Volume 17 F ascicule 7

Anglo-Scandinavian Non-Ferrous
Metalworking from 16- 22 Coppergate

By Justine Bayley

Key w or d s: Anglo-Scandinavian, crucibles, cupellat ion, m etalworking, mo ulds,

non-ferrous, parting, York

Archaeological Introduction

By R. A. H all

The site at 16-22 Coppergatc, excavated under this writer's direction in 1976-8 1 with
resources provided principally by the Directorate of Ancient M onuments and 1-listoric
Buildings of the Oeparonent of the Envirorunent (now English H eritage), the Manpower
Services Commission, the British Academy and a host of private individuals and
corporations, lies on the spur of land between the Rivers Ouse and Foss (Fig.3 14). It is
bounded to the west by Coppergate, a street leading towards the only bridge across the
Ouse in the medieval period, and to the east by the banks of the Foss.
Because of a shortage of funding, the earliest levels, dating from the Roman period to the
early/mid l Oth century (i.e. up to and including what is described below as Period 4A), were
not examined right across the c. l 000m 2 open in the subsequent levels; instead, a strip
measuring approximately 20 x 7 ·Sm across the Coppergate street frontage and a contiguous
strip up to 12m wide and 37m long, running down the southern half of the site towards the
River F oss, were excavated to natural soils (Fig.3 15, Table 41 ). Layers attributable to
P eriods 1 and 3 were recorded throughout these strips. A well-defined Period 2 horizon
existed only in the street frontage strip; elsewhere, because of stratigraphlc interruptions and
an overall thinning of these earlier layers as they ran eastwards from the street frontage,
Period 2 contexts could not be isolated with certainty. Therefore, although some deposition
of soil must have taken place throughout Period 2, remains of this period are shown as of
limited extent. likewise, the Period 4A horizon, while extending right across the frontage,
could not be traced convincingly dov.'11 the southern strip beyond a point where diagnostic
features petered out. lt is thus conceivable that a small amount of soil build-up which took

737
0 100 Metres
~~~~~~~~~~~~!
t=F'Ri 11 lil 11 ill 11 ~~!
11 Fig.J/4 .Ptmt slwwing porition of (1) 16-22 Coppergau and (2) an<a of Watching Brief;
0 100 200 300 Feet (3) ~7 Coppergau; ( 4) /.Jqyds BanJt, 6-8 Pawmmt; (5) 22 Piccadilly. (Based
on tJu Ortlnanu Surwy map wilh tJu cement of tJu Conrrolkr of Her Majesty's
Suuionery Ojfiu, Crown Copyright reserwd.) Sc4Je 1:.1 250
Anglo-Scand£navian Non-Ferrous Metalworking from 16-22 Coppergate 739

place during Period 4A on that part of the southern strip ro the east of the limit of
identifiable 4A features has been subsumed into Period 4B. For reasons outlined below, the
deposits designated as Period SA were linllted in extent to the front part of the site, those of
Period SCf and SCr were limited to the front- and rear-most portions of the excavation
respectively, and no contemporary levels could be stratigraprucally isolated in the central
part. These variations in the size of area excavated must be borne in mjnd in any
chronological/quantitative analysis of the finds.
There were adilitionally an insignificant number of contexts wruch it has proved
impossible to assign to a specific period because of stratigraphic ambiguities. Those wruch
may belong either to Period 1 or to Period 3 are annotated as 1/3; those which may be either
Period 4 or Period 5 are annotated 4/S.

During the redevelopment of 1981- 3 a continuous watching brief over an extended area,
running down to the present edge of the River Foss (Fig.3 14, 2), was maintained under the
ilirection of N.F. Pearson. The results of this exercise are incorporated into the repons
mentioned below, and relevant objects from it are reponed on here. Indeed, rrus area
proved ro be rich in crucibles attributed to the mid-late 11th century and therefore probably
contemporary with Period SC.

The Coppergate excavations wiiJ be published in AY 6, 7, 8 and I 0; environmental

evidence and animal bones in AY 14 and 15; pottery in AY 16; and smaU finds in AY 17.
The post-Roman coins and numismatica are included in AY 1811; Roman coins will appear
in AY 18/2. Once all the Anglo-Scandinavian structures, artefacts and environmental data
have been studied and published, it is intended to produce a synthesis of the entire
assemblage.

The earliest occupation on the site, designated Period I, was in the Roman era. At that
time the legionary fonress lay 160m to the nonh-west; the immeiliate vicinity was cenainly
occupied by temples, and it probably also contained a variety of commercial establishments.
Evidence for Roman buildings constructed of both timber and stone was recovered, but the
functions of these structures could not be deduced. The site also contained a smaU late
Roman cemetery. The admjxrures of silt, clay and loam wruch characterised soil conditions
associated with Period 1 did not permit the survival of any organic-based artefacts except
the very fragmentary remains of some wooden coffins and items made ofbone.

At the present stage of research there seems no reason to suppose that Romano-British
activity continued here beyond the conventional date of c. AD 400 or shonly after, and
from then until the mjd 9th century the site seems to have been unoccupied (Period 2).
This period was marked stratigraphically by the accumulation of up ro 1m of grey silty clay
loam soils, imerpreted as the result of natural agencies; there was no evidence for structures,
domestic or otherwise. All the pottery in these layers was Roman with the exception of a
small quantity of Anglo-Scandinavian sherds which are believed to be intrusive; the contexts
from wruch they were recovered were adjacent either to upstaniling baulks incorporating
later material, or to later down-cutting features which may have been the source of
obviously later sherds. Although, once again, soil conditions would not have preserved
Fig. 315 (allow and facing) Plans ofw siu a1 16-22 Coppergau showing w ana ofdeposits excmJaudfur t4da period.
1M varialiorl is dw eitlur to rutricud acavation ur w Iimiud occvrrma of w releuanr deposits. Scale I:500
742 The Small Finds

Table 41 Summary of archaeological development at 16-22 Coppergate

Period Date Characteristics

late I s t- late 4th Ro man timber and stone buildings; late Roman cemetery. Limited su rvival of
centu ry or later organic materials•

2 5th-mid 9th Apparent desertion. Homogeneous loamy deposits which did not preserve
century o rganic materials

3 mid 9th-late Rubbish disposal, suggesting occupation close by. Post/stake and wattle
9 th 'ea rly I Oth alignments, poss ibly boundaries. Organic materials presen •ed only in pit cuts
century

4A late 9thjearl y Realignment of boundaries, suggesting that Coppergate was laid o ut by thi s
lOth century- period. Possible buildings at Coppcrgate frontage. Organic materials preserved
c. 93015 mainl y in pit cu ts

48 c. 930 5-c. 975 Fo ur tenements distinguishable, wid1 post and wattle buildings at Coppcrgate
frontage. Eviden ce for iron-wo rking and other trades on a commercial scale.
Organic- rich deposi ts n earer to Copperg:lle; organic content thinning to zero
towards R . Foss

SA c..975 Near Coppergate frontage only. Laye rs between st ruc tures o f Periods 48 and 58 ;
proba bly mixture of dump deposits and soil from SB semi-basements

5B c. 975-earlyJmid Pe rpetuation of boundaries. Introduction of sunken featured structures in double

11th cen tury row at s treet frontage. Organic- rich deposi ts as in Period 48

5Cf mid- later 11th Organic-rich deposits a t street frontage, associated with buildings which survive
century only in Tenement D

5Cr mid- later I I th Post-bu ilt structure scaled by earliest in a succession of dump deposits. Linle
century organic material surviving.

6 later I I th- 16th No remains surviving at street frontage, but a rea to rear increasingly built
century up above later dump deposits. N ew methods o f building and rubbish disposa l,
leading to reduction in organic content of deposits

•Bon e and antler gen erally survi,·ed well in all pe riods even where prese rvation of other organic materials was
poor

organic-based artefacts other than those made of bone, the dearth of other, more durable,
artefactual evidence for contemporary activity indicated that this absence reflects accurately
the site's apparent desertion at this time. An 8th century helmet and spearhead or weaver's
batten, found in a wood-lined shaft only 9m beyond the excavation's perimeter during
construction work in 1982, were in a context provisionally attributed to the Anglo-Scandi-
Anglo-Scandinaviarz Non-Ferrous Metalworking from 16-22 Coppergate 743

navian period. This will not be discussed m this fascicule; for further information see
Tweddle in AY 17, forthcoming.
Above the clean grey loams which mark the four and a half centuries interpreted as
Anglian desertion of the site, a band of dirtier grey silty clay loams was recognised. Into
these was cut a series of features, including a sequence ofhearth/ovenlkiln bases represented
by a horizontal setting of re-used Roman tiles, perhaps used in glassworking, as well as
several pits containing domestic debris; one also contained a skeleton with remains of textile
adhering to it (AY 17/5, 331). The latest features of this period were a series of post-holes,
some apparently forming alignments at an angle to the later tenement lines, and an
accompanying cobble spread at the south-west of the area. It is conceivable that these
features represent the remains of a building, although this is not certain. This entire
horizon, Period 3, is dated c. AD 850-900 on the basis of a combination of archaeo-
magnetic and numismatic evidence; in later periods, dendrochronological data help to
achieve the chronological precision which characterises the interpretation of the Anglo-
Scandinavian levels.

Sealing the post-holes, cobble spread and other features of Period 3 were deposits into
which were inserted wattle alignments which anticipated the alignment of the subsequent
tenements and structures, but which do not themselves form obviously coherent structures.
These alignments and both their underlying and associated layers and features are assigned
to Period 4A and dated c. AD 900-930/5. Characteristic of the layers of this period were
dark grey silty clay loams, very similar to those of Period 3, but differentiated by the
inclusion of patches of grey clay, brown ash, scatters of charcoal and occasional very small
fragments and slivers of wood. These conditions, like those of Period 3, were not
particularly conducive to the survival of organic artefacts.

The next phase on the site, Period 4B, is marked by the division of the area into four
tenements, designated A-D, and if the street Coppergate was not in being before it must
have been laid out at this time. The tenements were defined by wattle fences, whose lines
fluctuated only very slightly over the succeeding millennium; towards the River Foss end of
the site, however, there was no trace of any continuation of the fences discovered nearer to
Coppergate. Whether this should be attributed to the nature of the soil conditions in this
area, or whether tenement divisions never extended this far, is not clear. Each tenement
contained buildings of post and wattle construction, positioned with their gable-ends facing
the street. All had been truncated towards their front by the subsequent widening of
Coppergate; the greatest surviving length was 6·8m, and they averaged 4·4m in width. The
buildings on Tenements A and B had been substantially disturbed by the digging of
semi-basements for the Period 5B buildings, but those on Tenements C and D were very
largely intact. The buildings had to be repaired or replaced frequently, for they were
vulnerable to fire as well as to natural decay, but successive refurbishments varied little in
their dimensions and position. Hearths were found on the long axes of the buildings in
Tenements B, C and D; any trace in A was destroyed by later intrusion, and even in B only
vestiges remained. In C and D the hearths measured up to 2·4 x 1·3m and consisted of a
clay base, sometimes resting on a stone slab underpinning, and surrounded by a revetrnent
744 The SmaO Finds

of horizontal timbers, limestone rubble or re-used Roman tiles. Discolouration of the clay
base by burning was quite resoicted, and the large size of the hearth appears to reflect a
de ire for a margin of safety for embers rather than the size of the fire itself. The rear ends of
hearths in Tenements C and D had been truncated by irregulnr/subrectangular cuts with
gently sloping sides and a maximum depth of some 0·2m. Their fill layers contained high
percentages of ash, charcoal and burnt clay. Towards the base of the sequence of hearths on
Tenement C, two vin:ually superimposed circular cuts were found near the centre of the
hearths. They each bad a diameter of approximately 0 3m and each was filled with burnt
clay. Their function, and that of the larger cuts at the end of the hearths, is un.known but
presumably related to the particular uses of the hearths. Whether, however, these hearths
were used in metalworking or were solely for domestic purposes is unknown. These fearures
will be discussed in more detail in AY 814.

Only one rank of buildings stood in each tenement and their lengthy backyards were not
built up but used for rubbish disposal and other ancillary functions. Although sometimes
difficult to differentiate, the sequence of superimposed Ooor levels built up by gradual
accumulation within each building, and their accompanying artefacts, allow the activities
within each tenement to be followed with varying degrees of assurance. Metalworking seems
to have been the predominant activity, with the manufacture or embellishment of items in a
wide range of metals. A notable feature was the quannty of crucibles and other debris
recovered with their important corroborative evidence for the range and variety of
metalworking techniques. Occupation was evidently intensive, generating organic-rich
deposits which accumulated rapidly, in particular in and around the buildings, and which
accounted for a continual rise in ground leveL Deposits which were rich in organic remains
extended to approximately half-way down the excavated area in the direction of the River
Foss. From this point their organic component lessened until, m the south-easternmost
quarter of the excavation furthest from the Coppergntc street frontage, organic materials
other than bone/antler did no t survive except in the tills of pits and other cuts.

In the later I Otb cenrury the remains of the latest pha e of post and wattle structures at
the street frontage were covered to a depth of up to 1m. This horizon, which was not traced
in the yard areas behind the buildings, is interpreted as resulting in pan from the upcast in
digging out the sunken structures of Period SB, and partly os a deliberate dump of make-up
or levelling material. It thus accumulated very quickly, probably within a period of weeks or
months, and contained a mixture of material ofc.975 and before.

The dating of Period SA is dependent on the dendrochronologicaJ analysis of timbers

from the immediately succeeding plank-built semi-basement strucrures of Period SB. These
were erected at the Coppergate end of each tenement, sometimes in two closely-spaced
ranks; as in Period 4B, organic-rich deposits were concentrated in the vicinity of these
buildings, and the organic content of the deposits decreased riverwards. As in the buildings
of Period 4B, succes ive layers and lenses of silty loam usually characterised the
superimposed floors. Manufacturing continued at this period, although new trades were
practised.
Anglo-Scaudinaviau Non-Ferrous M etalworking f rom 16-22 Coppergate 745

On Tenement D sufficienr overlying srratification remained undisrurbed to show that

the lates t of the Period 5B sunken builctings was evenrually replaced by srrucrures built at
ground level. The chronology of these subsequent builctings is imprecise: they can be
assigned only approximately to the mid 11th cenrury. They and their associated
srratificarion are designated as belonging to Period 5Cf. A series of approximately
contemporary mid I 1th cenrury levels was also identified at the rear of the site, associated
with and sealing a post-built srrucrure, the latest timber of which has been dated through
dendrochronology to I 0 14-54. These levels, which ctid not preserve their organic
component, are designated Period 5Cr. They were themselves covered by a series of dumps
of very dark grey silry clay loam interleaved ~~th evidence for sporadic activity, and dated to
the Norman period .
In the catalogue and ctiscussion which follow, objects are assigned on the basis of their
srratigraphic position to one of the periods outlined above. It should be srressed, however,
that there is clear evidence from coins and pottery for the displacement of objects from the
context where they were originally deposited and their redeposirion in later, often
appreciably later, layers. The principal mechanism of this movement was the cutting of pits,
wells, etc., and, more particularly, the digging out of the sunken elen1ent in the Period 5B
builctings, which penerrated earlier levels and redistributed the soil removed from them. In
the case of the precisely dated coins it can be seen that, in the Anglo-Scandinavian levels,
coins sometimes occur in conteXts dated 75- t 00 years later than their striking (AY 18/ I,
24), although their wear patterns do not suggest circulation for this length of time and there
is no evidence that they were hoarded . Less precisely, but nonetheless clearly, srudy of the
pottery from Anglo-Scandinavian levels has shown, for example, that sherds both of Roman
wares and also of handmade, middle Saxon, rype which are unlikely to have been produced
after c. AD 850-900, are found residually throughout the era, another testimony to the
redistribution of earlier material (A Y 16/5). The period designations therefore indicate a
date for the conte.xt in which the item was found and not necessarily for me item's
manufacrure or use.

The Evidence for Metalworking

At 16-22 Coppergate a range of metals was being worked including iron and steel,
various copper alloys, lead, tin and pewter, silver and gold. The evidence for the ferrous
industries is presented in AY 17/6 while that for the non-ferrous industries appears below.
Where the general rerrn 'metalworking' is used in the discussion here, the expansion
'non-ferrous metalworking' should be understood, as ferrous metallurgy involves a
completely different range of processes and hence waste products.
Coppergate is notable both for the large quantity of finds relating to metalworking and
for the wide range of metals being worked. The detailed recorcting and srratigraphy of the
site has made it possible to produce plans for each period showing the distribution of all the
746 The Small Finds

classes of finds which allow the industries they represent to be localised in time and space; a
number of these appear in the text where they help to illustrate the points made in the
discussion. The majority of the metalworking finds come from Anglo-Scandinavian contexts
but both earlier and later levels are also represented. Detailed d.tscus ion has been reserved
for the Anglo-Scandinavian finds, though all finds of all periods appear in the catalogue.
This is divided by type of object and then by material and period. The finds are now
deposited in the Yorkshire Museum under the accession number 1976-8 1.7, with some on
display in the Jorvik Viking Centre. The finished objects from the site, some possibly the
products of the workshops there, will be published in Tweddle, AY 17 in prep.
The first part of the discussion considers each group of finds in turn, de aibing their
production and/or use. This is followed by a description of each metalworking industry,
drawing together the various strands of evidence provided by the finds, and finally a general
summary setting the Coppergate finds in a regional and national context. To set the scene,
an introduction to metalworking processes is provided.
Most of the finds have been analysed qualitatively by energy dispersive X-ray
fluorescence (XRF); frequent reference is made to the results obtained. Details of the
methods used and the interpretation of results are given in the 'Notes on Analytical
Methods and Results' (p.817).

Metalworking processes (Fig.316)

The manufucrurc of metal objectS involved a chain of opernoons o r processes, each
taking the product of the previous stage as its raw matenal. Ths is illustrated
diagrammatically tn Fig.316. Each operation required a specific set of tructu.re or tools
and each produced a range of by-products or wastes which are all pan of the potential
archaeological record. In practice, however, it is usually only the non-metallic evidence
which wvive in quantity as metal is (and was) easily recycled.
The first operations were mining and smelting. Mining is restricted to those area of the
country with exploitable mineral deposits, none of which are very near to York; closest are
the lead mines of the Yorkshire Dales, 45lan away to the north-west. As smelting was
usuaUy carried o ut relatively near the mines, it is not surprising that no evidence for this
process was found on Coppergate though a small number of P.icces of galena Oead ore) were
found.
H aving smelted the ores, the next metalworking process was to produce a ml!ttd or alloy
of the desired composition. The metal was purified or refined, separated from a mbcture
(alloy), or deliberately alloyed with known quantities of one or more other metals. The
excavations produced considerable and varied evidence for the refining of precious metals
but none for the purification o r alloying of base metals.
Once a metal of the desired composition had been obtained, it was melted in a crucible
and cast m a mould. Two distinct cypes of mould were used, those where ingots or blanks
were cast for subsequent working and those where an object or obJects were cast in
Anglo-Scandinavian Non-Ferrous M etalworking from 16-22 Coppergate 747

mln1ng
I
!ORESJ
I
smelt1ng
I
~
.....
!METALSJ- - - - - - - -
I
ref ln1ng alloying
I
[ALLOYS I \
/ ........... \
melt i ng an d casting melt1ng and cas t 1ng
/ \
\
[CASTINGS! ltNGOTS/ BLANKSI I
I I
smit h ing r ecyc t1 ng

I
fettllng and d ecoraling [PAR T / MANUFACTURES !
I I

I
f 1n1sht n g and dec o rati ng I

I /
[CAST OBJECTS! [wROUGHT OBJECTS! !

"' use

-'[B
/
- R-:-0-,----K_,.E-N---:-0-=-B-,-JE::-C-:-T-:-S-.1
/
use

/ /
/
/
I

1- - - ---- ----
/

Fig.J /6 FIOUI chart show111g how the product of otze metalworking process •s me raw materral of the next

something very close to their final form. The excavations have produced numerous crucibles
and some moulds of both types as well as unfinished castings, metal spillages and a range of
wrought metal offcuts or waste.

The Finds

Metal refining (Figs.3 17- 21; Pls.LV- LVII)

All the finds described below are evidence for the refining of precious metals; there is no
specific evidence for the refining of base metals. The processes represented are cupellation,
which is the separation of precious metals from base metals, and parting, which is the
separation of gold and silver.
748 The Small Finds

Cupellation
Cupellation is carried out by melting the metal to be refined (usually base silver) with an
excess of lead, and blowing air across the m elt to oxidise it. The lead is changed to litharge
(lead oxide) which then itself acts as an oxidising agent, converting any other base metals
present to oxides. These either volatilise or dissolve in the litharge and are thus separated
from the silver which is unaffected. (For further details of the process see Bayley 199 1a.)

3946 3~4/ 3950

,
I

-c-~

~
f
lt
\ l /
~
~ >---"--..J'-0.:_:=.1
).
C,
( '·.\

3951 3953

F1g.J I 7 L•tlrarge cakes. Scale 1:2

Ang/o-Scandinavian Non-Ferrous Metalworking from 16-22 Coppergate 749

Cupellation was widely used from the first millennium BC onwards to extract silver from
metal smelted from mixed lead/silver ores but only appears in Britain in the late Iron Age
(Bayley 1988). Theophilus, writing in the early 12th century AD, provides a good
description of the process (trans. Hawthome and Smith 1979, 96) and notes that it could
also be used to refine gold (ibid., 146).
Fragments of nine litharge cakes (3946-54) , which are found from Period 3 onwards,
provide evidence for larger-scale cupellation at 16-22 Coppergate (Fig.317; Pl.LVIa).
These were roughly circular in plan and piano-convex or concavo-convex in section, though
no complete examples survive. Reconstructions from the fragments found suggest typical
diameters of 8~ 150mm and the cakes were usually I ~ 15mm thick though some of the
larger ones were thicker. They are pale grey in colour on the outer surface and the fracture
can show a range of colours, red, buff and grey, due to the presence of lead compounds.
Several have distinct circular depressions in their upper surfaces. XRF analysis universally
detects lead as the major element present and normally also finds considerable quantities of
copper. Silver is often detectable but only on the upper surface of the cakes, away from the
original edge, and particularly round the rim of the circular depressions which show where
the silver solidified. The identification of these litharge cakes as by-products of cupellation
rests almost entirely on their chemical composition and, in particular, the presence of traces
of silver.
Litharge cakes similar to those found at Coppergate are known from a number of
Roman and late Saxon or Anglo-Scandinavian sites in England but have yet to be
re.cognised at other periods (e.g. Tylecote 1986; Bayley and Barclay 1990; Bayley et al.
fonhcoming).
Cupellation can also be carried out on a much smaller scale to test the purity of precious
metal; the process is then usually known as assaying. A small amount of metal is accurately
weighed, cupelled and the resulting metal droplet re-weighed; the proportion of the original
which remains is a measure of its purity or fineness. Assaying or small-scale refining was
carried out in small shallow vessels which are known as cupels, hence the name for the
process. From late medieval times onwards these were made of bone ash (Oddy 1983) but
at earlier periods small ceramic dishes, originally identified only as 'heating trays' (Roesdahl
1977), were used. Initial opinion was that heating trays could not have been used as cupe1s
since their vitrified upper surfaces often appear red, a colour caused by traces of copper in a
reduced state, while cupellation is an oxidising process (Bayley 1982). Further consideration
has shown that the two are not mutually exclusive as there is a range of redox conditions
where lead is oxidised but copper is reduced (Bayley 1988), so the identification of heating
trays as cupels can now be accepted without question.
Fragments of ten cupels came from Period 4B and SA contexts on 16-22 Coppergate
and include purpose-made dishes a few centimetres in diameter, e.g. AY 1615, 2339 and
2341 (Fig.318), and also sherds from crucibles (3961) and other pots (3958) which have
been re-used as cupels. Most show a clear mark in the vitrified surface where the precious
metal solidified (PJ.LVa and b). Traces of both silver and gold were detected, though not
together. Those cupels with traces of gold were of more refractory fabrics, probably a
750 Tire Small Finds

0 Scm
1--'---'-,r'-------'-----',
0 2 in

g
'liP ,_;7
2341
2339 2340

Fig.318 Purpcse-madueramic cupcls (AY 1615, 2339-4 1) . S cale 1:2

deliberate choice as gold has a higher melting point than silver. It was noted that the lead
levels were far lower on the cupels with gold on them than on any of the others, a fact which
has been recognised at other sites too. This may be because gold can be refined just by
melting it under oxidising conditions as the gold is unaffected but the base metals it contains
are oxidised. These oxides either volatilise or can be removed from the surface of the melt
by adding an appropriate flux which will react with them to form a glassy slag.
Cupels have only recently been recognised as a specific type of find, distinct from metal
melting crucibles with which they are often confused. They are not infrequent finds on
metalworking sites of late Saxon or Anglo-Scandinavian date and are also known in Roman
and middle Saxon contexts. They are not confined to Britain but are found for example at
Scandinavian sites (see Fig.336, p.776) such as Helgo (Lamm 1980), Birka, Kaupang, Ribe
(Brinch Madsen 1984) and Hedeby, and have recently been recognised at the lOth century
gold refinery at Locronan in Brittany (Eiuere et al. 1989).

Microscopical examination of a further group of finds which were originally thought to

relate to the glassmaki.ng industry, for which 16-22 Coppergate also produced evidence
(Bayley 1987; Bayiey et al., AY 17 in prep.), revealed the presence of fine gold droplets and
suggested the association was more likely to be with goldworking. They are nine fragments
of blocks made of angular white quartz chips, typically 0·5-l ·Omm across, which have been
heated with a flux, fusing them into a single mass about 50mm across and 20mm thick
(Fig.319; PLLVIb). These fragments (3962-7(/) are found from Period 4A onwards. One
surface of the block has always been more strongly heated than the others and it is this face
which normally has the trapped gold droplets, though in some cases there are massive dark
gr«n vitreous accretions on the sides of the blocks and these sometimes also have trapped
Anglo-Scandinavian Non-Ferrous Metalworking from 16-22 Coppergate 751

3963 3965 3970

0 0

2in 5 cm

Fi&.319 Blocks t>/ vitnfied andfus.d quartz chips, probably used as cupelsfor gold. Scalt 1:2

gold droplets. Only very low levels of other metals are detectable on these surfaces and it
seems likely that they were used as cupels for refining gold as described above; alternatively,
scrap gold may have been melted to give a usable piece of metal. Their highly refractory
fabric would be a positive advantage as pure gold has a melting point of 1063°C as
compared with that of silver which is only 960°C. Blocks of stone, used in a similar way,
have been recognised among the finds from Viking Age Dublin (Bayley 1989) and from
Helg6 in Sweden (Bayley 198la).

Parting
Paning is the separation of a mixture of gold and silver. Before the discovery of nitric
acid in the later medieval period this was usually achieved by a solid-state reaction in which
thin sheets of metal were heated in contact with an aggressive medium which reacted with
the silver, removing it from the alloy. Newly mined gold often contains significant amounts
of other metals including silver but the purity of many gold objects of antiquity shows that
the process of refining the metal must have been well known, though the archaeological
evidence for it is very sparse. Recent work on several groups of material from a number of
English sites of different dates has suggested that evidence for parting is present in the
archaeological record but has not previously been recognised as such (Bayley I99la;
1991c).

Excavations at both 16-22 Coppergate and the nearl>y site at 22 Piccadilly produced a
number of pieces from parting vessels; most were initially classified as metal melting
crucibles. Before describing the pieces, it is necessary to understand more of the detail of the
752 The Small Finds

2342 2343

3989 (a)

2344

0 5cm
f--'-_.._r-'-_..._..,
0

Fig.320 Parting vessels (AY 1615, 2342-4; 3989a) and a possibl$ clay lid (3989b) from 22 Piccadilly; also a
reconstrnction of a parting vessel ar1d lid. Scale I: 2

parting process so there can be some finn basis for the interpretation offered. The literature
contains several broadly similar descriptions of the 'salt' process (e.g. Forbes 1964; Norron
1974) but that given here follows Theophilus (trans. Hawthome and Smith 1979, 108).
Anglo-Scandinavian Non-Ferrous M etalworking from 16-22 Coppergace 753

The metal to be parted was hammered out into thin sheets (to give a large surface area at
which the reaction could take place) and packed into a ceramic vessel interleaved with a
'cement', a mixture of one part by weight of common salt and two parts of powdered brick
or well-burnt clay moistened with urine. The vessel then had another one luted on with clay
to act as a lid, and was dried and heated to below the melting point of the metal in a furnace
for a day and a night. The silver reacted with the salt mixture and was converted into silver
chloride which volatilised and was absorbed by the brick dust and the walls of the vessel.
When the vessel had cooled down the gold was removed, melted and the whole process
repeated if necessary. The majority of the extracted silver would be in the brick dust and
could be recovered.
Eight very small fragments of parting vessels (3972- 3, 3976, 3978-80, 3983-4) have
survived from 16-22 Coppergate; they were separated from the crucibles because they did
not appear to come from round vessels, had an odd olive green colour in vitrified areas and,
in general, the only non-ferrous metal detectable on them (by XRF) was silver. These
criteria were sufficient to identify them as a separate group but no further progress was
made until the more recent excavations on the adjoining site at 22 Piccadilly discovered 60
larger pieces, e.g. AY 1615, 2342-4, which examination and analysis suggest are all pan of
the same group (context 2 11 5).
The parting vessels are all handmade from a fairly fine sandy clay which is fired to a pale
grey. They are roughly cuboid in shape with rounded corners and are lighdy vitrified over
parts of the outer surface., most commonly on the base and lower part of the wall (Fig.320).
The greenish colour of the vitrified areas is probably due to the presence of small amounts
of iron from the clay fabric. Near the rim on some pieces there are traces of added clay
which is also vitrified and is interpreted as the remains of luting clay used to seal a lid in
place, while one piece from 22 Piccadilly (3989b) is from the edge of a flat clay slab which
appears to have acted as a lid, sealing the open top of one of the parting vessels (Fig.320).
Nine detached fragments of vitrified luting clay, olive green in colour, were also found
(3971, 3974-5, 3977, 3981- 2, 3985-1). One further piece in a similar fabric (3976) appears
to be part of a smaller vessel (Fig.3 2 1).
The interiors of most vessel pieces are a pale grey with very pale purplish-maroon
patches in places. Ths colouration, with or without the presence of fine specular haematite

3976

0 0 5cm
'-U 0 2111
Fig. 321 Fragme111 of a small v mel, probably used for
parrmg. Scale 1:2
754 The Small Fmds

cr,•stals, seeml. to be a hallmark of parting vessels (PI.LVlla). One or two of the larger wall
l.herdl. aho have a somewhat darker gre}' powdery deposit adhering to their mner surfaces
and this may represent the remains of the original 'cement'; certainJy more sil\·er is detected
here than in other areas of the same pieces (PI.L Vlc).
A~ yet these parting vessels are ''ithout direct parallels, though Oat-sided vessels which
may M\'C been used for partmg are among the finds from Ytkmg Age Dublm (Bayley 1989)
and small c;herds of parting vessels of unknown form are among the I Oth and 11 th ccntur,•
finds from Lower Brook Street, Winchester (Bayley and Barday 1990).

Crucibles ( Figs .>2 2 9; P I. LV1I b)

'Crucible' is normally used as a generic term w clcscribe a range of vessels used in

high-temperature processes. ' 1.111.: commonest by far in archaeological contexts arc metal
melting crucibles and that is the meaning here, unless the term b o therwise qualified. The
function of a crucible is ro contain the metal being melted, protecting it from loss and
contamination, and to provide a means of transport fi.)r it when molten ~o that it can be
poured mto a mould.

Crucibles wac by far the most numerous metalworkmg linds from 16-22 Coppergate. A
tot.ll of nearly I 000 fragment~ \\'a!> recognised, of " tu eh over 90"'/u were of wmford ware
( Kllmurry 1980; AY 1615); F1g. 322 shows the range of forms found. All arc c senually
bag-shaped or bicon1cal and arc wheel-thrown with the ba.,es then pushed out by hand . All
complete examples have a !.Jngle pouring lip pulled out of the nm. 01ameter.. arc ryp1cally in
the range 6(} 90mm \\~th rim diameters of 30 50mm and wall thicknesses varying from
place to place on indt\'ldual vessels but mostJy of about 2 5mm. The non-Stamford ware
-.herd~ were of a vanety of fabncs and forms wb1ch arc dJ.,cussed below; rig.123 Illustrates
some of them.

All cruc1ble fabne<. mu\t be strong and refractor,• so that they can wuhl.tand the high
temperatures (up to 1200°C) to which they arc exposed ·lne melting pOint!. of pure gold,
~Jiver and copper are rcspccuvcly I 063°, 960° and I 081''C; some of the1r alloys have
mclung points as low a<; 900uC but for copper- and gold-based alloys they arc u .. ually over
I 000°C. Strength is viwl as the walls of the crucible must be able to suppon the weight of
thc metal it contains, pun iculorly when it is lifted or tipped w let the moltcn metal run into a
mould. C lays with low levels of fluxing impurities (iron oxides and alkalis), sudl as those
used for Stamford ware, were preferred as high concentrations drastically reduced the
temperature at which the fabric began to soften. A high proportion of siJica is norrnal in
cruc1blc fabrics and Stamford ware also contains high level\ of alumina (Frccstone and Titc
1986) which further Improve Its refractoriness. Cruc1blc fabric., must also rcSJ\t more than
l>Upcrlicial diSSOlution by the melt they conrain and be resistant to thermal :.hock

\ost crucibl~ arc ,,tnfied to a greater o r lesser extent. Sometimes there J'> JUSt a slight
'gloss' or 'gl3.7..(!' on the surface while at the other end of the spectrum the fabnc can be
vitnfied all through and bloated, having a vesicular structure. The degree of vitrification
Anglo-Scandinaviatl Non-Ferrous Metalworkingfrom 16-22 Coppergace 755

depends both on the temperature to which the crucible is heated and on how refractory its
fabric is. The distribution of the vitrified areas on the vessel can indicate how it was heated.
Usually the rims are least affected, showing that the crucibles were heated from below.
Vitrification of the outside of a crucible is usually caused by fluxing of the surface by the ash
in the fire in which it was heated (Bayley 1985). The Stamford ware crucibles show only
superficial vitrification, with a distinct boundary visible between any slag layer and the
crucible fabric.
Some crucibles have an added outer layer of less refractory clay which was applied evenly
over the whole of the outside of the vessel. Such layers are normally deeply vitrified and
were obviously very soft when at high temperatures; somewhat surprisingly, tong marks
have not been noted in these layers. In some cases the outside of the crucible appears
un used because the added clay layer has cracked off, leaving a completely unvitrified
surface. The reason for applying this extra layer is not known but a number of possibilities
can be suggested. It would protect the crucible proper from the fire so that its strength
would not be reduced by the dissolution of fabric by fluxing and vitrification, and would
reduce the thermal shock experienced by the crucible as it was removed from the fire, so
making it less liable to crack. It would also increase the thermal capacity of the crucible
which could be vital in giving the craftsman a slightly longer time in which to pour the metal
before it resolidified (Tylecote 1982 quotes a time of 2- 5 seconds), as the kind of
temperatures readily obtainable in antiquity meant that melts could not be superheated to
the levels they are today.

A few crucibles have traces of a clay relining which is positive evidence for their re-use.
Its relative rarity suggests that most crucibles were d iscarded as soon as even slight damage
or cracking was noticed; p resumably their value was low compared with that of the metal
which could be lost into the fire if a crucible broke in use. There is no evidence to suggest
how many times a crucible was used before it was discarded though it is unlikely to have
been more than a few times at most as repeated heating and cooling put stresses on the
structure, making it more likely to fracture.

Fuel ash 'glazes' or slags and viuified added clay layers often contain traces of the metal
being melted, either physically bound as discrete droplets or chemically combined with the
slag layer itself. Most noticeable is the bright red colour produced by copper, though even
the minor amounts of copper often present in precious metals can create this effect.
Vitrification on the inner surface is crucible slag which is formed by the reaction of metal
oxides from the melt \vith some fuel ash and the crucible fabric (Tylecote 1982). Analysis of
these slag layers can indicate the nature of the metal or alloy being melted, particularly
where metal droplets are trapped in them.

All used crucibles are reduced fired as metals must be melted under reducing conditions
to prevent them from being oxidised and lost into a massive crucible slag. The Starnford
ware crucibles range in colour from off white to mid grey. Crucible charges (the metal
which was to be melted) could be covered with charcoal to minimise oxidation. Once the
crucible charge was molten any metal oxides present were fluxed, the resulting slag which
formed was skimmed off the surface to prevent it entering the mould, and the melt was then
756 The Small Finds

2305

2317

(~~
: 1.<~-iJ 2311
2306

~j
2312 2318

2307 ( - - _- ~- \ _- ~\
fU 2308
~~,~~----==-~
-
-- - -
t=- --, =-~~
-
-
23119
--
~-~~,-- 2314 - (~
2321

2310
2315

e--- 2322
2316
Anglo-Scandinavian Non-Ferrous Mecalworking from 16-22 Coppergace 757

2323 2327

2331

2324 2328 'L/ /332

(7 l~ I

2329
\ 0 0

2325

2330
\ 2m 5cm

2326

Fig.32Z (left and abov e) Swmford warecrucibles. The unusedoms are omitted from the table of cn•cibles i111he catalogue.
After analysis, AY /6/5, 2305- 6 a11d 23 17 were jou11d to be w1used as well as 2326 a11d 2330- l. S cale I: 2

poured. Theophilus describes throwing salt on molten silver to flux any metal oxides present
(tranS. Hawthome and Smith 1979, 99) and when casting brass (ibid., 137) describes using
a cloth pad held across the lip of the crucible to hold back any dirt and ashes floating on the
molten metal and prevent them from entering the moulds.

All the crucible sherds were analysed qualitatively by XRF. The metal- rich deposits on
crucibles were never uniformly distributed because less reducing conditions and the
proximity of metal modes and fluxes which favour their production tend to occur at the
surface of the melt and around the lip as the melt is poured. It is thus possible for a single
vessel to have some areas with massive m etal-rich deposits and other areas where little or no
758 'FM SmaO Finds

2337
2333 23J5 0 0

2334 2336
\I£7
sf6529 sf8942
2on 5cm

Fig.323 Type A c-ruahks: AY 1615, 2333- 7 and sfs6529and 89#2 (see UJble ofcruabks in the cal4io8*). SC41e 1: 2

trace of metals survives. Most finds are just small sherds so it is not surprising that metals
are not universally detected.

Just over a quarter of the Stamford ware sherds from 16-22 Coppergate which were
identified as crucibles from their form had no visible traces of metallurgical use. Some even
appeared oxidised fired and probably represent vessels which were broken before use. The
distribution of these pieces mirrors that of the crucibles which showed signs of use,
confinning their interpretation as unused crucibles (Fig.324). In other places, e.g. on the
Flaxengate site in Lincoln, these crucible forms have dearly also been used as lamps as they
are found with massive sooty deposits and no traces of metals (Gilmour 1988, 67), but only
a very few of the Coppergate pieces are likely to have been used in this way.

A further 35% of the Stamford ware sherds and 22% of the non-Stamford ware sherds
came from crucibles which had definitely been used to melt metals but the metal traces
were present only at low levels so the analytical results could not be interpreted with any
degree of confidence; these sherds are described as 'used' in the table of crucibles in the
catalogue and in Table 42. Their distribution on the site is the same as that of the crucibles
where the metal being melted can be identified (see Flg.324), so it is likely that they are just
parts of vessels on which only slight metal-rich deposits fonned.

It should be noted that in studying the crucibles no attempt was made to reconstruct
them, except in one or two cases where a bag of fragments obviously represented an almost
complete vessel. The small size of the sherds is reflected in the small number and
incompleteness of the illustrated profiles. There is no reliable estimate of the number of
vessels represented though one measure is provided by the number of pouring lips on
Stamford ware vessels - a total of 37. Allowing for the other forms also in use, dozens of
 •
••
I
• I
•
•
·:'~
\.
•
)
I
I
I. •
\ J ·\~

1 sherd

2-10 sherds
j ~·
. .. • 11 - 20 sherds
.'
• 21- 40 sherds

/
0 10 20 Metres

0 30 60 Fee t

Fig.J24 Di.stnb~<rron plots ofSramff)rd !<~arc cr.,cibles (aJI pcn txb): (a) tmlt$Cd crucibles; (b) 'rued' cm ciblesi (c) crucibles
w rch idcm ifiable mcca/ restduer. Sw le I :500
760 The Small Fimls

crucibles (perhaps as many as one or two hundred) must be represented by the fragments
recovered.
Most of the above comments apply equally to the crucibles made of fabrics other than
Stamford ware. Half are of a single form, a small thimble-shaped thumb pot with a typical
diameter of30mm and walls only 1- 2mm thick (Fig.323; Pl.LVIIb). These are described as
Type A in the table of crucibles in the catalogue and in the discussion below. There are also
a few sherds from somewhat larger vessels which have the same thin walls and fabric and are
grouped with the Type A crucibles. Mainman (AY 16/5, 470) considers them to be made of
a fabric which is closely related to Stamford ware but they appear on average to be more
deeply vitrified and some show signs of partial coUapse due to overheating. This suggests
that their fabric is less refractory than true Stamford ware and has thus performed less
satisfactorily at high temperatures.

The remainder of the non-Starnford ware crucibles are a heterogeneous group with a
variety of both form and fabric apparent; some are better suited to their use than others.

Table 42 Summary of metal melting crucibles

N o re: The sh e rd s describe d as ·used' gave a na lytica l results wruch sh o wed th ey had been used to me lt
meta ls but whi ch co uld n o t b e inte rpreted to indic ate th e co m posit ion of t.h e m e tal me lted .

Pc n o d 3 4A 48 5A 5B 4/5 5C f 5Cr 6 T o tal

S ta mfo rd wa re
Go ld 4 5 5 3 2 19
S1lver 3 5 16 4 70 44 4 3 9 303
Co pper a lloy 5 5 3 4 3 10 31
Used I 147 62 67 10 14 14 315
U nused I I 11 0 29 70 I 11 11 13 2 47
Subto tal 4 8 4 30 17 1 189 2 29 34 48 9 15

T ype A
G o ld 2 2 3 4 12
G old and Silver I I 3
Silver 2 3 9
Copper alloy 4 3 8
Used 2 I I 4
Su b to tal 2 9 3 10 9 2 36

Miscellaneou s
G old
Sil ve r I 2 2 I 2 2 11
Copper alloy 2 2 I 6 3 16
Used .I 5 3 I 1 13
Su b to tal 4 4 9 5 9 6 40

Grand to tal 8 14 448 179 208 3 31 44 56 99 1

Anglo-Scandinavian Non-Ferrous Metalworking from 1~22 Cappergate 761

The rim fragments suggest that most of the miscellaneous cruobles were from vessels of a
comparable size to the Stamford ware ones, though with relatively thicker walls. Most
appear to be handmade and probably represent a variety of thumb pot or roughly
hemispherical forms; some could be from larger thimble-shaped cruobles like the one from
the Parliament Street sewer trench (697, Fig.94, AY 17/4). A single sherd from the
Coppergate/Piccadilly watching brief (1982.22) is of a typical Roman form (Baytey 1988,
fig.5.4) and a few other sherds may also come from Roman crucibles. They are relatively
thick walled and most have an added outer layer of clay, far thicker than the similar
additions to Stamford ware cruobles.

Table 42 summarises the distribution of crucible sherds by period and shows the
number used for different types of metal. Tm and lead are not represented as their melting
points are so much lower than those of the other metals that crucibles are unnecessary and
they can be melted in ordinary cooking pots at temperatures which do not produce
vitrification and so usually leave no visible traces. Sometimes lead was melted in much
larger quantities so crucibles of the types found would have been far too small.

300
"'
"0
4i
.,
~

Q)
:0
...:3
<.)

200
()

0 unused

•
~ used

metal identified
3 4A 48 5A 58 5C 6

Fig. 325 Frr:queru;;y hiJr.ogram slwwi"K r.olal numben of~ slunb of all types for eoch perWd
762 The Small Finds

Figure 325 shows the number of sherds in each period and demonstrates that the overall
proportions are virtually unchanged whether the grand total, the total excluding unused
crucibles or the total with identified metal is used. This reinforces the point made above that
the 'used' sherds, and probably some of the 'unused' ones too, are just additional fragments
from crucibles already represented. For simplicity of presentation and ease of comparison in
the following discussion, only those crucible sherds with identified metal deposits are
considered. The conclusion s reached are the same if the total numbers are considered.
Although there was some earlier use of crucibles, large-scale metal melting began in
Period 4B and nearly half the crucible sherds come from contexts belonging to this phase of
activity. The crucible sherds from Period SA contexts, which are a further 20% of the total,
are similar to those from Period 4B in their spatial disoibution (Fig.329), and in the
proportion of Sramford ware (Fig.326) and of different metals (Fig.327) . These
observations supporr the stratigraphic interpretation that SA deposits consist in large
measure of redeposited 4B m aterial. Metal melting con tinues at a reduced level in later

Fig.326 HIJiogram shmuing Stamford ware as a

percemage of ail the crncible sherds w ith
td~ntifiablt metal residt.es for Periods
3 4A 4B SA S6 SC 6 3- 6
Anglo-Scandinavian Non-Ferrous Metalworking from 16-22 Coppergare 763

no. of
Period gold silver copper alloy crucibles

3 6

4A 11

4B 184

SA 85

5B 61

5C 27

6 28

0 100~

Fig.327 Seriograph shOfJiing theproporrums of differml metals it:knr:ifod on crucibles for Periods 3-6

periods where the relative proportions of the three metal types identified are significantly
different from those in Periods 4B and SA (see Table 42 and Fig.327). 'This indicates that
some of these crucible sherds must be contemporary with their contexts and not residual.

Stamford Type A Miscellaneous

D gold 0 silver copper alloy

Fig. 328 Pit 'hans showing the proportions of identifiable metal residuts on SUJmford wore, Type A ond other r:rucib/ts
 gold silver copper alloy

• 0 1- 2

/
0 10 20 Metres

0 30 60 Feet

A D

J ..
o'
0

.
, 0

0
L

L
l
l
•
4B

Fig. 329 ( abovt and facing) Di.srriburim: plots of all crucible fragm ellts with ideutifiabk meUJJ res:d11es fo r Pcncds J - 6.
Scak 1:500
 I
I
I
L ._ .J

r .
- · - .J

se
766 The Small Finds

Table 42 also shows a strong correlation between types of crucible and the metal melted
in them. Figure 328 shows this graphically; Starnford ware was used mainly for silver, Type
A crucibles for aU metals but with a high proportion used for gold, and the miscellaneous
types were mainly used for copper alloys. As the bulk of the metal melted was silver and the
vast majority of the crucible sherds Starnford ware, the first correlation is to be expected.
The small size of the Type A crucibles may be the main reason for their association with
gold while the relatively poor quality of many of the miscellaneous crucibles may explain
why they were mainly used for base metals which were less valuable than gold or silver.
There was no apparent correlation between the size of the Stamford ware crucibles and the
metal melted in them in the few cases where both variables were determinable.
Even after taking into account the period-by-period variations in the areas excavated, the
presence of contemporary deposits, and the ability to recognjse them, the distribution of
crucibles is uneven (Fig.329). The Period 3 crucibles come from pits in the area of the site
which was later to become T enements A and B. After this, few of the crucibles come from
pits, most are from in or near buildings. The Period 4A crucibles are mainly from the other
side of the sire, in particular from the area which was later Tenement D.

In Period 4B the number of sherds is sufficient to suggest different distributions for the
three metal types. Gold melting crucibles were found around the building on T enement C,
silver melting crucibles were mainly in or close behind the buildings on Tenements B, C
and 0 , with a concentration on the latter, and copper alloy melting crucibles were more
evenly distributed in and behind the buildings on the same three plots. There are very few
fragments from the back part of the site at this period.
Ln Period 5A the pattern for silver melting crucibles is !he same, with most coming from
Tenement D and some from B and C. The gold melting crucibles come from Tenements C
and D and the copper melting ones from A and B.
In Period 5B silver and gold melting crucibles came from in and near the buildings on
Tenements C and 0 with a few towards the rear ofTenement D. Copper melting crucibles
came from in and behind the buildings on T enements B and C. Period 5C had silver and
copper melting crucibles on Tenement 0 at the front of the site and all three metal types
were represented in the far north-east corner at the back of the site. ~The Period 6 crucibles
were an all-over scatter wilh no obvious clusters.
Other sites in York have produced small numbers of crucibles which are broadly
contemporary with those from 16-22 Coppergate. Waterman published two vessels from
Coppergate and Bishophill, described as crucibles (1959, fig.24.8 and 18) which are of
Stamford ware form. MacGregor (1978, 42) mentions crucible fragments associated with a
clay piece mould for a trefoil brooch from 9 Blake Street (AY 17 in prep.) and there is the
nearly complete crucible from the Parliament Street sewer trench already referred to
(Fig.94, AY 17/4) which was used to melt a copper alloy, probably an impure brass. The
Hungate site produced eleven sherds of bag-shaped (Stamford ware) crucibles (Richardson
1959) which recent analyses have shown were used to melt silver. Recent excavations at
Tanner Row have produced three sherds of crucibles (Budd 1987) and there are also two
Anglo-Scm1dinavia11 Non-Ferrous Metalworking from I fr22 Coppergate 767

complete, handmade, hemispherical crucibles in the Yorkshire Museum which may be of

this period (Bayley 1984c; Roesdahl et al. 1981, YMWS); all were used to melt copper
alloys.
Looking further afield in England (see Fig.335, p. 775) there are a number of sites of this
period which have produced considerable numbers of crucibles. Most immediately
comparable is the assemblage from the Flaxengate site in Uncoln, where, as at Coppergate,
the majority of the crucibles are Stamford ware though a range of other forms and fabrics
was also found (Gilmour 1988). The majority of the crucibles were used for copper alloys
though a proportion contained silver (Bayley 1980; Bayley et al. forthcoming). Other sites in
Uncoln have also produced smaller numbers of Stamford ware crucibles.
Saxo-Norman crucibles from several sites in the City of London include a number of
Stamford ware which were used almost exclusively for melting silver. London ware crucibles
of similar size were also used for silver but larger ones were used for copper alloys, as were
crucibles of early medieval coarse ware, another local fabric (Bayley et al. 199 1). It would
seem that here the Stamford ware, which had been brought some considerable distance m
London, was seen as having superior qualities which made its transportation worthwhile
and may explain its main use - for the precious metal, silver.
Other towns where excavations have produced relatively large numbers of 9th- II th
century crucibles include Northampton, where a unique form is made in a fabric which
resembles Stamford ware (e.g. Bayley 1979; Bayley 1981b), Therford, where handmade
and wheel-thrown forms in a variety of different fabrics were found (Bayley 1984b), and
Winchester, where most of the crucibles are handmade of not very refractory fabrics (Bayley
and Barclay 1990). Other towns have produced smaller numbers of crucibles, mainly of a
bag-shaped form with a pinched-out lip (Bayley 1991 b, Appendix 2).
The major Viking Age towns of Scandinavia have all produced metal melting crucibles,
some in considerable numbers. The dominant form there is the thimble-shaped crucible,
roughly cylindrical with a rounded base and sometimes a lug/handle added to one side.
Published examples include those from R.ibe (Brinch Madsen 1984).

Ingot moulds ( Figs.330- 4, 337)

These are open, one-piece moulds in which simple shapes such as bars or discs were cast
for subsequent working into rod, wire or sheet; most have more than one cavity cur into
them. They are usually made of stone as they must be capable of repeated use; some,
however, are made from re-used brick or tile which has been carved to shape as though it
were stone. Surface finish is not critical as the resulting ingot or blank will be heavily worked
so any surface irregularities will disappear.
Coppergate has produced nine stone ingot moulds (3990, 3992, 3994-5, 3997-4001),
one made of fired day (3993) and two made from re-used Roman brick or tile (3991, 3996)
(Figs.33Q-2). The moulds are darkened in and around the cut out cavities, an indication of
use which often survives even when no traces of metal are detectable. Theophilus (trans.
768 The Small Finds

3990

-~ .
~~

l
. . a

b
a b c d

3998

c a

l
.._,;/'
t
'f.

"' b

a b c d

Hawthome and Smith 1979, 99) descnbes casting silver in an ingot mould which has been
heated on the fire and had a dressing of molten wax applied. The visible discolouration of
the mould fabric may be due to extreme localised heating caused by contact with the molten
metal and/or burning of the dressing applied to the mould. T mces of metal have been found
on all but rwo of the Coppergate moulds and in most cases the resultS could be interpreted
to show that they were used to cast either silver (five examples) or copper alloys including
brass and leaded gunmetal (two or p erhaps three examples). Positive analytical results
obtained from ingot moulds from other sites (Bayley 1984a; Jope 1958; Drescher, pers.
comm.) suggest they were normally used for silver and the large number of silver bar ingots
which survive in VIking hoards illustrate the products (e.g. Graham-Campbell 1980,
pl.301).
At~glo-Scandinavian N on-Ferrous Mec.alworking from 16-22 Coppergau 769

4000
4001

..
.'·.
... '
·':'
'/
I

rl 'l
:~
·t •' l
·'
··-v..t.
l

l 0 0

' " L,",

Fig.330 (kft and above) Ingot moulds ofmame. The lerrers a d re/are to rlrefour faces of rhe sections o/3990 and 3998.
Scale 1:2

A:s all the ingot moulds were either damaged or fragmentary it was not possible to
produce accurate figures for the dimensions of most of the cavities and hence for the ingms
which would have been cast in them. Figure 333 shows the surviving lengths of the cavities;
some are complete or nearly so while others, e.g. those on 3992, obviously represent only a
small part of the original. It can be seen that lengths ranged from under 20mm to over
LSOmm; it is unlikely that many moulds had cavities which were originaUy much longer
than this. Figures 330-2 show that the cavities had a variety of sections ranging from
V-shaped through U-shaped to su brectangular; in all cases the up per surface of the ingot
would have been convex, because of the surface tension of the molten metal The ma.x:imum
widths and depths of the cavities were also recorded and are shown in Fig.334; the mean
width is 1Omm and the median 8·5mm. The depth of the cavities is a much less critical
dimension as !hey need nor always have been filled to !he brim or indeed ro the same level.
There is no correlation between !he size of !he cavity and the composition of the metal
traces found in it. There are insufficient data to conunent on possible correlations between
width and length of !he cavities.
770 The Small Finds

The fragments of copper alloy bar ingots from the site show that some (e.g. 4021) had
similar sections to those of the moulds and thus could have been cast in them. The
discovery at Hedeby of complete copper alloy bar ingots over 300mm long, far bigger than
any cavities in ingot moulds known in Britain or Scandinavia, means that not all can have
been cast in moulds of this type. A possible mechanism for their production is that a
temporary groove was made in the trampled earth of the workshop floor and the molten
metal then poured in. The sections of other copper alloy ingot fragments found here (e.g.
4051) are shallow V-shapes which cannot be paralleled among the moulds from the site and
thus support the suggestion that temporary ' moulds' were also used. This casual method
was apparently acceptable for the relatively cheap base metals but more care was normally
taken and permanent moulds were used when casting precious metal ingots. I t should,
however, be noted that experiments by Kruse et al. (1988) suggest that the pock-marked
lower surface seen on some silver bar ingots can best be replicated by casting intO sand,

399?
d

c a
(
t b

a b c d
3994 3995 3997

.... ~.~
'· -~-
'.--!
;10~
~ . ~-

'- - ~
0 Scm
0

.Fig.331 Ingoz moulds of talc se/tin . The leuers a-d relate eo zhefour jac~ of the secrio11 oj3992. Scale I :Z
Anglp-Searu:linavian N<m-Ferrous Me~ from 16-22 Coppergate 771

3991

0 5cm
1--'----'-r-'-----L--'1
0 2in

a
772 The Small Fi1uls

150

10 0
E
E

-
J:;

Ol
c
Q)

so

0
<!l N
__. --.
'<T
--' v
,.._
-
(")
.J
1... CO
I
0 ()) tO 0
0 ()) ()) ()) ()) ()) ()) ()) ()) ()) 0
m
())
0 ()) ()) ()) ()) ()) ()) ()) ()) ()) 0
V (") (") (") (") (") (") (") (") (") (") V

Ingot mould c a talogue numbers

Fig.3JJ Diagram showr'11g survivi11g lengths of cavities in the ingot moulds. Only those terminating with a cross-bar are
compk u

though presumably a mould of coarse-grained stone would produce a similar effect. The
copper alloy ingot fragments from Coppergate all have fairly smooth lower surfaces. The
dimensions of the ingot fragments from the site have been plotted on Fig.334 and show a
similar range of widths to those of the cavities in the moulds though they are less thick
(deep) than the cavities, suggesting that these were not normally filled to the brim.

The stone ingot moulds are made from two varieties of soapstone. Dr G.D. Gaunt
reports:

The lithological identifications [which appear in the catalogue, p.831 below] were
made with a hand lens and ordinary stereo microscope in reflected light, no thin sections
being available, and their principal components (talc, a chlorite-like mineral, and calcite)
were differentiated by colour, microscratching for hardness, and dilute H CI. All the
moulds are talc-rich, five being talc schist and four being steatite. Both rock types are
called 'soapstone' in some archaeological literature but this term is restricted geologically
to steatite (in which talc is randomly orientated, more massive and commonly more coarse
grained than in talc schist). Three of the schist moulds are made from rock containing
appreciable amounts of the chlorite-like mineral and of calcite.

British talc-rich rocks are largely confined to northern Scotland, the only extensive
outcrops of both steatite and talc schist being in the Shetland Isles (Mykura 1976) where
Anglc-Scandinavian Ncm-Ferrous Metalworking from 16-22 Coppergare 773

ancient quarries in both types of rock are supposedly referable to 'Viking' times. The most
widespread outcrops of, and old quarries in, talc schist are near Cwmingsburgh, on the
southern part of the island of Mainland. Clibbe:rswick Hill, on the island of Unst, is
another location of talc-rich rock, which was formerly quarried for making cooking and
other vessels. If the four steatite and five talc schist moulds originated in Britain the most
likely sources are in the Shetlands. The nearest Continental sources are Norway, Sweden
and France.

Ritchie ( 1984), who uses soapstone as a generic term to describe all impure talcose
rocks, has swnmarised the information available on its sources in the Viking world. There
are numerous quarries throughout Norway, and some in Sweden and Greenland too, as
well as the British sources mentioned above. He notes the variability of the rock within
individual quarries and the difficulty of associating objects with their geological sources. At
this point it is impossible to say whether the 'soapstone' ingot moulds from 16-22
Coppergate are of British or Scandinavian origin. XRF analysis of the stone of which the
moulds were made does, however, suggest multiple sources. Two of the steatite moulds,
3990 and 4000, contained traces of nickel while a third, 4001, a sherd from a bowl re-used as
a mould, did not (Fig.330). One talc schist mould, 3992 (Fig.331), contained traces of both

20l AF

F
F

- ·l E
E c E F

10~
E
E AD
.c:.
Q.
AK, BB c
I
Cl> A
-o +
E
A CB
c
+
+
5 +

0 5 10 15 20 25
wi dth {mm)

Fig.334 Diagram of width t.o. tkpth ofcat.oiriu in ingot moulds 3990 (A), 3993 (8), 3995 (C), 3996 (D) , 3998 (E)
and 3999 (F) compa~d with the dimtmions ofthe copper a1/Qy ingot fragmen/.S 4 02 1-2, 4046 and 4057 shown
as+
774 The Small Finds

nickel and chromium. The other stone moulds were not specifically analysed to look for
nickel and chromium but no trace of these metals was detected when the metal remaining
in their cavities was analysed. Dr Gaunt (pers. comm.) points out that some of the Shetland
talc-rich rocks are known to contain minute amounts of chromite and magnetite. The
chromium detected by XRF may weU be from the chromite, the nickel possibly from a trace
presence in one or other of these minerals or in serpentine, also known to be associated with
the Shetland rocks but not detected in the hand specimens of the moulds. Trace element
patterns were used by Resi ( 1979) to identify five groups among the soapstone ingot moulds
from Hedeby, but only two of these could be even tentatively linked to known sources.

The ingot moulds of different rock types have broken in different ways; the steatite and
some of the talc schist moulds have broken across the cavities while those scbists containing
the chlorite-like mineral and interstitial calcite (presumably derived from the magnesite in
some of these schists) have spHt longitudinally, along the cavities.

Ingot moulds are regularly found on late Saxon and Anglo-Scandinavian sites but are
not unknown at other periods. Examples are known from aJI parts of England (Fig.335).
There are brick/tile examples from Southampton, Site VIII (Holdswortb 1976), and the
H olmes Grain Warehouse site in Lincoln (Bayley l984a); both these sites have also
produced stone ingot moulds. Further examples in stone are reported from Lower Bridge
Street, Chester (Mason 1985), Flaxengate, Lncoln (Bayley 1984a), Milk Street, London
(Bayiey et al. 1991), Oxford Qope 1958), Thetford (Bayley 1984b) and Wbitby (Graharn-
Campbell 1980). Where dated, all fall within the 9th to 11th century bracket. Interestingly
though, none of these are of soapstone which is, however, the normal material in
Scandinavia at this period.

Kaupang in Norway (Blindheim 1969), Lund (Blomqvist and M!rtensson 1963) and
Birka in Sweden, and Fyrkat (Roesdahl 1977) and Hedeby (Resi 1979) in Jutland are
among the best known Scandinavian sites with soapstone ingot moulds (Fig.336). Birka also
has several examples in other rypes of stone. Most of these finds are roughly rectangular
section blocks similar to 3990 and 3994, usually with multiple cavities or, less often, other
shapes such as discs or Tbor's hammers. The largest collection is from H edeby, with a total
of nearly one hundred fragments; only eight of them, however, are purpose-made mould
blocks, the rest being fragments of soapstone bowls which have been re-used and had
cavities cut in them in a similar fashion to 4001.

Dun Beag on Skye has produced soapstone ingot moulds of probable Viking Age date
(Callender 1920-1) while those from Birsay, Orkney, are of sandstone in Pictish contexts
and soapstone in the Norse ones (Curie 1982) . Hunter ( 1986) comments that soap-
stone' .. . occurs as a common and diagnostically N orse material on most Viking sites in
the Northern Isles'. H e also notes the difficulty in assigning it to particular geological
sources. Some of the ingot moulds from Viking Age Dublin are of soapstone and
although ingot moulds have been found on a number of other Scottish and Irish sites
none have published geological identifications.
Anglo-Scandinavian Non-Ferrous Metalworking from 16-22 Coppergate 775

Fig.335 Map of Brizairt, Ireland

and Brinany showing
sites referred to in Lhe zex1

Birsay (/)
Chester (6)
Dubli11 (5)
2•
D11n Beag (2)
Litzcolrt (7)
l.ocrrma11 (14)
Londo11 (1 /)
Northampton ( 9)
O;iforrl ( I 0)
Southampzo11 (13)
Thezford (8)
U7h itby (3)
Winchester ( I 2)
York ( 4)

3.
4.

5• • 7
•a
•8
•9
• 10 • 11

• 12
13 •

0 100 ?OOKms
~:::.::;;::;:~~~
~ · ~~d::l
0 50 100 Moles

The frequency of steatite and schist moulds al Coppergate marks it out from the rest of
the contemporary English sites where these rocks are almost unknown. Such a stanling
difference requires explanation and the simplest and most likely one is that the moulds were
776 The Small Finds

brought to Coppergate by Scandinavian raiders, traders or settlers who must therefore have
included craftsmen among their number. Whether the m oulds were of Scandinavian or
Scottish origin is not cenain, but the same arguments can be applied to both areas.

••3
2

•
1

4
•

•7

0 60 160Kma

