Chapter 1: Metal Forming

- Manufacturing process for metals & alloys

- Size or shape of the part is changed by application of force
- Yield strength < Force applied < UTS

Advantages of FORMING
1. Fast way of changing the shape of the part
2. Usually done using cheap raw materials on a strength-to-
weight basis (mild steel)

Cold Working
- Plastic deformation < recrystallisation temp
- Material is work hardened
- Work hardening: ↓ the recrystallisation temp
- Grains are elongated in the same direction of the Cold Work

Hot Working
- Plastic deformation > recrystallisation temp
- Material is annealed
*Anneal is to heat a metal and then let it cool at a specific rate, removing impurities,
increasing metal ductility and reducing its hardness*
- Upper limit is technically melting point
- Ideal temperature should be low to minimize oxidation (metal oxides are brittle,
leaves poor surface finish)
- Grains are broken up and reformed as smaller grains (recrystallize) due to heat input
- Final grains are non-directional

Metal Recrystallisation temp (deg C) Hot working temp (deg C)

Tin -4 <205
Lead -4 <205
Zinc 20 100-200
Magnesium 160 400
Aluminum 160 500-600
Copper 200 800-900
Mild Steel 500 900-1300
Tungsten 1200 >1300

Applications of Plain Carbon Steels and Cast Iron

Steel Type Carbon % Application
Low Carbon 0.02 - 0.10 Nails, stamps, wire rivets, wrought iron gates
0.10 - 0.20 Structural steels, bolts, nuts
0.20 – 0.30 High performance structural steels, cams, camshafts, gears
(carburized), structural steels, cranks and levers,
connecting rods, crank shafts, bolts, nuts
Med Carbon 0.30 - 0.40 Heat-treatable bolts and nuts, axials, keys, machine parts
0.40 - 0.50 Heat-treatable parts, axle, bolts cam shafts, carbon steel
forgings, studs, gears
0.50 – 0.60 Hardenable gears
High Carbon 0.60 – 0.70 Washers, forging dies, screw drivers, set and socket screws,
tool steels
0.70 – 0.80 Wrenches, band saws, hammers, tool steels

0.80 – 0.90 Agricultural steels, knives, spring steels, punches and dies,
chisels, rivet sets, shear blades, rock drills, music wire,
mower blades
0.90 – 1.00 Springs, knives, dies, music wire
1.20 – 1.30 Files
1.30 – 1.40 Saws, boring tools
Cast Iron 2.0 - 4.0 Engine cylinder blocks, cylinder sleeves, exhaust extractors,
piston rings, machine tool base, lamp posts, medals

Cold Working
Advantages Disadvantages
- ↑ Strength in the direction of cold - Some metals too brittle
work - Work hardening makes subsequent
- ↑ Surface hardness operations difficult
- ↑ wear resistance - Large parts + high strength metal
- Good dimensional tolerances and alloys need much time & energy to
surface finish (finishing operations work
not needed) - ↓ Corrosion resistance, ↑ electrical
- Small parts can be shaped quickly resistance, changes magnetic
- No heat required properties
- Needs subsequent annealing to
relieve stress caused by work
hardening
- ↓ Strength in the direction
perpendicular of cold work

Hot Working
Advantages
- ↓ danger of metal cracking
- Can work larger sections, shapes
without ruptures and tears
- For brittle metals (Zn, Mo, Mg, W)
- Grain refinement possible to
produce tougher material from 3
steps
1. Grain growth as ↑ temp
2. Small grains produced at
recrystallisation temp
Disadvantages
- Steels with Sulphur are brittle when
hot (need to add manganese)
- Weaker than Cold Working (in the
direction of the cold work) as work
hardening achieves higher strength
- Oxide layer
- Dimensional control difficult
1. Metal contraction
2. Oxide scales on surface
- Expensive, high maintenance,
 3. Grain size controlled by dangerous
controlling temperature - Requires accurate temp control due
- No strain hardening, no annealing to uneven heating
(cheaper) - Lubrication required
- Less power needed, can use smaller - Loss of carbon from environment to
machines the workplace
- Repairs casting defects (blow-holes, - Dies are expensive: required to be
porosity) made of tungsten/ molybdenum hot
- Improves ductility as material working steels
becomes more homogenous
1. Better diffusion of alloy
constituents
2. Breaks up and distributes more
evenly brittle films/ particles of
hard constituents
- Faster than cold working

Directional Properties:
- Differences in strength, electrical resistance, magnetic properties, hardness,
corrosion resistance in metals with different directions.
- Due to cold working
- Annealing (heating above the recrystallisation temp) will cause differences to
disappear, making directional properties even

Annealing:
- Elimination of directional properties
- Elimination of phase change effects
- Stress relief (tempering if controlled)

Practical method of Working: Rolling

- Similar to sugar cane, using rotating cylinders
- ↓ in thickness by 1% to 10% per pass for accurate sheet thickness
- Too large of a ↓ % - bar will not be able to pass through
- Can be as thin as an aluminum foil between two sheets
- Ductile metals can usually be cold rolled (will not crack)
- Not economical is diameter < 5mm
- Examples: Train tracks

Small Rolls
Advantages Disadvantages
- Cheaper to replace than large rolls - Weaker than larger rolls
- Can be produced from tungsten - Can be made from Cast iron, cast or
carbide (harder and more wear forged steel
resistant compared to steel) - Cold rolls are smoother to give
smooth finish. Hot rolls are rougher

- Rolling Procedure:
 i. Soak hot ingots in puts to achieve uniform temperature through the metal
ii. Hot roll into blooms (cross-section > 15cm^2), billets (cross-section 4-15cm^2) or
slabs (6-40mm thick)
*Material must be below a certain thickness before can be cold rolled*
iii. Decide if hot-rolled or cold-rolled product is desired
iv. If cold rolled product is desired, wait for metal to cool to room temperature
v. Clean the surface by pickling the metal in acid to remove oxide layer, wash with
acetone, before rolling the metal down to the desired thickness at room
temperature.

