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INSTITUTO SUPERIOR TÉCNICO

FIRST REPORT OF LAMINATE AND

COMPOSITE MATERIALS

Miguel Ruiz Calle Lucas – 76781

João Miguel Andrade Tudela Martins – 76964

2016/2017
 First report of laminate and composite materials
2016/2017

Table of Contents
1. Introduction .............................................................................................................................................. 2
2. Carbon, Glass and Kevlar fibers production methods ............................................................................ 2
2.1. Carbon fibers ...................................................................................................................................... 2
2.2. Glass fibers ........................................................................................................................................ 6
2.3. Kevlar fibers ....................................................................................................................................... 7
2.4. Mechanical properties ....................................................................................................................... 8
2.5. Application examples, advantages and disadvantages ...................................................................... 9
3. Sizing of a 1x1m2 panel of IM7-B ............................................................................................................. 9
4. Production Methods .............................................................................................................................. 10
4.1. Hand lay-up ...................................................................................................................................... 11
4.2. Compression molding ...................................................................................................................... 12
4.3. Pultrusion ......................................................................................................................................... 12
5. Theoretic values in traction for composite IM7-B ................................................................................ 14
5.1. Elastic constants of each lamina (L,T referential) ............................................................................ 14
5.2. Matrices Ǫ, Ǭ, A, B and D ................................................................................................................ 14
5.3. Elastic constants of the laminate (X,Y referential) ........................................................................... 15
5.4 New rupture tension if the material had a length of 1 meter ......................................................... 15
6. Experimental values in traction for composite IM7-B .......................................................................... 16
6.1. Results registered in the laboratory ................................................................................................ 16
6.2. Experimental Young Modulus ......................................................................................................... 17
6.3. σxx, σyy, τxy variation along the laminate’s thickness for a force of 8000N ....................................... 18
7. Experimental values in bending for composite IM7-B ......................................................................... 19
8. Theoretic values in bending for composite IM7-B ............................................................................... 21
8.1. Maximum vertical displacement and strain values ........................................................................ 21
8.2. Elasticity Modulus along X axis ....................................................................................................... 22
8.3. σxx, σyy, τxy variation along the laminate’s thickness for a force of 8N ............................................ 22
9. Maximum force applied in bending – maximum stress criterion ........................................................ 23
10. Comparison of Results ......................................................................................................................... 24
11. References ............................................................................................................................................ 26

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1. INTRODUCTION
Composites try to take advantage of the best properties of different materials. A composite may be divided into two
partitions. The matrix, which for Aerospace purposes, is typically a resin that gives form to the part and holds it
together and fibers. The fibers can be compared to a skeleton of the part. They support most of the stresses and
determine the majority of the part physical properties. In most cases, the matrix is chosen regarding the type of
fiber, for example, steel would not be an appropriate matrix of a composite with carbon fibers because the fibers
would simply “dissolve”. Nevertheless, the properties of a material, for instance its tensile strength, depends mostly
on its surface flaws. In theory, the ideal strength of a material can be calculated at an atomistic level and it is equal
to the theoretical cohesive strength or shear strength. This value is much higher than the values obtained
experimentally because of the fact that experimental specimens have flaws that depend on its surface area which
depends on its volume. In order to reduce surface flaws and improve the fiber properties, manufacturers decrease
the fiber´s diameter to its minimum, reducing the surface area and volume. This means that it’s more advantageous
to have multiple small fibers than one equivalent big fiber.

In this assignment, we will scrutinize a composite specimen and compare the results obtained during two
experiments. The first one was a traction test and the second one a bending test. Theoretical formulas that were
given during classes are able to predict the composite properties knowing only the arrangement and the materials
from which the specimen in made. Note that these formulas do not take in consideration, for example, the shape of
the fiber´s cross-section. This kind of detail would require further analysis. However, the method gives us a good
estimation on how the part will behave when stresses are applied.

2. CARBON, GLASS AND KEVLAR FIBRES PRODUCTION METHODS

2.1 Carbon fibers (anisotropic)

Carbon fibers (CF) are fibers about 5-10 micrometres in diameter and composed mostly of carbon atoms. The process
begins with a polymeric feedstock known as a precursor. Today, about 90% the carbon fibers produced are made
from polyacrylonitrile (PAN), made from acrylonitrile, which is derived from the commodity chemicals propylene
and ammonia[1]. The remaining 10% are made from rayon or petroleum pitch. The typical sequence of operations
used to form carbon fibers from polyacrylonitrile are[2]:

1. Spinning
2. Stabilizing/Oxidation
3. Carbonizing
4. Surface treatment
5. Sizing

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Spinning - Acrylonitrile plastic powder is mixed with another plastic, like methyl acrylate or methyl methacrylate,
and is reacted with a catalyst in a conventional suspension or solution polymerization process to form a
polyacrylonitrile plastic. Afterwards, the dope is (there are several different methods) immersed in a liquid
coagulation bath and extruded through holes in a spinneret. The spinneret holes match the desired filament count
of the PAN fiber (e.g. 12,000 holes for 12K carbon fiber). The fibers are then washed, dried and stretched to the
desired fiber external shape and internal cross-section.

Stabilizing/Oxidation - Before being carbonized, the fibers are heated (200-300°C) in air through a series of
specialized ovens in order to convert their linear atomic bonding to a more thermally stable ladder bonding.

Carbonization - On this step, the fibers are heated to a temperature of about 1,000-3,000°C for several minutes in a
furnace with an inert atmosphere. This will prevent the fibers from burning due to the high temperatures. As the
fibers are heated, they begin to lose their non-carbon atoms, meanwhile, the remaining carbon atoms form tightly
bonded carbon crystals that are aligned more or less parallel to the long axis of the fiber. An optional treatment
called graphitization can be done (also in an inert atmosphere) at a temperature between 2,400-3,000°C to increase
the carbon content to more than 99% and imparts a very high degree of preferred orientation to the fiber.

Surface treatment - At this point, the fibers have a surface that doesn´t bond well with the resins (such as epoxies).
Therefore, the fibers are immersed in ozone for example (there are other gases and procedures such as an
electrolytic bath). The addition of oxygen atoms to the surface provides better chemical bonding properties and also
etches and roughens the surface (increases the surface area) for better mechanical bonding.