~~~
0 50 100MI Ies

Fig. 336 M ap a] mmhem Europe shatuing rices referred w m the text

Birka (Z) Kaupang (J)

Fyrkat ( 6) Lumi (5)
Hedeby (8) Mliscerrnyr (4)
HelgtJ (3) Ribe (7)
Anglo-Scandiuavian Non-Ferrous M etalworking from 16-22 Coppergate 777

A () • silver o c opper * metal not identified

i ngot moulds
1 3991 7 4001
2 3993 8 3994
0
8 3 3996 9 3992
* 4 3997 10 4 000
5 3995 3990

I
11
J
6 3998 12 3999

0
11

/
0 10 20 Metres

r =+
= ==!
0 30 60 Feet

Fig.337 Disrribtlttoll plot ofmgor moulds for Periods 1, 48, 5A, 58 a11d 6. S cale 1:500

Figure 337 shows the distribution of ingot moulds on the site. The two Period 3
examples, 3990 and 3991, come from the area of the site which '"'as later to become
Tenement A, the same area which produced the few contemporary crucibles.

There were no ingot moulds in Period 4A but five, 3992-6, come from P eriod 4B
contexts, two just behind the building on Tenement B (rhough 3992 should be disregarded
as it had been reworked into a spindle whorl so its location is unlikely to relate to its original
use), two within the building on T enement C and one just v.rithin the building on T enement
D which also produced 3997, the single Period SA example. This distribution mirrors that
of the Period 4B crucibles (Fig.329) and, interestingly, the moulds with traces of copper
alloys come from Tenements B and C, away from the main concentration of silverworking.

The three Period 5B ingot moulds (3998-4000) were all from Tenement D, one \vithin
the building nearest the street, one in rhe building behind it and one from rhe back of the
site; two gave positive XRF results for silver. This distribution reinforces the link between
T enement D and silverworking suggested by the fact that the Period SB crucibles used to
778

4003
I

0 0

2in Scm
I ,

melt copper alloys were confined to Tenemems B and C. The single Period 6 ingot mould,
4001, also came from tbe area ofTenement D .

Object moulds (Fig.338)

No day moulds for cast.iDg small objecm were found on the site thouab there were a few
fragments from moulds for casting 1arF objecm, perhaps bells or mortars (Fig.338). There
were ten frqmenu, included in catalogue numben 4003 and 4005-8, wbic;:h were definitely
from moulds of t:hia type and another duce fragmena in the same fabric but without any
original surfiwes (4002, 4009-1(]). They came from twO diaaete dumps, one behind the
building on Tenement B in Period 5B and one on the boundary between Tenements C and
D DC1r the streel frontage in Periods 5A and 5B. It is unlildy that these mould frqmenm
represent large-acale casting on the site as tbeie are no associated furnace structures and the
quantity of mould material is so small. They do, however, indicate that 1arge-acale metal
casting was bcina practised in York in the late lOth centwy.

Scrap and waste metal (Figs.339-49; Pl.LVIlla)

Amoog the non-fem>us metal finds were a number of pieces which can be identified as
the mw materials of metalworking indusoies and others whic;:h are their wastes or
by-products. Some 100 pieces are of copper or one ofia alloys wbiJe over 400 are of lead,
Anglo-Scandinavian Non-Ferrous Metalworking from 16-22 Coppergate 779

tin or alloys of the two metals. All the copper alloy pieces were analysed, as were just over
I
100 of the lead alloy pieces; the results appear in the catalogue.

When molten metal is being cast, droplets and larger irregularly-shaped flows of metal,
described in the catalogue as spillages, can form (see PI.LVIlla). 1~22 Coppergate has
produced nearly 200 examples of lead but only one of copper alloy, 4100. Most of this metal
would have been collected and recycled but some escaped and is among the commoner
finds on archaeological sites where non-ferrous metals were being worked. Metal waste of
this son on its own is not good evidence for metalworking as it can form anywhere that
metal gets into a fire hot enough to melt it, but at 1~22 Coppergate, with its intense
metallurgical activity, droplets and flows of solidified molten metal are clearly evidence for
metalworking.