Extrusion
- Metal (billet) is forced to flow and take on the shape of an opening, called a “die”
- Similar to toothpaste squeezed out of an opening of a tube
- Extrusion diameter > 10mm
- Steel can be extruded but rolling uses less energy
- Must be done hot

Direct extrusion:
- Forward extrusion (metal is squeezed in the same direction as applied force)
Indirect extrusion:
- Backward/ reverse extrusion (metal emerges from the die in opposite direction to
the applied force)
- No friction between billet and cylinder walls
Impact extrusion:
- Sudden blow of a punch
- Ideal for soft metals like Aluminum
- Copper & Copper alloys need to be heated up to 600 deg C (hot impact extrusion)
Hot extrusion:
- Metal is preheated to just below melting point to lower yield strength
- Equipment needs to be preserved as it is subjected to high temperature
- Lubrication required:
i. Low temperature: Mg, Al, Cu Alloys
 Oil/ graphite mix
ii. High temperature: Steel
 Molten glass
- Useful for making long pieces of uniform cross-section (and generally Aluminum-
based sections)
- Maximum cross sections:
i. Aluminum: 60cm circular diameter
ii. Steel: 15cm circular diameter
- Economical way to produce small parts in large quantities
Cold extrusion:
- Done at room temperature
- Needs to be completed fast as metal gets hot due to work hardening
Hydrostatic Extrusion:
- Extruding Brittle metals
- Achieving high reduction of cross-sectional areas
Tensile Drawing
- Secondary process after Hot extrusion or Hot rolling
- Applications
i. Reduce the cross-section of bars and tubes
ii. Produce high performance bars and seamless tubes of High Strength &
Straightness
- Must be done Cold (If done hot, material will not be able to withstand tensile force
and break longitudinally into two pieces)
- Mainly for ductile materials in tension (Al, Cu, Cu alloys)
- Gives rise to directional properties (done below recrystallisation temp)
- Higher tensile strength (in direction of drawing)
- May result in surface defects
- Lubricant needs to be used:
i. Molybdenum Disulphate (function under tremendous pressure)
- Limits:
i. Soft materials & Hollow: Al or Cu alloys
 10cm diameter
ii. High tensile strength & Solid: Medium/High carbon steels
 30mm diameter
- Procedure:
i. Hot rolled stock is de-scaled and cleaned by pickling in acid to prepare it for
drawing
ii. Leading end of the piece is tapered for insertion through the die and pulled
through
iii. Pressure against the die > yield strength of work material
- Dies: The mold to produce the desired shape (nozzle)
i. Tensile drawing dies must be made of hard, strong, wear resistant material
(hardened alloy steel, cemented carbide, tungsten carbide, cubic boron
nitride, diamond)
ii. Reduction in cross-section area per mass < 40%
iii. If reduction in cross-section area per mass > 40%, need successive passes
iv. Mandrel is needed to create central hole for hollow tubes

Forging
- Metal is deformed by sudden blows, like a blacksmith making weapons, or using a
very high pressure to squeeze it between dies
Forging
Advantages
- Durable
- Reliable
- Strong, Tough, High fatigue strength, High Surface Hardness, High wear resistance
- Dense

- Applications:
i. Crank shafts, connecting rods, knives, forks, spoons, keys
- Flow lines:
 i. Squeezing action forces metal to flow in certain directions
ii. Fibrous structure created (not the same as directional property, which can be
removed by annealing)
iii. To remove fibrous structure, metal needs to be melted and casted again
iv. Similar to cold roll:
 Strength & Ductility increases significantly along these lines of flow
- Die:
i. Closed:
 Force applied to entire surface of the part (stamp the whole area)
 Metal flow into the cavity (holes & craters), restricting sideways
motion of the workpiece
ii. Open:
 Compressive forces are applied locally on different parts of the metal
stock (press multiple areas one by one)
- Equipment:
i. Primitive method of forging is smith forging (hand forging) where the hot
metal part is manually hammered on an anvil
- Types of forging:
i. Hammer forging:
 Uses hydraulic hammer
ii. Drop forging:
 Using kinetic energy from high height dropped on a stationary anvil
iii. Press forging:
 Pressure is used to squeeze cold or pre-heated workpiece to shape
 Usually hydraulically operated, mechanical for small pieces
iv. Upset forging:
 For non-uniformed cross-sectional area (Bolts, nails, rivets, gear
blanks)
 Compression along its length
 Upsets the preheated metal by exerting an axial pressure
 Degree of upsetting of the stock at a certain portion is controlled by a
shaped cavity in the gripping die
v. Roll forging:
 Reduces cross-section of short lengths of bar stock to make levers,
axles, drills, leaf springs
 Cross section is change/ Thickness is reduced
 Stock length increases
 Similar to rolling but the stock doesn’t completely pass through the
rolls

Drop Forging
Advantages
- Superior mechanical properties due to fibrous structure
- High rate of production
- High density of product
- Cheaper
 Press Forging > Drop Forging
Advantages
- Smoother Surface
- Better tolerances and accurate dimensions
- Good penetration of pressure
- Quieter
- More uniform structural quality
- Fast, automate, large scale production

Sheet Metal Drawing

- Presswork using punch and die
- Indent the flat surface into the desired contour
- Usually done cold unless the metal sheet is too thick
- Can be pressed into whatever surface design desired
- Depends on the ductility of the material
- Applications:
i. Cups, cones, boxes, tubular shapes, shell-like parts
- Method:
i. Pressing or forging the flat metal blank into the female die
ii. Stretching it to conform over a punch
- Types of sheet metal drawing:
i. Shallow: Depth of cup < 0.5 x Diameter
ii. Deep: Depth of cup > 0.5 x Diameter
- Each successive draws (punching) will reduce % reduction (1st – 40%, 2nd – 25%, 3rd –
15%)
- Annealing can convert back to the 1st % reduction of 40% (cranes constant)

Rubber Pad Forming

- Flexible die forming
Rubber Pad Forming
Advantages
- Cost efficient: Rubber pad plays the role of the die
- ↓ Metal spring back after forming
- Similar to sheet metal working but the die is a rubber pad layer

Sheering of Sheet Metal

- Shape of metal needs to be cut from a sheet of metal
- Not the same as conventional metal removal processes (turning, milling, drilling)
Sheering
Advantages
- Fast
- Amendable to large scale production and automation
- Saves material (No flash- the thing stuck to the side of the hole/ metal piece, only
tiny blurs on the rough edges, unused metal (scrap) can be recycled)

