wire from zero end up to balance point.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

OBSERVATIONS:

Table for unknown resistance (X)

S.No. Resistance from Length AJ = l Length JB = (100-l) Unknown resistance

the resistance (cm) (cm) (𝟏𝟎𝟎−𝒍)
X= ×𝑹
box R (ohm) 𝒍
(ohm)
1 1 32 68 2.13
2 2 52 48 1.84
3 3 61 39 1.91
4 4 67 33 1.97
 SET – A `
X1+X2+X3+X4
CALCULATIONS: X= = 1.96 ohm
4

RESULT: The value of unknown resistance, X = 1.96 ohm

PRECAUTIONS :

1. The connections should be neat, clean and tight.

2. All the plugs in the resistance box should be tight.
3. Null point should be brought between 45 cm to 55 cm.
4. The wire should not make a loop.

SOURCES OF ERROR:

1. The instruments screws may be loose.

2. Thick connecting wires may not be available.
3. The wire may not have uniform thickness.
4. The plugs may not be clean.
 SET – A `

EXPERIMENT 3
OBJECTIVE: To compare the EMF of two given primary cells using potentiometer.

APPARATUS: A Potentiometer, a Laclanche cell, a Daniel cell, an ammeter, a voltmeter, a

galvanometer, a battery eliminator, a rheostat of low resistance, a resistance box, a one way key,
a two way key, a jockey, connecting wires and a piece of sand paper.

THEORY:

𝐸1 𝐿1
=
𝐸2 𝐿2

Where, E1 and E2 are the e.m.f. of two given cells and l1 and l2 are the corresponding
balancing lengths of potentiometer wire.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

OBSERVATIONS:

1. Range of voltmeter = 0- 3V
2. Least count of voltmeter = 0.1 V
3. E.M.F. of battery eliminator,E = 4 V
4. E.M.F. of Leclanche cell, E1 = 1.49 V
5. E.M.F. of Daniel cell, E2 = 1.20 V
6. Least count of ammeter = 0.1 A
7. Zero error of ammeter = 0.0 A
 SET – A `

TABLE FOR LENGTHS

S.No. Corrected Balance point when E1 Balance point when E2 𝐸1 𝐿1

=
ammeter (Leclanche Cell) in the circuit (Daniel Cell) in the circuit 𝐸2 𝐿2
reading L1 (cm) L2 (cm)
(A) L1 L1’ Mean L1 L2 L2’ Mean
L2
1 0.1 202 200 201 165 165 165 1.22
2 0.2 135 135 135 111 109 110 1.22
3 0.3 100 98 99 84 80 82 1.21

𝐸1
CALCULATIONS: Find mean . = 1.22
𝐸2

𝐸1
RESULT: The ratio of E.M.F., ≈ __1.22___
𝐸2

PRECAUTIONS :

1. The connections should be neat, clean and tight.

2. The plugs should be introduced in the keys only when the observations are to be taken.
3. The jockey key should not be rubbed along the wire. It should touch the wire gently.
4. The e.m.f. of the battery should be grater then the e.m.fs of the either of the two cells.

SOURCES OF ERROR:

1. The instruments screws may be loose.

2. Thick connecting wires may not be available.
3. The wire may not have uniform thickness.
4. The plugs may not be clean.
5. The auxiliary battery may not be fully charged.
6. End resistances may not be zero.
 SET – A `

EXPERIMENT 4
OBJECTIVE: To convert the given galvanometer (of known resistance and figure of merit) into
voltmeter of desired range and to verify the same.

APPARATUS: A Weston type galvanometer, a voltmeter of 0-3 volts range, a battery eliminator,
two resistance boxes, two one way keys, rheostat, connecting wires and a piece of sand paper.