A second type of metal waste is that which solidifies in a closed mould but is not pan of
the object(s) being cast (Fig.339). It includes the runners and sprues, which are respectively
metal which solidifies in channels in the mould leading to the object matrix and metal which
solidifies in the funnel-shaped opening where it was poured in, as well as the flashes which
form between the valves of a piece mould; this is all removed from the casting as part of the
finishing operations. A failed casting, where the metal did not completely fill the mould, is a
funher type of casting waste. Metal waste of this son is noticeable by its scarcity on 1~22
Coppergate but this is not surprising given the lack of moulds for objects from the site.

There is a single copper alloy piece (4059) which may be a runner and two lead pieces
(4280 and 4281) which definitely are; the former is from a piece mould as it has traces of a
casting flash. A further lead piece is a sprue with the vestiges of four runners still attached
(4215). The forms of the lead pieces suggest that several objects were cast simultaneously in

4059 42 15 4281
I

I 't!
f'
-·.~ · .
• •
•
,..
•• .. , • .J

. ..
.J .:· (

,. .J /
" "'~
; -
1 -j

4280

0
0
2cm
1tn :~.~
'

Fig.J39 Runners and sprues of copper alloy (4059) and lead ( 42 15, 4280 and 4281). Scale I: I
780 The Small Finds

4147 4 148 4149

4278 4279

0 2cm
0

Fig.140 Faikd castings ami objects ojiMd (4 147, 4149, 4278) and pewter (4148, 4279) wilh traas of a casting jla.sh
and/or sprm. Scale I: J

a single mould. There are also some lead alloy castings which appear to have come straight
from the mould as the flash lines are still clearly visible (Fig.340). Two pendants, 4148 and
4149, have the casting flash still attached, and the former also retains its sprue. In 4149 the
lead has failed to fill the mould completely, producing a failed casting with two unplanned
perforations in the disc. A brooch, 4147, and two badges, 4277 and 4278, are also failed
castings as the metal has not completely filled the design. The runners have been removed,
though not the flashes partly filling the openwork design, so the badges may have been used
in this imperfect state. A finished object, a pewter pin 4279, has clear signs of a flash line,
showing that it was cast in a two-piece mould. No mould of this son was found on the site
so there is no evidence to suggest the pin was made here but it clearly demonstrates the poor
finish which was acceptable on cheap, mass-produced objects in medieval times.

Metal smithing indusuies also produce scrap metal, most of which would have been
recycled although a considerable number of fragments were found on Coppergate. Ingots of
metal were the starting point of these wrought industries. The nature of the copper alloy
Anglo-Scandinavian Non-Ferrous M etalworking from 16-22 Coppergate 781

4022 4023 4057

' I

4046

rzZJ I

0 2cm
0

Fig.341 Copper alloy bar i11gotjragmetw. Scale 1: I

scrap is rather different from that of the lead alloy so !he two groups are considered
separately below.
Copper alloy bar ingots or blanks were cast in ingot m oulds or in similarly shaped
temporary grooves in worksh op floors, the latter probably being more common as most of
the ingot m oulds appear to have been used for silver. M ost of the ingot fragments are short
lengths (Fig.341), the sort of pieces which were cur off for remelting (4022- 3, 4046, 4057).
The ingots were also hammered down into bars of slightly smaller cross-section (Fig.342)
and 4021 shows this in progress; the hammer marks can be clearly seen (Fig.343). Bars were
the initial product of smithing ingots and they were then further worked down into rods,
sheet or strip. No long lengths of bar survive but 4027, 4047 and 4058 are pieces of bar
which also demonstrate their further working. The varying section of 4047 shows how part
of it was reduced to a thinner section, while 4058 was hammered to a double bevel at one
end and the thinner portion removed cleanly with a chisel cut.

The smaller sectioned pieces are described as rods (typically with a thickness of 3-4mm,
though a few are under 3mm) or wires (which have diameters of under 2nun, most of under
l ·Smm). Many of the rods have irregular cross-sections which may be one of the reasons
why these lengths were cut off and discarded (Fig.342). Two (4021 and 4048) show regular
marks perpendicular to their length (Fig.343) made by a cross-pein hammer, indicating that
they had not yet been reduced to the desired dimensions. A cross-pein hammer, with a
782 The Small Finds

wedge- or chisel-shaped striking face, stretched the bar along its length and reduced its
cross-section while a flat striking face would stretch it equally in both directions, producing
sheet metal. An iron hammer head with a cross-pein has been found in a Period SB context
(2203, Fig.l96, AY 17/6). Other indications of working include the longitudinal crease lines
on 4058 and in the middle of a flat side on 4019 which also shows how one end had been
hammered flat into a strip (Figs.342- 3).

There are many lengths of wire, some of which are probably just parts of pins or needles
as there are also many complete or near complete examples from the site. Some of the
lengths of wire, however, are so long relative to their diameter that they are unlikely to have
been parts of objects and must therefore be seen as part of the metalworker's stock, e.g.
4078 (Fig.344). Others are short lengths and it is impossible to say whether they are offcuts

4026 4027 4047 4058

I 0 0

(
2 cm
l1n

Fig. 342 Copper alloy bars and rods. S cale I: I

Anglo-Scandinavian Non-Ferrous Metalworking from 16-22 Cappergate 783

401 9 402 1 4052

4054 . 4097

,, .,

0 2cm
0 1 in

Fig. 343 Copper a/Jqy scrap shOfllir~g marks of the tools used eo work the metal. Scale I: J

from a manufacturing process or fragments of once complete objects. Some of the wire has
a variable and not always very circular cross-section which suggests that it was hammered,
either directly or between swages. The iron anvil found at 16-22 Coppergate (2200,
784 The Small Finds

Fig. l95, AY 17/6) has grooves on its upper surface which could have been used as one half
of a pair of sw~ges. Other lengths of wire have a very regular and circular section which
suggests they may have been drawn. No drawplate has been found here though examples
are known from other Viking Age sites (e.g. Naumann 1971) so the wire could have been an
imported raw material rather than a product of this site.

Some of the strips (Fig.343) show definite signs of working and must be considered
offcuts from larger pieces of sheet metal. Examples are 4054 which has undulating edges
and hammer marks visible on its surface, 4052 with cut marks visible along both long edges
and 4097 with chisel marks on one face. There are also a number of triangular sheet metal
offcuts, 4051, 4081 and 4083, but these and other strips (Fig.345) do not have tool marks so
clearly visible. It is not always possible to tell how the cuts were made but in some cases the
smooth line suggests that shears or clippers (e.g. 2249, Fig.201, AY 17/6) were used rather

4031 4032 4037

G ci
0· -

0 2cm
0 1io

Fi1.344 Cqpperalloywms. Scak 1:1

Ang/o-Scandinavian Non-Ferrous Metalworking from lfr22 Coppergate 785

4040 4042 4051 4092

4089 -=
4083

0 2cm
0 1 in

Fig.345 Copper aJlqy srrips (4042, 4089, 4092), shut offcuu (4051 , 4083) and folded shur (4040). Scak 1:1

than a hammer and chisel. The majority of the sheet metal fragments have no diagnostic
features and may either be offcuts which have lost their original form or p ieces from broken
objects. One fragment, 4040, has been nearly folded up, perhaps ready to go into a crucible
for remelting.

The tenns used to describe the lead alloy scrap are analogous to those used for the
copper alloy but are not so precisely defined. M ost of the fragments are larger than the
corresponding copper alloy p ieces as lead was used and worked in larger quantities. An
ingot is any large, fairly regular-shaped, as-cast mass of metal (Fig.346). It should be noted
that some were used as they stood as 'anvils' (see p .814) and thus, unlike the copper alloy
ingots, not all were intended as the starting point of wrought metal working. Examples
include a massive block (4116), parts of plano-convex buns (4282- J) and part of a smaller
bar ingot (4284). 4216 may be another similar bar ingot or may just be a spillage which has
an unusually unifonn section.

Spillages have already been discussed briefly (see p.779). They are irregular flows of
solidified molten metal; their shape is due to chance and not design. The illustrated
examples (Pl.LVIlia) show this chance nature of their fonns . The quantity of spillages
786 The Small Finds

4116

;~(' \ ff • • .. .t
-
"\,.. " ~.
l t<.

\: \.
I \ '

\ '-.
' I \ \ ~~.. ·~:(" ,• • -

- ,. ~ --~ '.
....... ...,
~

~ . .... . . J' .. ~
:'·l ·
J
. :

'
........i,.

4216 4282 4283 f

(

0
0

F ig.]46 Lead i>~got.r. Scale 1:2

Angfo-Scandinavian Non-Ferrous Metalworkingfrom 16-22 Coppergate 787

4246 4303

-~-~
,. _ ~ -~
t
4329
/
.
0 5 cm
1-....._....._,r-'----'---\
-
- - ~"i2i9Lz>
'
0 2in

Fig.347 Lead sheet and strips. Scak 1:2

suggests that lead was often melted and the metal solidified wherever it ran to; it was of such
low value that no-<>ne bothered to find and xetrieve it. 4212 has trapped plant remains,
probably charred by the heat of the molten lead, 4347 is a pool of metal which solidified on
an irregular swface and 4352 is a splash of molten metal.

Much lead was cast direct into sheets (Fig.347) rather than bar ingots so there must
have been a major use for sheet metal. 4Z39 is a piece of such an as-<:ast sheet which was
relatively easily worked down into thinner sheets; 4130 and 4246 clearly show the marks

414 1 4284 4287

0 0

2in 5cm Fig.348 Baringor ( 4284) andtVJoparrly-worludbar

ingots (4141, 4287) . Scak 1:2
788 The Small Finds

4151 4152 4154 4263 4290

.f.- ~
-l
~
>.

~~ 0-

IZZ4 - ... 1- ~

0 Scm
0

Fig. 349 Thirt bars and rods of lead (4263), solder (4 152) and rin (4151 , 4154). S cale I:2

produced by the hammers used. A number of the sheet lead fragments have nail holes
round their edges, e.g. 4340 and 4344, indicating that they are from pieces which have been
used, perhaps as patches, rather than unused raw metal; they could be scrap collected for
recycling. Some of the sheet was carefully folded up into parcels, e.g. 4329, suggesting that it
was destined for the melting pot.

Most of the strips (Fig.347) have been cut from sheet metal. Some have both long edges
cut while the rest have only one cut edge, the other being the original irregular edge of the
sheet, e.g. 4303. Some of these strips are described as otfcuts, as are more irregular shapes;
the choice of term used is to a certain extent arbitrary. As with the copper alloy sheet and
strips, a range of cutting tools can be identified. Chisels, knives and probably shears were all
used, the choice depending on the thickness of the piece of metal and the quality of finish
required.

The bars and rods (Figs.348 and 349) are the only categories oflcad alloy scrap where a
significant proportion of the objects are not relatively pure lead (sec below, p.810, for
discussion of this). They can be considered as the products of working bar ingots though
some may derive from the working of strips cut from sheet. 4287 appears to be a bar ingot
(or possibly a fairly regular spillage) in the process of being hammered down into a bar,
Anglo-Scandinavian Non-Fen·ous Metalworking from 16-22 Coppergate 789

while 4141 and 4150 are two lengths of bar ingots in !:he process of being split lengthwise to
produce thinner bars.
There is no silver or gold scrap from 16-22 Coppergate, presumably reflecting !:he value
of l:hese metals and the care which was l:herefore taken to collect up all waste. A small
amount of mercury, 4011, was found and its use is discussed on p.795.

T ools ( Figs .350- I ; PI.LVlllc)

The tools used in working metals provide a further strand of evidence. Most were made
of iron and are published in AY 17/6. Some of the bone and antler objects to be published
in MacGregor, AY 17 (in prep.) may also have been used in metalworking. In very few
cases is it possible to link tools specifically with no n-ferrous metalworking; many could
equally well have been used by a carpenter or blacksmith. H and tools were important but so
too was the hearth which provided the heat not only to refine and melt metal bm to anneal
it, relieving the intt:mal stresses so that further cold work could be undertaken. Two iron
objects have been identified as soldering lamps (2251- 2, Fig.201, AY 17/6), an alternative
and far more localjsed source of heat, but it is not clear exactly how they would have been
used. The localised vitrification seen on some of the blocks of fu sed quartz crups, e.g. 3963
(Pl.LVIb), suggests that blowpipes were sometimes used to direct heat to a small area,
though none has been found.

The hearths found inside some of the builrungs may have been used for metalworking
but they showed no signs of vitrification wruch is commonly associated with the necessary
elevated temperatures (Bayley 1985). The excavations have produced considerable
quantities of vitrified day hearth lining (AY 17/6) which may represent debris from the
destruction of waist-level hearths such as are shown on contemporary carvings. The
majority of thjs material was almost certainly a by-product of iron smithing but a few pieces
had traces of non-ferrous metals on them, e.g. 4404 and 4407, and must l:herefore have been
from hearths used to melt these metals; they appear in contexts of Period 4A onwards.

H earths need a forced draught to raise the temperature of the fire to the level reqwred
for metalworkjng and this would have been provided by bellows which were protected from
the direct heat of the fire by the hearth Structure, the arr blast entering the fire through a
small opening known as a ruyere. Traces of these circular openings are frequently identified
an1ong pieces of vitri,fied hearth tilling and the Coppergatc finds are no exception; typical
hole diameters are 15- 20rrun, e.g. 4400 and 4406. More unusual are the ruyere blocks of
fired clay which would have been built into the side of the hearth, e.g. 4399 and 4401
(Fig.350). The hottest zone in the hearth was usually immediately in front of the tuyere
which was therefore subject to the greatest degree of vitrification. It was l:hus a sensible
precaution to make the ruyere replaceable as a means of repairing thjs part of the hearth
without having to rebuild the whole Structure.

It is assumed that crucibles were marupulated in the fire using tongs, though no tong
marks were noticed on the crucible fragments nor on the vitrified added outer layers and no
790 The Small Finds

4399

4401

0 Scm
0 2in

Fig.J50 Tuyire b/oclcfragmmt.s. Scak 1:2

tongs were found. Flexible green twigs could also have been used to manipulate the
crucibles but no trace of them would swvive in the archaeological n:cord. The molten metal
was poured from the crucibles into moulds which can be considered a son of tool; these
have already been discussed. Once the metal had solidified, the other tools discussed here
were used to shape it into objectS.

All the bar ingots had been cut using a hammer and chisel. Crude work of this sort
would use a relatively heavy hammer, perhaps as large as 2201, Fig.l96, AY 17/6. The
hammer marks on some of the metal bars (e.g. 4048, Fig.343) show the use of a far smaller
cross-pein hammer, more like 2203, AY 17/6. Hammering metal to shape requires an anvil
and 2200, AY 1716, is an example which would have been used for fairly fine work.

Punches were used both to make perforations and to create decorative patterns on the
surface of the object. Many of the punches recognised are large and heavy and more suited
to blacksmithing than smaller-scale non-ferrous metalworking, though one (2219, Fig.197,
AY 1716) has flecks of copper alloy adhering. It is possible that the more delicate punches
have not been recognised, being difficult to distinguish from the large number of iron nails
Ang/o-Scandiuavian Non-Ferrous M etalworking from 16-22 Coppergate 79 1

from the excavations. Other small tools such as awls, tracers and gravers may be under-
represented in AY 17/6 for the same reason.
It is obvious from examination of the scrap metal that some of the thin copper alloy
sheet, e.g. 4081, has been cut with shears and the same may apply to \vires too. Much of the
sheet lead appears to have been cut with a knife, e.g. 4303, though in other cases chisel
marks are clearly visible, e.g. 4204.
One perennial problem when working small pieces o f metal is how to hold them securely
without obstructing the tools which have to be used. What is required is a handle which is
easily detachable but at the same time holds the object securely. The antler clamps
identified by MacGregor (A Y 17 in prep., sfs6979, 7858 and 10470) are examples of the
type o f object which wouJd have been used , though there is no positive evidence to associate
them with the working o f metal rather than other materials. They come from Period 4B and
5B contexts on T enements C and D. Several similar clamps are known from the sites in
Dublin which produced evidence fo r metalwo rking, though other industries were also
carried out there.
Once metal has been cut and hammered to the required shape it has to be filed to
remove rough edges and then given a final polish. Among the files from 16-22 Coppergate
was one which must have been used on copper alloys as traces of brass filings were stuck in
its teeth (2246, Fig.200, AY 17/6); othe.r s may also have had a similar use though no
evidence survives. Finer abrasives than files were available in the form of whetstones which
wouJd have served to sharpen both domestic and craft tools and to give a coarse polish to
metal o bjects. Large numbers were found on the site and they will be described fully in
Tweddle, AY 17 (in prep.).
A finer finish than can be provided by a whetstone is necessary for non-ferro us
metalwork and the many small pieces of soft haematite found on the site are the remains of
this abrasive. Some pieces, e.g. 4374, clearly have a facet worn on one side, showing the use
to which they were put (Pi.LVTilc). P owdered haematite can be used dispersed in a
m edium such as water or wax, a composite known today as jeweller's rouge, and streaks of
haematite were no ted on two sid es of a whetstone fragment, 4409. Haematite was found
scattered all over the site at all periods (Fig.35 1). There are some concentrations, but no
evidence to associate it specifically with the working of one metal rather than another.
Many Viking Age sites have produced bone 'motif pieces' and 16-22 Coppergate is no
exception. There are three examples (MacGregor, AY 17 in prep., sfs5692, 80 16 and
11 782) which come from the front of Tenement C in Periods 4A, 4 B and SB. They have
been used by craftsm en to work out patterns or to practise carving designs which could later
have been applied to any number of media - wood, leather, clay or metal. There is no
direct link to associate these mo tif pieces with the metalworking industries but the possibility
remains.
One group of trial pieces which can be directly linked to metalworking are the lead
sheets with trial stamps from coin dies (AY 18/ 1, 48, 50 and 59) and the coin dies
themselves are of course metalworking tools (AY 18/ l , 43 and 49).
 • haemati te

/
0 10 20 Metres

0 30 60 Feet

1\ f)

Fig. 351 (above and faet ii/V DtScribuuou plocs of haemuucejor Periods 3- 6. Seal~ I:500
 A

• •
I r
~
7);-J

L J

I
l r
--...r _J

• •

se
794 The Small Finds

A final iron object which should be mentioned is a fragment of a mould, possibly for a
strap end (2250, Fig.201, AY 17/6), which could have been used for any non-ferrous metal.
There is no indication as to whether it was used as an open mould or with a second valve. It
raises the possibility that mass-produced objects, for which a permanent mould of this type
would make economic sense, were made on the site despite the lack of clay moulds. It
could, however, just be part of the scrap metal associated with the blacksmith's workshop.
The use of whetstones to shape and polish metalwork has already been mentioned, but
some stones had other metallurgical uses. An example is the fine-grained black pebble,
4411, which could have been used as a touchstone, to estimate the fineness of gold
(Fig.352; Pl.LVInd).

The Industries

Goldworking (Figs .352- 3 ; Pl.LVIIId)

Goldworking was not one of the major industries at 1fr22 Coppergate but the metal
was definitely worked there. Tile finds which provide evidence for this are the parting
vessels, the cupels with gold droplets on them, the blocks of fused quartz chips which were
probably used in a similar way, and the crucibles which were used to melt gold . There is
also a black pebble which could have been used as a touchstone (4411), though no trace of
gold is now visible on it (Fig.352; Pl.LVInd). Given this variety of evidence, it is obvious
that a number of different processes were being earned out. They are not, however,
completely independent as the product of one may have been used ll8 the raw material of
another. They can be seen as individual steps in turning impure gold into objects made of,
or decorated with, the metal.

Parting separates gold and silver. The touchstone (if such it was) could have been used,
both before and after parting, to measure the fineness of the metal. If the gold constituted

44 11
0 0

-· 2 in 5cm Fig. 352 Blaclt pebble which may haw hem used as
a~. Scak 1:2
Ang/o-Scm1dinavian Non-Ferrous Metalworking from 16-22 Coppergate 795

only a minor proportion of the metal, its value when separated had to be sufficient to cover
the cost of extracting it and the inevitable slight loss of silver which parting and resmelting
entailed. The analyses of the non-ferrous metal objects from 16-22 Coppergate show that
silver was not always processed to remove the low levels of gold it contained, e.g. a mount
(s5885 in Twcddle, AY 17, in prep.) contained a detectable amount of gold. Contemporary
silver objects from other sites also often contain traces of gold.
If, on the other hand, gold was the major component in a gold-silver alloy, then parting
simply purified it, removing minor amounts of silver. If the contaminants were base metals
rather than silver, then cupellation or oxidation was the appropriate refining process. Two of
the purpose-made cupels have tiny gold droplets trapped in their vitrified surfaces and
clearly show the depression where the refined metal solidified (Pl.LVa). The blocks of
quartz chips have also been heated strongly in contact with gold but the very low levels of
other metals detected suggest that the conraminants mostly volatilised rather than being
trapped in a glassy slag.
Refining to remove base metals would produce a droplet of molten gold which, when
solidified, was ready for use. The gold which remained after parting required melting to
produce a usable piece of metal so crucibles were also necessary. Crucibles would also have
been used for melting down offcuts, filings and scrap metal for re-use. It is noticeable that it
is only the smaller crucibles which contained traces of gold; this presumably reflects the
small scale of goldworking operations. Some of the crucibles are of Stamford ware (Fig.322),
but these all fall at the small end of the range with maximum external diameters of 52, 59
and 60mm, while the rest are Type A crucibles (Fig.323) with typical maximum external
diameters of 2~30mm. One smaller complete example has a bri.mful volume of c.3ml but
would probably have been used two-thirds full at maximum, which corresponds to 35~0g
of gold.
There is no way of knowing what was being made with the gold which was worked at
16-22 Coppergate as no part-made objects survive. It was almost certainly wrought as this is
the most economical way of using such a precious metal; the rugh value of gold means that
it would have been carefully looked after and recycled, which probably explains why none
was found. The metal finds from the site include only four gold objects - a mount
(sf9878), a finger-ring (s£872), a srud (sf11182) and some thread (s£8489) - and also an
ear-ring (sf41 03) and a buckle pin (sf'2571 ) which are either debased gold or gilded silver
(Tweddle, AY 17 in prep.). H owever, there is nothing to indicate that any of them was
made here. Three of the other objects are gilded, a strap end (sf1037) and ring (sf10247) of
copper alloys and a pewter mount or terminal (sf2742); it is possible that base metal objects
made at Coppergate were then gilded. The discovery of a small amount of mercury, 4011,
can be used to support this suggestion as gilding was often applied to copper alloy objects in
the form of a gold-mercury amalgam (as on sf10247). The bone bumisher (sf6412,
MacGregor, AY 17 in prep.) could have been used to consolidate the gold, but a harder
tool, such as Theophilus describes, is more likely (trans. H awthorne and Smith 1979, 91 ).
More can be said about the goldworking than a mere description of the processes
undertaken. T able 43 summarises the occurrence of finds by period and Fig.353 illustrates
 0 parting vesse l
cupel
"'
• block of quartz ch ips
touchstone
me rcury
*
crucible

/
0 10 2 0 Metres

0 30 60 Feet

1\ I)

Fig. 353 (above and facinx) Distnbucion p/ou of KOidworkiltK finds fo r Pen"ods 3··6. Scale 1:500
 0

v_;-
I
J
r-1

L ._ .J

"l
r
L ---r -- ...J

se
798 The Small Finds

Table 43 Summary o f gold working finds

Period 1/ 3 4A 4B 5A 5B 5C 6

P art ing vessels 4 3 8 1? 1+60

Cupcls 2
Blocks of quartz ch ip s 2 5
Crucibles: Stamford 4 5 7 1 2
'fypc A 2 1 2 4 5
Mercury I
?Touchs to ne

their distribution across the site. Almost all the goldworking finds which pre-date Period SC
are found on the front half of Tenements C and D . 1nere are no finds from contexts earlier
than Period 4A apart from a single fragment of a quam block which comes from a context
which could be contemporary with Period 4A but is assigned to Period 1/3.

The few Period 4A finds are all from near the street frontage. They provide evidence for
both refining and melting; the possible touchstone is also of this period.

Period 48 sees a concentration on Tenement C; the finds come from around the
building and include evidence for refining, parting and melting. The Period SA crucibles are
m ainly from the same areas but, curiously, the parting vessel fragments were found on
Tenements A and B, suggesting some lateral movement of material across property
boundaries in these dump deposits.

In Period 58 the T enement C finds are m ainly from around the contemporary building,
further back from the street than previously, though this may just b e a reflection of the
disturbance which meant the front rank of buildings did not survive on this tenement. Some
finds also came from the front zone of Tenement D . The concentration of parting vessel
fragments is very close to that of Period 48 which could indicate that they a re redeposited. If
not, Period 58 has the largest group of goldworking finds, with blocks of quartZ chips,
parting vessels and crucibles all weU represented.

The Period SC finds were all deliberately discarded as they come from the lowest fi Uof a
rubbish pit at the far north-east corner of the site and comprise crucible fragments and a
single possible fragment from a parting vesseL

The few Period 6 finds from 16- 22 Coppergate were scanered across the rear of
Tenements C and D but a group of 60 large fragments of parting vessels came fro m
contemporary dumping at 22 Piccadilly. These dumps included much redeposited material
and the parting vessels cannot therefore be considered as evidence for continued
goldworking in this part o f York in the post-Conquest period.
Angio-Scandinavian Non-Ferrous Meralworkingfrom 16-22 Coppergace 799

Silverworking (Fig.354)
In contrast with goldworking, the silverworking finds are far more numerous. They
include large numbers of crucibles and some of the ingot moulds as well as the litharge
cakes and most of the cupels.
Although parting involved silver, it was only a by-product of the process; the silver-rich
'cement' had to be heated with molten lead and the resulting metal then cupelled to recover
the silver. The litharge cakes found are unlikely to be products of the recovery of silver from
parting wastes as they not only show a different distribution from that of the parting vessels
but most also contained significant amounts of copper, which analysis of the parting vessels
shows had been removed from the buJlion before it was parted. They are thus indicators of
the refining of debased silver. Litharge could easily be resmelted to recover the lead and
other metals it contained, so the quantity found is unlikely to be all that was once present on
the site. Some of the scrap lead found (see below p.814) may have been raw material for
silver refining, though some was used in other processes.
The cupels (heating trays), which include both purpose-made dishes and re-used sherds,
were probably assay cupels, used to test the purity of silver brought in for use. M ost of the
silver bar ingots found in hoards are of high purity but there are exceptions which would
have made this son of check necessary (Kruse 1988). Coinage was a further source of silver
but had a wider range of composition; some was seriously debased.

Once silver of the required purity had been obtained, it could be melted in crucibles and
cast, either direct into objects or into bars or ingots of other shapes which could in rum be
wrought to make objects. The large numbers of crucibles with traces of silver on them
indicate that considerable quantities of silver were melted. Most were of Stamford ware but
other types were used too at most periods. No clay moulds for small objects were found at
16-22 Coppergate so the silverworking must have been a wrought metal industry based on
bar ingots and some of other shapes from moulds such as 399/.
Only five silver objects were found during the excavations, a mount (s5885), two rings
(sfs8038 and 9212), a twisted wire (sfl346 1), and a buckle (sf4868) (Tweddle, AY 17 in
prep.), and there is nothing to suggest that any of them were made on the site. As no scrap
metal or unfinished objects were found, there is no indication of what the products of the
silverworking industry were. There are, however, silver coins in some quantity, trial stamps
of coin dies on lead sheets and two dies themselves (AY 18/1, 43, 48-50 and 59). The find
spots of these objects coincide with the bulk of silverworklng evidence (see Fig.354) so it is
hard to escape the inevitable interpretation that the silverworking was connected with the
operation of a mint.

The silverworklng finds are summarised in Table 44 and Fig.354 shows thei.r
distribution across the site at each period.
The small number of Period 3 finds are widely scattered, with no concentration in any
particular part of the site. Litharge cakes, crucibles and an ingot mould indicate a range of
silver refining and working processes.
... litharge • lead trial s tamp
., cupel • coin d ie
ingot mou ld ~ heart h lining
• ingot mould w ith defi ni te silver

crucibles
0 1-2
0 3•

/
0 10 20 Metres

0 30 60 Feet

A 0

)
.., eo

I
L. -
., I
L.

48

Fig. 354 (above and facing) Distribuzjqn plots of silverworking ji11ds for Periods 3- 6. Scale I: 500
802 The Small Fiuds

Table 44 Summary of silverworking finds

Period 3 4A 4B SA 58 se 6

Litharge cakes 2 3 2
Cupels 5 3
Crucibles: Stamford 1 6 163 70 43 7 5
Type A I 2 4 5 I
Other 2 2 2 2
Ingot moulds ( + silve r) I 2
Ingot m ou lds (?silver) 2 J
Lead trial pieces
Coin dies 2
Hearth lining

The Period 4A finds are only slightly more numerous, but they show a definite
concentration of crucibles on Tenement D, though with a litharge cake fragment on
Tenement C and two crucible fragments on Tenement B. One of the lead trial stamps (AY
18/ 1, 48) also came from Tenement D.

There is an enormous upsurge in the quantity of silvcrworking finds in Period 4B, the
bulk of the crucibles coming from in or near the building on Tenement D as did an ingot
mould (3995) and the cap from a die (A Y 18/1, 49). The building on Tenement C
produced the complete die (AY 1811, 43), a second lead trial stamp (A Y 18/1, 5(}), another
ingot mould (3996), a litharge cake fragment (3951, PI.LVIa) and further crucible
fragments, also found in the area behind the building. A smaller, though not insignificant,
number of crucibles came from Tenement B, as did n.vo further litharge cake fragments
(3950 and 3952) and a hearing tray (AY 16/5, 2340). The rear of the site produced part of a
fourth litharge cake (3949), parts of rwo heating trays (3 956 and 3959), two sherds re-used
as heating trays (3955 and 3958) and a few crucible fragmenrs.

The quantity and range of finds from Period 4B clearly identify it as the time when the
mint at 16-22 Coppergate was most active, apparently producing coins of A3.thelstan, King
of AJI England 924-39. Hall (in AY 1811, 20-2) has argued that Tenement C was a
die-cutting workshop at this period and the concentration of silverworking debris on
Tenemenr D suggests that this was where the coins themselves were produced; clearly the
occupants of the wo properties must have worked closely with each other. It is worth noting
that the evidence for silver refining comes mainly from T enement B and the back of
Tenement C, suggesting that these operations were separate from the minting, perhaps even
the work of other craftsmen. The Period 4A finds, including the trial stamp, may indicate
that moneyers began working here a decade or so before the start of large-scale production.

The Period SA distribution of crucibles is almost exactly the same as that for Period 4B,
adding weight to the archaeological interpretation that most of these finds are redeposited
earlier material. A single ingot mould (3 997) comes from near the front of Tenement 0,
Anglo-Scandinavian Non-Ferrous Metalworking from I 6-22 Coppergale 803

while the three cupels, one purpose-made (AY 16/5, 2339) and rwo re-used sherds (3960
and 3961, PI.LVb), come from Tenements D , Band C respectively .
Period 5B shows a reduced level of activity. \Xlhilc the crucibles are still concentrated on
Tenements C and D , their locations do not correspond closely with those of the underlying
periods so they are unlikely all to be residual. There are also three ingot moulds from
T enement D , 3998-4000, the first rwo definitely used for silver, and hearth lining fragments
with traces of silver ( 4404) . The lead trial piece from the Tenement CID boundary (AY
18/1 , 59) may bear no relation to the earlier minting activity as the design is that of a
M ercian moneyer and was current in the period AD 955- 9, far earlier in date than the
context in which it was found. It is thus clearly redeposited and should perhaps be
considered as lead scrap rather than having any connection with silverworking.

Period 5C has a small number of crucibles from both the back and front areas of the
excavation, again from Tenements C and D.

Period 6 produced a scatter of crucible sherds from across the rear rwo-thirds of the sire
and a litharge cake (3954) from Tenement A. Ingot mould 4001, which is unlike any of the
earlier ones as it is made from a re-used soapstone vessel sherd, came from the from of
Tenement D.

Copp er alloy wo rking ( Figs.3 55- 7)

Although the quantity of material is not large, there is definite evidence that copper
alloys were worked. The relevant finds are the crucibles used to melt copper alloys, some of
the ingot moulds, the clay object moulds, the tuyeres and hearth lining with traces of
copper, and the scrap metaL They represent a wrought metal industry and, apan from the
object moulds and possibly two of the pieces of scrap metal, there is no evidence that cast
objects were manufactured.

Table 45 Summary of copperworking finds

Period 3 4A 48 5A 5B se 6

Crucibles: Sramford 5 5 2 5 12
T ype A 4 4 I
Other 2 2 5 2
fngol m o uld ( + coppe r) 1+ 1?
Object mould 4 5
Tuyereihea rth lining I I 3 I
Scrap: Ingot 2 I
Bar 1 I 2
Rod l 5 2 I 5
Wire 3 8 I 16
Strip 2 2 2 11
Sheet 2 9
Fragment 6
 droplet
ingot mould
0
• •
'tf hearth lining
I
•
•
c lay object mould
bar, rod, w ire
L,
• fragm ent, sheet, strip r · _ .. J

" ingot • L_ .l
cruc ibles
0 1- 2

/
0 10 20 l'v'etres

0 30 60 Feet

A D

OT 0

! •• 0 •

• L . - · - .. \
•• L
48 •

Fig.355 (above and jaci11g) Distributio" plocs of coppeTWOrki11g finds for Periods 3-6. Scale 1:500
 A
B (' D
A
11• (_
~l)- 1
• r-
0

J~c - jr-J

I
L ._ J

--
l
-
L r
.r- - _J

6
806 The Small Finds

There is also nothing to suggest that alloys were made from their component metals; it
was pre-existing alloyed copper which was worked. Some may have been new metal
imported to the site but it is equally likely that scrap objects were collected and recycled.
Some of the finds catalogued as scrap metal, e.g. 4048 with hammer marks visible, are
definite evidence for metalworking, while other pieces may just be parts of broken objects
which escaped remelting. The scrap must have been carefully sorted before it was melted
down as a range of distinct copper alloys are represented; indiscriminate re-use would have
produced only quaternary alloys. (Ibe alloys present are discussed in more detail on p.807 .)