- Impact stress > UTS (needs to fracture the sheet metal)

 - Clearance: the space between the edges of the punch and the die
i. Correct clearance will result in a blank of clean edges
ii. Too little (jagged edges), Too much (cup drawing)

- Allowance: difference between the resulting hole and the punch diameters
i. When a hole is punched, plastic deformation will occur in the sheet metal
ii. Resulting hole < Punch
- Types of Sheering:
i. Blanking: After punching with a circular punch, we take the circular part
 Blanked part must be larger than the punch by the allowance
ii. Piercing: After punching a square sheet with a circular punch, we take the
square with the circular hole part
 Pierced hole is smaller than the punch by the allowance
iii. Stamping: both blank and pierce
iv. Shearing: Cut in a straight line or curve across a strip, sheet or bar

Chapter 2: Joining Processes

- Types of joints:
i. Non-permanent joints:
 Fasteners, dowel pins, cotter pins, grub screws, bolts, nuts
ii. Permanent joints:
 Mechanical: Rivets, staples, shrink fits
 Solid state joining: cold pressure welding
 Liquid state joining: fusion welding
 Additional material: adhesives, soldering, brazing, welding with filler
material
iii. Plastics

Welding
- Melting the liquid metal over area that needs to be joint or applying pressure
- Ideally, joint part should be indistinguishable
- Perfect welding is hard due to surface oxide layers (except in vacuum)
- Types of welding:
i. Fusion welding: Melt the metal so that the two parts to be joined flow into
each other
ii. Pressure welding: Compress parts together either hot or cold to cause plastic
deformation
iii. Fusion welding with filler: Used in most engineering applications
- Choice of filler rod:
i. Should be same composition and cooled at the same slow rate for
homogenous weld
- Weld zone will cool faster because it is hotter
- Heat Affected Zones: the area near the welded part
i. Overheated Zone (>1000 deg C)
ii. Annealing Zone (900-1000 deg C)
iii. Transition Zone (700-900 deg C)
 - Welding Steel: If carbon content > 0.3%, fusion zone may be brittle due to
martensite (Requires heat treatment)

*General Rule of Thumb: Steel is not welded for this reason*

*Steel can be joint using riveting, bolting with fasteners, adhesives, interference fits*

*Drawing can be done after welding, but a particular grade of stainless steel must be used
that is low in carbon and very ductile*

Welding
Defects
- Dimensional Defects:
i. Warpage (distortion due to thermal stresses)
ii. Incorrect weld size and profile (due to poor welding technique)
- Structural Defects:
i. Porosity (Gases released in the metal)
ii. Inclusions (Oxides, slag)
iii. Incomplete fusion of parent metal (insufficient temperature, poor manipulation
of heat source, inadequate removal of oxide films)
iv. Lack of penetration (binding metal needs to penetrate and root itself within the
pieces that it is binding)
v. Cracking (lack of pre-heating or post-heating causes cracking and chipping)
vi. Surface defects (holes / irregularity)

Advantages Disadvantages
- Quick & Convenient - Dependent on human factors
- Permanent & Strong (skilled workmanship, consistency)
- Light (no bolts and nuts) - Clean surface needed
- Easy to make prototype - Fixtures needed (hold parts
- Cheap (no need to machine) together during welding process)
- Does not interrupt stress flow - Defects are common
design - Heat treatment needed
- Almost all metals can be welded - Quality control methods need to be
implemented to check for defects:
i. Visual inspection (not reliable)
ii. Radiographic inspection
iii. Supersonic inspection
iv. Holographic inspection

- Low carbon steels are excellent for welding

- Higher carbon steels and cast iron need special techniques
- Nonferrous metals require special welding techniques depending on their properties
- If Carbon % > 0.5%, steel cannot be weld

- Welding Flux: Powder, grains or paste to protect the weld joint from atmosphere
during welding
 i. Separates molten metal with atmosphere
ii. Remove impurities
iii. Slag blanket
iv. Stabilizes the arc
v. Reduces Oxides
vi. Forms plasma for the arc current
vii. Reduces splatter of the weld metal
viii. Electrical Insulation to the electrode
ix. Adds alloying elements to the weld

Gas Welding
- Oxygen & Acetylene supply connect to flame

Gas Welding
Advantages
- Equipment is cheap, portable & versatile
- No electrical supply needed
- Can weld thin sheets (< 2mm) because temperatures <<< arc welding

Arc Welding
- Uses an Electric arc between electrode and workpiece
- Electrode:
i. Doubles as a filler rod (provide filler material)
ii. Filler melts
iii. Electrode must be advanced enough to maintain the arc gap
- Can achieve temperatures of 6000 deg C
- Rod should be coated with flux (powder, paste or neutral gas form)
- Arc stream:
i. Electrical discharge through a path of ionized particles (plasma)
- Applications:
i. Thickness > 2mm
ii. Faster welding (localized heating) with greater penetration depth
iii. Materials with high heat conductivity (Al & Cu Alloys)

Submerged Arc Welding

- Weld joint is submerged under a heap of flux grains
- Shielded from the atmosphere
- Automated process (joint cannot be seen)
- No sparks as weld are submerged
- Not for sheets < 8mm

Submerged Arc Weld

Advantages Disadvantages
- Automatic feed of electrode & flux - Needs space
- Molten flux forms protective coating - Automation is necessary (double
over weld edged trait
 - Fast (uses currents to weld)
- Can join thick sections with a single
pass

Metal Inert Gas Welding (WIG)

- Same as arc welding but with inert gas shield
- Tungsten Inert gas welding. (TIG)
i. No metal deposited from tungsten
ii. Separate filler rod is needed
iii. 1-5mm thickness
iv. Inert gases used:
 Helium (heavier than air)
 Argon (lighter than air)
 Mix of He and Ar (to achieve specific density)
 Carbon dioxide/ nitrogen (not perfectly inert)
v. Good for welding:
 Stainless steel, aluminum, magnesium, titanium
- Without inert gas:
i. Cu, Mg, Al oxidizes rapidly in air to form brittle oxides
ii. Titanium will form titanium carbide, oxide, nitride
- Dangers of welding stainless steels:
i. Sensitization: Stainless steels loses its stainless property (Chromium forms
chromium carbide)
 Lowering C % can help but at the same time will lower strength
ii. Formation of porous chromium oxide layer