THEORY: The series resistance required for conversion,

𝑽
R= –𝑮 where V is the range of conversion.
𝑰𝒈

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

CALCULATIONS:

1. Resistance of the given galvanometer, G = 118 ohm

2. Figure of merit of the given galvanometer, K = 1.9 X 10-5 A/div.
3. Number of divisions in the galvanometer scale, n = 30 div.
4. Current for full scale deflection, Ig =nk = 57 X 10-5 A
5. Range of conversion = 0-3 V
𝑉
6. Resistance to be placed in series with the galvanometer, R= – 𝐺 = 5362 ohm
𝐼𝑔

VERIFICATION:
𝑉
Least count of the galvanometer converted into voltmeter = = 0.1 V
𝑛
 SET – A `

S.No. Reading of converted Standard Difference

galvanometer into voltmeter voltmeter (Error)
Deflection θ P.D. in volts reading V2 (V) V2-V1 (V)
V1 = θ x L.C. (V)
1 5 0.5 0.6 0.1
2 8 0.8 0.9 0.1
3 10 1 1.2 0.2
4 15 1.5 1.8 0.3

RESULT: As the difference in actual and measured value of potential difference is very small, the
conversion is perfect.

PRECAUTIONS:

1. All the connections should be neat, clean and tight.

2. The e.m.f. of the cell or battery should be constant.
3. The voltmeter used for verification should preferably be of the same range, as the range
of conversion.
4. Value of required series resistance should be calculated accurately.

SOURCES OF ERROR:

1. The screws of the instruments may be loose.

2. The plugs of resistance boxes may not be clean.
3. The e.m.f. of battery may not be constant.
4. The galvanometer divisions may not be of equal size.
 SET – A `

EXPERIMENT 5
OBJECTIVE: To find the focal length of a convex lens by plotting graphs between u and v or
between 1/u and 1/v.

APPARATUS: An optical bench with three upright, a convex lens, two optical needles, one spirit
level and a one metre scale.

THEORY: For an object placed at a distance ‘u’ from the optical centre of a thin convex lens of
focal length ‘f’, a real and inverted image is formed on the other side of the lens at a distance ‘v’
from the optical centre. The relation between these distances is:

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= −
𝒇 𝒗 𝒖
RAY DIAGRAM:

OBSERVATIONS:

Approximate focal length of the convex lens = 20 cm

S.No. Position of Lens Position of Position of image Observed Observed

a (cm) object b (cm) c (cm) u = a-b (cm) v = a-c (cm)
1 50 14.5 90.5 36 40
2 50 17 91.6 33.5 42.1
3 50 19.5 34.5 31 44
4 50 20.7 35.4 29.8 44.9
 SET – A `

CALCULATIONS: Through u-v graph: Take u along X-axis and v along Y-axis. Scales of x and y-axis
should be same. Draw a hyperbola curve for various values of u and v. The point u=2f; v = 2f is
shown on u-v graph. The point Z is the point of intersection of line OZ bisecting the angle XOY
with hyperbola. Draw two lines AZ and BZ perpendicular to Y and X axis respectively. The lengths
AZ and BZ are both equal to distance 2f.

Distance OA (=2f) on Y axis = 40 cm

Distance OB (=2f) on X axis = 40 cm

Mean focal length of the convex lens, f = 20 cm

RESULT: The focal length of given convex lens is 20 cm.

PRECAUTIONS:

1. The uprights supporting the optical elements should be rigid and mounted vertically.
2. The aperture of the lens should be small otherwise the image formed will not be distinct.
3. Eye should be placed at a distance more than 25 cm from the image needle.
4. An error may arise in the observations if the top of the optical bench is not horizontal and
similarly if the tips of pins and optical centre of the lens are not at the same horizontal
level.

SOURCES OF ERROR:

1. The uprights may not be vertical.

2. Parallax removal may not be perfect.
3. If the knitting needle or index rod for finding index correction is not sharp like a needle,
its length may not be accurately found on scale.
 SET – A `

EXPERIMENT 6
OBJECTIVE: To find the focal length of a concave lens, using a convex lens.

APPARATUS: An optical bench with four upright, a convex lens, a concave lens, two lens holders,
two optical needles and a one metre scale.

THEORY: As a concave lens always forms a virtual image, its focal length cannot be found directly
as for a convex lens. For this purpose, indirect method is used. An object needle O is placed on
one side of a convex lens L1 and its real inverted image I is located on the other side as shown in
ray diagram.