The sorted scrap metal was melted in crucibles and cast in ingot moulds or poured into
temporary cavities in the workshop floor. The resulting bar ingots were then hammered into
bars, rods, snip or sheet which were cut and bent to shape and made into objects. The
metal was probably cold-worked and so would have work-hardened as it was hammered
and would thus have needed annealing (heating to red heat) before further working could be
carried out. Metallographic examination by Caple (1986) of one of the rods, 4025, has
demonstrated the presence of annealing twins in the crystal structure of the metal, showing
that it had been annealed. Annealing would introduce traces of metal into the hearth, a
possible source of the copper-rich hearth lining. There is no good evidence for the type of
objects produced but many of the simpler wrought objects found on the site, e.g. pins, dress
books and tweezers, could have been made there.

The clay object moulds have been mentioned above (p. 778). The small quantity of
fragments and the lack of associated features suggest they were dumped on the site rather
than being made and used there. They do, however, provide evidence that large objects
were being cast nearby. The analysis of object moulds to determine the metal cast in them is
usually, as here, unsuccessful (see p.818 below), but it is reasonable to expect them to have
been used for copper alloys. Similar material dating from around AD 1200 has come from
The Bedem foundry site in York (Ransome 1977; Richards, AY l 0/3 in prep.).

The overall number of copperworking finds is not large so no very clear disoibution
pattern emerges (Table 45; Fig.355). There are very few finds from before Period 4B when
they appear on the front half of Tenements B, C and D with a smaller number to the rear of
the site. Period SA sees the introduction of the object mould fragments to the site (on the
boundary between Tenements C and D) and other finds from Tenements A, Band D. In
Period SB the crucibles come from Tenements B and C and most of the object mould
fragments from the same area as those from Period SA contexts. The scrap metal is
scattered across the whole of the front of the site. In Period 6 the scale of copperworking
increases, with more crucibles than at any previous period being found all across the back
half of the site. Nearly half the copper alloy scrap comes from Period 6 contexts and also
concentrates on the rear half of the site, with a smaller concentration overlying the building
on T enement C. At no period are particular forms of scrap metal concentrated in one area;
this adds to the impression given by the other copperworking finds that it is the scattered
debris of an unspecialised industry.
Anglo-Scandinaviar1 Non-FmYJus M ecalworkingjrom 16-22 Coppergate 807

Copper alloys
The wide range of copper alloys found suggests that their working was on a small scale,
u sing whatever metal came to hand, as a major industry would have needed a regular and
secure source of metal of an acceptable composition.
Most of the copper alloy scrap and objects were analysed qualitatively by XRF (White
and Wilthew 1984). The pins, needles and some of the wires were analysed quantitatively,
also by XRF, by Caple (1986) 1; his results for objects catalogued here are given in Table
46. All the analytical results were interpreted to give an alloy name to the metal of which
each object was made; these alloy names appear in the catalogue. The nomenclature used is
that proposed by Bayley ( 199 1d) and Fig.3 56 shows the re lationships of the alloy names to
composition . F or example, an alloy which contains mainly copper and zinc is called a brass
while ooe which contains tin and lead but little or no zinc added ro the copper is called a
leaded bronze.
The analytical results for the scrap metal (Table 4 7) sh ow a range of alloys at all periods
but with b rass becoming more frequent from P eriod 4B onwards. Leaded brass is
apparently absent before Period 4B.

Figure 357 shows the relative proportions of differenr alloys among the scrap metal
com pared with the results for the finished objects, which were also analysed by White and

LEAD
/\
I
I l ea ded
co pp er

I
J
/
~ "'""o-
...~
-Q <!>o-
b
..,
btU leaded d_...
0
~ g u n m etal
~
'"'~

br ass g unmel al br onze

ZI N C TIN

Frg.356 Terna ry diagram shUU!irrg the rclaciorrships between alloy name and compositiotr for copper alloys
808 The Small Finds

Table 46 Quantitative analyses of copper alloy scrap (after Caple 1986)

Note: In this particu la r table - = below level of d etectio n.

Sb, Ag and Au were also sought but were b elow the le vel of detection in all cases.

Cat. No. Cu% Zn% Sn% Pb% Ni% Fe% Mn% As%

4015 92.7 3.2 2.9 1. 6 0.2 0.4 copp er/bro nze

4017 86.7 8.6 3.6 0.3 0.8 0. 1 gunmetal
4025 76.8 10.6 2.3 10.0 0.2 0.2 leaded brass
4033 80.6 10.5 5.9 0.5 2.3 0.3 <2 (leaded) brass
4036 80.0 16.9 0.5 2.2 0.2 0.4 brass
4076 88.7 5.8 1.5 2.6 0.3 1.2 0. 1 brass/copper
4078 89.2 5.8 3.4 0.6 0.9 0.2 gunmetal
4079 94 .5 2.7 0.9 1. 7 0.2 0.1 copper
4080 78 .7 4 .8 5. 2 5 .9 1. 3 3.8 0.2 (leaded ) g uom eta l

Wilthew ( 1984) and show a similar pattern, with brass again predominating. The main
differences are that unalloyed copper and gurunetal are more common in the scrap than in
the objects ( 16% and 17% respectively as compared with 4% and 6%) and that a higher
proportion of the objects are of leaded alloys (33% compared with 18% for the scrap). The
higher proportion of gunrnetal in the scrap may indicate some mixing of brass and bronze in
remelting while the lower proportion of leaded alloys confirms the interpretation of the scrap
as the waste of a wrought metal industry since heavily leaded alloys can only be cast and not
wrought.

The analytical results for the objects (fable 48) mirror the increase in the use of brass
from Period 4B onwards which was seen in the results for the scrap metal. The proportion
of leaded objects peaks in Period 4B with the lowest proportion occurring in Periods SC and 6.

Table 47 Analytical summary for the copper alloy scrap

Note: • indicates that unstratified material is included.

Period 3 4A 4B 5A ss se 6 All*

Copper 4 6 12
Bronze I 2 5
Gunmetal 4 I 6 13
Brass 7 3 3 17 33
Leaded b rass/copper 3 6
Leaded gunmetal 2
Leaded b ronze 2 2 6
Anglo-Scandinaflian Non-Ferrous Metalworking from 16-22 Coppergate 809

%
50

40

30

20

10

0
<;
~
~

scrap objects

Fig. 357 Histograms comparing the f>rOPOrtions of different copper a/Jcys in the scrap metal and ohj«rs (all periqds)

The one definite change to be seen in the analytical results is the upsurge in the use of brass
from the mid 1Oth century. Brass was common in Roman Britain, particularly in the 1st century
(Bayley 1990a), but it is only rarely found among groups of early and middle Saxon metalwork
(e.g. Heyworth 1988; Mortimer et al. 1986; Wilthew 1984a) though the copper alloy used in
the construction of the 8th century helmet, found only just outside the area of the Coppergate
excavations during construction work in 1982, was brass (Tweddle, AY 17 forthcoming). The

Table 48 Analytical summary for the copper alloy objects

Note: * indicates that unstratified material is included.

Period 3 4A 4B SA SB se 6 All*

Copper 1 I 2 6
Bronze 5 3 1 2 I 3 18
Gunmetal 1 I 2 3 8
Brass 2 24 6 10 6 13 65
L!ad~d brass/copper 14 5 2 2 2 28
Leaded gunmetaJ 2 1 1 5
Leaded bronze 3 6 3 2 15
810 The Small Finds

appearance of brass in quantity in the Anglo-Scandinavian period suggests that new metal
was being made at this time. It is interesting to note that much of the scrap metal from the
contemporary Flaxengate site in Lincoln is also brass {White 1982). At present no source
can be identified for this metal but it is possible that it reflects the Scandinavian trading
contacts of the Danelaw since analyses of Viking period copper alloys from Hedeby show
them to be either copper or brass, with or without lead; tin is virtually absent (Drescher,
pers. comm.).

Lead, tin and pewter working (Fig.358; PI.LVIIIb)

The only evidence for the working of lead and tin was scrap metal including unfinished
and miscast objects; the total weight of such material was approximately 30kg. No vessels
were identified as crucibles for melting lead and/or tin as the necessary temperatures are so
low that domestic cooking pots could have been used and no identifiable vitreous deposit
would have been left behind.

Lead and tin are two silvery-grey metals with low melting points which were used both
separately and alloyed together. Of the 483 pieces of scrap listed in the catalogue and
summarised in Table 49, 98 were analysed. The catalogue entries include the analytical
results which are summarised in Table 50. About 90% of the analysed scrap was lead and of
the remainder one-third was tin and two-thirds lead-tin alloys. The proportion of
deliberately made objects (e.g. badges) which are unalloyed lead is far lower (Wilthew
1984b). 2

One small group of finds which can be separated from the mass of scrap metal comprises
two rods and a bar of tin (4151, 4154 and 4290) and a lead-tin alloy bar (4152). Although
lead-tin alloys are usually known as pewter, the more appropriate term for the alloy here is
soft solder, a term which describes both composition and function. These pieces of metal
were used either as solder, to join parts of copper alloy objects, or to tin (coat) objects of
copper alloy or iron. Wilthew (in AY 17/6) has shown that both unalloyed tin and solder
were used to tin (coat) some of the iron objects found on the sire. These coatings could have
been applied by dipping the object in a pot of molten tin as described by Theophilus (trans.
Hawthom e and Smith 1979, 187), though two of the pieces here, 4151 and 4154, had
melted tips (see Fig.349; PI.LVIIIb) which show that the object to be tinned was cleaned,
fluxed, heated and then the tin was rubbed over the surface of the iron, coating it. (Some
iron objects are coated with copper alloy but this would have had to be applied by dipping
because of the higher melting points of these alloys; this may explain why no comparable
melted copper alloy rods were found.)

Three of these pieces, 4151, 4152 and 4154, come from Period 4B contexts in and
behind the building on Tenement C (Fig.358) and it is noteworthy tbat Onaway suggests
that it is at this period tha£ tinned iron objects were being made in workshops on Tenements
C and D (AY 17/6). A knife blade with a droplet of tin on its tip (2805, Fig.229, AY 17/6)
also came from here.
Anglo-Scandinavian Non-Ferrous M etalworking from 16-22 Coppergate 81 I

Table 49 Summary of lead and tin scrap

Pc nod 2 3 I /3 ·lA 48 5A 5R 4/5 5C 6 Total

Badge 2 2
Brooch I
Pendant 2 2
Pin I
Sprue I
Runm:r 2 2
Ingot I 3 7
Bar I 3 4 q
Rod 1 I 2 8
W1rc 2 I 3
Strip 4 I 10 5 (l 3 Ii 47
Offcut 2 () 3 17 '5 II 2 4 18 68
Sheet I 9 I 14 J 10 4 32 76
Spillage 11 14 2 41 8 4 ·1 8 11 0 239
Fragment I 4 7 2 lh

Total l 'i 2 39 9 99 21 79 4 22 192 4 83

Table 50 Analysed lead and rin scrap

Ke y: T = tin A = lcad-lin L = lead

When there is m o re than one occ urren ce, numbers an: given in brackets.

Pcnod 2 3 1/) 4A 4R 'iA 58 4/'5 5C ()

Badge L( 2)
Bru~H:h A
P~ndan1 AL
Pm A
Sprue L
Runner L ( 2)
Ingot L L L L
Bar L T LO ) L
Rod TAL L L L TL
Wire L
Stnp L L 1\L ()) L L O) L LO)
Offcut L L L L(5 ) L ( 3) L L (6)
Sheet L L 1.(1) I. I. 1.(2) I.( 7 )
Spillage L(2) L ( 2) AL L O) L ( 'i) L L ( 6)
Fragment I.
•
-~
ingot 0 ore o*
•
I
I

·-
ba r, rod, w ire
• • ••
spillage 6
I I ~
rl' ••
• ru nn er, sprue 1-2 r
3·
...
objects to
*
strip, sheet, offc ut. fragment
• 1- 2
c r ucibles ·lead glass
,. _
0

L__
" J

l
0 1- 2
3·
• d'

/
0 ~

0 10 20 Metres 3
2
I

0
I 30 60 Feet

A D

Fig.358 (abovt and facing) Distribution plotJ of lead, lead-tin alloyar1d tin working finds for Periods 3- 6. Scale 1:500
814 The Small Finds

The other finds from the sire suggest that unalloyed lead was used in four distinct ways.
The first was as a raw material from which objects were made. The sprue and runners 4215
and 4280-1 show that lead objects were being cast in moulds, though no moulds were
found. Some of the smaller spillages could also be by-products of casting. The moulds
could have been of fired clay or stone, as is common in later medieval times (e.g. Shoesmith
1985), but antler (e.g. MacGregor 1985) or even wood could have been used because of the
low melting point of the metal (Drescher 1978). The failed castings of the pendant (4149)
and badges (4277- 8) show the son of things which were being made. Pewter was also used
for cast objects; a second unfinished casting for a pendant (4148) was pewter rather than
lead. The choice of lead or pewter seems to have been random; the same variability was
found by Biek (1959) among the Ang)o-Scandinavian objects from H ungate, York. Many of
the simpler lead objects which were hammered to shape - for example sheet metal patches
and weights, both discs and those made from rolled up sheet metal - were probably also
produced on site.
T he second use of lead was as a 'tool' when working other metals. The larger pieces
identified as lead ingots (4116, 4282-3) have large numbers of cut and punch marks on
them; they have been used as supportS by the craftsman when cutting and decorating other
metals. The lead strips used ro rake trial stamps from the coin dies also demonstrate the use
of lead as a tool (AY 18/1, 48, 50 and 59). These finds come from almost all periods and so
demonstrate the continuity of metalworking on the site.

The third use of lead is in cupellation. Lead is the raw material used and the litharge
cakes are the waste product of the process. Most litharge would have been resmelted to
recycle the lead. Litharge cakes were found in contexts from Periods 3 to 6 so some of the
scrap lead in all periods was probably either collected for use in cupellation or comprised
spillages of resmelted lead.
The final use of lead is as a raw material for the high-lead glass industry for which I 6-22
Coppergate and 22 Piccadilly produced evidence in the form of large numbers of crucible
sherds with glass adhering (Bayley 1987; AY 1615, fig.205, 2345-66; Bayley et al., AY 17 in
prep.).

As a result of these multiple uses of lead it is not possible to correlate the distribution of
scrap lead on the site with particular industries since they overlap in both time and space.
Over 90% of the scrap lead (the finds categorised as spillages, sheet, strip, fragments and
offcuts) is of forms which cannot be related to any specific activity and is distributed fairly
evenly all over the site.

Another group of finds which also has a wide distribution on site is the galena. Tb.is
mineral (lead sulphide) is a common lead ore, though its nearest sources are at some
distance in the Yorkshire D ales. It may have been brought to the site to be smelted, though
it would have been easier to transport the lead metal, and the fuel required for smelting
would have been more readily available in a rural rather than an urban environment. There
is no question that the galena is present, though the reasons why it was brought to the site
remain uncenain.
Anglo-Scandinavian Non-Ferrous Metalworking from 16-22 Coppergar.e 8 15

General Discussion and Conclusions

MacGregor (1978, 42) comments that metalworkers ' . . . must have formed an
extremely important element among the craftsmen of Anglo-Scandinavian York, and yet
primary evidence of their activities is very scarce indeed'. He goes on ro summarise what
was then known, which for non-ferrous metals was very linle. There were the two
barrow-loads of thin copper sheets from High Ousegate and the nearby remains of two
'furnaces' which are probably roug.h.ly contemporary noted by Benson (1902); from 9 Blake
Street came a piece mould for a trefoil brooch associated with crucible fragments
(MacGregor 1978), and from near the Castle (Grove 1940) and near the Railway Station
(Waterman I 959) came bone motif pieces. Watermao (ibid.) also noted a I 9th century find
of a crucible from Bishophill and another from Coppergate. Small numbers of other
crucibles and moulds are known (e.g. Radley 197 1) but all appear to post-date the 11th
century.

Excavations at Hungate in the early 1950s discovered a number of sherds of Stamford

ware crucibles, though none was published in the report (Rjchardson 1959). Analysis of
eleven pieces (mainly from T rench PS) in the Ancient Monuments Laboratory has now
shown that seven were used to melt silver; the others were 'used' in the terminology
employed here for the Coppergate crucibles.

More recent excavations by York Archaeological Trust have increased the number of
sites with metalworking finds which are roughly contemporary with those from Coppergate.
From Tanner Row came three crucible fragments used to melt copper alloys, one probably
of Stamford ware (Budd 1987), from I Kings Square a stone ingot mould (Youngs et al.
1988), and from 46- 54 Fishergate an ingot mould (Youngs et al. 1986) and dozens of
crucible sherds (Bayley 1990b). All these finds will be published in due course in The
Archaeology of York.

None of these finds, apart from the Blake Street mould, provides evidence of processes
not illustrated by the Coppergate material. They do, however, show that metalworking was
widespread throughout the city at this period and that Coppergate was not the only centre.
The large number of finds recovered here must be, in part at least, a function of the size of
the area excavated and the thoroughness with which finds were retrieved, though the site
must also have been one of the most important metalworking areas in the city at this time.

What is remarkable about the Coppergate excavations is not that they proved the
presence of thriving metalworking industries in Anglo-Scandinavian York, but that they
produced evidence for the working of such a wide range of metals. In addition ro both
smelting and smithing of iron (AY 17/6), the finds indicate that gold, silver, a range of
copper alloys, lead, tin and pewter were all worked on the site. There is no evidence of the
smelting of non-ferrous metals, though the few pieces of galena (lead ore) found show that it
was brought to the city, presumably to be smelted. A few fragments of clay moulds and
metal waste provide the only evidence of metal casting, underlining the conclusion that
816 The Small Finds

precious metals and copper alloys at 16-22 Coppergate were mainly used in wrought
industries. Tin was used to coat iron objects.
If it is assumed that the distribution of metalworking finds mirrors the areas and periods
in which the processes they represent were carried out, there was little precious metal
working before Period 4A and the scale of the industry increased markedly in Period 4B.
Goldworking appears to be concentrated on Tenement C and may continue into Period
SC, while silverworking centres on Tenement D and shows little activity beyond Period SB.
Evidence for copper alloy working is found from Period 3, with an increase in Period 4B but
a peak in Period 6. It centres on T enements B and C until Period 6 when the finds are
widely scattered across the rear half of the site. The tinning of ironwork appears to have
been carried out on Tenement C in Period 4B.
When the distributions for the different metalworking industries are superimposed, there
are apparent conflicts as they tend to concentrate in the same areas at the san1e periods;
possible explanations for this overlap must be sought. It could be argued that metalworking
was a general skill, with no specific expertise being expected or necessary in the Viking Age.
Some collections of tools found in Scandinavia, e.g. M astermyr (Arwidsson and Berg
1983), suggest that a craftsman could and did work both ferrous and non-ferrous metals.
While this may have been appropriate in rural areas with dispersed populations, it would be
surprising in an urban centre such as York, and especially when specialised skills to do with
the operation of a mint were involved. In medieval times the guilds and the demarcation
lines they defined and policed demonstrate specialisation which, while not fully formed in
the Anglo-Scandinavian period, was unlikely to be a completely new development in the
following centuries.
An alternative explanation of the multiple industries is that they required similar
workshop facilities, so a group of craftsmen with different specialities might choose to work
together. This is plausible where fine metalworking is concerned but loses credibility if
blacksmithing is included. The industries could, of course, have been seasonal or could have
lasted for shorter periods than are separable in the archaeological record, but the
concentrations of finds in several contiguous periods argues for continuity.
These explanations of the interpretation suggested above, that many industries were
practised in the same place at the same time, lack conviction, so perhaps the interpretation
should be questioned - how certain can we be that find spot correlates with use? Whatever
the conclusion reached, it is certain that a wide range of metals was worked in the
Anglo-Scandinavian period on or near the site excavated at 16-22 Coppergate.
The larger than usual scale of retrieval of industrial debris of all sorts has led Hodges
( 1989) to comment that York was ' . .. one of the most industrially-active places in tenth-
century Latin Christendom'. While York has been shown to be a manufacturing centre at
this period, it is the serendipitous nature of archaeological excavation rather than proven fact
which has resulted in this claim.
The metalworking evidence from Lincoln (mainly the Flaxengate and Silver Street/
Saltergate excavations) and Winchester are of the same scale, and, further afield, Dublin
Anglo-Scandinavian Non-Ferrous M era/working from 16-22 Coppergate 817

and Hedeby have also provided large quantities of finds . In all cases a range of metals was
being worked. Coppergate does, however, have the distinction of being one of the first
major Anglo-Saxon or Viking Age metalworking sites whose finds have been published in
detail.

Notes on Ana lytical Methods and Results

Almost all the analyses were carried out in the Ancient Monuments Laboratory by X-ray
fluorescence (XRF). The XRF spectrometer used was a Link Systems MECA 10-42
energy dispersive system, fined with a rhodium X-ray tube and a lithium drifted silicon
detector. Typical analytical conditions were a tube voltage of 35kV and current of 0·03mA,
an air path for the X-rays and a detector live time of 10 or 20 seconds. The range of the
detector was 0-40keV with a channel width of20eV.
The system is set up to analyse a Large area (about lcm 2). This is an advantage when
dealing with crucible slags as they are far from homogeneous so an 'average' analysis over a
relatively large area is more representative than a small spot analysis could be. If the metal
£races are very slight or scattered the chances of them being detected increase with the area
analysed.
There are many factors which affect the strength of the signal (peak height) produced by
each element when analysing a particular object. These include the shape, size and surface
texture of the object, the concenJiation and disoibution of the element of interest, the major
element composition of the object and the analytical conditions used.
The metalliferous deposits on the inner surfaces of all the crucibles, parting vessels and
cupels were analysed. In some cases the outer surfaces were also analysed. The elements
detected are listed in the catalogue, their order being that of decreasing peak height, which,
it should be noted, is not directly related to abundance. The results are essentially
qualitative but can be interpreted ro suggest what metal or alloy was melted in the crucible.
The ultimate aim was to .identify the composition of the metal which was melted in the
crucible. The available evidence is sometimes corroded metal droplets trapped in the slag
layer but more usually just the crucible slag itself. The relationship between the composition
of this surviving material and that of the original metal is very complex so the imprecision
introduced by qualitative analysis is only one of several approximations which have to be
made in interpreting the XRF results. In practice, qualitative results are a positive advantage
as they prevent spurious precision being anached to their interpretation.
The proportions of the various non-ferrous metals present in crucible slags depend not
only on their original concenJiations in the metal melt but also on their chemical nature.
Elements like gold which are unreactive are not detected unless they are present as discrete
818 The Small Finds

metal droplets trapped in the slag. At the other end of the scale the concentrations of lead
and particularly zinc are enhanced as they can act as glass-forming elements and so are
chemically bound into the crucible slag. Zinc has a very high vapour pressure and so tends
to diffuse into the crucible walls; as a result it is weU represented when the crucible is
analysed, even if it was only present in minor amounts in the metal melt. The shape of the
crucible may also affect how much of the more volatile elements is detected, as a deep or
lidded form wiU tend to contain the metal vapour while in an open form it wiU quickly be
lost to the aunosphere and so be present in lower concentrations as the crucible slag forms.
During analysis of crucibles, iron was normally sought as well as non-ferrous metals. The
iron is presenr in the day fabric of the crucible and so provides a very approximate internal
standard against which the other elements may be compared. Where overall levels of
non-ferrous metals were very low (relative to iron), though still detectable, the elements
detected are given in the catalogue within round brackets. Elements given in square brackets
were visible on microscopic examination but were not detected by XRF. Where the major
elements detected are the more volatile ones and no specificaUy diagnostic e lements were
recorded, the crucible is described as 'used', with no attempt made to identify the metal or
alloy being melted.
With moulds as opposed to crucibles there is far less likelihood that high levels of metals
will survive both burial and rediscovery. A good mould was nor <wetted' by the metal cast in
it and its temperature was not normally high enough for a sufficient length of time to
produce any significant slagging of the surface in contact with the metal. Thus in a clay
mould for an object the only metal normally entering its fabric was that in the vapour rising
from the melt, mainly zinc and, to a lesser extent, lead. For these reasons XRF analyses of
object moulds do not normally produce useful results.
Ingot moulds, whether of clay or stone, more often provide evidence of the metals cast in
them as they were used repeatedly over a period of time, allowing detectable levels of metals
to build up. Volatile elements are not so great a problem here as the open moulds allow
their escape to the atmosphere, though experiments by Bames (n.d.) have shown that the
major XRF peak detected is for zinc even when it is present at levels as low as I% in the
metal melt. Even in ingot moulds the levels of metals are far lower than in cruables and
they are less firmly bound to the surface.
Much of the scrap and waste metal was also analysed. Most of the copper alloys contain
detectable amounts of zinc, tin and lead in addition to copper so XRF is not very helpful
when used purely as a qualitative analyser, i.e. on a presence/absence basis. However, peak
heights vary considerably, from little more than background levels up to a couple of orders
of magnitude greater than this. The relative heights of peaks, i.e. semi-quantitative analyses,
can thus often be interpreted to suggest a broad alloy type, but further subdivisions are not
considered reliable. The names given to the various copper alloys are indicated in Fig.356.
The items catalogued as lead and tin include pure lead as weU as some lead-tin alloys and a
bar and cv,ro rods of pure tin. Lead-tin alloys are usually described as pewter though some of
the Coppergate pieces are described as solder, a term which denotes the use tO which the
pieces were most probably pur or for which they had been intended.
Anglo-Scandinavian Non-Ferrous M etalworking from 16-22 Coppergate 8 19

Catalogue

The catalogue is arranged by object category, following the same order as the text.
Within each category the objects are arranged in period order (see T able 41 for description
of periods). The catalogue numbers follow consecutively those in AY 17/6. Throughout the
catalogue, small find numbers are indicated by the prefix 'sf , and conte.xt numbers appear
before the small find number. The catalogue incorporates a table of crucibles, but crucibles
(other than those catalogued in AY 1615) have not been assigned individual catalogue
numbers.

Abbreviations: L. = length; W. = width; T. = thickness; D . = diameter

Metal refining evidence lead, copper and a trace of silver on the

upper surface. L49, W.36, T . l 6mm 32 194
Litharge cakes sfl6 179

Period 3
3946 Ut:hargc: eight joining fragments from a
litharge 'cake' with a diameter of about
80mm. XRF analysis detected lead and
copper. L.66, W.36, T .24mm 20893 sf8667
(Fig.317)
3947 Litharge fragment fro m a 'cake' with a
raised nm. XRF analysis detected lead,
copper and a trace of silver. L54, W.42,
T.34mm 25990 sf10697 (Fig.3 17)
Period 4A
3948 Litharge fragment from a large 'cake'. XRF
analysis detected lead, copper and silver.
L.88, W.62, T.42mm 25999 sfl 0324
Period 4B
3949 Fragment from the centre of a litharge
'cake'. XRF analysis detected lead, copper
and, on one side only, silver. L61, W.36,
T.26mm 2062Z sfil5 10
3950 Two joining fragments making up nearly
ha lf a round, concavo-convex litharge
'cake ' with a diameter of abou t I OOmm.
XRF analysis detected lead and copper.
L.85, W.55, T .23mm 20999 sf7409
(Fzg.311)
3951 Litharge 'ccake' quadrant with a diameter of
about 140mm and a depression on the
centre of the upper surface about 70mm
across. XRF analysis detected lead and a
little copper. L104, W.82, T.33mm 26748
sfl 0052 (Fig.J/ 7; Pl.L Vi a)
3952 Fragment of a litharge cake with an
irregular ovoid depression c. l 5 x 20mm in
its upper surface. XRF analysis detected
Period SB
3953 Fragment of a small concavo-convex
litharge ·cake' with a circular depression
about 35mm across in its upper surface.
XRF analysis detected lead and a trace of
copper. L.51 , W.36, T.9mm 16882 sf6297
( Fig.J/7)
P eriod 6
3954 Fragment from the centre of a litharge
'cake'. XRF analysis detected lead, copper
and a trace of silver. L.47, W.43, T . ISmm
2 193 sf58
Cupels
Period 4B
3955 Fragment of a Stamford ware sherd re-
used as a cupel. The inner/upper surface is
covered wtth an olive brown glassy layer
which has Oowed over one edge and across
the o ther side. XRF detected lead, copper
and a linle zinc. L.23, W .2 1, T .3 mm
197 19
3956 Possible cupel (heating tray) fragment with
copper-rich droplets trapped on the inner
surface in a red, vitreous layer which has
Oowed over the rim unto the outer surface.
XRF detected lead, copper and zinc. L.32,
W. 18, T .9mm 21143
3957 Fragment of cupel (heating tray), c.40mm
diameter, with gold droplets trapped in the
olive green vitreous layer oo the inner
surface. A central depression in the vitreous
layer, c.20mm across, shows the size of the
820
p1C:CC of rdined sold wluc:b sobdl.6ed tbcrc..
Fabnc rdi-actol')'. XRF detected lead, eo~
per, ZIJlC and gold. L.21, W . 17. T .6mm
22679 (PI LVa)
Fragment of cupel (be1ung tray) , c.40mm
d1ameter. Central depresSion similar to
that 10 1957 F1bnc refraCtory. XRF de-
teCted copper, 11old and lead. (AY 16/5,
2341) L.24, W 17, T 7mm 22820
(Ff1.118)
F rqment of cupd (heaong tray), c. I OOmm
dwneter XRF detected lead, line, copper
and on. (AY 1615, 234{]) L.40, W .30,
T . IOmm 24073 ( P,g.118)
3958 Pan of a Stamford ware sherd re-used as a
cupel. The mner/upper surface is mainly
covered w11h 11 al•usy layer coloured brown
and red wh1ch has also Oowed over the
edae on to the outsid e. XRF detected lead,
copper, Lln and zinc. L.29, W .27, T .4mm
2539 1
1959 Sherd from A cupcl (heating tray) with
dinmetcr of nbout 60mm. Fabric not very
refmetory. XRF deteeted lead, copper, tin
and ..:me L.26, W .23, T . l 5mm 19390
sfl6123
P e rio d SA
3960 Fl"'lgrnent of a sherd of York ware with a red
Vlt:n:o\1$ surface on one lilde and smaU areas
of sumlar appearance on the other; possibly
u5Cd 11 a cupel XRF detected lead, copper
and a bale :nnc: and tm. L.34, W .20,
T7mm 15173d4193
lncomplcte orcular clay cupd (heatmg
tray), 53mm dwnetcr 1lx Vlt.nfied, upper
surface appean da.rtt ohve m colour and has
an of!1.et, etrcular depresSion, c.25mm
acrou, whcrt the rdined metal solidified.
Fabnc refractory XRF detected lead, cop-
per and allnle zux. (AY 1615, 2339) 22309
sfl5547 (Fw.3t8)
3961 FnliJllcnt of 11 sherd, possably from a Type
A cruCible, I'C'-UKd BJ a cupel. The thick,
block VItreOus la)-cr bad a depression,
c.22mm across, whcr'C the refined metal had
sohdiflcd. XRF detc:cted copper, zinc, lead
and silver. L.29, W .22, T.4mm 18572
(I"LLVb)
Bl ocks of quartz chip s
Period 1/3
1962 Frngment from the edge of a block of
vitrified tlnd fined quartZ clups. XRF analysis
detected no non-ftrrous metals. L.17,
W . 16, T 22mm 27 184 sflt726
Period 4A
1961 lncomplcte block of \1tn6ed and fused
quanz dups With most of an oval depression
C J0 X 20 '< 5mm deep SW'VWU'lg In lt:S upper
sumce The area of the depression was
darkened and two gold droplet:s ....-ere
The Small Finds
trapped D'1 the centre XRF anaJysu detected
gold L.68, W.49, T 29mm 30134 d1 1568
(Fiz.319, Pt.LIIfb)
Period 48
1964 FI"'IIJ1lCCt from the edge of a block of
\itrificd and fwed quanz dupl XRF analym
detected only a slight tnce of copper L.42,
W.33, T .30mm 29926 d14224
1965 lncomplcte block of Vltnfied and fused
qulrtl ch1ps wtuch hu lost Its top surface.
M ost of a o.rcular dcprcs'loo, c.20 x 5mm
deep, survtvcs 111 Ill (present) upper sur-
face With o gold droplet trapped JUSt with10
itll outhnc:. XRF analys1s detected gold.
L59, W .32, T .28mm 2 1903 sfl0564
(Fig.1/V)
Period 58
3966 Fragment from t.hc edge of u block of
vitrified nnd fused qulll'tZ chips. XRF IU'llllysi.s
detected sliaht traces of copper nrul zinc.
L IS, W . J5, T .27mm 14536 sf5603
3967 Lump of vunfled and fused quartz chips
with gold droplets trapped in the most
heavily vitn6ed area XRF analyw.s deteCted
traces o f copper, nnc And gold. L37, W.27,
T . l5mm 21796 5111794
1968 Fragment from a block ofVItnfled and fu5Cd
quartZ ch1ps ....,th I rnUSIVC VItreouS deposit
coloured red D'1 places and with many gold
droplet:S 111 11 XRP analym detected gold,
copper and ZinC. L.23, W 20, T 19mm
2 1766 fl l 857
1969 Corner of 1 blotlt of Vltnfied and fused
quartz dups XRF lllllli}'11S deteCted Slh'tt,
copper, &Old and ZlllC LJO, W .28, T .28mm
218541116 170
3970 Edge of a block of Vltnfied and fUKd quartz
clups With 11 small pan of a central de-
pression SUI'VIVVlg. Gold dropletS arc
trapped 111 the tluckest VItreous deposn .
XRF analysiS dctc:cted slight traces of cop-
per, ZJnc and lead. L43, W.33, T .29mm
21676sn617t (F~g. 3tV)
Parting vessels
P eriod 4A
3971 Possible fmgment of luting clay/lid from
parting Vt!iscl, hghlly vitrified on outer
surfiaoc. Inner surface has faint textile: im-
pression. XRF MAI)'lliJ detected low levels
of zinc, lead, copper and M.lvcr. L.34, W.25,
T .9mm 27619 sflt557
Period 48
1972 Parung vessel body sherd w1th pale green-
ish \1tnfied outer surface XRF anai)''SIS
deteCted Jiver. L.22, W 21, T IOmm
35008
3971 Parung \'eJSC:I run or hd sherd With panly
Vltnficd added luun11 clay XRF anai)'Sis
Anglo-Scandinavian Non-Ferrous Metalworking from 16-22 Co[tpergate
detected $ilver. LJ2, W .25, T bmm 29926
3974 Vitr16cd tuuog clay from a cubotd pa.rnng
vessel. XRF analys~s detected Sliver. L20,
W.9, T.4mm 29926
3975 Fragment of olive green Vltnllc:d luting clay
from a parting vessel. XRP analysis dctecu:d
silver, copper and gold. L 30, W. 16,
T8mm29222
Period SA
3976 Fabnc similar to lullllg eta) from patting
vesRI Wlth green "1tnfic:d outer surface
tndudmg tiny ~ cold droplets The
shape suggests 11 t) pan of a mu1le:r
container dun the parung vnscls. XRF
analysis detected silver and ~ea):: t.riiCC:S of
copper and zmc. L26, W .23, T . l I mm
8459 (F~g.12 1)
3977 Fragment of tuang clay from parting vessel
with greenish viuificd ~urfocc:. XRF de--
tected silver and copper. L. l7, W. I 6,
T .7rnm8376
Period 58
3978 Run sherd of cub<>ld parung vessel \\>llh
ob'-.: grc:cn, VItrified, added outer 12}"a".
XRF anah-sis dcLccted River LlO, W 27,
T .7mm7483
3979 Sherd from wall or lld of cuboid panmg
vessel. XRF anal)'SIS detected River, copper
and zinc. L22, W 21, T 5mm 7553
3980 Shc:rd from cubotd parong \'essd. XRF
analysis detected Sliver, guld and copper.
L21, W.l6, T .6mm 7551
3981 Prugment of vitrified luung clay from pan-
mg vessel With gold droplet trapped on inner
surfa~. XRF analystS detected Silver and
tra~s of copper, zmc 110d aotd L27, W 17,
T4mm7553
3982 Lullllg claylbd fragment from cubotd part-
mg \1::Ssd. XRF dctectc.i copper, nnc and
sil\"a" L29, W.23, T .4mm 7553
3981 Body sherd from cuboid partJ.n& \"eSSel With
pale: 8J=U ,,tnfied outer surface XRF
analysis detected Silver LJQ, W 14, T .7mm
21033
.1984 Base shc:rd from cuboid panmg vessel. Not
analysed. 15131 ~f4029
P eriod 5Cr
3985 Fragment of vitrified luting c lay from a
panmg ,,essel XRF analySIS detected
silver o n one si de L.I O, W.7, T .3mm
19283
39 6 Fragment of hgbtly \'lt.nficd clay hJ from a
pamng '-.:::ssd XRF anai)'SIS detected $1h."a".
LJO, W.30, T .4mm 19283 uM 39
Period 6
1987 Two fragments of fired clay from lld or
luung of a pamng '-.:::sscl, ,~tnfied on o ne
surface "''hich 1!1 grecntsh. XRF analysts
detected silver. L32, W.28, 1'.6 and L25,
W. l7, T.7mm 9305 sf3773
82 1
22 Piccadilly 198 7.21
Period 4 ( early-mid 11th century)
3988 F1fty- three fragments of cubo1d panmg
vessels, most with rraces of a grey-green
v1mfied layc:r on the outer surface nnd
some with a pale purphsh-grey undy
deposu adhering to the im1de of the:
watts XRF artalySJs of a number of
pteCe5 detected silver on the &nner wr
race~ 2115
3989 a) Thr« ,ouung fragments of a parung
vessel 2115 (F~g.120; PtLVI/a b) A
fragment from l.be edge of a lht clay slab
Wlth the same: grey-gTecn V'lmfied o uter
surface, probably from a luted-on hd
2115 (Frx.J2(J)
Thn:e fragments of parting vessels (If Y
1615, Z342-l) 2115 (Fig.120; PI. L VIe)
C rucibles
Key and note to tabulated catalogue
Coo.= Context
Sherd type <Sh ):
B body
R nm
L pounng hp Ill nm
Ba ba!!C
HC half complete
C complete
XRF rcsullll Eletnent.s detected are ltSted in order
of decreaslllg peak height. Elemmts wnnc:n Wltl'un
round braclteu gave only "1:fY weak uaccs. Elc:mcm'
wnncn Wlllun square brackets wet-.:: VISible under
"< I0 magJllficauon but wet-.:: not detected analyucall)
(see 'Notes on Analyna.t .\Aetbocb and Results',
p.817)
Ag sil..,"Cr
Au gold
Cu copper
Pb lead
Sn till
Zn tine
no metals detected
NA nm analysed
Metal melted 'Used' means that mc:tab ....-.:re
present only ut low k\'Cls or that the ma,or elements
detected ~ere the more volatile ones arid dlagnosuc
elements ~et-.:: absent so no reliable llltcrpretaoon
could be made
Vcsxl diameter
D~ - 1'1'\aXmum c:mmalliamco:r b' body shads
D .= llltetnal nm diameter
EO L: added CXU'I1 outer layer of less rcfrnClory clay
ElL : clay re-lmmg ro cruoblc
822 The Small Finds