Friction Welding
- Rotating shaft is chucked in a lathe, pressed against a stationary metal blank
- Friction heats up the shaft/ blank interface
- Rotation stops, leaving metallic joints to cool and get welded together

Friction Welding
Advantages Disadvantages
- Can join dissimilar metals - Only for welding round sections that
- Fast can be clamped (shafts & pipes)

Resistance Welding
- Electrodes press the parts together and carry electricity through them
- Electrodes must have lower resistance than the workpiece
- Applications:
i. Sheet metal of the same thickness
ii. Workpieces of higher resistance to concentrate heat
iii. Able to weld two different types of metals together (prone to weld defects
and galvanic corrosion)
- Types of resistance welding:
i. Spot welding:
  Resistance welding 1 spot at a time
 Spot welding aluminum is hard as Al is a good conductor of electricity,
Al oxide formed hinders electrical conduction, Copper electrodes alloy
with Al easily, wearing out quickly
ii. Seam welding:
 Form a water-tight or air-tight seal to form a continuous seam
Resistance Weld
Advantages Disadvantages
- Heat is localized - Initial equipment cost can be high
- Fast - Difficult to join sheets of different
- No filler metal needed thicknesses
- Easily automated for large scale
production

Laser Beam Welding

- Applications:
i. Fine wires, thin foils
ii. High precision (Gillette stainless steel razor blades)

Laser Beam Welding

Advantages
- Energy can be easily controlled
- Tiny heat affected zones (0.1mm)

Electron Beam welding

- Done in vacuum
- Applications:
i. Welding turbine blades
ii. Oxidation danger negligible

Electron Beam Welding

Advantages Disadvantages
- Energy can be easily controlled - Needs Vacuum (cannot do without
- Tiny heat affected zones (0.1mm) vacuum)

Chapter 3: Casting Technologies

- Oldest manufacturing process
- Metals are produced by allowing liquid metal to solidify in a mold
- Metal casted into ingots or billets

*Casting does not produce a “Seam” – which is for welding, but produces a “Parting Line”
instead*
*
Sand Casting
- Uses a furnace to melt the metal
 - Any metal that can flow easily can be sand casted
- Grain size and properties can be controlled by adjusting cooling rate

Sand Casting
Advantages
- No limit to the size of mold (can
produce large parts)
- Cheap
- No directional properties
- Can produce complicated shapes
- Produces almost finished shape
(little machining required, just for
dimensional accuracy and smooth
surface)
Disadvantages
- Rough surface due to sand mold
- 1 mold for 1 cast
- Slow process (NOT for large scale
production)
- Poor dimensional tolerances (metal
shrinks on solidification and then
again on cooling)

- Defects Causes:
i. Badly prepared pattern
ii. Poor Design
iii. Poor casting technique
- Defects:
i. Blow hole: A cavity at cope surface
 Formed by evolved gas that cannot flow through the mold
ii. Scar: A shallow blow
 Occurs on flat surface (blows occur on convex surface)
iii. Blister: scar within a thin layer of metal covering it
iv. Porosity: Small holes throughout the entire casting
 Present within the dendritic network of the cast microstructure
v. Drop: irregularly shaped projection on the cope surface
 Results from a cavity formed in the cope surface
 Caused when the vibration of the cope causes sand to break loose
vi. Inclusions and dirt:
 If in large quantities may weaken the material
vii. Wash or cut: Low projection in the drag occurring in bottom gated castings
 Too much metal flows through one gate and molding sand are not
hard or wear resistant enough
 Eroded sand becomes dirt in the casting

*Problem with sand casting steels is not the high melting point but that molten steel doesn’t
flow well*

Die Casting/ Permanent Mold Casting

- Permanent metal mold is used (to be reused)
- Good for low melting point metals (Al, Zn, Pb, Cu, Mg, Sn Alloys), Medium C tool
steel dies are used
- For high melting point metals such as Iron based alloys, Tungsten carbide dies need
to be used
- Mass production of 1,000 – 100,000 castings
 - Types of Die Casting:
i. Hot Chamber Die Cast: Metal is melted in induction furnace before being
forced into a die through an injection that is kept hot
 Only for low MP metals (Pb, Sn, Zn alloys)
ii. Cold Chamber Die Cast: Molten metal poured in by a robot arm into an
unheated cylinder into the die cavity

Cold Chamber Die Cast

Advantages over Hot Chamber
- Can be used for non-ferrous metals of higher melting points (Al, Mg, Cu alloys)
- Liquid metal is in contact with the injection cylinder walls for a short time (lesser
alloying takes place with the steel equipment)

*Steels are difficult to die cast as die needs to have higher melting point than steel –
Commonly using graphite as it is cheap*

Centrifugal Casting
- For casting Large Pipes but mainly hollow objects
- The mold is rotating, so the molten metal is casted on the walls of the mold, forming
a hollow shape

Centrifugal Casting
Advantages
- Centrifugal castings are of finer grain size because of fast cooling (tougher)
- Cleaner castings (slag and dross segregate towards the inner radius which can be
removed afterwards)
- Highly dense structure (defect free)
- Automation available
- Can cast pipes accurately

Continuous Casting
- Metal is melted in a furnace before allowed to solidify in a water-cooled rotating
graphite mold (low friction)
- Cast metal moves down continuously at a rate controlled by take-up rollers
- Continuously casted metal can be hot rolled into products immediately after
solidification
- For Cu & Cu alloys, all steels, Zn, Al & Al Alloys, Cast Iron
- Applications:
i. Make blooms, billets, slabs without having to cast ingots first

Continuous Casting
Advantages
- Fully automated
- Molds/Dies are relatively cheap
- Porous, unsound & impure castings can be recycled (no wastage)
- Physical properties and surface finished are usually adequate for immediate
 application
- Quick and convenient process to prepare metals for secondary hot-working
operations (Rolling, extrusion, forging)
- Secondary operations can utilize existing heat in solidified metal