The concave lens L2 is placed between convex lens L1 and image needle I. The concave lens
diverges the ray and the image is not formed at I’ as shown in figure.

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
From lens formula; = −𝒖
𝒇 𝒗

Where , f = focal length of concave lens L2

u = distance of I from optical centre of lens L2

v = distance of I’ from optical centre of lens L2

RAY DIAGRAM:
 SET – A `

OBSERVATIONS:

S.No. Position of Observed 𝒖𝒗

F=
O (cm) L1 at O1 I L2 at O2 I’ u = IO2 v = I’O2 𝒖−𝒗
(cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm)
1 34.5 50 86.8 72.5 91.2 14.3 13.8 F1 = -28.52
2 39.9 50 91.4 78.4 94.8 11.7 11.2 F2 =-23.4
3 32 50 95 82.5 98.7 11.8 11.3 F3 =-23.21

CALCULATION:

F1+ F2+ F3
Take mean of different value of F, Mean F = = - 25.04 cm
3

RESULT: The focal length of the given concave lens is -25.04 cm.

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Focal length of the convex lens should be less than the focal length of concave lens so that the
combination is convex.
2. The lenses must be clean.
3. Tips of the object and image needless should lie at the same height as the centre of the lens.
4. Parallax should be removed from tip to tip by keeping eye at a distance at least 30 cm away
from the needle.

SOURCES OF ERROR:

1. The lenses may not be clean.

2. Focal length of the convex lens may be greater than the focal length of concave lens.
3. Parallax may not be removed.
4. Index correction may not be considered.
 SET – A `

EXPERIMENT 7
OBJECTIVE: To determine angle of minimum deviation for a given prism by plotting graph
between angle of incidence and angle of deviation.

APPARATUS: Drawing board, triangular glass prism, metre scale, alpins, cellotape/drawing pins,
graph paper, protactort, white paper sheets.

THEORY: A triangular prism has three rectangular lateral surfaces and two triangular bases. A ray
of light incident on the first face AB at an angle ‘I’ refracted at an angle r along PQ and finally
emerges. The angle between the direction of incident ray and the direction of emergent ray is
the angle of deviation.

In quadrilateral APOQ, A + O = 180° …….(1) (since N1 and N2 are normal)

In triangle OPQ, r1 + r2 + O = 180° …….(2)

In triangle DPQ, δ = (i - r1) + (e - r2)

δ = (i + e) – (r1 + r2) …….(3)

From (1) and (2), A = r 1 + r2

From (3), δ = (i + e) – (A) or i+e=A+δ

Sum of angle of incidence and angle of emergence is equal to the sum of angle of prism and angle
of deviation.

When the angle of incidence increases, then angle of deviation decreases.

At a particular value of angle of incidence the angle of deviation becomes minimum and is called
‘angle of minimum deviation’.

At, δm, i = e and r1 = r2 = r (say)

 SET – A `

After, minimum deviation, angle of deviation increases with angle of incidence.

The advantage of putting the prism in minimum deviation position is that the image is
brightest in this position.

OBSERVATIONS:

Angle of the prism, A = 60O

Measuring the angle of incidence and angle of deviation for a prism

S.No. Angle of incidence, i(degrees) Angle of deviation,

δ(degrees)
1 35o 54o
2 40o 52o
3 45o 48o
4 50o 46o
5 55o 50o

CALCULATIONS: Draw tangent on the lowest point of the graph parallel to x-axis, read the angle
of minimum deviation 𝜹𝒎 , on the y-axis on the graph.

RESULT: The angle of minimum deviation for a given prism is 44 degrees.

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Alpins should be fixed vertically to the plane of paper.

2. Same angle of prism should be used for all observations.
3. Position of the prism should not be disturbed for a given set of observations.
 SET – A `

SOURCES OF ERROR:

1. If the three angles of refraction between adjacent pairs of faces are not equal, then
i + e ≠A + δ
2. There may be an error in measuring the values of the angles.
 SET – A `

EXPERIMENT 8
OBJECTIVE: To draw the I-V characteristic curve for a p-n junction diode in forward bias and
reverse bias.