Con. Sh. XRF M etal Notes Cnn. Sh. XRF Metal N o tes
res ults melted results melted

Stamford Ware 22433 Ba [Cu Agj Silver

224 38 B NA Used
Period 3 22438 B Zn Ag ( Cu) Silver
27775 B Zn Ag Cu S1 lver 22439 B JAg] Silver D .max.
29934 R Zn C u [AgJ Silver 16/5,23 / J <lmm
D .SOmm 224 39 B NA t.:scd
F•g.322 2244 0 B [Ag] Silver
32676 B Zn Cu Ag Silver ElL 22443 B Ag Silver
22444 Ba Ag Silver
Period 4A 2245 2 Zn Cu Pb
B Used
25232 8 Zn Cu Used ElL 22"177 HC CuAg Stlvcr lo/5, 2315
2'5922 B Zn Ag Cu Silver D.4 5mm
27621 B C u Ag Zn Silver P•g.3:!2
30039 B C u Zn Pb Copper 22490 B Zn C u Used
Sn alloy 22490 B Zn C u Used
?Bronze 22490 n Zn Cu Used
'l0274 B Zn Ag C u Silver ]'.;A
22'505 B Us..:d
}0286 B Ag C u Zn S1lvcr 22523 B Zn Cu Ag Silve r
102tlo R ZnCu (Pb Stlver D.45mm 22521 B Zn Cu Ag Stlver
Ag)
22523 8 :-.:A u~cd
22533 B Zn Cu Ag Silver
Period 4B
22536 B [Ag] Silver
8775 R Zn C u {Pb) Used l o/5, 2112
D.40mm
22537 8 Zn Cu Ag Silver
2254 7 B [Ag] Stlvc r
F1g..?22
15650 B Zn Cu Used 22552 B C u Ag Silver
111626 B Zn Cu Used 22586 B Zn C u Ag Silver
11)7 19 B Zn Ag C u S 1h-er 22581> B Zn C u Ag Silver
IQ73!i B NA t.:sed 22586 B Zn C u Ag Silver
20668 B Zn C u Used 22659 R Zn Ag C u Stlvcr
226')9 Zn Cu Used
20\182 B Zn Ag C u Sth•cr ElL B
22659 :-.:A u,cd
2 1807 8 Zn C u Used B
2 1887 B Zn C u ?Coppe r 22670 RIL t-:A u~ed
alloy 2267Q RIL :-.:A Used
22233 Ba Cu Zn Ag Stlver 22679 I{ :-:A Used
22257 HC Cu Zn Ag Silv~r 22!!79 B C uAg Silver
22259 B Zn Cu Uo;cu 22679 B C u Ag Silver
22259 B Zn C u u~..:d 22679 R IAgl Silver
22259 B Zn C u Used 2267() B Au C u Gold
22268 HC Ag Stlver 16/5, :!J07 22679 B :-.:A u~cd
D.-! Omm 22679 B :--rA Used
Ftg.J22 22679 B NA Used
22268 R Zn Cu Ag Silver 16/5, 2321 22679 B NA Used
F1g.J22 22745 B Zn C u Used
22299 B Zn C u Ag Silver 22760 B C u Zn Ag Silwr
2230·1 B !Cui Used l'b
22307 R Cu Zn Copper 16/5. :!316 22797 B Zn Cu Ag S ilver ElL
alloy D.4 0m m 227CI7 B Zn C u Ag Silver
Ft!!.322 22804 R IAgJ Silver 16/5, 2.108
22324 8 [Cu Ag] Silver F1g. J2:!
22326 B NA u~ed 22807 n Zn Ag Cu Silver EOL
2234 5 B NA Used 22808 B [Ag ] Silver
22361 B Zn Cu Used 22808 B JAg ] Silver
22419 B [Cu r\ g] Silver 22800 B Zn Cu Ag Silver
22421 B Cu /:n Copper (Pb)
alloy 228 18 Ba [C uAgJ Silver
22431 R Zn C u Ag Silver 22855 8 [Agj Sil\'er
A nglo-Scandinavian Non-Ferrous Metalworking from 16-22 Coppergate 823

Con. Sh. XRF Metal Notes Con. Sh. XRF Metal Notes
results melted results melted

22861 B C u Zn Copper 25375 R Zn Cu Ag Silver

alloy 2539 1 B NA Used
2294 1 R Zn Cu Ag Si h-er D.40mm 2539 1 B NA Used
(Pb) 25391 B Zn Cu Used
22988 B [Cu] Used 25391 B NA Used
22988 R [Ag] Silver 25391 B NA Used
23366 R Zn (Pb Cu) Used 2539 1 B NA Used
21497 R Zn Cu Ag Silver ErL 2539 1 B Ag Cu Zn Silver
D .70mm 2539 1 B Zn Pb C u Silver
23537 B C uAg Silver Ag
23762 R [Ag[ Silver 2539 1 B [Ag] Silver
23881 B Zn Used 2539 1 B [Ag] Silver
24073 R/L l'A Used 2539 1 B [Ag] Silver
24369 B Zn Cu Au Gold 2539 1 B [Ag] Silver
25065 B Zn Cu Used 2539 1 B Zn Used
25084 R Zn Cu Ag Silver D .50mm 2539 1 R Zn Cu Used
25084 R NA Used 2539 1 RIL NA u~ed
25 103 R [Cu Ag] Silver D.40mm 2539 1 B Cu Ag Zn Silver
25 10·1 B Zn Cu Ag Silver 2539 1 B Zn Pb Cu Silver
(Pb) Ag
25 10 4 B Zn Cu Used 2539 1 B Zn Used
2524!\ B Cu Zn Ag Silver 25466 B Zn Cu Used
25253 B Zn Cu [Ag] Silver 25466 B Zn .'\g C u Silver ElL
25253 B Ag Cu Zn Silver 25466 B [Ag] S1lver ElL
(Pb) 25466 B [Ag] Silver
2S257 B Zn Cu Ag S1lver ElL 25·166 B [Ag) Stlvcr
25257 B Zn Cu Used 25466 B NA Used
25257 B NA Used 25466 B NA Used
25257 B Zn Cu Used 25 <166 B NA Used
25257 B NA Used 25466 B NA Used
25257 B NA Used 25 466 R NA Used
25257 B Zn C u Ag Silver 25466 R Zn Cu Used
25257 B [Ag] Silver 25466 R Zn Cu Used
25257 B [Agj Silver 25493 R Zn Cu [Ag) Silver
25303 R Zn Cu [Ag[ Silver D.40m m 25 493 B Zn Cu Used
25303 R Zn Cu Ag Silver D.50mm 25493 B Zn AgCu Silver EOL
Pb 25493 B Cu Zn Pb Silver EOL
25340 R/L NA Used D .60mm Ag
25341 B Zn Cu Ag Silver 25698 R/L Zn Cu Used
2534 1 B [Ag) Silver 25698 B Zn Cu [Ag) Silver
25341 B [Agj Silver 25i48 B Zn Cu Used
25341 B [Ag l Silver 25923 R Zn Cu Used
25341 R Zn Cu Used D.40mm 25923 B Zn C u Ag Silver
253 41 B Zn Cu Pb Used 25923 R Zn Cu Ag Silver
2534 1 B NA Used 25923 R Cu Zn Copper
25341 B NA Used alloy
25341 R Zn Cu [Agj Silver D.40mrn 25923 B Zn Cu (Ag) Silver
25350 R Zn Cu Used D.50mrn 25923 B Zn Cu Pb Silver
25356 B Zn Cu Ag Silver 16/5, 2310 Ag
F1g.J22 25923 B Zn Cu Used
25371 R [Ag] Silver 1615, 2309 25923 R Zn (Cu) Used
Fig.322 25923 R Zn Cu (Pb Silver
25375 R Zn Ag Cu Silver ElL Ag)
2537S B Zn Used 25923 B Zn (Cu) Used
25375 R Zn Cu Ag Silva ElL 25923 B Zn Cu Pb Silver
D.60mm Ag
824 The Small Finds

Con. Sh. XRF Metal Notes Con. Sh. XRF Metal No tes
results melted results melted

25923 R Zn Ag Cu Silver 16/5, 2311 29835 B ZnAg Cu Silver

Fig.322 29835 ?Ba Zn Cu Used
25923 Ba ZnAg Silver 29835 B Zn Used
25923 B Zn Ag Cu Silver 29835 n (Cu Zn) ?Used
25923 B Zn Cu Ag Silver 29835 S Zn Cu Ag Silver
Pb 29835 S ZnCu Used
25923 B Zn Cu Ag Silver 29835 Rll.. Zn Cu Pb Used
25923 B Zn Cu Pb Silver 29835 B Zn Cu Ag Silver
Ag 29835 B Zn Used
25923 B Zn Cu Used 29835 B Cu Ag Zn Silver
25923 B Zn Used 29835 B Zn Cu Used
25923 B Zo Cu Used 29835 B Cu AgZn Silver
25923 B Zn Cu Ag Silver 29835 R Zn Cu Used
CPb) 29835 ?Sa Zn Cu Ag Silver
25924 B Zo Used 29835 B Zn (Cu) Used
25924 B Zn Cu Used 29835 B Zn Cu Ag Silver
25924 B NA Used 29835 Ba Zn Cu Used
25924 B NA Used 29835 B Zo Cu Used
25924 R NA Used 29835 B Zn Used
25927 Rll.. Zn [Ag] Silver 16/5, 2327 29835 B Zo Cu Used
Fig.322
29835 R Zn Cu Ag Silver
25934 B Zn Cu Used 29835 S Zn Cu Used
25934 B CuZnAg Silver
29835 R Zn Cu Used
25934 S Zn Cu Used EOL 29835 Zo CuAg Silvcr
L
25934 B NA Used
29835 R Cu Zn (Ag) Silver 0.40mm
25934 B NA Used 29835 S Zn Cu Ag Silver
26254 R Zn Cu Pb Used EOL 29835 Zn Cu Ag Silver
26725 B Pb Cu Zn Used
B
29835 S Zn Cu Ag Silver
28 127 B Zn Pb Cu Used
R
29835 B Zn Cu Used
28963 Zn Cu Used D.50mm 29835 Zn Cu
29 100 B ZnAgCu Silver
B Used
29835 Rll.. Zn Cu Used
29100 B Zn Cu Ag Silver
Pb 29835 B Zn CuAg Silver
29 100 R Zn Cu [Au) Gold 0.40mm 29835 B Zn CuAg Silver
29 100 B Pb Cu Zn Silver 29835 Ba Zo Cu Ag Silver
Ag 29835 B Zn Cu Used
29100 S Pb Cu Zn Silver 29835 B Zo Cu Ag Silver
Ag 29843 B Zn Cu Used
29100 B NA Used 29844 Ba Zn Used
29 193 B Zn Cu Used 29845 S Zn Ag Cu Silver
29222 B NA Used 29845 B Zn Cu Used
29222 B Zn Cu Used 29845 B Zn Ag Cu Silver
29222 B Zn Cu Used 29845 B Zn Cu Ag Silver
29222 B NA Used 29845 Ba Zo CuAg Silver
29222 B NA Used 29845 B Zn Cu Ag Silver
29222 S [Ag] Silver 29904 R Zo Cu Ag Silver D.40mm
29222 B NA Used 29904 R Zn Cu Used D.50mm
29250 R NA Used 29904 R Zn Cu (Pb) Used
29578 RIL [Au] Gold 16/5, 2328 29904 B Zn Cu Used
D.40mm 29926 Sa ZnCu Used
Fig.J22 29926 S Zn Cu Ag Silver
29582 S Zn Cu Pb Silver 29926 R Zn Cu Ag Silver
Ag 29930 R Zo Cu Used 16/5, 2320
29582 S [Ag] Silver D.60mm
29736 Rll.. ZnCu Used D.50mm Fig.322
29835 S Zn Cu Ag Silver 29936 R Zn Cu Ag Silver D.30mm
A nglo-Scaudinavian Nou-Ferrous Mew/working f rom 16-22 Coppergate 825

Con. Sh. XRF Metal N <)(CS Con. Sh. XRF Metal Notes
results melted n:sults melted

31207 R/L Zn Cu Ag Sliver 35663 R Zn Cu Ag Silver EOL

(Pb ) (Pb) 0 .50mm
31476 B Zn Cu Ag Stlvcr 35663 B Zn Used
(Pb) 35665 B (Ag] Silver
32 113 B Zn Ag Cu Silver 35667 R/L Zn Ag Cu Silver EfUEOL
32 113 13 Zn Cu Ag Silver EIUEOL 35667 B Zn Cu Used
321 I 5 B Zn Ag Cu Silver 35667 B Zn Cu (Pb) Used
32217 B Zn Cu Used 35667 B NA Used
32219 B Ag Zn Cu Silver 35668 R/L Zn (Pb Cu) Used
32ot7 B Cu Zn Copper EOL
alloy P e riod SA
32746 B Zn Cu Ag Silver EOL 20110 R/L Zn Cu Used 16/'i, 1.125
32754 B Cu AgZn Silver ElL Ftg.J22
34715 B Zn Ag Cu Silver 825R B Cu Zn Pb Copper
34985 R 7.n Cu Ag Silver D..IOmm alloy
35012 Ba Zn Cu Ag Silver 837t> R Zn Pb Cu Used DAOmm
Pb 8376 B Zn Used
3501:2 B Zn Cu Ag Silver 8376 B 7.n Ph Used
Pb 8499 B ZnCu Useu
35012 B Zn Cu Ag Silve r 14790 R/L Zn Ag Cu Silver
3'5012 B NA Used 141\74 B Zn Cu Pb Used
35012 RIL NA Used 14874 13 Zn Cu Ag Silver
35059 R/ L Zn Cu Used 14874 R Zn Cu Ag Silver D .30mm
35059 B Zn Cu Used J.t874 Ba Zn Cu Ag Silver
35059 B Zn Cu ]Agl Silver ( Pb)
35059 Ba Zn Cu Ag Silve r 14882 R Zn C u Ag Sli\·cr D.·IOmm
35065 R Zn Cu Ag Silver 14883 B Zn Cu Ag Silver
35086 R Zn Cu (Ag] Silver 16/5, 2312 14883 R Zn Cu Used D .50mm
D.40mm 14883 13 Zn Ag Cu Silver
Ftg. 322 14883 R Zn Cu Used
351 18 R Ag Cu Zn Silver D.'IOmm 14883 13 Zn Cu Ag Silver
35204 B Cu Ag Zn S1lver ( Pb)
Po 14883 B Zn Ag Cu Sii\'Cr
3'i4'i 1 R Zn Cu Used D .'iOmm 14883 B ]Agj Silver
35451 R Zn Cu Used 14883 RIL Zn Cu Ag Silver
35451 B Zn Cu Ag Stlvcr 1·1883 B ZnAg Silver
35451 R Zn Cu Usttd D.40mm 14883 Ba Zn Ag Cu Silver
3'54'51 Ba Zn Ag Cu Silver 14883 R Zn C u Ag Silver D .30mm
(Pb) 14883 B Ph Cu Zn Used
3'5451 B Zn Cu (Pb) Used 14922 B Zn Cu Ag Silver
35451 Ba Zn Cu Ag Silver 14925 B Zn Ag Silver
35483 B Zn Cu (Pb) Silve r 14925 B Zn Pb Ag Silver
[Agj Cu
35524 B Zn Cu Used 14925 B Zn Cu Ag Gold El L
35'524 B Zn Cu Ag Silver EOL Au
35524 B Zn Cu Used 14925 R Zn Cu Ag Silver D.40mm
35524 B AgCu Zn Silver EIUEOL 1•!940 R NA Used D .70mm
}5')<l9 B Zn (Pb Cu) Used 18286 R Zn Cu (Pb) Coppe.r
35662 B Zn Cu (Ph) Silve r alloy
[Agj 18289 R PbCu Used
35662 B Zn Cu Used 18571 R ]Au] Gold
35662 B Zn Cu Ust:d 1857 1 B ]Au] Gold
35662 B Zn Ag Cu Silve r 18571 B Used
(Pb) 18572 R Used D.40mm
15662 B JAg] Sil\'cr 18592 B Zn Used EIUEOL
826 The Small Finds

Con. Sh. XRF M etal Notes Con. Sh. XRF Metal Notes
results melted results melted

18594 B Zn Cu Used EllJEOL 22256 B Zn Cu Used

18730 B Used 22256 8 Zn Cu Ag Silver
18847 B AgCu Silver 22256 8 Zn Cu Used
18847 B NA Used 22256 B Zn Cu [Ag] Silver
18921 8 Zn Ag Cu Silver 22256 8 Zn Cu Used
20 132 B Zn Cu (Pb) Used 22256 B Zn Cu Ag Silver
20143 B Ag Zn Cu Silver EIUEOL 22256 B NA Used
20 143 Ba Ag Zn Cu Silver ElL 22267 B Zn Cu Used
20 143 B Zn Cu Used 22267 8 C u Zo [Ag] Silver
20 143 B Used 22267 B C u Zn Ag Silver
20 143 B Zn Cu Ag Silver 22267 R Cu ZnAg Silver D .40mm
20 143 R Zn Used (Pb)
20746 B Zn CuAg Silver 22267 B (Ag] Silver EIUEOL
20746 B Zn Cu Used 2227 1 B [Cu] Used
20880 B Zn Cu Used 2227 1 R Zn Cu Ag Silver
20880 B Zn Ag Cu Silver 22309 RIL Cu [Auj Gold ElL
20880 B Zn Used 22309 B Zn Cu Ag Silver
22053 R Zn Cu Ag Silver 22309 B Cu (Pb) Co pper
22088 B NA Used alloy
22088 B NA ?Used 22309 B Zn Cu Ag Silver
22090 B Zn Cu Ag Silver 22309 B Zn Cu Used
22090 B Zn Cu (Pb) Used EOL 22309 B [Cu Agj Silve r
22090 R Zn Cu Used D.40mm 22309 B Zn Cu Ag Silver
22090 B Zn Cu Used 22309 8 NA Used
22090 R [Agj Silver 223 13 Ba Zn Cu Ag Silver
22 104 R Zn Cu Used 22313 B Zn CuAg Silver
22 104 B Zn Cu Used 22339 R Zn Cu Used D .60mm
22 104 B Zn Cu Used 22339 R NA Used
22 104 B Zn Ag Cu Silver 22339 R NA Used D.40mm
22 128 R NA Used D.40mm 22339 RIL [Cu] U sed
22 128 B Zn Cu Ag Silver 22339 B Cu Zn Ag Silver
22 128 B NA Used 22339 Ba Cu Ag {Zn) Silver
22 128 ?Sa [Cu] Used 22339 B NA Used
22 128 B [Cu Ag] Silver 22340 R Cu Co pper 0 .35mm
22 128 ?Ba [CuAg] Silver D .max. alloy
7mm 22340 R NA Used D.70mm
22 128 Ba CuAg Silver 22340 ?Sa [Ag] Silver
22 128 Ba Zn Cu Ag Silver 16/5, 2324 22358 R NA Used 0.50mm
Fig.322 22358 ?Sa Zn Cu Ag Silver EILIEOL
22 141 Ba Zn Cu Ag Silver 16/5, 2332 22359 B CuAg Silver
Fig. 322 22359 B Zn Cu Au Gold
22 154 B Zn Cu [Ag] Silver 22360 R [Cu] Used 0 .60mm
22 154 R Zn Cu [Ag] Silver 22360 B Cu Ag Silver
22 154 B Zn Cu Used EILIEOU 22360 B Ag C u Silver
22154 B Zn (Cu) Used 22360 B Ag Cu Silver
22154 B Zn Used 22360 B AgCu Silver
22 154 B Zn Cu Ag Silver 22366 R Zn (C u Pb) Used 0 .30mm
22 154 RIL Zn Cu Used 22376 B ZnCu Used
22 154 B Zn Cu Used 22384 R Zn Ag (Cu) Silver 16/5, 2319
22 154 B Zo Cu Ag Silver D .50mm
22 154 R Zn ?Used Fig.322
22154 B ZnCu Used 22384 Ba [A g) Silver
22 166 B Zn Cu Ag Silver 224 12 B CuAg Silver
{Pb) 26953 R Zn Cu Ag Silver
22256 B Zn Cu Ag Silver 26953 B Zn Cu Used
22256 R Zn C u (Ag] Silver 27296 R Used D .50mm
Anglo-Scandinavian N on-Ferrous M etalworking from 16-22 Coppergate 827

Con. Sh. XRF M eta l Notes Con. Sh. XRF Metal Notes
resu lts melted results me lted

27497 Silver 14897 RfL Z n Cu Used

14897 B Zn Cu Used
P e riod 58 14897 B Zn Used
2213 B Zn (C u) Used 16/5,2318 14973 R/L Zn C u Used D. IOOmm
D .85mm 14973 R Cu Pb Zn Silver
2878 B Pb Cu Zn Copper Ag
alloy 14973 B [AgJ Silver
6433 B Zn Pb Cu Used 14973 B (Ag] Silver
6788 B Zn C u Ag Silver sf15742 14973 B (Ag] Silver
Pb 14973 B (AgJ Silver
7 175 B Zn (Cu) Used 14973 B NA Used
7377 R Zn Pb Cu Used D .30mm 14973 B NA Used
7377 B Zn Used 14973 B NA Used
7463 B Zn Ag Cu Silver 14973 B NA Used
7483 R Zn Ag Cu Silver 14973 R Zn Cu Ag Silver
7483 B Zn Ag Cu Silver 14973 RIL NA Used
7553 R Used D.40mm 14973 B (Ag) Silver
7553 B Zn C u Used 14973 B NA Used
7553 B Zn Pb C u Used 14971 B (Ag) Silver
8051 B Zn Cu Ag Silver 14973 B Zn Cu Used
(Pb) 14973 B Zn C u Ag Silver
852!1 B Pb Cu Zn Used 1497'3 B (Ag] Silver
9354 B Zn Used 14973 B Zn Ag Cu Silver
9449 B Zn Ag Cu Silver 14973 B NA Used
9630 B Zn Cu Used 14973 B NA Used
9726 B Zn Cu Used 14973 B Zn Ag Cu Silver
14005 B Zn Cu Ag Silver 14973 B Au Gold
14297 B NA Used 14973 B NA Used
14297 B Zn Ag Cu Silver 14982 B Zn Cu Ag Silver
14364 R Zn Cu Used D.40 mm 1556 1 Ba Zn Cu Used
14368 B (Au l Gold 15561 RIL Zn Cu Used
14380 R Zn Used 16/5, 2329 1688 1 B NA Used
D .50mm 1688 1 B NA Used
Fig.322
19 188 B Used EOL
14386 R ZnAg Silve r 1615, 23 14
sf1 6213
D .50mm 19315
F ig.322
B Zn Used
19615 B Zn Cu Used
14403 8 Used
14571 B Zn Cu Ag Silver D.max. 19622 B NA Used
5mm 19631 B Zn Ag Cu Silver
14592 B Zn Au Cu Gold and 1963 1 B Zn Cu Ag Silver
Ag Silver (Pb)
14628
14630
RIL
R
-Zn Ag Cu Used
S ilver
20301
2039 1 R
Pb Used
Zn Cu ( Pb) Used
14694 R NA Used 20505 R Zn Cu (Pb) Used D .50mm
14722 R Zn Cu Used D .SOmm 2 1 !98 B NA Used D.max.
14750 B Ag Cu Zn S ilver 70mm
(Pb) 2 140 4 R Zn Cu Ag Silver
14843 Zn Cu (Pb)
B Used
14870 B Zn Ag Cu Silver 2 141 3 B Zn Ag Cu Silver
14870 B Zn Used 2 1465 R NA Used D .30mm
14870 B Zn Pb Cu Used 2 1478 R Au C u G old D.40mm
14870 B Ag Zn Cu Silver 2 1478 B Zn C u Ag Silver
14880 B Zn Cu Used 2 1478 B Zn Ag Cu Silver
14881 R Zn Cu Used D.40mm 2 1510 B ZnCu Used
1488 1 B Zn Cu Used
2 1511 B Zn C u Pb Silver
Ag
828 The Small Firuls

Con. Sh. XRF Metal Notes Con. Sh. XRF M etal Notes
results melted results melted

2 1511 B Zn Ag Cu Silver 14183 B Zn C u Ag Silver

2 1553 B Zn C u Used (Pb)
2 1639 B Zn C u Used 141 84 B Zn Ag Cu Silver
2 1658 B Zn Cu Used 14218 R Zn Cu Used D.45mm
2 1746 B Zn Cu Ag Silver 14254 B Zn Ag C u Silver
2 1766 B Zn Pb Cu Used
2 1766 B Zn Cu Pb Gold ElL P eriod 5Cr
[Aul sfl 4414 6307 B Zn (Cu) Used
2 1769 B AgCu Silver 6774 B Zn (Cu) Used
2 1925 B Zn Cu Used 6775 R Zn (C u ) Used D.40mm
2 1925 B Zn C uAg Silver 6775 Ba Zn Ag Cu Silver thick wall
2 1925 B Ag Zn Cu Silver 6775 B Zn Used
22103 R Zn Cu Used D .30mm 6789 RIL Zo Cu Pb Used
22 103 B Zn Cu Used 6789 R Zn Cu Pb Silver D.40mm
22 154 B NA Used Ag
26888 B C u Z n (Pb) Copper EOL 6789 B Zn Pb Cu Si1Ycr
alloy sfl2500 Ag
29094 B Cu Pb Zn Silver 15311 B Used
Ag 15311 B Cu Zn (Pb) Copper EIUEOL
29 128 R Zn Used D.40mm alloy
29 156 B Used 16733 B Cu Zn Copper
29156 B Used alloy
29263 Ba ZnAgCu Silver 17742 B Pb Cu Zn Used
29263 B NA Used 18931 B Zn Cu ( Pb) Used
29386 B Cu Zn Ag Silve r 1893 1 R Zn Used
29457 R IAuJ Gold 16/5, 2323 19090 B Zn Used
D .40mm 19 120 B Cu [Aul Gold
Fzg. 322 19 120 B Zn Cu Used
29572 B Used 19120 B NA Used
297 17 B Zn Ag Cu Silve r 19262 L Pb Zn (Cu) Used
35242 R Used D .35mm 19268 B Cu Zn Pb Copper EOL
alloy
Period 4/5 19283 B Zn Cu Used
3644 B Zn AgCu Silver 19283 HC IAul Gold
19283 HC [Au] Go ld
Period 5Cf
1211 R Zn Pb Cu Used Period 6
1211 B Zn Pb Cu Used 10 19 RIL PbZn Used
7868 B Zn Used 2262 B Zn Cu Pb Silver
7868 B Zn Cu Copper D .max. Ag
alloy 80mm 2284 B Zn C u Used EIUEOL
7979 B Zn Used 2347 B C u Zn Pb Copper
14063 Ba (Pb C u) Used a lloy
14063 B Pb Zn Cu Used 3235 B C uPb Copper EOL
14063 B NA Used alloy
14063 B NA Used EOL 3256 B Zn Cu Pb Copper EOL
14063 R Cu Pb Sn Copper sf3570 alloy
alloy D.40mm 3446 B Cu Pb Zn Silver
?Bronze Ag
14063 B Cu Pb Sn Copper sf3570 3466 RIL Zn Pb (Cu) Used
alloy 5348 ?R Zo (Pb Cu) Used
?Bro nze 5395 R Zn Cu Ag SiiYer D.30mm
14077 R Cu Zn (Pb) Copper Pb
alloy 6257 ?Ba [Cu] Copper EOL
14077 B Zn Cu Ag Silver alloy sf385 4
141 82 B Zn Cu Used 6258 R Used D.40mm
Anglo-Scandinav ian N on-Ferrous M etalworking from 16-22 Coppergate 829

Con. Sh. XRF Metal N otes Con. Sh. XRF Metal No tes
results melted results melted