Investment Casting (Precision Casting)

- Patterns are made of wax and sand mold (Can only be used once)
- Usually for things that have repeated patterns on a tree structure
- Method:
i. Molten wax injected into rubber die to form wax pattern
ii. Wax pattern assembled onto a tree (containing a feeding system to pour
liquid metal in afterwards)
iii. Tree is dipped into a slurry of very fine silica
iv. A very thin layer of fine-grained silica is left over the pattern (finer the sand,
the more expensive)
v. Increase the thickness of this coating but dipping into coarser sand until layer
is thick enough to form the unique pattern mold wall
vi. Dewax by placing it in an oven to dry and harden (wax is drained off from the
mold to obtain a perfect casting)
vii. Preheat the mold to near the melting point of the metal that is to be
investment casted (ensures complete filling of all the mold cavities)
viii. Molten metal is poured into the cavities
ix. After metal is solidified and cooled to room temperature, mold is broken and
casting extracted

Investment Casting
Advantages Disadvantages
- Extremely good surface finish - Expensive method
- Can cast complicated shapes - Castings cannot be too large
- No need to machine subsequently
(especially for steels and hard alloys
that are hard to machine)
- Wide range of alloys can be
investment casted (Steels, Bronze,
Nickel-based alloys, titanium
magnetic materials, stainless steels)
- Close tolerances achievable even for
high melting point metals that need
to cool down from the melt through
a large temperature range

Chapter 4: Powder Metallurgy

- Metal powders are compressed (compacted) and sintered (heated in furnace at
temperature below melting points of the component powders) to form metal
product
- Procedure:
 i. If there is more than 1 type of metal involved, mix the powders thoroughly in
the desired proportion
ii. Compact the metal powders in a mold of final shape (slightly larger to allow
for contraction on cooling), the harder the power, the higher pressure of
compression
iii. Sinter in a protective (non-oxidizing) atmosphere where temperature and
time are controlled, to get desired final density

*Sintering is heating of the PM compact, to increase the interatomic forces between

particles*

*Usually for 10,000 < Quantity < 100,000 to maximize economy of scale due to its cost*

*Minimum thickness of 1mm, maximum thickness of 2.5 x Diameter*

- Optional Secondary operations:

i. Grind, machine or press forge to achieve dimensions and properties
ii. Infiltrate with another metal of lower MP to reduce brittleness
iii. Impregnate with oil:
 Boil the powdered metal part in oil to remove the air from the pores
and replace it with oil
 Use vacuum suction to evacuate the air from the pores and then
introduce oil into the pores
- Types of metal powders:
i. Commonly used ones:
 Fe, Cu, Al, W, Ni, Co
ii. Less Common:
 Mo, Ag, Au, Pt, Pd, Ti Zr, Mn, Sn, Zn, Pb, Cd, Sb, Bi, Si, V, Te, Be Alloys,
Brasses, bronzes, stainless steels, high speed steels
iii. Others: Tungsten Carbide, cermet, ceramics, stellites

Powder Metallurgy
Advantages
- High melting point metals can be
fabricated below their melting
points
- Non-metallic constituents can be
introduced and their contents
controlled
- Special Structural effects:
i. Controlled Porosity
ii. Lamellar structure
iii. Composite structure
iv. Controlled density
- Good dispersion in alloys
- High purity of metal
- Low machining costs (do not need
Disadvantages
- High cost of raw materials
- Dies must be simple (complex
shapes need several punches)
- Size of product limited by size of
dies (products < 15kg)
- Storage of powders is difficult
(prevent oxidation)
- Powder size may be inconsistent
- Products could be brittle (porosity
lowers tensile strength, ductility,
fatigue endurance limit)
- Difficult to handle low MP metals as
they tend to melt when sintered
- Slight shrinkage on sintering and
 subsequent machining) cooling to room temperature
- Close tolerances - Can’t be cold worked (due to
- No waste material (scrap) brittleness)
- High speed production for small
parts
- Uniform Composition

*To overcome the brittleness, a binder powder (usually cobalt) is added*

Chapter 5: Pipe and Tube Production

- Dependent on wall thickness, diameter, length and applications

1. Induction Welding of Cold Rolled Strip

- Method:
i. Metal is Cold rolled into a strip
ii. Metal is then bent between rollers to form a tube
iii. Seam is welded by electric current produced from an AC induction coil
(Electrical Resistance Welded)
- Applications:
i. Low cost & Low strength tubes of steels
ii. Not for tubes < 10-15mm
iii. Not for good conductors of electricity (Al, Cu, Brass)

*The welded joint is the discontinuity that limits the strength of the tube (its weak spots) *

2. Hollow extrusion
- Applications:
i. Making high performance seamless tubes and pipes
ii. Usually for Aluminum tubes and good conductors of electricity (Al, Cu, Brass)
iii. Usually for large hole with thin walls

3. Mannesmann process
- Method:
i. Heat a round billet and pass it between two tapered rollers to open a central
hole
ii. Pierce the hole with a stationary mandrel that is free to rotate while feeding
the red-hot billet forward
- Applications
i. Making reliable tubes and pipes of any size (no limits)
ii. For tubes that MUST not have a weld joint
iii. Usually for a small hole in a very thick wall

4. Casting with central core

- Applications
i. Cast iron pipes of any size (usually too brittle to be manufactured by forming)
 5. Centrifugal Casting
- Applications
i. Versatile method for making large pipes of cast iron, steel and other metals

6. Roll bending and welding

- Method:
i. Roll bend thick metal strip into a pipe and weld the seam using submerged
arc welding
- Applications
i. Making thick and large pipes

7. Spiral welding of metal strips (submerged arc welding)

- Application
i. For making extremely large pipes

8. Welded from separate metal sheets

- Applications
i. Making extremely large pipes

*More weld seams mean more weak points in the pipes*

9. Drawing and pressing of sheet

- Applications
i. Making very small tubes of thin wall thickness

Chapter 6: Unconventional machining processes

- Usually more costly than conventional processes (forming, machining, casting,
welding, PM)

Electrical Discharge Machining (EDM)