Sizing - Sizing represents 0.5 to 5% of the weight of the carbon fiber and it´s appropriate to the costumer´s use
(although most of the coatings are epoxy-based because of traditionally used epoxy matrices). It protects the carbon
fiber during handling and processing (e.g. weaving) and also provides affinity for a particular resin (according to the
client´s specifications), strengthening the adhesive bond at the fiber-matrix interface. Typical coating materials
include epoxy, polyester, nylon, urethane and others. Finally, the coated fibers are wound onto cylinders called
bobbins for shipment to costumers.

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Figure 1 – PAN based carbon fibers flowchart

Bulk pitch - Produced via distillation of carbon-based materials, such as plants, crude oil, polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
and coal. The steps involved in its processing are:

Mesophase pitch - allows the pitch to become organized and form linear chains without the use of tension (tension
is necessary on the fibers at all processing stages for PAN). This is achieved at a temperature of about 300°C. In Melt
spinning (centrifugal and jet spinning can also be used), the fibers are formed and cooled rapidly in order to become
highly oriented.

Oxidation – This step is of extreme importance since it produces fibers that are stable at the high temperatures
induced with carbonization and graphitization.

The last stages are similar to PAN.

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Figure 2 - Pitch based carbon fibers flowchart

In mesophase pitch, because of the alignment of the fibers, it is possible to achieve up to 85% of the theoretical
Young´s modulus maximum. Although we show in table 1 that the yield is higher for the mesophase pitch, this is
only true if the losses during the mesophase conversion step are excluded. The carbon fiber precursor weight loss is
a very important factor in economics because it tells us how much raw material I need to buy in order to transform
it to finished goods[3].

As described above, an optional heat treatment, denominated graphitization, may be applied for both methods. The
temperature at which it´s done depends on the manufacturer´s specifications and needs. In figure 3 it´s possible to
observe how the fiber properties change with an increase heat treatment´s temperature. While the Young´s modulus
is always increasing, the tensile strength will escalate at first until it reaches a maximum and then stabilize [4].

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Figure 3 – Variation of tensile strength and Young’s modulus in carbon fibers subjected to heat treatment

2.2. Glass fibers (isotropic)

Fiber glass is made from a variety of natural minerals and manufactured chemicals. The major ingredients are silica
sand, limestone and soda ash. It can also include calcined alumina, borax, feldspar, among others. These ingredients
are added to reduce working temperature and impart other properties that are useful in specific applications [5]. The
sequence of operations used to form glass fibers from polyacrylonitrile are[6]:

1. Melting
2. Fiberization
3. Sizing

Melting - The batch (which is basically the exact quantity of all the materials mixed together) is fed into a furnace
for melting. The temperature must be precisely controlled to maintain a smooth, steady flow of glass, approximately
1370°C (higher temperature than normal glass).

Fiberization - The molten glass passes through a bushing made of an erosion-resistant platinum/rhodium alloy with
very fine orifices (200-8,000). The streams of molten glass exiting the bushings are turn into fibrous elements called
filaments. This process is known as attenuation which is a high-speed winder that applies tension, drawing the
streams into thin filaments.

Sizing - Sizing represents 0.5% to 2.0% of the weight of the glass fiber. Lubricants, binders and/or coupling agents
are used to protect the filaments from abrading and breaking as they are processed by weavers, and also, so that
the fiber has some affinity for a particular resin (depending the client´s specifications), strengthening the adhesive
bond at the fiber-matrix interface.

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Figure 4 – Glass fibers fabrication process

2.3. Kevlar fibers (anisotropic)

Kevlar is the registered trademark for para-aramid synthetic fiber. Its chemical composition is poly para-
phenyleneterephthalamide (PPD-T)[7]. The typical sequence of operations used to form Kevlar fibers involve[8]:

1. Synthesization
2. Spinning
3. Heat treatments and Coatings

Synthesization - Kevlar is synthesized from a poly-condensation product of para-phenylene diamine and

terephthaloyl chloride (also known as dehydration synthesis). This is carried out at low temperatures (near 0°C) to
inhibit any by-product generation and promote linear polyamide formation.

Spinning - The result of the previous reaction is mixed with 100% sulfuric acid forming a liquid crystalline state, which
can be extruded through holes in a spinneret (dry jet-wet spinning method is employed). Afterwards, the jets (fibers)
are washed in a cold water bath (0-4°C) and wound on a bobbin to dry.

Heat treatments and coating - There are other appropriate solvent additives involved in the production of Kevlar
such as methyl-pyrrolidone and calcium chloride which combined with the spinning conditions and post-spinning
heat treatments modify the fiber properties. Depending on the purpose and properties required by the client, fibers
can be subjected a heat treatment and a rubber-compatible/textile finish. This will result in different types of fibers
being Kevlar 29 and Kevlar 49 the most popular.

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Figure 5 – Kevlar fibers flowchart

2.4. Mechanical properties

Carbon Carbon S-Glass Fiber E-Glass Fibre K 29 K 49

(pitch- (PAN- (64%SiO2- (54%SiO2-
based) based) 24%Al2O3- 15%Al2O3-
10%MgO) 12%CaO)
Density (𝒈/𝒄𝒎𝟑 ) 2.10-2.20 1.60-1.94 2.47-2.48 2.54-2.57 1.44 1.44
Diameter (𝛍𝒎) 5.0-10.0 7.0-9.7 5.0-20.0 8.0-14.0 12.0 12.0
Strength to weight 900-2100 1000-2700 800-1900 550-1200 2000 2000-2500
(𝑲𝑵. 𝒎/𝒌𝒈)
Young´s Modulus (𝑮𝑷𝒂) 140-820 240-500 85 69-72 65 125
(**treated) (**treated)
Ultimate Strength (𝑴𝑷𝒂) 1800-2200 2500-5000 2000-4500 1400-2500 2800 2800-3600
(**treated)
Elongation to fracture (%) 0.3-1.3 0.4-2.7 1.8-3.2 1.8-3.2 3.5-4.0 2.2-2.8
Thermal Conductivity (𝑾/ 520 105 1.2 1.04 0.04 0.04
(𝒎𝑲))
Softening T (°𝑪) none none 1056 846 none none
Price* 0.3-0.9 0.3-1 0.14 0.08 0.3 0.3
Table 1 – Mechanical properties for carbon, glass and Kevlar fibers

*Prices where normalized using the maximum cost reference which was found to be $150 for a plain weave ultralight
carbon fiber fabric (50’’ wide per yard)[9].