6339 B C u Zn Ph ?Copper EO L 36247 c C u Zn (Pb) Copper 16/5, 2334

alloy alloy D.25mm
6339 R Zn (P b) Used D.60mm Fzg.J23
9793 B C u Zn Pb Copper
alloy Period SA
12 187 R AgZn Cu Silver D.40mm 20105 RIL Zn C u Ag Silver D.25 mm
(Pb) (Pb)
13147 L Zn (P b Cu) Used 22 104 B Cu Ag Au Gold and
1650 1 R Zn C u (Pb) Used Silver
166 12 R C u Zn Pb Copper 22267 R C u Au G old D.25mm
alloy
166 12 B Cu Z n (Pb) Copper Period 58
alloy
7589 B Au G old D.30mm
166 12 B NA Used sf2 137
16734 B Zn Cu [Au] G old Pl.LVIIb
1755 1 B Z n C uAg S ilver 7589 Ba Cu Zn Au G old 1615, 2335
17599 B C u Zn Copper (Ag) Fig.323
alloy
14300 R Au G old ?re-used as
17740 B Zn C u Ph Gold cup cl
17890 B Zn Cu Used D.25mm
17890 B Zn C u Pb Used 26940 R C u Zn Pb Copper
1833 1 R Pb C u Sn Copper Sn allov
(Zn) alloy ?Bronze
?Bronze 29 156 B Au C u Zn Gold sfll586
18668 B Zn Pb Cu Used D.30mm
7480 Ba Cu Ag Zn Silver EOL
U nstratificd 16/5,2337
0 B Zn Cu Ag Silver Fig.323
0 B NA Used 14536 R Zn C u Pb Coppe r 16/5,2336
Silver Sn alloy Fig.323
0 B [Ag]
?Bronze
0 B [Ag) Silver EO L 14544 R C u Zn Ag Gold and used twice
0 B Zn (C u) Used Au Silver D.30mm
0 B [Ag] Silver 14776 c C u Z n Pb Silver 16/5, 2333
AgSn D.26mm
Ty pe A C11Jcibles Fig.323
Period 4A 2 1766 R [Au ] G old
2 1766 R Zn C u Used
30039 B Zn C u [Au] Gold 2 1925 R Z n C u (Pb) Copper D.30mm
30039 R [Au ] G old alloy
?Brass
Period ~B
Period scr
2242 1 R Z n Cu Pb Copper D.20mm
Sn alloy 7868 R Cu Z n Ag Silver D.50mm?
?Bronze (Pb)
22808 R Cu Zn Pb Copper D.20mm
(AgSn) alloy Period 5Cr
22936 R NA Used 0 .30mm 19269 R Ag Pb C u S ilver 0 .35mm
?sam e 19283 H C Zn C u Ag Gold and 0 .20mm?
22936 R NA Used vessel PbAu Silver
D.40 mm 19283 R Zn C u [Au ] Gold sf6542
26082 c Zn Ag C u Silve r sf8942 D.SOmm?
(Pb Sn) D .20mm odd shape
Vol=c.3ml 19283 R Au C u Zn Gold D.30mm
Fig.323 sf1 60 10
3 1476 R C u Zn Pb Copper 19283 R C u Pb Zn Silver sf1 60 10
alloy Ag
830 The Small Finds

Con. Sh . XRF Metal Notes Con. Sh. XRF Metal Notes

results melted results melted

19283 R (Cu Zo) Used sfl60 10 23796 B Zo Cu Pb Used

19283 B Cu PbAg Silver sfl60 10 23963 Ba C u AgZo Silver
(Zo) 25923 B Zn Cu Pb Silver
19283 HC [Au] Gold sf6529 Ag
D.30mm 26254 R Zn C u Pb Used EOL
Fig.323 15897 B NA Used
19283 HC [Au] Gold sf6554 15897 B NA Used
25725 R Zn C u Pb Copper sfl616 1
P eriod 6 So alloy
1502 R Ag Zn C u Silver 0 .30mm
Pb Period SA
957 1 ?Ba C u Zn (Pb) Copper EIUEOL 8376 B Ag Cu Silver ElL
alloy sf3772
?Brass 0 .50mm? 8802 B Cu Used
14883 B Pb Cu Zn Used
22 154 B Zn Cu Used
Probable R oman crucibles 27296 Ba Cu Zn Pb Copper
Period 4B (Sn) alloy
?Bronze

I
24879 B C u Zn (Pb) Copper EOL
alloy sf1 6 178
P eriod SB
Period SB 8 156 R Zn Cu Pb Copper
Sn alloy 0 .60mm
6433 B Pb Cu Zn Copper ?Bronze ~herds
Sn alloy 8520 B Pb Cu Zn Copper JOIO
?Bronze alloy
13733 B Zo Cu Ag Silver handmade
Pb 14296 R Zo Cu Used 0.60mm
24900 B Cu Zn Pb Coppe.r
Sn alloy
P eriod 6 ?Bronze
1777 Ba Ag Zn C u Silver 1982.22 29 156 C u Zn Copper
Pb sf1635
R 0.40mm
alloy
6269 B Zn Cu Pb Copper EllJEOL 7810 Cu Zn Pb Copper EOLonly
alloy sf4685 alloy sf7810
17332 B C u Pb (Zn) Copper EOL 29263 Ba Cu Pb Zn Silver
alloy sf466 EOL
Ag
Crucibles of unknown type P eriod 415
P eriod 3 3645 R Zn Pb Cu Copper 0 .30mm
24945 RIL? C u Zn (Pb) Copper D.SO mm Sn alloy
alloy ?Bronze
32869 B Zn Cu (Pb) Used
278 19 R Ag (Cu Zn) Silver sfl6127 Period SCf
3 1386 B Cu Sn (Pb) Copper EOL 7979 R Zn Pb C u Used 0.55mm
alloy sfl6178
Bronze P eriod SCr
6775 Ba ZnAgCu Silver ElL
P eriod 4A
26419 B Pb C u Zo Silver P eriod 6
Ag 9252 Ba ZnCu Used sfl372
26635 R Used 0 .60mm 9330 R Ag Zn Cu Silver 0.45mm
30273 B Zn Cu Ag Silver 13456 R Cu Zn Copper D. IOOmm
27234 B? C u Zn Copper alloy
alloy
Unstratified
P eriod 4B 22850 B Zn Cu Pb Copper ElL
15897 Used D.20mm alloy
Anglo-Scandinavian Non-Ferrous Metalworking from 16-22 Coppergate
Ingot moulds
N.B.: ur.hologjcal descriptions are rhosc of G.D.
Gaunt.
Period 3
3990 lngot mould of stcatite, roughly rectangular
in section, broken at one end, with a total of
si.'< bar-shaped grooves of varying lengths
cut in lhree of the faces. The fourth face has
both a Thor's hammer shape and a narrow
hole drilled deep into it. The rock is pale
silvery grey to brownish grey, medium
grained; mainly talc with a few minute flakes
of a chlorite-like mineral. Slight schisrosicy
apparent in places, mainly where broken.
XRF analysis detected copper and zinc in
two grooves, copper, zinc and lead in a
further one, the Thor's hammer and the
deep hole, and copper, zinc, lead and tin in
another groove. Two grooves gave no posi-
tive results. L82, W.50, T .34mm 3729
s.f9645 (Fig.330)
3991 Ingot mould, re-used fragment of Roman
tile. Four shapes have been cut into one side
and three into the other. The tile was
originaUy oxidised fired but is now reduced
fired in and around the cut-out shapes.
XRF analysis detected copper, zinc and lead
in one shape, silver, copper, zinc and lead in
three and silver, zinc and lead in two. One
shape had not been used to cast metals.
Ll46, W. IOO, T.31mm 26202 siB708
(Fig.332)
Period 48
3992 Ingot mould of talc schist cut and re-used as a
spindle whorl. Traces of a minimum of 6ve
bar-shaped grooves to take molten metal
survive. The rock is pale silvery grey, medium
grained; consists of moderately schistosc talc
with a few minute flakes of a chlorite-like
mineral. XRF artalysis detected zinc and
lead in one groove and weak traces of
copper and zinc in anomer. L58, W.S I,
T.25mm 27504 sfl0065 (Fig.331)
3993 Jngot mould of brick/tile, roughly square in
section, broken at both ends with a U- or
V-shaped groove cut in three of the sides.
The fabric is probably local. XRF analysis
detected copper, zinc and a little lead in the
grooves. A metal droplet trapped in one
groove was mainly copper and zinc with a
trace of lead. L77, W.36, T.37mm 22447
sf7660 (Fig.332)
3994 Ingot mould of talc schist, incomplete, of
roughly rectangular section with parts of a
total of six bar-shaped grooves and one
conical hole surviving on the four faces and
a further hole in the end. The rock is pale
silvery grey, medium grained; consistS of
slightly schistosc talc with no other minerals
apparent. XRF analysis detected copper,
zinc and lead in three of me grooves. L.60,
W.38, T.37mm 34207 sn2890 (FiK.331)
83 1
3995 lngot mould fragment of talc sclust, from a
roughly rectangular sectioned mould block
with a bar-shaped groove cut in both
surviving faces. The rock is pale to medium
silvery grey, coarse grained; mainly talc but
with a chlorit~like mineral, a dark elongate
mineral (possibly an amphibole) and inter-
stitial but welkrystalli.'led calcite. XRF anal)'liis
detected silver, copper, zinc and lead.
L112, W.20, T .26mm 25341 sl8664
(Prg.331)
3996 lngot mould with a single bar-shaped
groove cut into a re-used brick. XRF
artalysis detected \veak traces of zinc, lead
and copper. L83, W.56, T.55mm 22764
sf7978 (Fig.332)
Period SA
3997 Ingot mould fragment of talc schist, from a
roughly rectangular sectioned mould block
with one bar-shaped groove cut in each
surviving face. The rock is medium to dark
grey, coarse grained; mainly talc but ~ith a
chlorite-likc mineral, a dark elongate mineral
(possibly an amphibole) and interstitial but
well-crystallised calcite. XRF analysis de-
tected silver, copper and zinc. L67, W.28,
T .25mm 22090 sl7376 (Fig.331)
Period SB
3998 lngot mould of stcatite, incomplete, of
rectangular section with a bar-shaped
groove in each of the long faces. The rock is
pale to medium silvery grey, medium to
coarse grained; mainly talc with a few
minute flakes of a chlorite-likc mineral.
Slight trace of schistasity apparent on small
pan of broken surface. XRF analysis de-
tected tro~ces of silver, copper, zinc and lead
in two of the grooves. L 76, W.49, T .39mm
14625 sf5479 (Fig.33{})
3999 lngot mould fragment of talc schist, from a
roughly rectangular sectioned mould block
with a bar-shaped groove cut in both
surviving faces. The rock is pale silvery grey,
coarse grained; mainly talc but with a
chlorit~like mineral, a dark elongate mineral
(possibly an amphibole) and traces of inter-
stitial calcite. XRF analysis detected silver,
copper and zinc. L107, W. l9, T .27mm
19632 s£9198
4000 Ingot mould of steatite, damaged. Originally
of rectangular section with four bar-shaped
grooves, two on one of the long faces and
one on each of two others. Traces of a very
shallow depression on the fourth face may
be an extra groove. The rock is pale silvery
grey, medium to coarse grained; mainly talc
with a few minute flakes of a chlorite-likc
mineral. XRF analysis gave no posltlve
results. L180, W.70, T .60mm 21961
sf9987 (Fig.330)
832
Period 6
400 1 Run sherd from stc:olllte •n~l re-used a> an
mgot mould T" o shapes arc cut in 14 on
one "!de 1 groo•-.: for 1 bar tngOt and on the
other a >cross or pan of a Thor's hammer.
The rock IS pale ~11\'C:T)' grey, mcdrum to
COai"'C grained, no nunera1s other than talc
'c:en XRF anai)'SIS ga•-.: no posnjvc: result.
lA·I, W 24, T 12mm 9802 sf3109 (Frg.JJU)
Object mould s of fired clay
Period SA
400Z Fr~~gmcnt 1n a ~andy fabnc, mamly reduced
fired, Jll~~1bly from a mould though no
ungmal surfuccs suJVlVe. L88. W.58,
T .4Smm 1471!7 ~fM9 1
4003 M ould fragment (from cope) 111 sandy
fabric, for n bl:ll or simalnr object. L.98,
W.9'3, T .65mm 14787 sf6516 (Fig.338)
4004 Muuld frngmcnt in sandy fabric, oot for a
bdl or Mmllnr object. L69, WAS, T .39mm
22192 sli4S7
4005 M ould fra~trncnts 111 sandy fabnc, perhaps
from cope part of bell mould. lnner 6mm of
llucknc:ss rcdu~:ed fii'Cd. L42. \'t'.35,
T I Smm 22166 ~li483
Period 58
4006 M,,uld fragment , ~o from core aod r.llrlx
trom cope, fnr ca\nng an obJ«t such as a
bell ' 1'1lc: fabnc IS fine "1th some vqetable
temper and 1\ fired dark grey all through
except for a layer 2 7mm !luck on the outer
~urface of the cope p1ece "tuch IS buff-
Cilloured and camed mulnple fingertip
1m~'iiM~ XRF anal)'SlS detected lead
mu)'· Cc.>JX ptcecs 20 lOmm tluclt; largest
fragmentl•. ll '5, W QOmm 530 sf2321
M ould fragment 1r1 \andy fabnc, reduced
4007
fired except on outer (ace, perhaps from
cope of bell mould. 1- 54, W 52, T 38mm
11750 ~6')8
400H M ould fragment, reduced 6rc:d all through,
1n sandy clay fabnc L39, W.23, T .21mm
14815 ~(5889
4009 Fired clay fragment, reduced fired aU
through with fubnc similar to the sandy
moulds but nn original surfnces survive.
Pl)SSiblc mou ld fragment. L.23, W.21,
·r . l 5mm 1484 5 sfS896
4010 Fired clay fragment, reduced ftrcd all
throu!lh wath fabnc sun1lar to the sandy
moulds Po'iSiblc mould fragment. L27,
W 20, T . IQmm 14773 ~fS893
Scrap m eta l
M ercury
Period 58
4011 Small qu.1nttl} I'B71 sfl224
The Small Finds
Copper alloy
~ B Alloy names marked 10.1th astc:n~ks ckn•-c from
the: quanutao•-.: analy~ g~•·en an Table 46
Period 1
4011 Two fragments of w1re L40, D 0 Rmm
(largtt) 'B206 ~n )Q I J
Period 2
4013 Rod "1th taper~ng, \uhctrcular ~on
broken at ooth c:rnb. Br..\lt l-3'5, D .2mm
3168'3 ~n 1961
Period 3
4014 Rod of roughly Circular ~cco,,n, tapc:r~ng
and C\lr\'ed l~Jdcd bmnu. L26 8,
o.3 2mm 19o88 ~n 2808
401 5 Wire with 1rrcgulor n.lundcd sccuon. Cop-
pc:rlbronzc.' L 15'5, 0 .1 8mm 2b977 sO 0 I 35
40 / 6 Wire of ovu l scctinn. I . 'iO, D. l 'itnm 3 1562
sO 1587
401 7 Wtre wtth tuperu1g oval section, broken at
both cnd5 and bent 11110 n crude loop .
Gunmctal ' L78. D . l4mm 31W41 ~fl2366
4018 Stnp. (l..c:oded) bmntc L 31 4, W 11 2,
T I 8mm 32923 efl 3813
P e riod 4A
-1019 Rod With long~tudtnal <:n:ll~ VISible Irregu-
lar ptll)'gorual 5eetl(ln, lummc:red flat 1010 a
smp (3 S • 0 Srrun) at 1>ne end Brass. 1-155,
0 2.'5rrun 25Q26 ,1'>962 (n( UJ)
4010 Subrcctangular r.heet With ~\l ed~' cut
and ~o broken Broru.c L 28 I, W 26 2,
T .O Srrun 26226 ~002K
Period 48
40ZI Ingot tlf 'ubrcctangubr sc<.tlon, cut at one
end and "1th hammer mar~ VISible aD
along me face Bronz.c L83, W.S 8,
T 4 6mm Ho22 ~n 36Q9 <Fw UJ)
4011 lngot wuh a tropclotdal \CctlOn, cut at each
end, perhaps wath a chJ\cl Gunmctlll L I 3,
W. l5 , T 6mm 25127 ~ffi21 Q {FIIf. Ut)
4021 Bar, hghuy worked, wath a rectangular
~ct1on. Cut or broken 111 both ends. Copper
With nunor stlvcr. 1- 23, W.R, T . 5mm I 11228
sf4Q8<1 (Fr~:. J41)
Rod with irrcguhtr, ~uhrccu1ngulnr sccnon .
4024
Hammer murks vis ahlc 111 Onucncd end.
Bro~s. L.42, W.2·8, T . l·'3mm 2'5 109 sffl314
4025 Rod wuh \c:Ctllln ll\lryu18 from etrcular to
subrccumgular. l ..c:adcd tnss.• L29, 0.2 7mm
25391 stli50<J
4026 Rod of square !ICClJOn, bn.lkcn at one end
and tapcnng towards the other, with ham-
mer mm IIISiblc:. BIUSll. L47, w.'l2, T .3mm
'35524 n 4000 <Pw J4l)
4017 Rod "1th square: \Ccnon, cut at one end and
tapcnng at the other Copper L 109, W 3 8,
T 3 Smm 35264 ~n 37 l CFw.Ul)
4028 Faceted rod "1th trregular poh'gonal \CC-
non, cui at one end Gunmetal L 11 S,
D 3rrun 2o 17 1 \ffiQ8o
Ang/()-Scaudinavian Non-Ferrous Metalworking from 16-22 Coppergate
4029 Square sectioned wire. Gunmetallcopper.
L.42, W. l·5, T . 1·3mm 22449 sf7708
4030 Wire with slriarions running along its
length. Brass. L ISO, D.O·Smm 32993
sfl3940
4031 Square sectioned wire. Brass. L48, D. I 8mm
35560 sf14120 (Fig.J44)
4032 Square sectioned wire, twisted along its
length, originally round another wire? L85,
D .lmm 37007 sfl4149 (Fw.344)
4033 Rccumgular sectioned wire. (Leaded) brass. •
L90, W.l I, T .O6mm 23983 sffl002
4034 Wire of irregular polygonal section bem into
a circle. L. 72, D. l ·2mm 25812 sf9677
4035 Wire of circular section. Copper. L I 5,
D.O 9mm 25934 sfl 0038
4036 Square sectioned wm:, one end slightly
fiarrened. Brass.* L33, D.l ·6mm 26651
sf8872
4037 Wire. L27·5, 0 .0·7mm 36325 sfl4146
(Fig.344}
4038 Subrectangular sheet with twO original
edges. Brass. L31 ·8, W .24 9, T .O 4mm
19634 sf93 16
4039 Subrectangular sheet broken at one end.
Gunmetal. L17·2, W. 14·1, T .03mm
21143 sf87 11
4040 Folded up sheet. Brass. L .28, W.20 2,
T . (sheet) I 2mm 22670 sf784 1 (Fig.345)
4041 Undecorated strip bent into loop. Copper.
L14 I, W.1 ·3, T.0-4mm 2 1451 s£8947
4042 Tapering srriploffcut. Leaded bronze:.
L30·7, W .4·1, T .0·8mm 19390 sf8762
(Fig.345)
4043 Fragment; an irregular truncated cone.
Leaded copper. L30, W.30, T .28nun
30002 sfl618 1
Pe riod SA
4044 Sheet fragment. L.11, W. 10, T .06mm
15173 sf4198
4045 Two sheet fragments. Brass. L 15, W .6,
T .0·4mm (largest) 22256 sf7442
Period 58
4046 Ingot fragment with varied, subrectangular
section, broken at one end. Brass. L 171,
W . IO·I, T.66mm 14536 sf4356 (Fig.341)
4047 Square section.ed bar tapering to dther end.
Leaded bronze. L.64, W .6·3, T54mm
14575 sf6482 (Fig.34Z)
4048 Square sectioned rod tapering slightly to
ends, hammer marks visible on surface.
Brass. L5J.I, W.3·1, T.3·0mm 21854
sf9909 (Fig.34:1)
4049 Rod of subrectangular section. Bronze. L60,
0.3·5mrn 15176 sf4135
4050 Many shon frngmrots of wire. D. under 05mm
20314 sf6613
4051 Triangular sheet otrcur. Copper. L 15, W.15,
T . l·5mm 18962 s5923 (FiK.345)
4052 Strip with cut marks visible on both long
edges. Brass. L.113·2, W.5, T .0·7mm
21554 sf9973 (Fig.341)
833
4053 Tapering strip. (Leaded) bronze. L56, W.5,
T .0·8mro 14001 sl3730
Period 5Cf
4054 Strip with irregular edges, hammer marks
visible oo one surface. Leaded brass. L52,
W.l2, T .0·8mm 7966 sl3521 (Fig.34:1)
Period 5Cr
4055 Rod with square: to polygonal section, bent
into an lrshapc. Gunme.ral. L.45, W.2·1,
T.2·1mm 6774 sf6196
4056 Si.xreco sheet fragments. Brass. L.42, W.42,
T .0·5mm (largest) 19244 sf0623
Period 6
4057 Eod piece cut from a bar ingot cast in a
shallow, V-shaped groove. Leaded bronze.
L27-4, W.22·9, T .8·4mm 4048 sf.l25
( Fig.34I)
4058 Bar with subrectangular ro subcircular sec-
tion, hammered to a double bevc:l and chisel
cut at one end. Longitudinal creases visible.
Brass. L. 79, W.5·5, T .5mm 5975 sf3290
(Fig.34Z)
4059 Rod with lateral projection near mid-point,
perhaps a runner from a mould for multiple
objects. Bronzelgunmeral. L32, W.6·5,
T .3·5mrn 1030sfl01 (Fig.339)
4060 Rod of irregular section. Copper. L58,
W.3·7, T .2·4mm 5238 sfl501
4061 Rod tnpering slightly towards both ends.
Brass. L267, D.2·4mm 10557 sl2583
4062 Rod with section varying from subcircular at
one end to square but smaller at the other.
Gunmctal. L .70, W .2·4, T .2·1mm 3047
sfl58
4063 Strip offcut. Brass. L.27, W.7, T . l·lmm
18256 sf4911
4064 Wire. Brass. L19, D. I·Omm 18256sf4912
4065 Wire. Brass. L.19, 0 .0 5mm 18256s5519
4066 Wire of circular section. Brass. L32,
D. 1·5mrn 10102 sf.l443
4067 Wire. Copper. L.39, 0.14mm 4915 sf928
4068 Three wire fragments. Gunmetal. L.65,
D.lmm 12159 sn5492
4069 Wire bent in a crude hook shape, broken at
one end and \vith an irregular section.
Copper. L.ll, W.5, T.2·7mm 1213 sf.l36
4070 Wire. L49, 0.0·5mm 4294 s518
4071 Wtre. L.33, 0.0·7mm 4434 sf630
4072 Wtre ofsubrouoded section. L.l30, D.l·5mm
9251 sfl089
4073 Wire. L 115, D . 1·1nun 9252 sfl099
4074 Wire of circular section with both ends
pointed. L32, 0 .0·6mm 10333 sf2553
4075 Roughly coiled wire of circular section with
both ends cut. Brass. L320, 0.04mm
I0977 s£2726
4076 Wire of circular section with both ends cut.
Brass/copper." LilO, D.l ·5mm 11818sf331 1
4077 Two wire fragments, one of irregular section
with both cods pointed. Possibly pin shafts.
LSO, 0 .0·8mm (larger) 15122 sf3891
834 The Small Finds