- Slow manufacturing process
- Not normally employed for mass production
- Method:
i. Removes metal by the eroding action of small electrical sparks
ii. Tool and workpiece are immersed in dielectric fluid
iii. Potential difference causes ionization of dielectric fluid through which
electrons flow, causing sparks
iv. Sparks strike the workpiece at high speed, vaporizing the material, leaving a
crater in the workpiece surface
- Applications:
i. Machine molds for dies used for die casting, plastic molding, wire-drawing,
extrusion, PM compaction, forging, piercing, blanking, stamping, trimming
ii. Drill small holes, orifices, slots that are too small for conventional tools
iii. Machine materials that are too hard for conventional machining (sintered
tungsten carbide, hardened tool steels)
 iv. Machine thin-walled parts that are too weak to withstand the cutting forces
of a conventional tool (Al sheets in aluminum honeycomb
*Dielectric fluid is EDM oil*

EDM
Advantages
- Can machine any hard material
- Products are completely blur free
- Close tolerances (a few microns),
↓ current ↑ accuracy
- No mechanical strains induced in
the workpiece
- Can machine intricate
configurations, narrow slots, blind
cavities, small and deep holes
- Can produce sharper corners than
conventional machining
(0.05mm~0.1mm)
Disadvantages
- Material & Electrode must be
conducting
- Electrode wear resulting in products
of poor dimensional tolerances
- Slow metal removal rate
- Recast surface layer has high
residual stresses and high roughness
(needs to reduce rate of metal
removal)

Wire-Cut EDM
- Conducting material is cut using a wire
- Dielectric can be EDM oil or de-ionized water
- Wire can typically only be used once
- Applications:
i. Machining hard conducting materials
ii. High precision machining (teeth of gears < 1mm in diameter)
iii. Machining complicated profiles including bevels

Electrochemical Machining (ECM)

- Uses electrolysis (opposite of electroplating)
- Metal removal rate proportional to current (faraday’s law)
- No damaging effect to the workpiece due to HAZ
- Applications
i. Gas-turbine aircraft engine components
ii. Airframe component fabrication
iii. Die making
iv. General machine parts
v. Complex cavities
vi. Rapid deburring operations
vii. Transformer cores
viii. Pump impellors
ix. Gears
ECM
Advantages Disadvantages
- Burr-free finish - ECM equipment can be expensive
- No residual stresses - Needs accessories
 - Can make very thin sections with
very little distortion
- Can make odd-shaped parts
- No metallurgical damage (HAZ) due
to heat
- Very long tool life

*Used generally for difficult to machine alloys (Ni, high Cr steels, Titanium, beryllium,
hardened steels*

- Electrolyte
i. Good electrical conductivity
ii. Removes sludge of metal oxides or hydroxides formed during de-plating
process
iii. Prevents overheating of electrodes

- Characteristics of a good electrode tool

i. Good thermal and electrical conductivity
ii. Cross-section large enough to conduct current
iii. Made of machinable material
iv. Resist chemical action of electrolyte
v. Able to withstand high pressure flow (2.5MPa)
vi. Accurate dimensions
vii. Cutting surfaces must be polished for good results

Electrochemical grinding (ECG)

- Special ECM where the cathode is a rotating wheel (grinding wheel)
- Mechanism of material removal:
i. 90% electrolytic action
ii. 10% mechanical abrasive action
- Grinding wheel: Diamond particles bonded together with metals such as brass,
copper, nickel
- Role of Diamond particles
i. Abrade from workpiece surface any non-conducting oxides/inclusions
ii. Act as insulating spacers between workpiece and grinding wheel (maintaining
a proper gap between two electrodes)
- Applications:
i. Alternative method to grind sintered carbide parts, usually cutting tools

ECG
Advantages
- Good surface finish
- Good tolerance
- Low mechanical and thermal stresses on workpiece
 - No surface cracks
- Yields as high tool life in workpiece as tools ground by conventional means

Chemical machining (CM)

- Electric current is not used
- Metal removal purely due to chemical dissolution using a chemical reagent or
etchant
- Parts removed are exposed to the reagent, rest are protected by masking

Laser Beam Machining (LBM)

- Types of Lasers:
i. Solid state (Rubies, sapphire, YAG)
ii. Gas lasers (Argon or Carbon dioxide)
iii. Liquid Lasers (not for industrial use/machining)
iv. Semiconductor lasers (Not for industrial use or machining)
- Laser Energy modes:
i. Pulsating 1,000 to 10,000 pulses per second continuously

LBM
Disadvantages
- Deep holes have tapered sides due to blasting effects of laser
- LBM equipment are expensive
- Surface produced usually rough

Chapter 7 Part 1: Plastics Technology

Plastics Technology
Advantages
- Wide range of colors
- Good thermal insulation
- Good electrical insulation
- Good corrosion resistance
- Low specific gravity
- Easy to process
- Cheap
- Rigid plastics can be made flexible
- Transparent and translucent plastics
can be made opaque by adding dies
Disadvantages
- Repairs using heat cannot be
perfect
- Give off objectionable colors
- Not for high temperature use
- Creep under any load, resulting in
permanent plastic deformation at
any temperature
- Weak in tension, compression,
torsion, bending unless reinforces
- Subjected to deterioration (in
sunlight)
- Lower Modulus of Elasticity (E) and
Modulus of Rigidity (G)

- Plastics do not have a fixed melting point

- Semi-crystalline or amorphous structure
- Wide temperature range
Thermoplastic Resins
- Soften on heating, reharden on cooling
- Reversible (scrap metal can be recycled)
- Easier to process than thermosetting
- Amenable to large-scale production

*Reheating a plastic can cause deterioration in the material*

*Thermoplastics do not have a fixed melting point, since they are never perfectly crystalline
in structure (soften gradually) *

1. Acetal (Poly-Acetyl)
- Very high strength
- Cannot stand boiling water
- Used to replace metals in load bearing components
- Applications
i. Zippers, Screws, aerosol containers, machine housings, plumbing fixtures,
shower heads, bearings, handles of kitchen utensils, fan blades, gears,
artificial heart valves
2. Acrylic
- Most transparent plastic available
- Transmit over 90% of light
- Applications
i. Outdoor signboards, aircraft windows, car lights (fiber optics), contact lenses
(hard type), TV and computer screens
ii. Basically, anything transparent and needs decent strength