**The largest values are obtained when the part is subjected to additional heat treatment such as graphitization.

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2.5. Application examples, advantages and disadvantages

Advantages Disadvantages Application Examples

Carbon -High stiffness and strength. Lightweight. -Human health hazards if poor
-Corrosion resistant although, when in precautions when handling
contact with metallic parts and because it’s and processing.
electrically conductive, galvanic corrosion -Cost is very high.
maw be a concern). -Good resistance to fatigue
-X-ray transparency. (better than glass) though it is
-Low Coefficient of Thermal Expansion. sensitive (e.g. tends to fail
-Chemical resistivity. catastrophically without
-High thermal conductivity. showing many signs of
-Low thermal conductivity (Rayon-based). distress).
-High electrical conductivity.
Glass -Good electrical insulation. -Moisture can decrease its
-Good sound insulation (especially glass strength.
wool). -Self abrasiveness if not
-Resistance to fire (used in buildings to treated appropriately leading
improve fire resistance) and many chemicals to reduced strength.
-Low cost. -Susceptible to static fatigue
and doesn´t perform as well
as Carbon or Kevlar.
-Can become severely
corroded when in contact
with an alkaline atmosphere.
-Low stress to weight ratio
compared to carbon and
Kevlar fibers.
Kevlar -Very light, high stiffness and strength -Compressive strength is only
tension. one-eighth of its tensile
-Resistant to elevated temperatures. strength.
-Kevlar 29 has half the modulus but double -Sensitive to ultraviolet (UV)
the strain to failure of Kevlar 49 which makes light and may lose color and
it useful for making ballistic vests (the total mechanical properties.
work of fracture, which is the area under the -Cheaper that carbon fibers
stress-strain curve, is larger for K 29 than K yet more expensive that glass
49). fibers.
-Good vibration damping characteristics and
it’s more resistant to fatigue than carbon or
glass.
-Not electrically conductive although it can
absorb water which conducts electricity.
Table 2 – Advantages, Disadvantages and applications of carbon, glass and Kevlar fibers
-Aerospace/Aircraft
components and structures.
-Sporting Goods - skis, golf clubs,
tennis racquets, bicycles, etc.
-Medical equipment (in X-rays
and MRI’s).
-Automobile/Aerospace parts.
-Hulls and decks of commercial
boats.
-Civil construction. Bathtubs,
shower stalls, doors and
windows. Acoustic and thermal
insulation
-Sporting Goods such as cricket
bats, skis tennis rackets,
paddles.
-Telecommunications (optical
fiber).
-Fabric. Anti-ballistic clothing,
fishing nets, sail cloth.
-Reinforcement for tires
(automobile).
-Reinforcement of resins for use
in aerospace, marine, automotive
and sports industries.
-Reinforcement of cables.
-Lightweight helmets and body
armor.

3. SIZING OF A 1X1M2 PANEL OF IM7-B

The material IM7-B has twenty four layers with the following distribution: [-453/903/453/03]. Information regarding
this type of material is found in the table below:

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Properties ρ (Kg/m3) E (GPa) ν σr (MPa) Grammage (g/m2) hi (60% fiber)

Carbon IM7-B 1790 300 0.35 5516 145 0.135
Epoxy Resin 1200 4.5 0.4
Rupture Stress SL (MPa) ST (MPa) SLT (MPa)
Carbon IM7-B 2470 85 90

Table 3 – Properties of carbon IM7-B fibers and epoxy resin

To calculate the total thickness, we just multiply the nominal thickness ℎ𝑖 for the number of layers:

ℎ = 24×0.135 = 3.24 𝑚𝑚

We know that 𝑉𝑓 = 60% from which we can immediately infer that 𝑉𝑚 = 40% because 𝑉𝑓 + 𝑉𝑚 = 1. We also know
that 𝜌𝑓 = 1790 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 and 𝜌𝑚 = 1200 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 that we can use to calculate the equivalent density of the
composite:

𝜌𝑐 = 𝑉𝑓 𝜌𝑓 + 𝑉𝑚 𝜌𝑚 = 0.6×1790 + 0.4×1200 = 1554 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

𝜌𝑓 1790
%𝑚𝑓 = 𝑉𝑓 = 0.6× = 0.691 = 69.1%
𝜌𝑐 1554

𝜌𝑚 1200
%𝑚𝑚 = 𝑉𝑚 = 0.4× = 0.309 = 30.9%
𝜌𝑐 1554

For a 1×1 𝑚2 panel, the total mass will be:

𝑚𝑡 = 𝑉𝑐 ×𝜌𝑐 = 1×1×0.00324 ×1554 = 𝟓. 𝟎𝟑𝟓 𝒌𝒈

Finally, we can calculate the total mass of fiber and matrix that we will need to manufacture the panel:

𝑚𝑓 = 𝑚𝑡 × %𝑚𝑓 = 5.035 × 0.691 = 𝟑. 𝟒𝟖 𝒌𝒈

𝑚𝑚 = 𝑚𝑡 × %𝑚𝑚 = 5.035 ×0.309 = 𝟏. 𝟓𝟓 𝒌𝒈

4. MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

After having analyzed several different manufacturing processes, we concluded that four processes would be
suitable to build the material described in section 3, based on the shape of the material and fiber content. These
processes were: hand lay-up, compression molding, pultrusion and injection molding.

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4.1. Hand Lay-Up

Hand lay-up is an open molding method suitable for making a wide variety of composites products including: boats,
tanks, bathware, housings, RV/truck/auto components, architectural products, and many other products ranging
from very small to very large. Production volume per mold is low; however, it is feasible to produce substantial
production quantities using multiple molds.