4078 Roughly folded wire with both ends cut. 4/05 Curved rod with subrecrangular section.
GunmetaJ.• L700, D .0·6mm 16605 sf4419 Leaded brass. L45·5, W.2·2, T .1·8mm
(Fig.344) 1019 sfl8959
4079 Wire of circular section. Copper.* L90,
D. l ·lmm 13902 s5 124 Unstratified
4080 'Tbirt:y wires of circular section, the shafts for 4/06 Wire with round section with some facets,
'upset' headed pins, partly manufacrured. tapering slightly at the ends. G unmetal.
(Leaded) gurunctal.* L33 (longest), D.0·5mm L15, D. l·Omm 12147 sf'2516
10408 sf2536 4107 Wire of oval section with both ends broken.
4081 Triangular sheet offcut with a right-angled (Leaded) guometal. L.86, D. l lmm 10732
bend near o.ne end. Bron7-e. L.16, W.9·5, sf2636
T .0·6mrn 3235 s0255 4108 Sheet fragments. L.16, W. l 6, T . lmm (lar-
4082 Folded sheet. Brass. L16, W. ll, T .0·2mm gest) sfJ 2
18256 sf4916
4083 Triangular sheet offcut. Brass. L39, W.16,
T.0·4mm 13242 s£3900 (Fig.34S) Lead and tin
4084 Folded and perforated sheet, perhaps pan of
an object. Brass. L55, W.30, T .0·7mm 9252 Period 1
sfl378
4085 Sheet. Copper. L40, W. l6, T .Q.S mm 5484 4 I 09 Offcut tapering slightly towards both ends;
sfl795 aU edges cut. L68·8, W.6·5, T .3·7mm
4086 Four sheet fragmems. L 18, W. l3, T .O 7mm 33 145sfl34 10
(largest) I030 sfl 22; 4089 sf262 4//0 Offcut from edge of a thick sheet. Lead.
4087 Triangular sheet offcut and other fragments. L. l03·3, W.26·9, T .8mm 33174 sfl 3692
Gunmeral. L.7, W.4, T.O 5mm 11656 4I 1 I Irregular sheet fragment, broken along each
s£2482 edge and fo lded over. L69, W.37·3,
4088 Sheet. L. ll , W.3, T .O·Smm 17129 sfl 1479 T .22·7mm 28406 sfl 0630
4089 Tapering strip of slight.ly irregular section. 4// 2 Eleven spillages. Two are lead. L60·3,
Gunmeral. L55, W.6, T .2·2mm 4097 sl524 W.49·3, T.23·7rnrn (largest) 31834 sfl2624;
(Fig.34S) 3318 1 sfl3767; 33195 s!Sl 3860, 13885,
4090 Folded strip. Brass. LSO, W.3·9, T .0·6mm 13887, 13898, 13920, 13926 and 14079
3258 sfl206 4//3 Traperoidal fragment with one corner par-
409 I Two joining strip fro~gments. Brass. L69, tially broken away. Both edges and thicknes.~
W.2·6, T .O 9mm 4660 sf750 are irregular. L49·4, W.45·7, T .7·4mm
4092 Strip. Brass. L80, W.6, T .0·7mm 9572 31932 sfl 2520
sf2079 ( Fig.345) Period 2
4093 Strip with sharp bend at one end. Brass.
L 79, W. l6, T . l 3mm 11 784 sf3352 4//4 Strip roUed into a tube. Lead. L 35,
4094 Strip with slight tap~-r. Brass. L92, W. l 6, 0 . 15·8rnm 30982 sfJ 2697
T.0·6mm 13567 s0456 4115 Spillage. L.75·4, W.39·7, T. l4nun 3 1788
4095 Strip. Brass. L50, W.6·6, T .0·7mm 13244 sfl2299
sf3226
4096 Strip tapering to one end. Gunmctal. L.85, P e riod 3
W.ll , T .0·7mm 13042 sf3204 4116 Rectangular ingot of subrectangular section.
4097 Strip cut from metal sheet, chisel marks Lower surface convex, upper one concave,
visible on one face. Rrass. L53, W. JO, both with cut and punch marks. L.169,
T.0·9mm 11656 s124 79 (Fig.343) W. l24, T .67mm 2854 1 sfl0703 (Fig.J46)
4098 Strip. Brass. L37, W.5·6, T .O 5mm 9057 4117 Strip rounded at each end and bent in half.
s.f904 Lead. L187, W. l 8·7, T .4·2mm 30954
4099 Folded strip. L155, W.2·2, T .0·7mm 598 1 sf14553
s£2155 4118 Strip cut along each edge and roughly
4 I 00 Droplet of solidified molten metal. Copper folded. LilO, W.2, T . lmm 36049 sfl3492
with minor silver. L.7·5, D.6·8mm 1034 4119 Strip cut square at one end and tapering
sfl94 towards the other which is roughly broken;
4101 Fragment. L7, W.S, T .5rnm 1011 sf62 bent into an L-shape. L.48, W. l2, T .3mm
4102 Several irregular fragment.~. L. l2, W.7, 33 144 s03363
T .6mm (largest) 1030 sfl 11 4 I 20 Strip roughly broken at one end and cut off
4103 Six fragments. LIO, W.8, T .Smm (largest) square at the other. L.59·2, W.22·8,
1030 sfl23; 1034 sl207; 1096 sfl53 T .5·6mm 28195 sfl0 149
4121 Subtriangular offcut cut along two edges
Pos t-medieval and folded over along the remaining edge.
4104 Square sectioned bar tapering sharply to one L54 9, W.31 ·4, T.4·9mm 26022 sf9293
end. (Leaded) gunmetal. L 19·5, W.9, T.Smm 4122 Offcut broken off square at one end and
IOJ9s036 tapering to a point at the other; the long
Anglo-Scandinav ian Non-Fen·ous M etalworking from 16-22 Coppergate
edges are cut. L.29·8, W.7 6, T .3·6mm
278 19 sfl 0770
41 23 Offcut of triangular section which tapers to a
point at each end. L92·4, W. l8, T.15·4mm
30920 sfl 2989
41 24 Offcut roughly broken at one end and
tapering towards the other. Cut along the
long edges. L.6 1 I , W .7, T . l·5mm 3 1358
sfl 3623
4125 Sublriangular offcut with one long curved
edge. L~6· 1 , W.45·4, T.ll ·2mrn 36049
sf13635
41 26 Offcut of su brectangula r, bar-like section.
Lead ~'<ith minor tin. L.26·1, W.7 5,
T .6·7mm 3 1383 sfl 1344
4/ 27 Shee t fo lded into a triangular shape. L.34,
W. l9, T .3mm 30985 sf15933
41 28 Sheet tapering tOwards each end a nd with
the end~ folded over. Lead. L 30·5, W. l5·3,
T .7 7mm 31072 sfl 0994
4129 Irregu lar sheet fragment. L.12 5, W .7·9,
T .7mrn 30922 sf145 36
41 30 Irregular sheet with hammer marks visible.
Edges arc original, cut and broken tn pans.
L.49·2, W.43 3, T.4 Smm 32676 sf13432
-11 3 I Irregular sheet, all edges broken. L.45·7,
W. 26·1, T.5-9mm 31565 sf11434
4132 Subrcctangula r sheet with one edge cut and
the remaining edges ro ughly b roken; the cu t
edge is folded over. L38·7, W.33-4, T.3·6mrn
30220 sfll 824
41 33 Irregular pointed ovoid sheet roughly
broken a lo ng each edge. L51 ·2, W.25·2,
T .2 ?mm 30 186 sfl 0723
4134 Corner of a piece of sheet roughly broken
nlong the edges. L.39, W.32 3, T.4·5mm
2658 1 s£9044
41 35 Twisted and folded sheet. L.23, W. l 3·8,
T .3·6mm 28033 sll4 255
4136 Subtriangular spillage cut along one edge.
L.39 2. W.2 1·2, T.6·9 mm 33094 sfl4417
41 37 Two lead spillages. L 60·6, W.29 I , T .7 Omm
(larger) 26967 sf9777; 3 1644 sf14550
41 38 Eleven spillagcs. L 69·2, W.42·3, T . l0·7mm
(larges t) 3724 sn 11 76; 26736 sfs9048 and
905 1; 27 194 sf1425 1; 27775 s:n 0745; 28239
sf10231 ; 30747 sft27 86; 30760 sf1 2363;
32807 sft 4054; 36049 sf13551
4139 Four fragments. One of lead. L.47, W.41 ·7,
T.4·7mm (largest) 28347 sfl 0348; 30760
sf15 776; 3 1650 sfl 1942
Period 1/ 3
4140 Oval shee t wtth a tnpenng extensio n
developing from one: side and fo lded ov..:r.
Lead. L.28·9, W. l8, T .6 4mm 24938
sf85 l '3
Period 4A
41 4/ Ingot fragment of trapczoidal secuon cu t
across both ends and split lengthwise with
the two demems pulled apart. Lead . .L.42·4,
W.43, T . l3mm 30350 sfl 1393 (Fig.348)
835
4142 Bar of roughly square (worked) section
tapering to one end and ro unded with a
subrectangular (as-cast) section at the other.
Lead. L 92·2, W. 12, T .8mm 30296 sf11 332
4143 Twisted strip, thicker at one end than the
oilier. L.48 5, W.7·2, T.J.2mm 26228
sf8704
4144 Three offcuts; o ne is rectangular and fold ed
in half. Lead. L.1 8·9, W.6·4, T. l ·9mm
(largest) 30039 sn 4250
4145 irregular sheet 'vith the edges broken.
L. 25·7, W. l7·7, T .2·3 mm 27440sf988 1
4146 Two spillagcs. L 30·7, W.27·3, T .2 1·3mrn
(larger) 25922 sf\3674; 25934 stl 0 Ill
Period 48
4147 Rectangular bow brooch with beaded edge
a nd three axial bosses each surrounded with
a beaded collar. The Dash lines are still
visible. Lead with c.5% tin. L.50, W. l7,
T.l Omm 2286 7 sf8062 (Fig. 340)
4148 Pendant wtth sprue and caSting Dash still
anached. lt is perforated for suspension and
is decor,ned \vith a pseudo-runic inscription
surrounding a central boss. Lead-tin alloy.
L27, W. l 9 5, T.6mm 24647 sf8323
( rlg.J40)
4149 Failed casting of circular pendant '~ith. sprue
still attached. The meUil has failed to fill the
mould completely, producing two accidental
perforations in the disc. Lead L 2 1·5, W.l 2 5,
T.4mm 18988 sf9449 (Frg.340)
4 I 50 Ingot fragment of square section divided
lengthwise with the two elementS pulled
apan. Lead. L.64 3, \X/.23 2, T .9·9mm
25808 sf9725
4/ 51 Bar with variable rectangular secuon, prob-
ably cut from thick sheet but subsequently
wo rked. One end is angled and has been
molten. Tin. L.140-4, W.8·8, T .5-4mm
2 1887 sf9908 (F ig.349; Pi.LVlllb)
41 52 Rod of circula r section, bent in two. Lead-
tin al loy. L.26·8, 0.3·6mm 25630 st93 19
(Frg.349)
4153 Rod of square sccdon tapering to a point at
one end which is bent back. Lead. L.29·8,
W.9 8, T.9 5mm 32226 sf1 2802
4 I 54 Rod of roughly circular section, 1.apcnng
slighdy towards the ends, both of which
have been melted. Tin. L.l22, 0 .3·4mm
35560 sfl 4143 (Fig.349: PL IYII/b)
4155 Wire of square section, curled up. L.14·3,
W-9, T. l 7mm 24787 sffi887
41 56 Wire bent to form a circle. 0 .6·1, T .l 3mm
227 14 sf11285
4157 Strip cut along each long edge and tapering
to a point at onc end. L.51 ·6, W.7 I,
T .2·9mm 22679 sl7949
4158 Strip <:ut along each long edge and tape ring
to both ends which are folded back. L.42·7,
\X/.6·2, T . l mm 347 15 sft 3 168
41 59 Strip cut along the long edges, roughly
b ro ken at both ends. L.91 2, W.7, T . 1 7mm
34622 sf13265
836
4160 Strip roughly broken at both ends but with
the long edges cut. Lead. L.30·6, W. l 3,
T . 1·8mm 24808 st8633
4161 Strip folded neady in twO along rhe major
axis and twisted. Both long edges and one
end are cut, the other is broken or tom.
Lead. L5·4, W. l7, T.5-lmm 24872st8461
4162 Strip rolled imo a tube. Lead. l...54·8,
D.12·2mrn 197 19 sf12820
4163 Strip 0·2mm thick. One edge is folded over
and the whole is bem and crushed. Tin with
c. l5% lead (Energy Di~ive X-Ray analysis
by j.G. McDonnell). L.78, W.15, T.l ·9mrn
35332 sf1 4102
4164 Narrow strip tapering towards one end, cut
along each long edge and folded in rwo.
L.l5·9, W.9·8, T.4·9mm 23445 s17658
4165 Strip tapering to a poim at either end and
cut along the edges. L.46·5, W.4 6,
T.2·9mm 25667 st9281
4166 Strip divided longitudinally and with the
rwo elements twisted togerher, partially
crushed. L.37, W. ll ·6, T .6·5mm 15708
sn 1432
4167 Offcut cut along one long edge and broken
along the remaining edges; folded in two.
L29·8, W.20·1, T .Smm 22423 sf7649
4168 Offcut cut along both long edges, tapering
to a point Ill one end and rolled up at the
other. L. 7 1·2, W.22·9, T. l 2·8mm 22748
sf7983
4169 Offcu t of triangular section with rwo a:Kast
surfaces and tapering to a point at either
end. L.27·2, W.22·1, T .S 6mm 3 1476
sfl2952
41 70 Offcut of roughly square section, folded
from either end. Lead. L.243, W. ll ·2,
T.3·4mm 34290 sn4549
4171 Offcut partly cut and partly tom along the
long edges, cut at either end. L.78·8,
W. 14·8, T .7·2mm 26157 sf8652
4172 Offcut of subtriangular section, broken at
either end. L.345, W.7 4, T .5·7mm 24648
sf8306
4173 Offcut tapering to either end, twisted and
bent in rwo. l..cad. L.55·4, W.22·6, T.l·7mm
22452 sf7672
41 74 Offcu t of triangular section tapering towards
each end. Lead. L.64·2, W.9·4, T .6·9mm
24109 sffi145
4175 Offcut of irregular section, folded and ham-
mered. Lead. L44, W.l4, T .7mm 24292
st8 186
4176 Two offcuts, one of circular section, cut at
one end and tapering to the orher, the other
a rectangUlar sheet with a cut mark. Lead.
L.l3·1, D.2·9mm (largest) 19737 sf14505
4177 Sbc offcuts. L12·6, W.9, T .3·7mm 22490
sf1130 1; 25493 sfl4092; 25750 sfl4476;
29528 sf14462; 35548 sf14068
4178 Sheet cut along each of the long edges and
broken at either end. L.45 2, W.28·3,
T .3·8mm 19390 s19089
The Small Finds
4179 Sheet cut along both long edges, folded
over, and folded along one edge. L.41 ·4,
W.35·6, T.5·3mm 21807 sf10405
4180 Sheet folded lengthwise, the edges and ends
roughly broken. L.67, W.13·1, T .6·6mm
3 1310 sfl1 173
4181 Roughly rectangUlar shret, with one edge
folded over. Some edges are cut. L.60·1,
W.42·2, T .7·1mm 27642 sfll323
4182 l.rregular sheet wilh cut edges folded and
crushed. L.5 1·7, W.51 ·9, T . 1l ·lmm 28904
sfl2431
4183 Irregular sheet with original edges, tom and
with rwo square nail holes through it. L.49,
W.41 ·1, T.l3·4mm 34207 sf12886
4184 Sheet partly folded. L.25·9, W. l5, T .6·1 mm
25341 s.fl 4065
4185 Subtriangular sheet, one end folded . L.27,
W. l9 7, T .2 ·1mm 25748 sfll949
4186 Lc:moid sheet offcut. Lead. L.51 ·3, W.l 6,
T .3mm 23 102 sf7609
4187 Sheet under l mm thick, square at one end
and rounded at the other, with a row of rivet
holes pnrallel to the edges; folded over.
Lead. L.68·2, W.55 7, T .7mm 36241
sfl3785
4188 Irregular sheet fragment. Lead. L.22 I, W. l6,
T . lmm 34412 sfl4551
4189 Three irregular sheet fragments, roughly
broken on all edges. L.53·5, W.40·9, T.lnun
Oargest) 32312 sf13243; 35012 sf13441
4/90 Spillage of subtriangular section, tapering
towards one end. Lead-tin aUoy. L.35·2,
W.7·4, T .7mm 22690 sf7847
4191 Spillage of triangular section, rwo lilces arc
flat. Cf. 4'251 . L.42·6, W.24·9, T . l 2·8mm
227 14 sn 1237
4192 Spillage. Lead. L.60, W.24, T .6·6mm 21 143
sfll627
4193 Thirty-eight spillages. L. 73 6, W.29,
T.9·3mm O.argest) 8731 sfl887; 18127
sf4733; 197 14 sfl2848; 2 1451 sfl6108;
22423 sf7643; 22451 sf764 1 (PI.L VIlla);
22452 sfl 5736; 22462 sf7624 (PI.LVT/Ia);
22670 sf7836; 227 I 3 sf11248; 22808
sfl 1213; 23245 sf7528; 23586 sf7657;
23603 sf7691 ; 23650 sf7961 ; 23795 s£8098;
23881 sfll523; 261 48 sffi666; 2617 1 sffi817;
26252 sn 1570; 26992 sfl 4249; 29467
sfsl0810, 10817, 10822, 10823 and 10825;
321 16 sfJ 309 1; 32758 sfl 3625; 34412
sfl 2963; 355 19 sfl6117; 35674 sfl4535
4194 Fragment roughly broken along each edge.
L.30,8, W. l 7, T .2·9mm 20320 sf8356
4195 Fragment folded over along each of !he long
edges. L.21 ·9, W.9, T .3·4mm 25466 sf8676
4196 Fragment of roughly square section wilh rwo
prorubemnces near one end, folded over at
the olhc:r. POSSibly a runner from a mould.
L58·5, W. ll·9, T .5·3mm 26338 sffi9 12
4197 Three fragments with each edge roughly
broken. L29, W. l6·1, T. l 7mm (lnrgeSt)
227 14 sn 1293; 24028 sf8367;
4198 Subtriangular fragmenL L.18·8, W.l9·5,
T .3·7mm 23753 sfl4256
A nglo-Scandinavian Non-Ferrous Metalworking from 16-22 Coppergate
Period SA
4199 Strip folded in l'WO. L.47·1, W.28,
T . 10 6mm 15173 sf4088
4200 Strip of irregular v.-idth and th1ckness,
twisted and Oanened. L.59·3, W.24·1,
T .13mm 18862 sf5348
4201 Strip cut along bolh long edges, twiSted,
folded and flattened. L57 9, W.38, T.144mm
20710 sf7128
4202 Strip folded several times, all the edgt.-s cut.
Lead. L40·9, W.J9,5, T.S.4mm 8258 sfl 101
4203 Folded strip. L.36, W.l7, T.12mm 22006
sf6958
4204 Subtriangular otfcut, cut along two edges,
folded over along the third. Chisel marks on
o ne surface. L.60, W.29, T.3·2mm 14883
sf6302
4205 Offcut of triangular to subrectangular sec-
non, tapering to the ends. L.33·2, W.3·6,
T.2·8mm 22122 sn 1262
4206 Sheet metal offcu t. L.31·2, W.6, T .3 7mm
22053 sfl302 1
4207 Offcut. L.28, W .6, T.l mm 22309 sll 5732
4208 Folded offcur. L.21, W. 9, T .3mm 2498
s06242
4209 Sheet, crumpled longirudinally several
times. L.l 15·9, W . 31·1, T . 12·4nun 14909
sf6336
4210 Irregular sheet, folded several times. L.68·3,
W .27 7, T.!O 3mm 22068 sfl0 11 8
421 I Sheet, c. 1·5mm d'lick, subrecro ngular with
the edges cut, folded and paniaUy crushed
Lead Ll32·8, W.72-3, T .2 1·3mm 22141
sfl3597
4212 Two spillages incorporating carbonised
plant remains. One lead with a trace of tin.
L85 9, W.8 1·2, T .29·6mm (larger) 14874
sf6032 ( PI. L VIlla) ; 20980 sf7307
4213 Two spillages. Lead. L33·2, W. l 3 1, T.3·5mm
(larger) 8382 sn 257; 27085 sfl.l42 1
4214 Four spillages. L.72, W.39-2, T.9·8mm
(largest) 18458 sf4973; 20980 sl73 11 ;
22 104 sfll441 ; 27296 sn 6 122
Period 5B
4215 Lunatc-shapcd sprue of triangular section.
Four runners, now bent and twisted,
emerge from the convex edge. Lead. L42·5,
W .22·9, T.20mm 18577 sf5130 (Fig.33~
4216 Subrccrongular ingot/spillage of piano-convex
section, wider and thicker to one end.
Cast/spilt in a groove in the ground. Lead.
L.98, W.28, T.13mm 18962 s.f5897
(Fig.346)
4217 Bar of roughly circular section, it has an
expanded recrongular section near one end.
Lead. L.42·6, W. l2·1, T.10mm 1086
sfl53 1
4218 Bar of rectangular section, one end is
rounded the other is spatulate. Lead.
L46· I, W.9·6, T.4mm 7669 sf2262
4219 Bar of circular section, broken at one end,
cut at the other. Lead. L.73·6, D .7·5mm
29465 sO 1770
837
4220 Rod with irregular, subcircular section, it
tapers LOwards each end and ili bent in two.
Lead. L6H, D.4.mm 7920 s0837
4221 Strip, rounded at one end and folded
lengthwise at the other. L. l013, W.22·7,
T .4·3mm 15368 sf4233
4222 Strip, roUed up and partly flattened. L21 2,
W.21 I, T . l0·6mm 21854 sf9916
4223 Strip folded over three times and tapering to
a point at one end. One lo ng edge is cur, the
other tom or broken. Lead. L.28 6, W.21,
T . l0·7mm 19615 sffl399
4224 Rectangular strip with a nail bole in three of
the corners, the remaining corner broken
away. Lead. L.63, W.49-9, T . 11 ·3mm 7262
sfl031
4225 Recrongular strip with the long edges cu t
and the ends broken. Lead. L.67 3, W.20·6,
T.2mm 29094 s.fl 0051
4226 Narrow strip cut along both long edges and
at each end, and twisted. One long edge is
cut into several narrower strips. .L. 71 ·2,
W . 15, T.3·lmm 14982 sf66 17
4227 Triangular offcut with each edge cut, folded
l'\\icc and with cut marks on both faces.
L.52·3, W.31, T .3·2mm 2778 sf401
4228 Offcut of triangular section, square at o ne
end and tapering to the other. All the edges
are C\JL L.61-l, W . l8, T.9-2mm 2827 sf502
4229 Offcut of sheet, roughly t:rianguJar and
folded along one edge. Two edges arc
broken, the third cut. 1.69, W.346, T.48mm
7003 sn 199
4230 Otfcut. L.20·3, W.3·2, T.l ·3mm 9630
sf325 I
4231 Offcut from partly flattened spillage. L46,
W.20,T. 10·9mm 13716sf3566
4232 Pointed ovoid offcut of thin ( I·Smm) sheet
with cut edges. L.67 2, W. l8·5, T .6mm
15470 sf4342
4233 Offcut which tapers to a point at one end
and is cur a long each edge. L.45, W.6 5,
T . l ·5mm 2039 1 sf6746
42.?4 Offcut folded and hammered to a roughly
squa re sectioned bar. Lead. L.28·4, W.l 0·7,
T .9·2mm 14434 sf5044
4235 Offcut from thick sheet, square in section
and tapering towards each end. Bent round
into a loop. Lead. L. 3 1·7, W .7 3, T.6·4mm
29856 s.fl3286
4236 Offcut. Lead L.80, W.36-5, T.9 5mrn
29263 sn 0688
4237 Sheet offcut rolled and folded in two.
L.6.5 ·1, W.26·9, T .24·4mm 15416 sf4372
4238 Two sheet fragments. One rectangular with
three b roken edges, folded in half, the other
irregular with rwo original edges. L52·5,
W.47·3, T.2mm (larger) 7378 sfl279
4239 lrregular sheet as-cast with a later cut mark.
L.57·3, W.44·5, T.10·8mm 5641 sf2076
4240 Sheer, approximately square. L.23·8, W.22·2,
T.2·6mm 7589 sf2120
838
-1241 Irregular !oheet of vanablc thickness, folded
sa-em! llmes and ~Wmed. L384, W .21 4,
T 144mm 15193 sf4187
-1142 Folded sheet t'ragmenL L12, W. l37,
T.4 7mm 15361 sf-t228
4243 Sheet folded several llmes. L33 2, W.26 5,
T 6 2mm 15558 sf4464
4244 Irregular sheet fragmmL L 22, W. l7 I ,
T 2 5mm 19326 sf6 83
4245 Sheet cut along lhc long edg« and broken
along lhe olhers, folded and flattened .
L71 8, W.24 5, T .5 2mm 21863 sf9989
4246 Roughly rectangular sheet with cut edges,
rolled up at one end. Hammer marks visible
on one ~urfac:c. Lead. L (rolled) 89, W.98,
T . l 5mm 14573 sf4707 (F,g.J47)
4247 Spillage folded in two. L86 9, W .76,
T . l7 7mm 15530 sf4 4 16
4248 Spillage wilh one Oar and one: irregular
surfnoe. L.64·4, W.55, T .S ! mm 29 156
sf13309
4249 Spillage cut on one side. Lead. L.40·1,
W .32 3, T .S 2mm 19616 sf8273
4250 Two splllage1. Lead. L 77 6, W.32·8,
T . l ) 7mm (huger) 21554 sf9860
425 1 Spillage oftapc:nng triangular secuon. Lead.
L 79 7, W 35 8, T.26 I mm 21554 si9353
4252 Spillage Lead. L47, W.46 5, T .6 5mm
2155-t 5f93'54
4253 11uny-~= ~es. L644, W .416,
T.24 8mm (largest) 1086 sfl593; 1473 s£404;
6928 sf6580, 726 1 .Jl6180; 7296 sfl595;
7480 sfl668, 290 sfl274; 9630 s0283;
14325 snsn, 14575 s£6479; 14605 s£4702;
14712 sf5456, 14973 s£6922; 15382 sfs4250,
4252, 1262 and 4264, 15-116 sf-1395; 15494
s£4510, 18256 55517; 18962 s5935; 20318
'if&69 ; 21U4 ~333, 21746 sl10221; 21845
sm60; 2 1925 s&10097 and 10678; 22115
IJ'7%6; 26015 sfl588-t; 27513 sfl0587; 29263
sfs l0835, 10886 and 10929
4254 FragmenL L4, W 2, T . l mm 15382 sf-t261
4255 Fragment roughly broken along one long
edge and ut both ends. L58 5, W.8·9,
T .6 7mm 19320 s£6918
P e ri od 4/S
4256 Square sectioned rod, broken at one end
and cut at lhe other. Lead. L.94, W.3·2,
T .3·1mm 3659 sl'84 15
4257 OtTcu t cut along two long edges. L.40·3,
W. l3·1, T .Hmm 359 1 s£467 1
4258 Offcut cut lttlnsvcn;ely from a bar of angular,
shallow, U-shaped section. Lead. L.26·5,
W. l 7 2, T I 3 2mm 3625 sfl)705
4259 Irregular !.heel fragment. L36 3, W.27·5,
T .4mm 3591 M4672
P eriod SC f
4260 Offcut L25, W 2, T . lmm 7863 sfl61 16
4261 Sheet folded sa"eml nmes. L64, W.34 7,
T 21 mm 7868sf3612
4162 Spillage or IC1ll•mohen sheet. L35, W .37 8,
T 5 3mm 4060 s098
The S mall Finds
Period SCr
4263 Rod of roughly pol)l~onal secuon, rounded
at one end, broken at lhc olher. Lead.
L44 5, 0 .3 5mm 6378 sf5 156 (Ft,g.341J)
4264 W~re of square S«tJJn Lead. L 114, W. l 3,
T . lmm 19269 sfJ 1448
4265 Stnp Wllh roughly square ends, twiSled and
folded, one long edge llll:g\llar, one possibly
cut. L128, W.25 6, T I I mm 19090 sffi049
4266 Stnp, roughly square at one end, tapenng to
a poLDt at lhc other, all e~ cut. L38 4,
W.33, T .2 7mm 153 11 sf4189
4267 Irregular stnp, twiSted and folded. Lead.
L42 5, W.20 6, T.l4 I mm 20231 sf6517
4168 Roughly triangular otl'cut, folded over at the
ends. L343, W.209, T .79mm 15311
55559
4169 SubuionJ.,'\tlar otl'CI.It, cut olong two edges.
L.26, W. l2, T .4 4mm 6789 sf62 11
4270 Pointed ovoid offcut with a lcJnglrudinnl cut
rnnrk. L48, W. ll , T .7·l mm 16733 sf6920
427 J Otrcut. L 11·6, W.4, T .Jmm 153 11 sn 1483
4272 Triangular sheet w11h cut edges. L39 I ,
W.2 1, T.4 2mm 3529 sf2992
4273 Sheet wilh lhe lo ng edges ma1rLly cut, one
half 15 folded lcnglhwtSe and Danened.
Lead. L 158, W .41 6, T .4mm 15311 s£5628
4274 ~ Wet CUI along bolh long edges,
broltcn at euher end and folded m two. Lead.
L432, W .41 I , T 54mm 20162sf6486
4275 Scvm sptDages One 1 lead L63 7, W.22 6,
T22 )mm {largest) 16900 sf6191, 18744
4276
!Js59-t0 and 5978, 20163 fs6339 and 6362
Fragment, ~bty Oanened spillage L85 7,
W.24 7, T 14mm 3588 sf71 14
Period 6
4277 Cm:ular badge With a beaded border and •
plam zone surroundmg a r11scd central area
Wllh an opell\\c'Ork des~gn of two conecnaic
circles and supcnmposcd radiaung hnes,
four meetmg at the eentre and lhc others
topptng at lhc second ring. The metal ~as
mcompletcly filled lhe mould, produang
breaks 10 t11e dcs1gn, so this 1s technically a
fruled casting. The Oash which partly 6lls the
openwork has not been removed. The potnt
of anochment of lhe runner can be seen on
t11c rim, midwoy between lhc two U-shaped
attachment loops. Lead. L.43, W.33,
T .6mm 9248 sn07 1
4278 Circular openwork badge with loops to
either side, similar to 4277. Lead. 0 .37,
T .5mm 13902 sf4950 (F,g.J4{1)
4279 Globular-headed pin wilh 11 collar decorated
on each Stde Wllh 11 bemngbonc pattern
between head and shank. Traces of the
casung Dash rcmatn Lcad-un alloy L44,
0 . (head) 5mm 10974 sl2827 (/V 340)
4280 RUilllCr from pu:ce mould \\1th casting Oasb
VISible Of lentotd seCtion, globular at one
end and roughly cruoform at the other.
Lead. L17 2, W.5 6, T 3 8mm 9572 sf'2361
(Ftg.JJ9)
A nglo-Scandinavian Non-Ferrous M etalworking from 16-22 Coppergate
4281 Runner with four elcmcms of D-shaped
section and difrcnng lengths meeting to
form a cross; fro m the jllllction a fifth
develops. No ~.r.~ce of a casting flash visible.
Lead. L.52·9 , W.29, T . l3mm 5245 sfl 283
(Fig.•l39)
-1282 Circular ingot of piano-convex section cut
in half and with tool (punch/gouge?) marks
on both faces. Lead. 0.68·8 , T . l4 6mm
5373 sfl 639 (Fig.346)
-1283 Pan of a roughly circular piano-convex
mgot. Working (?cut) mark~ arc visible on
the fiat (upper) surface. L ll 0·3, W.63,
T .34mm 1'3499 sf3429 (Fig.346)
4284 As-cast bar ingot of D-shaped section,
roughly broken at each end. L 109 4,
W. l3 I, T .7mm 10517 st26 16 (Ftg.34lf)
4285 Bar wnh rectangular section. L.54, W 11 7,
T.4 I mm 10097 st2448
4286 Bar. As-cast with one cut end. L.47·6,
W.34·7, T .7 4mm 13698 sf3607
4287 Bar with hammer marks on both !lauened
sides. Subrectangular section, narrowing tu
o ne end which is broken. L.47 7, W. IO I ,
T .3·6m m 17740sf'5 11 1 (Ftl(..?4lf)
4288 Bar of Lrshaped section. Lead. L.63 S,
W . 17 4, T .9·4mm 4620 sfl248
-1289 Rod of roughly c1rcular sect1on, cut at both
ends. Lead. L37 I, D. 5mm 166 12 sf6041
429U Rod of rectangular section with the long
edges on both faces chamfered and the ends
cut. Tin, ?w1th minor lead. L63 1, W. l O I ,
T .3 8mm 4028 sr2 19 (Fig.349)
429 1 Strip nf square !lection tapering towards the
ends and bem mto an oval. L27 2, W. l6 3,
T .3 6mm 2096 sf30
4292 Five strip!>. On two the edges arc cuL
LRO 3, W.9·1, T .3 2mm (largeSt) 3414
sr2623; 4620 sn 190; 7782 sf3085
-1293 Two strips, both bent over at one end. L. 5 I,
\X' .9 , T . l Smm (larger) 2096 sf30; 41\20
sfl 256
4294 Strip made from a rectangular sheet folded
over along me long edges. L.55, \1:'. 15 7,
T .6·2m m 9305 sfl62 1
-1295 Strip folded over from each end. L.29 8,
\X/.25·2, T .5·7mm 11053 sl'2622
4296 Strip wtth one long edge folded over; bem
in rwo. L.44·4, W.34·5, T .26mm 12274
sf3089
4297 Strip wnh one end square and folded over,
the other ro ughly broken. There i~ a crude
perforation near the middle of one edge.
L.89 2, W.SO 1, T .8mm 11715 sfJ139
4298 Stnp With one square end and two perfor-
ations along one edge, roughly broken at the
other end and folded several rimes. L.59 2,
W.41 ·3, T.l6·6mm 12422 sf327l
4299 Strip folded from both ends. L.29, \X/.22,
T .5·4mm 1'3244 s04 14
4300 Strip rightly twisted and roughly broken at
either end. Lead. L.42, W.30 5, T .54mm
9224 stl399
839
-1301 Rectangular strip with rvvo rivet holes in o ne
long edge and one in the other. One end is
roughly broken. Lead \vith minor tin.
L66 7, \X/.26, T .3mm 18121 sf4127
4302 Strip w1th four rivet holes in one long edge,
two m the o ther. One end is square, the
other roughly broken. Lead with minor tin.
L90, W.30·8, T.l ·8mm 18121 sf4726
-1303 Offcut, square at one end and tapering
towards the other. One of the long edges is
cut, the other hammered. L588, W.2 1·3,
T .2 3mm 5485 sfl632 (Ftg.347)
430 4 Strip with tron rivet. L45, W. ll , T . 1 Omm
(strip); L.l 5, D .9mm (rivet) 12485 sf3137
4305 Offcu t of roughly rectangular plan and
sccnon, cut on all four sides. L.38, W.22 2,
T .9 5mm 12274 sf3047
4306 Ollc ut of triangular !>ection which tapers
toward s one end and is irregular at the
o ther. L47 8, W. l8·2, T.7 3mm 9404
sfl798
4107 Rectangular offcut with one sloping edge
which is broken, the remaining edges arc cut
and one IS neatly folded over. L.28·7, W.24,
T.4 2mm 12700 sfJ488
-1308 Triangular o ll'cur "'ith rwn cut edges.
L.47 2. W. l 9 3, T .3·9mm 3493 sf3537
4309 Offcut from edge o f as-cast sheet with two
cut cdgt:s. L 75 4, W.22, T.l I rrun 12727
:.f3795
-1310 Ovo td sheet otl'cut, tluckest at the cut stde
and tapering to the other. L.66 7, \1(1.42 ,
T .2 6mm 18331 sf5323
-1111 Shee t offcut, submangular and cut along
one edge. L.47·8, W.24 3, T.4mm 11867
sr295Q
·13 12 irregular sheet metal offcut ...~th deep cut
mark~. L.61 6, W.26 I, T .o Jmm 1345-1
sf3450
4 .H 3 Subtriangular offcut. L50·5, \X/. 15·5, T . l 5mm
16612 sf635 1
43 14 Triangular otrcut, cut along two edges and
roughly broken on the third. Lead. L5 I ,
W.25, T .5 6mm 9224 sf1415
4315 Offcut, square at one end and tapering to a
point at the other, cut on all edges. Lead.
L55 I, W.26, T . l 6mm 9305 sf1601
4316 Twisted o ffcut of triangular section. Lead.
LilO, W.ll , T .7 4mm 4243 sf494
43 17 Lcntoid otrcut. Lead. L. 73·5, W.26 9,
T .4 2mm 4620 sf1 195
43/8 Rectangular offcut "~th one corner cut off
obliquely. Lead. L 77, W.20 8. T.l 8mm
5802 sl'2141
4119 Trapczoidal offcut from as-cast sheet \\~th
irregular upper and lower surfaces. A.ll four
edges cut. LilO, W.40, T.t7mm 13147
sf3563
4320 Offcut corkscrewcd up. Lead. L 24, W.2,
T .2mm 11458 sfl5719
4321 Triangular sheet mcml offcut. L.49·5,
W.23·6, T .2mm 3095 sl'228
-1322 Sheet (4mm thick) folded several times and
llanencd. L49. W.30, T . l5mm 1271
sf14456
840
4323 Triangular sheet cut along two edges and
broken along the third, folded once. L.46,
W .45, T . lmm 2830 sf508
4324 Sheet fragment folded into a triangular
shape with at leasr one edge cut and one
broken. L52·7, W .41·3, T .19·6mm 4060
s£398
4325 In-egular sheet fragment roughly broken
along each edge and folded lengthwise.
L 73, W.0·2, T.4mm 4620 sfJ 119
4326 Subtriangular, clislled sheet, roughly broken
alnng each edge, wilh extensive random
scratch marks on lhe convex face. L95·3,
W.83, T.3·7mm 4620 sO 185
43Z7 Approximately square sheet with all the
edges roughly broken and th.roe of them
folded over. L.36-7, W.37, T .9·6mm 5803
s0937
4328 In-egular ovoid sheet with the edges broken.
L73, W.56·1, T.3mm 5415 st'2195
4329 Thin sheet folded up into a squart parcel.
L32·7, W.33-6, T .5·6mm 10096 sf2454
(Fig.347)
4330 Corner of a rtctangular piece of sheet partly
cut and partly broken, fused. L.67·4,
W .52·7, T .5·1rnm 10813 st'2786
4331 Subcircular sheet with the edges broken.
L35·9, W.27, T.4-1mm 3539 s12889
4332 Trapczoidal sheet. L47·1, W.441, T .2·5rnm
779 1 sl3 114
4333 Seven irregular sheet fragmems broken on
all edges. LJ05, W.87·7, T .3-4mm (largest)
6257 s0843; 12507 s0295; 16170 sf4105;
16410 sf4426; 16516 sf4338
4334 Irregular sheet fragment, cut on one long
edge but roughly broken on lhc remaining
edges. L38·2, W. ll·8, T.I ·Smm 13302
s0324
4335 Rectangular sheet thinning to one end
which is folded over. All edges neatly cut or
as cast. L.47, W .42, T .5·5mm 9224 sf349 1
4336 Irregular sheet fragment folded twice.
L27·3, W . l 6·8, T.4mrn 13585 sf3670
4337 Three irregular sheet fragmentS folded and
bent. L 75, W.42·9, T .20·2mm (largest)
16653 sf11487; 18142 sf475 1
4338 lrTegular sheet cut along at least one edge
and roughly broken along the others. Lead.
L53·3, W.34-6, T.l 3·6mm 1097 sfl 44
4339 Subrectangular sheet with at least one: orig-
inal edge folded in half. L93, W.45·3,
T.1 2·1mm 107 15 st'267 1
4340 Sheet with rectangu.IJlr patch cut away at
one end. Around the edge is a row of rivet
boles wilh iron rivets and other perforations.
Lead. L1 36·2, W .89·7, T.9·1mm 12659
s056 1
4341 Irregular sheet. Lead. Ll05 6, W.49,
T.3·9mm 2 193 sfl34
4342 Sheet cut square at one end and along both
long edges but tapering towards the other
end which is roughly broken. Lead. L I 04·4,
W.73·8, T.S.Smm 3246 sf927
4343 Rectangul.a r sheet with the edges cut and
one end folded over. Close to the other end
The Small Finds
there is a square hole near one edge. Lead.
L139, W.82·5, T . l 3mm 4042 sf235
4344 Narrow rectangular sheet folded lengthwise
and along most edges. The long edges are
cut and paralleled by rivet holes. Lead.
L.ll5·5, W.37, T .20mm 5442 sfl908
4345 Sheet folded over. Lead. L21, W. l6, T.2mm
12741 s05706
4346 Roughly rectangular sheet fragment broken
along each edge and folded lengthwise.
L60, W.23·8, T.5mm 1872 sf824
4347 Spillage: a solidilied pool of molten metal
with irregular under swface. L95·8, W.48·8,
T. l 7·8mm 5230 sf2124
4348 Rectangular spillage of piano-convex section
broken off roughly to one side. L56·8,
W.45·8, T . ll·8mm 10463 sf2556
4349 Spillage of fuirly regular shape similar to a bar
ingot but not one. L48·1, W.26·1, T.I0·7mm
13229 s0348
4350 Spillage folded several times and partly
melted. L68·2, W. 19·7, T . l 8·7mm 567 1
s080 1
4351 Spillage: folded in two. L. 74·5, W.32·3,
T .14·4mm 16 153 sf4023
4352 Roughly circular spillage, splashed from a
height. Lead. L 32, W.26·5, T .3·4mm
12578 s0909
4353 Spillage with textile impression on the lower
surmce. Lead. L45·7, W.21, T. 18mrn 18256
sf4833
4354 Spillage of circular secuon roughly broken at
either end. Lead. L60 4, 0.8·8mm 3537
sf6809
4355 Three: spiUagcs. Lead. L I05·8, W.62·2,
T . ll ·7mm (largest) 1034 s1206; 5064 sf'J34;
J6734sf4446
4356 N'me:ry-du-c:e spillages. L68·9, W.34-8, T .7mm
(largest) I034 sfs 199 and 206; 1119 sfl 19;
1284 s1243; 2 154 sf6 1; 3429 sfl 4421; 3537
sf6809; 41 25 sf3 16; 4620 sfsl 235 and 1303;
5064 sf934; 5186 sfl462; 5238 sfl408;
5248 sfl264; 5348 s.fl682; 5975 sf3203;
598 1 sfs2146 and 2164; 6257 sf3377; 6258
sf6862; 6282 sfs5262 and 5279; 7296
sn 630; 8304 sn 2 16; 90 16 sf879; 9 122
sfl048; 9 188 sf972 ; 9269 s0364; 9305
sf2008; 948 1 sfl976; 9800 s023 1; 10847
sf4867; 11373 s12704; 11867 st'2956; 11885
s12915; 11922 s12995; 11927 sf3011; 11965
sf3974; 12258 sf2932; 1241 2 st15715;
12507 sf329 1; 1267 1 s0480; 12791 sf3725;
12794 sf370 J; 13042 sl3212; 13568 sf3546;
15033 sf4894; 16072 sf4078; 16074 sf4375;
16535 sf43 15; 16734 sf4446; 16762 sf4393;
16785 sf-1468; 16925 sfs4514, 4517, 4525,
4526, 4528, 4531, 4532, 4535-42; 17247
sf4704; 18172 sf4808; 18256 sfiJ4833, 4913
and 5510
4357 Fragment. L46, W.42·9, T . 10·7mm 12544
sf3762
Post-medieval
4358 Strip bent over at one: end. L2, W.4·1,
T . l ·4mm 2090 sf25
Ang/o-Sca11dinavian Non -Ferrous Metalworki, gfrom 16-22 Coppergate 84 1