APPARATUS: A p-n junction diode, a 3 volt battery, a 50 volt battery, a high resistance rheostat,
one 0-3 volt voltmeter, one 0-50 volt voltmeter, one 0-100 mA ammeter, one 0-100 μA ammeter,
one way key, connecting wires and a piece of sand paper.

THEORY:

FORWARD BIAS: When the positive terminal of the battery is connected to P-region and negative
terminal is connected to N-region, then the PN junction diode is said to be forward-biased.

(i) Holes in P-region are repelled by +ve terminal of the battery and the free electrons are
repelled by –ve terminal of the battery.
(ii) So, some holes and free electrons enter into the depletion region.
(iii) The potential barrier and the width of the depletion region decrease.
(iv) Therefore, a large number of majority carriers diffuse across the junction.
(v) Hole current and electronic current are in the same direction and add up.
(vi) Once they cross the junction, the holes in N-region and the electrons in P-region
become minority carriers of charge and constitute minority current.
(vii) For each electron – hole recombination, an electron from the negative terminal of
the battery enters the N-region and then drifts towards the junction.

In the P-region, near the positive terminal of the battery, an electron breaks covalent
bond in the crystal and thus a hole is created. The hole drifts towards the junction and
the electron enters the positive terminal of the battery.
(viii) Thus, the current in the external circuit is due to movement of electrons, current in
P-region is due to movement of holes and current in N-region is due to movement of
electrons.
(ix) If the applied is increased, the potential barrier further decreases. As a result, a large
number of majority carriers diffuse through the junction and large current flows.

REVERSE BIAS: When the negative terminal of the battery is connected to P-region and positive
terminal is connected to N-region, then the PN junction diode is said to be reverse-biased.

(i) Holes in P-region are attracted by -ve terminal of the battery and the free electrons
are attracted by +ve terminal of the battery.
(ii) Thus, the majority carriers are pulled away from the junction.
(iii) The potential barrier and the width of the depletion region increase.
 SET – A `

(iv) Therefore, it becomes more difficult for majority carriers diffuse across the junction.
(v) But the potential barrier helps the movement of the minority carriers. As soon as the
minority carriers are generated, they are swept away by the potential barrier.
(vi) At a given temperature, the rate of generation of minority carriers is constant.
(vii) So, the resulting current is constant irrespective of the applied voltage. For this
reason, this current is called ‘reverse saturation current’.
(viii) Since the number of minority carriers is small, therefore, this current is small and is
in the order of 10-9 A in silicon diode and 10-6 A in germanium diode.
(ix) The reverse – biased PN junction diode has an effective capacitance called ‘transition or
depletion capacitance’. P and N regions act as the plates of the capacitor and the
depletion region acts as a dielectric medium.

Vk – Knee
Voltage
VB –
Breakdown
Voltage

Input and output characteristic of p-n junction diode

CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS:
 SET – A `

OBSERVATIONS:

Table for forward-bias voltage and forward current

S.No. Forward-bias voltage Vf (V) Forward-bias current If (mA)

1 0 0
2 0 0
3 0.2 0.5
4 0.4 2
5 0.8 5
6 1.2 10
7 1.6 15
8 1.8 20
9 2.2 25
10 2.4 30

Table for reverse-bias voltage and reverse current

 SET – A `

S.No. Reverse-bias voltage Vr (V) Reverse-bias current Ir (μA)

1 0 1
2 5 1
3 7 2
4 9 3
5 11 4
6 15 7
7 17 9
8 19 11
9 21 13
10 25 25

RESULT: The graph plotted by taking reading through observation is quite approximate with the
theoretical graph.

PRECAUTIONS:

1. All connections should be neat, clean and tight.

2. Key should be used in circuit and opened when the circuit is not being used.
3. Forward-bias voltage beyond breakdown should not be applied.
4. Reverse-bias voltage beyond breakdown should not be applied.

SOURCES OF ERROR:

1. The junction diode supplied may be faulty.

2. Error may be due to carelessness of the student.
3. The terminals of battery may not be connected properly.