Process Description – First, a gel coat is applied to the mold using a spray gun for a high-quality surface. After the
gel coat has cured sufficiently, roll stock fiber reinforcement is placed manually on the mold. The laminating resin is
applied usually by rollers or brushes[10]. Fiber reinforced plastic (FRP) rollers, paint rollers, or squeegees are used to
consolidate the laminate, thoroughly wetting the reinforcement, and removing entrapped air. Subsequent layers of
fiber reinforcement are added to build laminate thickness. Low density core materials, such as end-grain balsa, foam,
and honeycomb, are commonly used to stiffen the laminate to produce sandwich construction. A catalyst or
accelerator initiates curing in the resin system, which hardens the composite without external heat. Finally, the
laminate is left to cure, usually under standard atmospheric conditions. The fiber content in this process can be
improved from 30-50% to 55-60% by using low temperature curing/vacuum bag prepregs[11] (carbon fabric
prepregged with a low-temperature curing epoxy resin). A prepreg is a fiber form that has a predetermined amount
of uncured resin impregnated on the fiber by the material supplier. These materials are more expensive, however,
much of the additional material cost is offset by the labor involved in wet lay-up to mix the resin[12].

Figure 6 – Hand lay-up process

Molds - Molds can range from very small to very large. Simple, single-cavity molds of fiberglass composites
construction are generally used.
Major Advantages - Simple method offering low-cost tooling, simple processing, and a wide range of part sizes.
Design changes are readily made. There is a minimum investment in equipment. With skilled operators, good
production rates and consistent quality are obtainable.

Major Disadvantages – Resin mixing, laminate resin contents, and laminate quality are very dependent on the skills
of laminator. Resins need to be low in viscosity to be workable by hand. This generally compromises their
mechanical/thermal properties due to the need for high diluent/styrene levels.

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4.2. Compression Molding

Compression molding is a closed molding, high-volume, high-pressure method suitable for molding complex parts
on a rapid cycle time. There are several types of compression molding including: hot press molding and cold press
molding.

Process Description – First, two matching metal molds are heated. For this process prepregs are also used. The
movable superior part compresses those materials to fill the imprint and form the piece. In hot press molding, the
resin becomes liquid again, and finally cures. For the cold press molding, the mold closes with lower pressure and
after partial cure[13]. Depending on thickness, size, and shape of the part, curing cycles range from less than a minute
to about five minutes. The mold is opened and the finished part is removed. Typical parts include: automobile
components, appliance housings and structural components, furniture, electrical components, and business
machine housings and parts[14].

Figure 7 – Compression molding

Molds – The pieces produced using this method can have any shape and dimensions up to 4m2.
Major Advantages - Compression molding produces fast molding cycles and high part uniformity. The process can
be automated. Good part design flexibility. Good surface finishes are obtainable, contributing to lower part finishing
cost. Subsequent trimming and machining operations are minimized. Labor costs are low.
Major Disadvantages – This process requires expensive machinery and therefore requires a high investment. Molds
can be damaged due to the repetitive nature of the process. Not suitable for complex molds.

4.3. Pultrusion

Pultrusion is a continuous closed molding process for the manufacture of products having a constant cross section,
such beams, channels, pipe, tubing, fishing rods, and golf club shafts. Pultrusion produces profiles with extremely
high fiber loading, thus pultruded products have high structural properties.

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Process Description - First the fibers are continuously pulled and impregnated in a resin bath. Afterwards the fibers
with resin are pulled through a steel die, by a tractor mechanism. The steel die sets the shape of the stock, controls
the fiber/resin ratio and consolidates the saturated reinforcement. The steel die is also heated to rapidly cure the
resin. After the resin has cured, the resulting product is cut off by a saw[15].

Figure 8 – Pultrusion method

Molds - Hardened steel dies are machined and include a preform area to do the initial shaping of the resin-saturated
roving. The dies include heating which can be electric or hot oil. The latest pultrusion technology uses direct injection
dies, in which the resin is introduced inside the die, rather than through an external resin bath.
Major Advantages - The process is a continuous operation that can be readily automated and therefore labor costs
are low. It is adaptable to both simple and complex cross-sectional shapes. Very high strengths can be attained due
to the fiber loading.
Major Disadvantages - Constant use of heat and electricity needed to power the process makes pultrusion less
energy efficient. The equipment requires a high investment.

Hand lay-up Compression Molding Pultrusion

Molding Type Open Molding Closed Molding Closed Molding
Manpower Low but Qualified Low Low but Qualified
Quality Good surface quality Good surface quality Good surface quality
Finishing Touches Trimming and
Trimming None
Smoothing
Investment in
Low High Very High
Machinery
Production Rate Low Very High High
Shape Restrictions None None Cross section must be constant

Table 4 – Most important characteristics of composite production methods

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5. THEORETIC VALUES IN TRACTION FOR COMPOSITE IM7-B

5.1. Elastic constants of each lamina (L,T referential)

Using the Young Modulus and the percentage of fibers of the material (available in table 3 in section 3) we can
immediately calculate the transversal and longitudinal Young Modulus of the composite:

𝟏
𝑬𝑳 = 𝑬𝒇 𝑽𝒇 + 𝑬𝒎 𝑽𝒎 = 𝟏𝟖𝟏. 𝟖 𝑮𝑷𝒂 𝑬𝑻 = = 𝟏𝟏 𝑮𝑷𝒂
𝑽𝒇 𝑽𝒎
+
𝑬𝒇 𝑬𝒎

We can also compute the Poisson coefficients:

𝑬𝑻
𝝂𝑳𝑻 = 𝝂𝒇 𝑽𝒇 + 𝝂𝒎 𝑽𝒎 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟕 𝝂𝑻𝑳 = 𝝂𝑳𝑻 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟐𝟐𝟒
𝑬𝑳

The only other property required at this point is G which can be calculated by doing:

𝐸𝑓 𝐸𝑚
𝐺𝑓 = = 1.607 𝐺𝑃𝑎 𝐺𝑚 = = 111.11 𝐺𝑃𝑎
2(1 + 𝜈𝑓 ) 2(1 + 𝜈𝑚 )