3. Cellulosics
- Extremely cheap plastic
- Cellulose fibers from wood or cotton
- Transparent unless altered
- Made from plant matter (attackable by termites)

4. Fluorocarbons
- Expensive
- Heavy
- Can withstand high temperature and corrosive environments
- Low coefficient of friction and low surface energy (non-stick)
- Types of Fluorocarbons:
i. Tetrafluoroethylene (TFE), used to make Polytetrafluorethylene (PTFE)
ii. Chlorotrifluoroethylene
- Applications
i. Coating for electrical wires that generate a lot of heat
ii. Internal pipe lining for corrosion resistance
iii. Non-stick frying pan lining, rice cooker lining, tape for sealing pipes
iv. Solid lubricant (sheet form) for moving parts
 v. Laminated and interlayered with other fabrics (fiber glass, polypropylene,
aramid, polyphenylene, sulfide, acrylic, polyester)

5. Polyamides
- Types of polyamides
i. Nylons
 Solid form used to replace metals in load bearing applications (if
dimensions are not critical
 Yarn or fabric form used for clothing, stockings, swimsuits, umbrellas,
fishing lines, reinforcing material for composites
 Foam form used for kitchen sponges
ii. Aramids
 High strength and stiffness
 Used for reinforced plastic helmets, bulletproof vests

6. Polyesters
- Types of polyesters
i. Polycarbonate
ii. Polysulfone
iii. Polyethylene terephthalate
iv. Polybutylene terephthalate
- Applications
i. Commodities that need impact strength + transparency
ii. Cash/identity/smart cards, CDs, electric sockets, computer diskettes,
sterilizable milk bottles, surgical instruments (can withstand boiling water)

7. Polyolefins
- 2nd cheapest plastic in Singapore
- Corrosion resistant, waxy surface, non-toxic
- Types of polyolefins
i. Polyethylene
 Very Light and cannot stand boiling water
ii. Polypropylene
 Floats in water, stronger, more expensive, can stand boiling water
- Applications
i. Low Density Polyethylene
 Non-toxic & chemically inert
 Household and kitchen stuff
 Grocery bags
 Tupperware, containers, plastic cups, pails flexible toys, squeeze
bottles
ii. High Density Polyethylene
 Bottle crates
 Tool boxes
 Rubbish bins
 Recycling bins
 Army water bottles
 iii. Ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene
 Very wear resistant surfaces (surgical implants in the shoulder or hip)
 Low density PE is translucent
 High density PE is opaque
iv. Polypropylene
 Luggage cases
 Kitchenware that must withstand boiling water
 Washing machine parts
 Electric kettles
 Toys
 Pipes carrying drinking water

8. Polyurethane
- Solid form
- Like a piece of rubber
- Applications
i. Conveyor belts
ii. Molds for rubber pad forming
iii. Durex

9. Styrene
- Cheap
- Brittle
- Transparent
- Low & Sub-Zero Temperature
- Non toxic
- Types of Co-polymers
i. Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS)
 Opaque
 Impact resistant
 Cannot stand boiling water
 Extremely high impact strength
ii. Styrene acrylonitrile (SAN)
 Transparent
 Can stand boiling water
 More brittle than ABS
- Applications for Solid polystyrene
i. Cleaning toilet bowls and tiles
ii. Toilet articles
iii. Toys
iv. Refrigerator parts
v. Frozen food containers
vi. Rigid transparent ice-cube trays
- Applications for Foam Polystyrene (Styrofoam)
i. Packaging, floats, insulators

10. Vinyl (PVC)

 - Cheapest plastic in Singapore
- Cannot withstand boiling water
- Transparent unless dyed
- Rigid and hard unless plasticized by the addition of plasticizers
- Application
i. Clothes hangers, pipes carrying non-potable water, roof gutters, cushion
covers, shower curtains, raincoats, air-filled swimming floats, metal wire
coating
ii. Cushion fillings

Thermosetting Resins
- Can be used at higher temperatures than thermoplastics
- Generally brittle unless filled
- Transparent/Translucent unless filled with other materials to improve their impact
resistance

1. Amino Plastics
- Hard surface
- Wear resistant
- Strong
- Types:
i. Urea formaldehyde
ii. Melamine formaldehyde
- Application
i. Urea formaldehyde
 Electric sockets
 Wood glue
 Surface tends to get stained
ii. Melamine formaldehyde
 Dishware (replacement for China, porcelain, ceramics)
 Chopsticks (replacement for ivory)
 Coatings for stoves, refrigerators, tabletops
 Melamine foam (sponges)
iii. Stain resistant

2. Caseins
- Obtained from milk products
- Seldom used nowadays
- Applications
i. Old buttons, mahjong tiles, knitting needles

3. Epoxy
- High strength
- Chemically inert, corrosion resistant
- Expensive
- Tends to be brittle unless filled
- Dimensionally stable
 - Applications
i. Excellent adhesives (used for surface coatings)
ii. Corrosion and abrasion resistant (containers, pipes, tanks that contain
corrosive fluids)
iii. Can be filled with carbon, glass, graphite fibers to make composites of high
specific strength (helicopter blades, aircraft parts)

4. Phenolic
- Extremely hard and brittle unless filled
- Chemical, Electrical & Heat resistance
- Applications
i. Handles, furniture, insulators, tanks, electric sockets, hand tools

5. Polyesters
- Good weathering characteristics
- Corrosion resistance
- Applications
i. Automobile bodies, Boat hulls, Chemical storage tanks, Building panels,
aircraft body components

6. Polyurethane
- Unlike Styrofoam
- Flexible and last much longer
- More expensive
- Good shock absorber
- Application
i. Replacement for natural sponges
ii. Mattresses
iii. Fillings in airplane sections, lining materials in winter clothing

7. Silicone
- Soft and Rubbery
- Replacement for rubber if high temperatures are encountered
- Cures at room temperature in the presence of oxygen (large objects, joining/sealing
purposes)
- Applications
i. Electrical insulation
ii. Gaskets, O-rings
iii. Contact lenses (soft type)
iv. Protective coatings, sterilizable products
v. Dies for die casting Low Melting point metals like (Tin, lead, zinc and their
alloys)