4359 Spillage. Lead. L53·8, W.43·4, T .8·6mm 4380 Four haematite pebble fragments. L.37,
2912 sfi75 W. l3, T . l2mm (largest) 22670 sf7839;
24561 s£8799; 28120 sfl0966; 35332
Unstrarified sfl4173
4360 Strip folded lengthwise and across. L 75, 4381 Two haematite fragments, each with a flat
W.l8, T.2mm 8398 sfl265 face. L20, W. l3, T . 10mm (larger) 31189
4361 Strip rolled into a rube. Lead. L43·8, sfl2914
D. I Lmm sfl3781 4382 Eight haematite fragments. L31 , W.24,
4362 Olfcut, square at one end and expands T .l9mm (largest) 21143 s£8657; 22268
towards the other which is curved. L34·7, s£7532; 22670 sfs7816 and 7845; 24203
W.27·5, T .3mm s£9346 sf8150; 24329 s£8197; 25923 sf9975; 34290
4363 Subtriangular offcut with two edges cur and sfl4533
the third folded over, the apex is bent up m
right-llllg!es. Lead. Ll52·8, W.73 7, T. 13-3mm Period SA
sn 1166 4383 Galena fragment. L45, W.39, T .38mm
4364 Sublriangular olfcut cut along one edge, the 22535 s£7673
remainder- original. L322, W.12, T.2·6mm 4384 Two haematite pebbles, each with a flat
sfl3228 face. L24, W. l6, T . l4 and L20, W.lS,
4365 Offcut tapering towards one end, aU edges T .7mm 20132 sf665 1
are cut. L 19·8, W.4·6, T .4mm 33196 4385 Haematite fragment. L17, W.l2, T .9mm
sfl3865 14922 s£7065
4366 Roughly square sheet roUed into a crude
rube. Lead. L38·3, D . l7mm s£9069 Period SB
4367 Tbree spillages. Lead. L66·8, W.51 ·6,
T .J 9·4mm (largest) sl2025; 3685 s£8622; 4386 Galena fragmenL L26, W.23, T .18mm
21796 sfl0267 21200 sf8227
4368 Spillage folded in two. L48, W.32·4, 4387 Haematite lump with flat face. L20, W.l5,
T .4·9mm 21796 sfl0253 T.8mm 21316 s£8599
4369 Four spillagc:s. L647, W .35, T . l9·6mm 4388 Haematite block with rounded corners and
(largest) sffl915; 6316 sf6342; 21796 sfs10266 polished surfaces. L40, W.28, T . l3mm
and 13849 20230 sf8949
4370 Fragment. L32, W.30, T .5mm sf4640 4389 Two haematite pebble fragments. L.30,
W.22, T . IOmm (larger) 19188 sf7182;
21962 sf10157
4390 Eight haematite fragment'>. L34, \V.21, T.9nun
(largest) 6433 sfs6207 and 6480; 6836
Mineral s sf6333; 8344 sfl649; 15473 sf7429; 19320
sf6824; 21925 sfl4542; 29263 sfi0926
Period 3
4371 Tw-o galena fragments. L38, W.38, T .27mm Period SCr
(larger) 25990 sfl0428; 26736 s19043 4391 Two haematite pebbles. L23, W. l6, T . llmm
4372 Haematite pebble fragment. L23, W .20, (larger) 19090 sl5904; 19120 sf6162
T . 16mm 24418 s£8249 4392 Two haematite pebbles WJth a Oat face.
4373 Haematite fragment with polished facets. L IS, W. J3, T .9mm (larger) 6781 sf6160;
L39, W.28, T.22mm 26799 s19775 6789 sf6230
4374 Haematite pebble fragment witb worn facet. 4393 Haematite pebble fragment with a Oat face.
L33, W. l5, T .9mm 36049 sfl3732 L30, W.25, T . l8mm 19190 s5672
(Pi. L IIT.llc) 4394 Nine haematite fragments. L.28, W.16,
4375 Haematite fragment. L6, W.3, T .2mm T .9nun (iaigcl."t) 6789 s1S6099, 6102, 6105,
30954 sf14563 6129 and 6132; 19090 sl5899; 19120 sf6122;
19167 sf6160; 19194 sf6296
Period 4A
4376 Haematite pebble. L23, W.21, T. l2mm Period 6
30352 sfl 1512
4377 Two haematin: fragments. L21, W.20, 4395 Two galena fragments- L57, W.49, T .38rnm
T .16mm (larger) 26228 sf8786; 30274 sfll143 (larger) 2339 sf89; 12365 sf300 I
4396 Two haematite pebbles. L.57, W.34mm
Period 48 (larger) 5981 sfs2202 and 2218
4378 Three galena fragments. L.82, W.79, 4397 Haematite pebble fragment. Ll4, W. l4,
T.70mm (largest) 22419 sf7610; 22713 T . llmm 13155 sf3168
sf7902; 275 11 sfl 0702
4379 Three haematite pebbles. L2 1, W . l7, Unstratified
T.Smm (largest) 23478 s£7615; 24073 4398 Haematite fragmenL L31, W.28, T .20mm
sf8111; 32473 sfl3185 28643 sfll563
842
H earth lining
Period 4A
4399 Tuyere block, incomplete, with hole 15-20mm
diameter. It would originally have been built
into the hearth structure. Front surface is
vitrified from contact with the fire in the
hearth and coloured red by traces of copper.
XRF analysis detected copper, zinc, tin and
lead. L87, W .59, T .30mm 30343 sfl l400
(Fig.35{})
Period 48
4400 Fragment of hearth lining with traces of
a ruyere hole, diameter 20- 25mm. XRF
analysis detected copper, tin, zinc and lead.
L.43, W.33, T . l9mm 23080 sfl4278
Period SA
440.1 Circular ruyere block, incomplete, with
angled air passage, diameter c. l 2mm. XRF
analysis detected copper. L57, W.35,
T .28mm 22 104 sf7393 (Fig.35{})
4402 Fragment of heanh lining with traces of a
ruyere hole, diameter 13mm. XRF analysis
detected tin and lead. L61, W.49, T .7mm
14940 sfl4275
Per iod SB
4403 Two fragmentS of hearth lining with red
areas in the vitrified surface. XRF analysis
detected copper, zinc and lead. L21, W. l9,
T.IOand Ll7, W. ll , T . IOmm 14973
4404 Two fragmentS of hearth linmg with red
patches in the vitrified surface. XRF analysis
detected copper, silver, zinc and lead. L28,
W.26, T . l6 and LIS, W. ll , T .23mm
14973
The Small Finds
4405 Fragment of hearth lining with red patches
in the viu-ified surface, pOSsibly from a
rectangular ruyere block. XRF analysis de-
tected copper, lead and tin. L56, W.5 •~.
T . ISmm 19285
4406 Fragment of hearth lining with red patches
in the vitrified surface and traces of a ruyerc
hole, diameter 15- 20mm. XRF analysis
detected copper. L41, W .39, T.2lmm
14528 s04276
Period 6
4407 Fragment of hearth lining. XRF analysis
detected lead, copper and zinc. L.29, W.22,
T. llmm 5981
4408 Fragment of hearth lining with possible
traces of a ruyere hole:. XRF analysis de-
tected lead, copper and zinc. 17890 s04280
Other ston es
Period 3
4409 Whetstone fragment \vith streaks of hae-
matite on twO of its sides. L.62, W.36,
T.25mm 278 19 sfl 0624
Period 4A
4410 Irregular limestone fragment with haematite
on it. L52, W.39, T .29mm 30038 s00547
4411 Pebble frngment. of very fine-grained crys-
talline black stone with conchoidal frncrurc.
Could be chezt, basalt, rulf or indurated
mudsmne. Could have been used as n
touchstone. L53, W.42, T . l 9mm 3 1161
sfJ 1072 (Fig.352; Pi.LV/1/d)
Angio-Scandt1zavian Non-Ferrous M etalworking from 16-22 Coppergate
Provenances
Finds were recovered from coorexts on each site as
foUows; context numbers are given in Roman char-
acters, catalogue numbers in italics. The number of
cru.cible sherds found in any context is indicated by
'c'. For example, 2c means that two crucible sherds
were found in that particu1a.r coott:ltt.
16-22 Coppergate, 1976-81. 7
1011 : 4101; 1019: 4104-5, le; 1030: 4059, 4086,
4102-3; 1034: 4100, 4103, 4355-6; 1086: 4217,
4253; 1096: 4103; 1097: 4338; 1119: 4356; 1211: 2e;
1213: 4069; 1271 : 4322; 1284: 4356; 1473: 4253;
1502: le; 1777: le; 1872: 4346; 2080: le; 2090:
4358; 2096: 4291, 4293; 2154: 4356; 2193: 3954,
4341; 22 13: le; 2262: le; 2284: le; 2339: 4395;
2347: le; 2498: 4208; 2778: 4227; 2827: 4228;2830:
4323;2818: 1c;2912:4359;3047: 4062;3095: 4321;
3235: 4081, l e; 3236: le; 3246: 4342; 3258: 4090;
3429: 4356; 3434: 4292; 3 446: 2e; 3493: 4308; 3529:
4272; 3537: 4354, 4356; 3539: 4331; 3588: 4276;
3591: 4257, 4259; 3625: 4258; 3644: I e; 3645: Ie;
3659: 4251; 3685: 4367; 3724: 4138; 3729: 3990;
4028: 4290; 4042: 4343; 4048: 4057; 4060: 4262,
4324; 4089: 4086; 4097: 4089; 4125: 4356; 4243:
4316; 4294: 4070; 4434: 4071 ; 4620: 4288, 4292- 3,
4317, 4325-6, 4356; 4660: 4091; 4915: 4067; 5064:
4355-6; 5186: 4356; 5230: 4347; 5238: 4060, 4356;
5245: 4281; 5248: 4356; 5348:4356, le; 5373: 4282;
5395: le;5415: 4328;5442: 4344;5484:4085;5485:
4303; 564 1: 4239; 5671: 4350; 5802: 431 8; 5803:
4327; 598 1: 4099, 4356, 4396, 4407; 6257: 4333,
4356, le; 6258: 4356, l e; 6269: le; 6282: 4356;
6307: le; 6316: 4369; 6339: 2c; 6378: 4263; 6433:
4390, 2e; 6774: 4055, l e; 6775: 4c; 6781: 4392;
6 788: I e; 6789: 4269, 4392, 4394, 3e; 6836: 4390;
6928:4253;7003:4229;7175: l c;726 1:4253;7262:
4224;7296: 4253,4356;7377 :2c;7378: 4238;7463:
l e; 7480: 4253, le; 7483: 3978, 2c; 7553:3979-82,
3e; 7589: 4240, 2e; 7669: 4218; 7782: 4292; 779 1:
4332; 7810: l e; 7863: 4260; 7868: 4261, 3e; 7920:
4220; 7966: 4()54; 7979: 2c; 8051: le; 8156: le;
8258:4202, le;8290: 4253;8304:4356;8344:4390;
8376: 3977, 4e; 8382: 421 3; 8398: 4360; 8459: 3976;
8499: le; 8520: le; 8528: l e; 8530: 4006; 8731:
4193; 8775: le; 8802: l e; 9016: 4356; 9057: 4098;
9122: 4356; 9188: 4356; 9224: 4300, 4314, 4335;
9248:427~9251:4072;9252:4073,4084,1e;9269:
4356;9305 :3987,4294, 4315, 4356;9330: le;9354:
l e; 9404: 4306; 9449: le; 9481: 4356; 9571: l e;
9572: 4092, 4280; 9630: 4210, 4253; 9680: 1e; 9726:
l e; 9793: le; 9800: 4356; 9802: 4001
10096: 4329; 10097: 4285; 10102: 4066; 10333:
4074; I0408: 4080; I0463: 4348; I05 17: 4284;
10557: 4061; 10715: 4339; 10732: 4/07; 10813:
4330; 10847: 4356; 10974: 4279; 10977: 4075;
11053: 4295; 11373: 4356; 11458: 4320; 11656:
4087, 4097; 11715: 4297; 11784: 4093; 11818: 4076;
11867: 4311, 4356; 11 885: 4356; 11922: 4356;
11927: 4356; 11965: 4356; 12 147: 4106; 12159:
4068; 12187: le; 12258: 4356; 12274: 4296, 4305;
12365: 4395; 12412: 4356; 12422: 4298; 12485:
4304; 12507: 4333, 4356; 12544: 4357; 12578: 4352;
843
12659: 4340; 12671: 4356; 12700: 4307; 12727:
4309; 12741 : 4345; 12791 : 4356; 12794: 4356;
13042: 4096, 4356; 13147: 4319, l e; 13155: 4397;
13229: 4349; 13242: 4083; 13244: 4095, 4299;
13302: 4334; 13454:4312; 13456: le; 13499:4281;
13567: 4094; 13568: 4356; 13585: 4336; 13698:
4286; 13716: 4231; 13733: le; 13902: 4079, 4278;
14001 : 4053; 14005: le; 14063: 6c; 14077: 2e;
14182: le; 14183: le; 14184: le; 14218: le; 14254:
le; 14296: l e; 14297: 2e; 14300: l e; 14325: 4253;
14364: le; 14368: le; 14380: 2c; 14403: le; 14434:
4234; 14528: 4406; 14536: 3966, 4046, le; 14544:
le; 14571: le; 14573: 4246; 14575: 4047, 4253;
14592: le; 14605: 4253; 14625: 3998; 14628: le;
14630: le; 14694: le; 14712: 4253; 14722: le;
14750: 4007, le; 14773: 4010; 14776: le; 14787:
4002- 3; 14790: l e; 14843: le; 14845: 4008-9;
14870: 4e; 14874: 4212, 4e; 14880: le; 14881 : 2c;
14882: le; 14883: 4204, 13e; 14897: 3e; 14909:
4209; 14922: 4385, le; 14925: 4e; 14940: 4402, l e;
14973: 4253, 4403-4, 24e; 14982: 4226, le; 15033:
4356; 15122: 4077; 15131: 3984; 15173:3960, 4044,
4199; 15176: 4049; 15193: 4241; 15311:4266,4268,
4271, 4273, 2c; 15361: 4242; 15368: 4221; 15371 :
401/; 15382: 4253-4; 15416: 4237, 4253; 15470:
4232; 15473: 4390; 15494: 4253; 15530: 4247;
15558: 4243; 15561: 2c; 15650: le; 15708: 4166;
15897:3e; l6072:4356; 16074:4356; 16153: 4351;
16170: 4333; 16295: 4356; 16410: 4333; 16501 : l e;
16516: 4333; 16535: 4356; 16605: 4078; 16612:
4289, 4313, 3e; 16653: 4337; 16733: 4270, l e;
16734: 4355-6, le; 16762: 4356; 16785: 4356;
16881: 2e; 16882: 3953; 16900: 4275; 16925: 4356;
17 129: 4088; 17247: 4356; 17332: le; 17551: le;
17599: le; 17740:4287, le; 17742: le; 17890:4408,
2e; 18121 : 4301- 2; 18127: 4193; 18 142: 4337;
18 172: 4356; 18228: 4023; 18256: 4063- 5, 4082,
4253, 4353, 4356; 18289: le; 18331 : 4310, le;
18458: 4214; 18571 : 3e; 18572: 3961, le; 18577:
4215; 18592: le; 18594: l e; 18668: le; 18730: l e;
18744: 4275; 18847: 2c; 18862: 4200; 18921: le;
18931 : 2c; 18962: 4051, 4216, 4253; 18988: 4/49;
19090:4265,4391,4393-4, le; 19120:4391, 4394,
3e; 19167: 4394; 19188: 4389, le; 19194: 4394;
19244: 4056; 19262: le; 19268: le; 19269: 4264, le;
19283:3985-6,1 l e;l9285:4405;19312: le;l9320:
4255, 4390; 19326: 4244; 19390: 3959, 4042, 4/78;
19615:4223, le; 19616: 4249; 19622: le; 19626: l e;
19631: 2e; 19632: 1999; 19634: 4038; 19688: 4014;
19714: 4193; 19719:3955,4162, le; 19737: 4176;
19738: le
20105:le;20J32:4384,1c;20143:6e;20 162:4274;
20 163:4275;20230: 4388;2023 1: 4267;2030 1: le;
20314: 4050; 20318: 4253; 20320: 4194; 20391:
4233, l c;20505:le;20622:J949;20668: le;207 10:
4201; 20746: 2c; 20880: 3e; 20893: 3946; 20980:
4212, 4214; 20982: l e; 20999: 3950; 21033: 3983;
2 1143:3956, 4039, 4192, 4382; 2 11 98: le; 21200:
4386; 2 1244: 4253; 21316: 4387; 21404: le; 21413:
le;21451 : 4041,4193;2 1465: lc;2 1478:3c;21510:
I e; 215 11 : 2e; 21553: I e; 21554: 4052, 4250-2;
2 1639: le; 21658: le; 21676: 3970; 2 1746:4253, le;
21766: 3968, 2e; 21769: I e; 21796: 3967, 4367- 9;
21807: 4179, le; 21845: 4253; 21854: 3969, 4048,
4222; 2 1863: 4245; 21887: 4151, l e; 21903: 3965;
21925: 4253, 4390, 4e; 2196 1: 4000; 21962: 4389;
844
22006: 4203;220S 3: 4206, l e;2206S: 42/ ~ 220SS :
2e; 22090: 3997, Se; 22 103: 2e; 22 104: 4214, 4401,
Se; 22 1 I S: 4253; 221 22: 4205; 22 12S: Se; 22 141:
42 JI, l e;22 154: 13e;22 166: 4005, l e; 22 192: 4004;
22233: l e; 22256: 4045, 9e; 22257: le; 22259: 3e;
22267: 6e; 2226S: -1382, 2e; 2227 1: 2c; 22299: l e;
22304: l e; 22307: l e; 22309: 4207, Se; 223 13: 2e;
22324: t e;22326: tc;22339:7e; 22340: 3e;22345:
l e; 22358. 2e; 22359: 2e; 22360: Se; 2236 1: l e;
22366: t e;22376: l e;22384: 2e;2241 2: l c; 22419:
4378, t c;2242 1: 2e;22423: 4/6~ 4/93; 22433:2e;
22438: 2c; 22439: 2e;22440: le;22443: l e;22444:
t e;22447: 1993;22449: 4029;2245 1: .J/93;22452:
4173, 41 93, le; 22462: 41 91; 22477: l e; 22490:
4177, 3e; 22505: I e; 22523: Je; 22533: I e; 22535:
4381; 22536: le; 22537: l e; 225 47: l e; 22552: le;
22586: 3e; 22659: 3e; 22670: 4040, 4193, 4380,
4382, l e; 22679: 3957, 41 57, IOc; 22690: 4190;
227 13: 4193, 4378; 227 14: 41 56, 4191' 4197; 22745:
te;22748: 4/68;22760: l e;22764: 3996; 22797: 2e;
22804: I e; 22807: 1e; 22808: 4193, 3e; 22809: I e;
228 18: l c;22850: te;22855: le; 2286 1: le; 22S67:
4/47;22936: 2e;22941 : le;22988: 2e;23080: 4400;
23 102: 4186; 23245: 4/93; 23366: le; 23445: 4164;
23478: 4379; 23497: le; 23537: le; 235S6: 4193;
23603: 4193; 23650: 4193; 23753: 4198; 23762: le;
23795: 4/93;23796: l e;23881 : 4/93, l e;23963: le;
23983 : 4033;24028 : -1/9~24073: 4179, le;24t 09:
41 74; 24203: 4382; 24292: 41 75; 24329: 4382;
24369: l e; 2441 8: 4372; 2456 1: 418~ 24647: 4148;
24648: 41 72; 24787: 41 55; 24808: 4160; 24872:
4/ 6l; 24S79: le; 24900: le;2493S: 4l40;24945: le;
25065: l e; 250S4: 2e; 25 103: le; 25 104: 2e; 25 109:
4024; 2S I 27: 4022;25232: t e;25248: t e; 25253:2e;
25257: 9e; 25303: 2e; 25340: te; 25341 : 3995, 4/84,
9e; 25350: l e; 25356: l e; 2537 1: le; 25375: 4c;
2539 1: 1958, 4025, I 8c; 25466: 41 95, 12e; 25493:
41 77, 4e; 2S630: 4151; 25667: 41 65; 25698: 2e;
25725: l e; 25748· 41 85, l e; 25750: 41 77; 25808:
41 5~ 258 12: 4034, 25922: 4146, l e; 25923: 4382,
22c; 25924: Se; 25926: 40 / 9; 25927: le; 25934:
4035, 4146, Se; 25990: 3947, 4371; 25999: 3948;
260 15: 4253; 26022: 41 21; 26082: le; 26 148: 4193;
26 157: 4171; 26 17 1: 4028, 4/ 93; 26202: 399/;
26226: -102~ 26228: 414.1, 4377; 26252: .J/93;
26254: 2e; 26338: 41 96; 2641 9: le; 26581 : 4134;
26635: l e; 2665 1: 4036; 26725: le; 26736: 4138,
-1371; 26748: 1951; 26799: 437.1; 268S8: le; 26940:
l e; 26953: 2c; 26967: 41 37; 26977: 4015; 26992:
The Small Finds
4193; 27085: 42 13; 27 184: 3962; 27 194: 4138;
27234: lc; 27296: 42l4,2c;27440: 4/45; 27497: le;
27504: 3992; 275 11 : 4378; 27513: 4153; 276 19:
3971; 2762 1: l e; 27642: 418 / ; 27775: 4138, l e;
278 19: 4122, 4409, le; 28033: 4115; 28 120: 4380;
28 127: l e; 28 195. -1110; 28239: 41 38; 28347: 41 39;
28406: 4111 ; 28541 : 411 6; 28643: 4398; 28904:
4/82;28963: t e;29094: 4225, t e;29 100: 6e; 29 128:
le; 291 56: 4248, 3e; 29 193: le; 29222: 3975, 7e;
29250: lc; 29263· .J236, 425J, .J390, Je; 29386: le;
29457: le; 29465: 4219; 29467: 41 93; 29528: 4177;
29572: l e; 29578· le; 29582: 2e; 297 I 7: l e; 29736:
l e; 29835: 37e; 29843: l e; 29844: l e; 29845: 6c;
29856: 4235; 29904: <le; 29926: 3964. 3973-1, 3e;
29930: I e; 29934: Ic; 29936: I c
30002: 4043;30038 : 441 0;30039 : 4144,3c;30 134:
3963;30 186: 4/31;30220: 4/32;30273: t e; 30274:
4377, le; 30286: 2e; 30296: 4142; 30343: 4399;
30350: 4141 ; 30352: 4376; 30747: 4118; 30760:
4138, 41 39; 30920: 41 23; 30922: 41 29; 30941 : 401 7;
30954: 411 7, 4375; 30982: 4114; 30985: 41 27;
3 1072: 41 28; 3 116 1: 4411 ; 3 11 89: 438.1; 3 1207: le;
3131 0: 41 80; 3 1358: 41 24; 31383: 41 26; 3 1386: le;
3 1476: 41 69,2c; 3 1562: 4016; 3 1565: 4/ 3/ ; 3 1644:
4137; 3 1650: .J/39; 1 1683: 40 13; 3 1788: 41/ 5;
31834: 411 2; 3 1932: 4113; 12 11 3: 2e; '}2 115: l e;
32 11 6: 41 93; 32 194: 3952; 322 17: l e; 322 19: l e;
32226: 4/53;323 12: 4/89,32473: 4379; 326 17· le;
32676: 4110, l e; 32746: le; 32754: le; 32758: 41 93;
32S07: 41 38; 32869: le; 32923: 40 18; 32993: 403~
33094: 41 36; 33 144: 411 9; 33 145: 41 09; 33 174:
411 0; 33 18 1: 4/1 2; 33 195· .J/12; 33 196: 4365;
33206: 4012; 34207: .1994, 4181; 34290· .J/ 70, -1382;
3441 2: 4 /88, 4 /93; 34622: 4021. 41 59; 347 15· 4158,
te;34985: l c;35008:3972; 350 12: 4 l89,5e; 35059:
4e; 35065: le; 35086. le; 35 11 8: l e; 35242: l e;
35264: 4027, le; 35332: 41 63. 4380; 3545 1. 7e;
35483: l e; 355 19: 41 91; 35524: 4026, 4e, 35548:
41 77; 35549· le; 3'5560: 4011. 41 54; 35662· Se;
35663: 2e; 35665: le; 35667: 4e; 35668: t c; 35674:
4/93; 36049. 4/1 8.4125, 4/ 38, -1374; 36241 : 41 87;
36247: le; 36325: 4017: 37007: 4031
Unsuuofied: 41 08. 4361 4. -1366, 4370
22 Piccadilly, 1987.21
2 I 15: 3988- 9
Anglo-Sca11dinavian Non-Ferrous Metalworking from 16-22 Coppergale 845

Acknowledgements

English H eritage and its predecessors have suppon ed the work reponed here. The
Winston ChurchiU Memorial Trust awarded the author a fellowship for travel to
Scandinavia to examine evidence for Viking Age metalworking; this also allowed for useful
discussions with Bjom Ambrosiani, Hans Drescher, Kristina Lamm, H elge Brinch Madsen,
Hcid Resi and Anna Rosenqvist.
The author is grateful to Paul Wilthew and Chris Caple for providing information and
allowing it to be quoted in advance of their publications. Thanks are also due to Clare
Mundy and Paul Budd for assistance with analysing the crucibles and to YAT staff past and
present who have provided objects for study, information and encouragement: Richard
H all, Kaye Haworth, Ailsa Mainman and D ominic Tweddle. Christine McDonnelJ and the
Trusr Finds staff provided ready access to the material. Leo Biek has read and commented
on early drafts of this text; his lead has shown the way for this study of ancient technology.
The excavations at I 6-22 Coppergate were directed by Richard Hall; David Evans and
Ian Lawton supervised on site and assisted in the post-excavation work on the
Anglo-Scandinavian levels.
Figures for this fasciculc were drawn by Eddie Moth (Figs.316; 3 17; 3989 in 320; 321;
sfs6529 and 8942 in 323; 324-9; 3990 and 4000-/ in 330; 331; 3993 and 3996 in 332;
333-44; 4078 in 345; 346-58), Anne Thomas (Fig.318; 2342-4 in 320; 322; 2333-8 in
323), Terry Finnemore (Fig.3 14; 3998 in 330; 3991 in 332; 4031-2 and 4037 in 345) and
Peter Marshall (Fig.315). The drafts and data for the period and distribution plans were
provided by Kaye H aworth. AU figures were subsequently prepared for publication by Eddie
Moth. All photographs were taken by Tessa Bunney, except PI.LVIlla which was by Mike
Duffy.
The summary was translated into French by Or M. Hurnmler and into German by Mrs
K. Aberg. This fascicule has been under the editorial supervision of Frances Mee who also
prepared the text for publication using Ventura software. It is published with the assistance
of a generous subvention from English H eritage.
846 The Small Finds

Summary

This report deals with the evidence for non-ferrous metalworking, mainly from well-
stratified and dated 9th to 11th century deposits at 16-22 Coppergate and adjacent sites.
The report contains a summary of metalworking processes, and descriptions and
illustrations of the various categories of finds and the ways in which they were used. The
material includes large numbers of crucibles, ingot moulds, scrap metal and tools, as well as
evidence for precious metal refining, both cupellatioo and parting. The evidence for gold,
silver, copper alloy, lead, tin and pewter working is then drawn together and the spatial and
temporal distribution of these industries discussed.
Silverworking was the major non-ferrous metal industry and was at its peak in the mid
1Oth century; the contemporary finds of coin dies and trial stamps suggest that much of the
silver may have been used for coinage, possibly with moneyers working on the site. There is
evidence for tinning objects of other metals in the mid 1Oth century but most casting of
small lead/tin objects took place later. Both gold and copper alloy working became more
important in the 11th century.
The non-ferrous metalworking industries of 16-22 Coppergate are put in context by
comparing the finds with those from other sites in York, the rest of England and beyond.

Resume

Ce rapport presente l'artisanat des metaux non-ferreux provenant de niveaux stratifies,

dates du 9erne-ll erne siecle, decouvens sur le site de Coppergate (aux nos 16-22) et sur
d'autres sites adjacents.

Un somrnaire des procectes utilises est accompagne de descriptions et d'illusrrations des

diverses categories d'objets ainsi que d'une discussion sur leurs usages. Les ensembles
contiennent une grande variete de creusets, de moules a!ingots, de metal de recuperation et
d'outils, ainsi qu'un nombre de documents sur Jes procedes de raffinement de metaux
precieux, tels que la cupellation et la separation. Ainsi, la documentation sur le travail de
!'or, de !'argent, des alliages de cuivre, du plomb et de l'etain se trouve reunie et la
distribution de ces metaux dans l'espace et le temps est prise en consideration.

Le travail de !'argent est de loin l'artisanat rnajeur et a atteint son apogee vers le milieu
du 1Oeme siecle; des trouvailles de coins et de poin~ons attestent un monnayage en pleine
activite, et il est possible que !'on ait frappe monnaie sur le site-meme. A partir du milieu du
1Oeme siecle l'eventail des techniques, telles la creation d'objets plaques d'etain, s'elargit;
Anglo-Scandinavian Non-Ferrous Meralworking from 16-22 Coppergate 847

toutefois la fonte de petits objets eo plomb et en etain date d'une periode ulterieure. Quant
au travail de l'or et des alliages de cuivre, il grandit en importance depuis le lleme siecle.
Enfin l'artisanat des metaux noo-ferreux de Coppergate est compare a d'autres
ensembles provenaot de York, du reste de l'Angleterre et d'ailleurs, permettant de le placer
dans son contexte culture!.

Zusammenfassung

Dieser Bericht befafit sich mit den Befunden fur die Verarbeitung von N ichteiserunetal-
len aus gut stratifizierteo Ablagerungen des neunten bis elften jahrhunderts in 16-22
Coppergate und urnliegenden Fundstatten.
Der Bericht eothalt eine Zusammenfassung der Metallverarbeituogsprozessen, sowie
Beschreibungen und lllustrationen der verschiedeoen Fuodkaregorieo einschHefilich der Art
und Weisen ihrer Nurzung. Zu dem Fuodmaterial gehoren eine grofie Anzahl voo
Schmelztiegeln, Barrenformen, Alonetall uod Werkzeuge, sowie Zeugnisse fur die
Lauterung von Edelmetallen durch Kupellation und selektive Korrosion. Der Befund fur
die Bearbeitung von Gold, Silber, Kupferligierungen, Blei, Zinn und Hartzinn wird hier
zusammengefai3t und die raumliche und zeitliche Verteilung dieser Industrien wird
diskutiert.
Silberverarbeitung war die bedeutenste der Nichteiserunetallindustrien. Sic erlebte ihren
Hohepunkt in der Mine des zehnten Jahrhunderts. Die gleichzeitigeo Funde von
Prligestempeln und Probeprligungen deuten darauf bin, dai3 ein grofier Teil des Silbers
wahrscheinlicb als Miinzmetall Verwendung fand, und daB moglicherweise Miinzer auf
dieser Fundstelle tarig gewesen sind. Ffu die Mine des zehmen Jahrbunderts gibt es
Beweise fur das Aufschmelzen von Zioni.iberzi.igen auf Gegenstlinde aus andereo Metallen.
Das Giefien van k:leinen Blei/Ziongegeostlinden trat spater auf. Im elften Jahrhundert
gewann die Verarbeitung von Gold und Kupferligierungen an Bedeutung.
Ihren Zusammenhang erhalten die lndustrien, die sich in Coppergate mit der
Verarbeitung von Nicbteiseometallen befassen durcb den Vergleich mit Funden aus
anderen Fundstellen in York, im restlichen England und dariiber hinaus.
848
Notes
Most of this work was done by Paul Wilthew and
Brian White at the Ancient M onuments Labor-
atOry and I wou ld like to thank them for letting
me use their data. Some of the pins, needles and
wires were also analysed quantitatively by Chris
Caplc as part of his Ph. D. thesis and he sub-
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Plate LVa Cupe/ fragment (3957) showrng parr of the czrcular impnm of the Plau L Vb Fragmenr of a potsh~rd re-used a a cupel (3961) showing the edge
solidified gold in the vitreous surface which also coma ins a number of of rhe imprim where the silver solidified. The orange colour is due 10
tiny trapped gold droplets which jailed ro coalesce imo the m am mass rhe presence of copper in the lead-rich vrcreous layer. L.29mm
ofmetal. L.2Jmm
Piate LJI/a (aMr) Lltharg.: caJu /rnl!lnml (3951) shOfl!lm[ tht
cnllral d~nwn t.:hrr~ lht sJy;~r !.0/u:likd. ll" 8Zmm

Ptau/ I '/b (lctp rtghl) Part vf a bf«Jt of fJtmjied a~rd juud quart::
chrpJ(3963),prr>bcJ/>Q uwlasacupelforgold. L68mm

Plutt L VIe (righ1) P.mwg wssd waD fragmcm (AY 16/5, 2344)
slum m!{ a ScJttd.v depont 011 lh.: ""ur surface, /he mnams
of the 'umem' wiUdr was 1merkay;•cd tCJLh the prwouJ
mtcul L RRmm
Plate LV!la (abOfle) Thretjoi>lingfragmcms of a parttng vesseljrom22 Plccadil{y (3989a) showmg the bleached inntr
surfaet ami the pale purplish/maroon wlour. L. 90mm

Plate LVJ/b (left) Type A crucible (s/2137).

Goltl droplets are 1JJSibU trapped
;, the tJitnfi•d ;,," wrfact.
D.30mm
Plate LVIlla Lead spillages (4 193, 4212) PlateLVl/Ib Ends of a rod (415 4) and bar
(4 I 51)of tin with melted tips,
showing that they were rubbed over
heated objws, probably of iron, to
coat them with tin. Rod (complete)
L.122mm; bar (complete) L 140mm

Plate LVTJ/c (above) Haemame piece wllh womfacets (4374),

used as ajim abrasive. L33mm

Plate LVIIId (right) Black pebble (4411) winch may have beetJ
used as a touchstone to estimate the fineness ofgold.
L.53mm
The Archaeology of York
General Editor P.V . Addyman

Reports on the work of the York Archaeological Trust for Excavation and
Research are published as separate parts or fascicuJes making up a series of twenty
volumes entitled The Archaeology ofYork

1 Sources for York H istory to AD 1100 (A Y I )

2 Historical Sources for York Archaeology after AD 11 00 (A Y 2)
3 T h e Legionary Fortress (AY 3)
4 The Colonia (AY 4)
5 The Roman Cemeteries (AY 5)
6 Roman Extra-mural Settlement and Roads (AY 6)
7 Anglian Yo rk (AD 41 0-876) (AY 7)
8 Angl o-Scandinavian Yo rk (AD 876-1066) (AY 8)
9 The Medieval Walled City south-west of the Ouse (AY 9)
10 The Medieval Wall ed City n o r th-east o f the Ouse (AY J 0)
11 The Medieval D efences and Suburbs (AY 11 )
12 The Medieval Cemeteries (AY 12)
13 P ost-medieval York (AY 13)
14 The Pas t Environment of York (AY 14)
15 The Animal B ones (AY 15)
16 The Pottery (AY J 6)
17 The Small Finds (AY 17)
18 The Coins (AY 18)
19 P r inciples and Methods (AY 19)
20 H istory of Propenjes in York (AY 20)