𝑮𝒎 𝑮𝒇
𝑮𝑳𝑻 = = 𝟑. 𝟗𝟑 𝑮𝑷𝒂
𝑮 𝒎 𝑽𝒇 + 𝑮 𝒇 𝑽𝒎

5.2. Matrices Ǫ, Ǭ, A, B and D

The first matrix that we can calculate is the matrix Q using the following formula:

−1
1 𝜈𝐿𝑇
− 0
𝐸𝐿 𝐸𝑇
𝜈𝑇𝐿 1
𝑄= − 0
𝐸𝐿 𝐸𝑇
1
0 0
[ 𝐺𝐿𝑇 ]

Substituting with our values, the Q matrix comes as such:

𝟏𝟖𝟑. 𝟑𝟏𝟖𝟖 𝟒. 𝟏𝟎𝟒𝟗 𝟎

𝑄 = [ 𝟒. 𝟏𝟎𝟒𝟗 𝟏𝟏. 𝟎𝟗𝟒𝟒 𝟎 ] 𝑮𝑷𝒂
𝟎 𝟎 𝟑. 𝟗𝟑𝟐𝟓

The next matrices we can calculate are the Ǭ matrices. The formula we must use is:

Ǭ = [𝑇]−1
𝜎 [𝑄][𝑇]𝜀

In the expression above the T matrices correspond to:

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(cos 𝜃)2 (sin 𝜃)2 −2 cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃

[𝑇]−1
𝜎 = [ (sin 𝜃)2 (cos 𝜃)2 2 cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃 ]
cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃 − cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃 (cos 𝜃)2 − (sin 𝜃)2

(cos 𝜃)2 (sin 𝜃)2 cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃

[𝑇]𝜀 = [ (sin 𝜃)2 (cos 𝜃)2 − cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃 ]
−2 cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃 2 cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃 (cos 𝜃)2 − (sin 𝜃)2

For each value of theta, the following Ǭ matrices were obtained:

𝟏𝟖𝟑. 𝟑𝟏𝟖𝟖 𝟒. 𝟏𝟎𝟒𝟗 𝟎 𝟏𝟏. 𝟎𝟗𝟒𝟒 𝟒. 𝟏𝟎𝟒𝟗 𝟎

Ǭ𝟎 = [ 𝟒. 𝟏𝟎𝟒𝟗 𝟏𝟏. 𝟎𝟗𝟒𝟒 𝟎 ] 𝑮𝑷𝒂 Ǭ𝟗𝟎 = [ 𝟒. 𝟏𝟎𝟒𝟗 𝟏𝟖𝟑. 𝟑𝟏𝟖𝟖 𝟎 ] 𝑮𝑷𝒂
𝟎 𝟎 𝟑. 𝟗𝟑𝟐𝟓 𝟎 𝟎 𝟑. 𝟗𝟑𝟐𝟓

𝟓𝟒. 𝟓𝟖𝟖 𝟒𝟔. 𝟕𝟐𝟑 𝟒𝟑. 𝟎𝟓𝟔 𝟓𝟒. 𝟓𝟖𝟖 𝟒𝟔. 𝟕𝟐𝟑 −𝟒𝟑. 𝟎𝟓𝟔
Ǭ𝟒𝟓 = [𝟒𝟔. 𝟕𝟐𝟑 𝟓𝟒. 𝟓𝟖𝟖 𝟒𝟑. 𝟎𝟓𝟔] 𝑮𝑷𝒂 Ǭ−𝟒𝟓 = [ 𝟒𝟔. 𝟕𝟐𝟑 𝟓𝟒. 𝟓𝟖𝟖 −𝟒𝟑. 𝟎𝟓𝟔] 𝑮𝑷𝒂
𝟒𝟑. 𝟎𝟓𝟔 𝟒𝟑. 𝟎𝟓𝟔 𝟒𝟔. 𝟓𝟓𝟏 −𝟒𝟑. 𝟎𝟓𝟔 −𝟒𝟑. 𝟎𝟓𝟔 𝟒𝟔. 𝟓𝟓𝟏

With the Ǭ matrices for all the required angles it is now possible to calculate the matrices A, B and D:
𝑛
𝟐𝟒𝟓. 𝟗𝟎𝟖 𝟖𝟐. 𝟑𝟒𝟏𝟔 𝟎
𝐴𝑖𝑗 = ∑ 𝑄̅𝑖𝑗 (𝑧𝑘 − 𝑧𝑘−1 ) ⇔ 𝑨 = [𝟖𝟐. 𝟑𝟒𝟏𝟔 𝟐𝟒𝟓. 𝟗𝟎𝟖 𝟎 ] 𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝑵/𝒎𝒎
𝑘=1 𝟎 𝟎 𝟖𝟏. 𝟕𝟖𝟑
𝑛
(𝑧𝑘2 − 𝑧𝑘−1
2
) 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
𝐵𝑖𝑗 = ∑ 𝑄̅𝑖𝑗 ⇔ 𝑩 = [𝟎 𝟎 𝟎] 𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝑵
2
𝑘=1 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
𝑛
(𝑧𝑘3 − 𝑧𝑘−1
3
) 𝟏𝟐𝟑. 𝟖𝟐𝟔 𝟗𝟒. 𝟔𝟖𝟏 −𝟓𝟕. 𝟐𝟎𝟒
𝐷𝑖𝑗 = ∑ 𝑄̅𝑖𝑗 ⇔ 𝑫 = [ 𝟗𝟒. 𝟔𝟖𝟏 𝟐𝟔𝟏. 𝟏𝟏𝟔 −𝟓𝟕. 𝟐𝟎𝟒] 𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝑵. 𝒎𝒎
3
𝑘=1 −𝟓𝟕. 𝟐𝟎𝟒 −𝟓𝟕. 𝟐𝟎𝟒 𝟗𝟒. 𝟏𝟗𝟑

5.3. Elastic constants of the laminate (X,Y referential)

Since the A matrix is already calculated, all the required values to get the Young Modulus, Shear Modulus and Poisson
coefficient are already known. The required formulas and the obtained results are the following:

𝟏 𝟏
𝑬𝒙 = −𝟏
= 𝟔𝟕. 𝟑𝟕𝟖𝟔 𝑮𝑷𝒂 𝑬𝒚 = = 𝟔𝟕. 𝟑𝟕𝟖𝟔 𝑮𝑷𝒂
𝑨𝟏𝟏 𝒉 𝑨𝟐𝟐 −𝟏 𝒉
𝟏 𝑨𝟏𝟐 −𝟏
𝑮𝒙𝒚 = = 𝟐𝟓. 𝟐𝟒𝟐 𝑮𝑷𝒂 𝝂𝒙𝒚 = − = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟑𝟓
𝑨𝟐𝟐 −𝟏 𝒉 𝑨𝟏𝟏 −𝟏

5.4. New rupture tension if the material had a length of 1 meter

From table 3 we know that the mean rupture tension value of the carbon fibers is 5516 MPa. Assuming a Weibull
modulus of 4.5, the new mean rupture value is:
1
𝜎1𝑟 𝑉2 𝑚
=( ) ⇔ 𝝈𝟐𝒓 = 𝟑. 𝟖𝟓𝟕 𝑮𝑷𝒂
𝜎2𝑟 𝑉1

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6. EXPERIMENTAL VALUES IN TRACTION FOR COMPOSITE IM7-B

6.1. Results registered in the laboratory

In the laboratory we performed a strain-stress analysis for the charge and discharge of a specimen. The montage
was similar to the one shown in figure 9.

Figure 9 – Montage for traction trial

The measured values of the specimen’s dimensions (width and thickness), force applied and extension as well as the
resulting stress are also shown in tables 4 and 5:

Force (KN) Extension (με) σ (MPa)

1052 59 5.891577794
2037 132 11.40793153
3066 214 17.17070106
3990 291 22.34543289
4993 376 27.96259309
6104 472 34.18459207
7030 552 39.37052461
8045 641 45.05488912
7058 555 39.52733467
6017 465 33.69736082
4935 372 27.63777226
4037 296 22.60864977
3088 218 17.29390896
2007 133 11.23992075
1093 67 6.121192518

Table 5 – Experimental values for Force, Extension and Tensile Stress obtained

Measurement 1st Measurement 2nd Measurement 3rd Measurement Mean Value

Width (mm) 56.7 57.12 56.96 56.93
Thickness (mm) 3.25 3.09 3.07 3.137

Table 6 – Dimensions registered in the laboratory

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6.2. Experimental Young modulus

To calculate the experimental Young modulus we just have to calculate the trendline for the stress strain graph. First
we calculated the Young modulus value for loading and unloading separately, using the values from table 5.

Young modulus
50
45 y = 67349x + 2.2717
40 R² = 0.9992
35
30
σ (MPa)

Loading Trial
25 y = 66868x + 2.5463
R² = 0.9994 Unloading Trial
20
15 Linear (Loading Trial)
10 Linear (Unloading Trial)
5
0
0 0.0001 0.0002 0.0003 0.0004 0.0005 0.0006 0.0007
Extension(ε)

Figure 10 – Young modulus for loading and unloading

The experimental Young Modulus corresponds to the slope of the trendline of the graph presented. We can see that
there isn’t a significate difference for the Young modulus value if we consider only the loading trial or only the
unloading trial (66.868 GPa for the loading and 67.349 GPa for the unloading trial). If we calculate the trendline
considering both trials, we obtain the following graph:

Young modulus
50
45 y = 67346x + 2.3572
40 R² = 0.9992
35
30
σ (MPa)

25 Both Trials
20
15 Linear (Both Trials)
10
5
0
0 0.0001 0.0002 0.0003 0.0004 0.0005 0.0006 0.0007
Extension(ε)

Figure 11 – Young Modulus using both trials

From this graph’s trendline we obtain the value of the experimental Young modulus:

𝑬𝒙 = 𝟔𝟕. 𝟑𝟒𝟔 𝑮𝑷𝒂.

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Comparing this result with the theoretical value obtained in section 5.4. we can calculate the relative error:

𝐸𝑡𝑒𝑜 − 𝐸𝑒𝑥𝑝
𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 % = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟔𝟏%
𝐸𝑒𝑥𝑝

6.3. σxx, σyy, τxy variation along the laminate’s thickness for a force of 8000N

For this exercise, we know the matrices A, D and Ǭ. Only 𝑁𝑥 is different from 0. Therefore

𝜀𝑥 𝑁𝑥 𝑀𝑥 8000
[ 𝜀𝑦 ] = [𝐴]−1 [ 𝑁𝑦 ] + 𝑧 [𝐷]−1 [ 𝑀𝑦 ] = [𝐴]−1 [56.93]
ϒ𝑥𝑦 𝑁𝑥𝑦 𝑀𝑥𝑦 0
0

And finally we obtain the stress for each value of thickness using:

𝜎𝑥 𝜀𝑥
𝜎 [ ̅ ]
[ ]= 𝑄 [ 𝑦]
𝑦 𝜀
𝜏𝑥𝑦 ϒ𝑥𝑦

The stress distribution obtained for a 8000N force using this procedure are presented below.

Stress σx
2
1.5
1
Thickness (mm)

0.5
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
-0.5
-1
-1.5
-2
σx (GPa)

Figure 12 – Tensile stress ( 𝜎𝑥 ) along the thickness of the laminate

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Stress σy
2

1.5

Thickness (mm) 1

0.5

0
-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30
-0.5

-1

-1.5

-2
σy (GPa)

Figure 13 – Tensile stress ( 𝜎𝑦 ) along the thickness of the laminate

Stress τxy
2
1.5
1
Thickness (mm)

0.5
0
-30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30
-0.5
-1
-1.5
-2
τxy (GPa)

Figure 13 – Tensile stress (𝜏𝑥𝑦 ) along the thickness of the laminate

7. EXPERIMENTAL VALUES IN BENDING FOR COMPOSITE IM7-B

In the laboratory, we performed once again, a strain-stress analysis only this time, the montage was different. In this
case, the test specimen was encastrated at a distance of 50 cm of one of the edges. In the other edge were added
weights to cause bending. The laminate also had an extensometer and a sensor to measure displacement at the end
of the beam. The values measured in the laboratory are presented in table 7.