Chapter 7 Part 2: Manufacturing Processes for Thermoplastics

Injection Molding
- Similar to hot chamber die casting
 - Extremely convenient large-scale production (>5000)
*Injection mold is only possible for thermosets if material does not solidify before entering
the die cavity*

- Method:
i. Hopper is loaded with plastic resin in the form of grains
ii. Resin is heated to soften it as it is fed through an Archimedean screw until it
enters the mold
iii. Resin solidifies in the water-cooled mold
iv. Plastic product is ejected
v. Gates and runners are removed
- Mold is the most expensive component of the cost of production
- Final plastic product must be easily ejected from the cavity
- Surface finish of the product depends largely on the mold surface finish
- Cavities are finished using electro-discharge machining (EDM)

Extrusion
- Same as metal extrusion
- Applications
i. Rods, pipes, sheets of uniform cross section
ii. Coatings around wires and cables
iii. Thin films to be used alone and as coatings for paper, cloth

Blow Molding
- For making thin-walled hollow thermoplastic parts that have an opening
- Application
i. Milk bottles, Shampoo bottles
ii. Polyethylene bags
- Method
i. An extruded tube of thermoplastic called a “parison” is placed between the
jaws of a mold
ii. Mold is closed
iii. Pressure from compressed air forces the material against the mold wall to
form a hollow object

Rotation Molding
- Similar to centrifugal casting but rotated in two mutually perpendicular directions
- Cheap but very slow method (for <100 pieces)
- Method:
i. Place plastic resin in metal mold
ii. Heat the mold to soften the plastic
iii. Rotate mold about two perpendicular axes to spread resin evenly over the
internal mold surface
iv. Cool mold with water spray to solidify plastic part
v. Open mold and remove the hollow plastic part
vi. Remove flash at the parting line
Calendaring
- Similar to rolling of metals (for making PVC sheets)
- Method
i. Squeeze softened thermoplastic resin between rolls to form a continuous
thin film or sheet
ii. Can produce sheets much thinner than those produced by extrusion
- Applications
i. Shower curtains, raincoats, ground sheets

Thermoforming
- Follow up procedure to convert sheets that have just been calendared into other
shapes
- Similar to metal forming
- Method:
i. Heat plastic sheet to soften it
ii. Form sheet between male and female molds to give desired shape
*Molds made of Aluminum or steel mounted on hydraulic or pneumatic press*

- Applications:
i. Polystyrene trays for packaging chocolates and sweets
ii. Ping pong balls are formed as hemispheres using match molds, before the
two halves are adhesively joint together

Chapter 7 Part 3: Manufacturing Processes for Thermosetting

Compression Molding
- Similar to press forging
- Method:
i. Place an excess of the measured quantity (by 20-30%) of thermosetting resin
or solid preform in a mold
ii. Compact resin under heat
iii. Molten resin fills cavity, undergoes chemical reaction and hardens to
permanent form
iv. Mold is opened and part is ejected, flash removed along parting line
*Parting line is formed from the die of the mold*

Transfer molding
- Same as compression molding, with difference that solid resin preform is first put in
a transfer pot where it is heated under pressure until it melts
- Molten resin is then forced from transfer pot into mold cavity

Transfer Mold
Advantages over compression mold
- Products have no flash (require less finishing)
- Mold many products simultaneously using many runners from one transfer pot
- Can mold small intricate parts that are difficult to compression mold
Reaction Injection Molding (RIM)
- Cross between injecting molding and Compression molding
- Method
i. Two liquid components of a thermosetting resin are mixed and introduced
into the mold cavity of an injection molding machine
ii. Resin solidifies by chemical reaction
- Application
i. Molding rubber tires

Chapter 7 Part 4: Manufacturing Processes for Both Thermosets and

Thermoplastics

Casting
- Similar to casting of metals
- Thermoplastics solidify in the mold on cooling
- Thermosets solidify in the mold by chemical reaction
- Slow process (small scale production)
- Common casting resins:
i. Acrylic, Thermosetting plastics, silicone, epoxies, phenolics, thermosetting
polyurethane
- Applications
i. Acrylic sheets and plates, tubing, rods, phenolic billiard balls, jewelry,
imitation marble, furniture parts, automotive and aircraft parts

Plastisol Molding
- Mixture of finely ground resin (PVC) and plasticizers
- Method
i. For PVC heat the part that needs coating to 150 deg C
ii. Leave to dry in an oven above 180 deg C
iii. Plastisol will solidify and form a layer around the part
iv. Raw material is a slurry consisting of PVC particles suspended in liquid
organic compound
v. Liquid evaporates upon being heated but not the PVC
vi. PVC coats the workpiece
- Applications
i. To coat wires with PVC
ii. To coat handles of hand tools

Laminating
- Method for thermosets:
i. Layers of sheets or fabric are impregnated with a liquid thermosetting resin
ii. Assemble layers to get required thickness
iii. Apply heat and pressure (150-180 deg C, 7-14 MPa)
*Hardeners (catalysts) can be used, heat is not required*
 - Method for thermoplastics
i. Same as thermosets
ii. After the sheets are fused together, must be allowed to solidify by cooling
before removal
- Applications:
i. Tabletops, silent running gears, furniture, wall and ceiling panels

Reinforced Molding
- For making composites
- Method:
i. Similar to laminating but not restricted to plane flat sheets
ii. Can also be compression molded
- Applications
i. Wall panels, aircraft sections, safety helmets, large containers, boat hulls,
automobile parts

Foam molding
- Add air or gas to plastic resin to form a sponge-like material
- Common foam materials
i. Polystyrene
ii. Thermosetting polyurethane
iii. Cellulose acetate
iv. Epoxy
v. Silicone
vi. Phenolic
vii. PVC
- Types of Foam
i. Rigid foam (Styrofoam)
ii. Flexible foam
- Method of foaming
i. Mechanical
ii. Physical
iii. Chemical
- Applications
i. Floatation
ii. Packaging
iii. Cushioning
iv. Insulation