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Force(N) Displacement (mm) Extension (με) Efx (Mpa)

0 0.02 1 0
0.5 0.41 31 22213.41167
1.5 1.24 94 22034.27126
2.5 2.07 155 21998.78934
4.5 3.72 280 22034.27126
5.5 4.55 342 22018.12893
7.5 6.24 467 21893.02593
8.5 7.11 530 21776.01679
9 7.57 565 21655.87558
8.5 7.13 531 21714.93399
7.5 6.29 467 21718.99552
5.5 4.63 343 21637.6861
4.5 3.79 280 21627.30582
2.5 2.13 153 21379.10513
1.5 1.3 90 21017.30489
0.5 0.47 27 19377.65699
0 0.04 3 0

Table 7 – Force, displacement, extension and experimental Young’s Modulus obtained in the laboratory

In this table, the Young Modulus in bending was calculated using the following formula, that corresponds to the
maximum displacement formula for single supported beams:

𝑃𝐿3 𝑃𝐿3 𝑏ℎ3

𝛿= ⇔ 𝐸𝑓𝑥 = 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐼𝑦 = = 146.4 𝑚𝑚2
𝐸𝑓𝑥 𝐼𝑦 𝛿𝐼𝑦 12

As we increase the tip load, the beam will gradually curve more and more. Since the formula is only valid for straight
beams, it is natural that the results will become less accurate (values of 𝐸𝑓𝑥 decrease since loading until 𝐹 = 9 𝑁).
For this reason, we opted to do the mean of the first three loads and the last three, however we left out the final
unloading value (19377.65 MPa) for this average, because it is quite different from the expected value and probably
results from a mistake when reading the displacement and extension values during the laboratory. With this
procedure, we obtained the following value for the experimental bending Young Modulus:

𝟐𝟐. 𝟐𝟏𝟑 + 𝟐𝟐. 𝟎𝟑𝟒 + 𝟐𝟏. 𝟗𝟗𝟗 + 𝟐𝟏. 𝟑𝟕𝟗 + 𝟐𝟏. 𝟎𝟏𝟕
𝑬𝒇𝒙 = = 𝟐𝟏. 𝟕𝟐𝟖 𝑮𝑷𝒂
𝟓

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8. THEORETIC VALUES IN BENDING FOR COMPOSITE IM7-B

8.1. Maximum vertical displacement and strain values

The strain values were computed for the point where the extensometer was, at 50 cm of the encastrated edge. Using
𝐹𝐿
the following formula and knowing that 𝑀 = where b is the width of the specimen used to normalize the
𝑏
calculations and 𝐿 = 150 𝑚𝑚.

𝑘𝑥 𝑀𝑥
[ 𝑘𝑦 ] = [𝐷 ] [ 𝑀𝑦 ]
−1

𝑘𝑥𝑦 𝑀𝑥𝑦

Note that on this case 𝑀𝑦 = 0 and 𝑀𝑥𝑦 = 0 because the force is applied along the Z axis. The strains can finally be
obtained using:

𝜀𝑥 𝑘𝑥
[ 𝜀𝑦 𝑘
] = 𝑧[ 𝑦 ]
ϒ𝑥𝑦 𝑘𝑥𝑦

Where z is the total height of the considered point to the midline of the specimen which in this case, because we are
3.24
calculating for the surface of the top layer, 𝑧 = = 1.62 𝑚𝑚.
2

𝑃𝐿3 𝑏ℎ3
We can calculate the displacement at the tip (where the force is applied) using 𝛿 = where 𝐼𝑦 = =
3𝐸𝑓𝑥 𝐼𝑦 12
146.4 𝑚𝑚4 is the second moment of area (using ℎ = 3.137 𝑚𝑚), 𝐿 = 150 𝑚𝑚 (length of the specimen) and 𝐸𝑓𝑥 is
determined in section 8.2.

Computing for the same force intensity as the ones during the lab, we get the values listed on table 8. Naturally,
since these are theoretical calculations, the table is symmetric. This means that the values are the same for loading
and for unloading.

Force (N) εx(με) Wmax(mm)

0 0 0
0.5 29.25 0.35
1.5 87.46 1.06
2.5 145.76 1.76
4.5 262.37 3.17
5.5 320.67 3.88
7.5 437.28 5.29
8.5 495.59 5.99
9 524.74 6.35
Table 8 – Theoretical values of extension and maximum displacement

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8. 2. Elasticity Modulus along X axis

To compute this value, we simply use the following formula and obtain:

1
𝐸𝑓𝑥 = ⇔ 𝑬𝒇𝒙 = 𝟐𝟓. 𝟖𝟑𝟏 𝑮𝑷𝒂
𝐷11 −1 ℎ3
The error when comparing the analytic result with the experimental is:

𝑬𝒕𝒆𝒐 − 𝑬𝒆𝒙𝒑
𝒆𝒓𝒓𝒐𝒓 % = = 𝟏𝟖. 𝟖𝟖%
𝑬𝒆𝒙𝒑

8. 3. σxx, σyy, τxy variation along the laminate’s thickness for a force of 8N
This problem is solved the same way as the problem in section 6.3. This time instead of having 𝑁𝑥 different from
zero (this is a pure bending problem), only 𝑀𝑥 is different from zero. We obtained the following stress distributions
for the transversal section at the encastrated edge.

Stress σx
2

1.5

1
Thickness (mm)

0.5

0
-0.04 -0.03 -0.02 -0.01 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04
-0.5

-1

-1.5

-2
σx (GPa)

Figure 14 – Tensile stress ( 𝜎𝑥 ) along the thickness of the laminate

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Stress σy
2

1.5

1
Thickness (mm)

0.5

0
-0.03 -0.02 -0.01 0 0.01 0.02 0.03
-0.5

-1

-1.5

-2
σy (GPa)

Figure 15 – Tensile stress ( 𝜎𝑦 ) along the thickness of the laminate

Stress τxy
2
1.5
1
Thickness (GPa)

0.5
0
-0.02 -0.015 -0.01 -0.005 0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02
-0.5
-1
-1.5
-2
τxy (GPa)

Figure 16 – Shear stress (𝜏𝑥𝑦 ) along the thickness of the laminate

9. MAXIMUM FORCE APPLIED IN BENDING - MAXIMUM STRESS CRITERION

Table 3 has critical stresses 𝑆𝐿 , 𝑆𝑇 and 𝑆𝐿𝑇 that each layer supports. Knowing that maximum stresses will occur at
𝐿 = 200 𝑚𝑚 (because it´s where the bending moment is maximum), we can compute the stresses just like we did
in 8.3. and find their values in the principal directions using:

𝜎1 𝜎𝑥
[ 𝜎2 ] = [𝑇 ]𝜎 [ 𝜎𝑦 ]
𝜏12 𝜏𝑥𝑦

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For a force of 8N, we found the maximum values of the stresses in the principal directions to be:

𝝈𝟏 𝐦𝐚𝐱 𝝈𝟐 𝐦𝐚𝐱 𝝉𝟏𝟐 𝐦𝐚𝐱

Maximum Value (𝑮𝑷𝒂) 0.0339 0.00467 0.00309
Orientation of layer (°) 45 90 -45

Table 9 – Maximum Stress obtained for the principal directions

Using the maximum stress criteria for the three principal directions, we concluded that the critical force is minimum
for 𝜎2 :

𝐹𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝐹𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡 8 𝐹𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡

= ⇔ = ⇔ 𝑭𝒄𝒓𝒊𝒕 = 𝟏𝟒𝟓. 𝟔𝟖𝑵
𝜎𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝜎𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡 0.00467 0.085

10. COMPARISON OF RESULTS

Examining the results, we note that our experimental Young Modulus for the traction test has an insignificant error
even though we only performed the experiment once due to lack of time. This could have caused problems because
when we first load and read the results, the machine clamps aren´t fully attached to the specimen resulting in sliding
(cannot be observed with naked eye) which, can alter the results slightly. After performing the first round of loading
and unloading, the clamps and the specimen are completely fixed to each other resulting in more reliable values.
Nonetheless, our theoretical Young Modulus matches the experimental.

Regarding section 6.2, we are able to perceive that the 0° layers are the ones supporting most of the stress 𝜎𝑥 which
was expected since the fibers are aligned with force applied. Then again, it is also expectable that these layers (0°
layers) cannot undertake any 𝜎𝑦 , 𝜏𝑥𝑦 stress since the only force applied is in the xx direction. Such statement is
confirmed by looking at the graphs.

When we look at the experimental bending results presented in section 7, we notice that the values are slightly
different between loading and unloading. In this trial, we are in the elastic regime because the force applied (8 𝑁)
was a great deal less than 145.68 𝑁 which was found to be the maximum force we could apply before one of the
layers breaks. This excludes a potential plastic deformation. Possible reasons for this discrepancy are operator errors
(reading errors) and sensor errors.

Comparing the experimental result with the theoretical ones, we find out that the theoretical specimen is more rigid
than the experimental one with an error of 18.88% for the flexion elasticity modulus. This error is acceptable taking
into account the fact that we did some considerations regarding the shear modulus for the fiber (𝐺𝑓 ) and matrix (𝐺𝑚 )
in section 5.1. We assumed both materials to be isotropic. This may be a good approximation for the epoxy resin but
it is not true for the carbon fibers. In addition, we used a set of 5 values to find the value of the laminates Young
Modulus, because the formula used is only valid for small displacements. Had we only used the very first value, the

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error obtained would have been even smaller. Another source of errors is the measured thickness value. This
measurement was taken 3 times and on all calculations we used the average of the three measurements. If we had
used only the larger value, the deviation obtained would be of 14% instead of almost 19%.

Because of this more rigid theoretical specimen, the displacement values for the same loads which produce equal
bending moments will be less than the ones measured in laboratory. This is confirmed with the calculations in section
8.1 where on table 8 we notice that the maximum displacement for a (9 𝑁) force will result in a 6.35 𝑚𝑚
displacement instead of the experimental displacement that was 7.57 𝑚𝑚. This corresponds to an error of 16.16%.

In section 8.3, the first thing that comes to mind when we look at the graphs is that all of them cross the origin. This
happens because we are applying a pure bending moment and consequently, the neutral axis is the same as the
centerline of the specimen. The upper layers are submitted to tension stresses and the lower layers compressive
stresses. For instance, if we added a compressive force on the specimen, the neutral axis would move upwards.

Lastly, we calculated that the specimen would break on a 90° layer for a transverse direction. We used the limit
values given in table 3 and compared them with the maximum stresses that each layer supported (table 9). It was
found that for a force of 145.68 𝑁, the transversal stress of the first 90° layer was equal to the critical stress 𝑆𝑇 thus,
following the maximum tension criteria, the layer would break.

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11. REFERENCES
[1] - http://www.fibreglast.com/category/Carbon_Fiber
[2] - K. K. Chawla (1998), Fibrous materials, Cambridge: Cambridge University.
[3] - http://zoltek.com/carbonfiber/how-is-it-made/
[4] - http://www.compositesworld.com/blog/post/the-making-of-carbon-fiber
[5] - http://www.compositesworld.com/articles/the-making-of-glass-fiber
[6] - http://www.madehow.com/Volume-2/Fiberglass.html
[7] - http://kevlarchemistry.neocities.org/about3.html
[8] - http://www.christinedemerchant.com/aramid_characteristics.html
[9] - http://www.dupont.com/content/dam/dupont/products-and-services/fabrics-fibers-and-
nonwovens/fibers/documents/DPT_Kevlar_Technical_Guide_Revised.pdf
[10] - http://www.ccpcomposites.eu/products-top/application-processes/hand-lay-up-a-spray-up
[11] - F.C Campbell (2004), Manufacturing Processes for Advanced Composites, Elsevier Advanced Technology
[12] - http://www.compositesworld.com/blog/post/fabrication-methods
[13] - http://netcomposites.com/guide-tools/guide/manufacturing/wethand-lay-up/
[14] - http://www.fibermaxcomposites.com/shop/index_files/manufacturingtechniques.html
[15] - http://www.substech.com/dokuwiki/doku.php?id=pultrusion

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