Chapter 9

METALLURGICAL TESTIIVG PROCEDURES

R i c h a r d L. Coleman

Director o f Milling
Noranda Mines L i m i t e d
Toronto, O n t a r i o .\
.* ,

ABSTRACT

M e t a l l u r g i c a l t e s t w o r k t o develop a f l o w s h e e t i s d e s c r i b e d , be-
g i n n i n g w i t h background i n f o r m a t i o n r e q u i r e d r i g h t t h r o u g h t o a f i n a l
process f l o w s h e e t . Both l a b o r a t o r y and p i l o t p l a n t t e s t i n g a r e r e v i e w -
ed w i t h emphasis on t h e former.

INTRODUCTION

The amount and t y p e o f m e t a l l u r g i c a l t e s t i n g t o be performed on any

m i n e r a l i z e d samples w i l l v a r y w i t h each circumstance. Very l i t t l e work
may be necessary when d e v e l o p i n g f l o w s h e e t s f o r new p r o c e s s i n g f a c i l -
i t i e s t o t r e a t o r e f r o m an e n l a r g e d e x i s t i n g p l a n t o r a new a d j a c e n t
orebody w h i l e c o n v e r s e l y , y e a r s o f r e s e a r c h may be r e q u i r e d f o r a com-
p l e x o r e f a r f r o m o t h e r p l a n t s and t e s t f a c i l i t i e s o r i n a c o m p l e t e l y
d i f f e r e n t environment. T h i s t e s t i n g i s an on-going a c t i v i t y f r o m d i s -
c o v e r y t o e v e n t u a l abandonment.
The i n i t i a l r e s e a r c h program i n t h e m e t a l l u r g i c a l l a b o r a t o r y deve-
l o p s t h e general f l o w s h e e t w h i c h may be v e r i f i e d i n t h e p i l o t p l a n t
depending on t h e c o m p l e x i t y d i s c l o s e d . Also, a t t h i s stage, t h e
p r o f i t a b i l i t y o f t h e p r o j e c t may be c o n f i r m e d o r p l a c e d i n d o u b t
b e f o r e e x p e n d i t u r e s have become excessive. The f l o w s h e e t used f o r
d e s i g n and c o n s t r u c t i o n can be r e a r r a n g e d i n degree f o l l o w i n g t h e
commencement o f p r o d u c t i o n d u r i n g t h e tune-up phase and may t a k e y e a r s
t o optimize.

INFORMATION REQUIRED

Location

The m e t a l 1 u r g i s t can proceed w i t h h i s 1 a b o r a t o r y . a n d p i l o t p l a n t

t e s t i n g w i t h o u t knowing t h e l o c a t i o n o f t h e d e p o s i t and d e t a i l s o f
t h e topography, c l i r n a t e , w a t e r r e s o u r c e s and t r a n s p o r t a t i o n f a c i l -
i t i e s . However, a l t h o u g h t h e s e d a t a may be g e n e r a l l y o f i n t e r e s t
d u r i n g t h e r e s e a r c h program, t h e y a r e e s s e n t i a l t o t h e f l o w s h e e t
development and, t h e r e f o r e , he s h o u l d n o t proceed t o o f a r w i t h o u t
 . . METALLURGICAL TESTING -PROCEDURES . . 145.
.= .-_ . . .

a knowledge o f . t h e geography and s i t e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .

As f a r as t h e bench scale t e s t i n g i s concerned, one very important

l o c a l f e a t u r e which w i l l i n f l u e n c e t h e m e t a l l u r g i c a l r e s u l t s i s t h e
q u a l i t y o f water a v a i l a b l e w h i l e t h e q u a n t i t y i s important i n flow-
sheet development. Due t o climate, geography, economics o r l o c a l
r e g u l a t i o n s , i t may n o t be p o s s i b l e t o o b t a i n adequate f r e s h water
f o r processing purposes and', hence, t h e m a j o r i t y o f t h e r e q u i r e d
research may h a v e ' t o be conducted using the a v a i l a b l e s a l i n e o r
r e c j l c l e water.

A thorough knowledge o f t h e physical f a c t o r s i n t h e v i c i n i t y o f

t h e deposit i s e s s e n t i a l f o r flowsheet development. As examples, t h e
snowfall a f f e c t s t h e compactness o f t h e p l a n t , t h e t e r r a i n a f f e c t s
t h e amount o f pumping, t h e remoteness a f f e c t s t h e choice o f equipment
types, s i z e s and country o f manufacture, t h e water temperatures
a f f e c t t h e m e t a l l u r g y and t h e manpower supply and q u a l i t y a f f e c t t h e
degree o f s o p h i s t i c a t i o n and t h e approach t o labour requirements.
The Deposit .
I n t h e m a j o r i t y o f cases, t h e m e t a l l u r g i s t ' s i n i t i a l c o n t a c t w i t h
t h e deposit o f i n t e r e s t i s through t h e e x p l o r a t i o n a n o f h i s company
o r by l e t t e r from o t h e r companies when he i s asked t o do some research
on t h i s "copper" ore, t h a t "lead-zinc" f i n d o r those "uranium" claims,
etc. By i m p l i c a t i o n , t h e research r o u t e i s narrowed down t o t h e one
o r more metals mentioned i n t h e request b u t i n f a c t , t h i s i s simply
t h e s t a r t of information gathering. A knowledge o f t h e geology i s
h e l p f u l and o f t h e mineralogy may be e s s e n t i a l . I f t h e m i n e r a l o g i c a l
data i s n o t a v a i l a b l e , t h e research team w i l l have t o arrange f o r
adequate s t u d i e s by others o r i n t h e i r own l a b o r a t o r i e s . Studies
should be conducted on specimens as coarse as p r a c t i c a l because o f
t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r heavy media o r g r a v i t y concentration.

The features o f i n t e r e s t from a g e o l o g i c a l o r m i n e r a l o g i c a l view-

p o i n t w i l l include, b u t n o t be l i m i t e d to, s t u d i e s of t h e minerals
present, degress o f i n t e r l o c k i n g , e x t e n t o f dissemination, s i z e d i s -
t r i b u t i o n o f economic inineral s and amount o f a1t e r a t i o n .

Samples

What samples are a v a i l a b l e f o r t e s t i n g purposes and which samples

are the most s u i t a b l e f o r t h e research contemplated? There i s no
s i n g l e answer t o these questions as each case i s d i f f e r e n t b u t one
can be more c o n f i d e n t o f t h e r e s u l t s i f a wide v a r i e t y o f samples
r a t h e r than a l a r g e q u a n t i t y o f a l i m i t e d number'of types i s provided.
As t h e various stages o f t h e research are contemplated, t h e m e t a l l u r -
g i s t may be provided w i t h surface hand samples, diamond d r i l l core,
trench samples o r samples from s t o c k p i l e s . As mine development pro-
gresses, b u l k l o t s f o r t h e l a b o r a t o r y , tfie p i l o t p l a n t and/or auto-
genous g r i n d i n g t e s t s should become a v a i l a b l e . I n i t i a l q u a n t i t i e s
146 MINERAL PROCESSING PLANT DESIGN

p r e f e r r e d f o r bench t e s t s range from 1 t o 3 kilograms depending on

complexity a n t i c i p a t e d w h i l e t h e p i l o t p l a n t may r e q u i r e hundreds o f
tons. ... .
With respect t o samples, two very important p r e r e q u i s i t e s t o a
good research program are , t h a t t h e y should be r e p r e s e n t a t i v e and .::
fresh. . S p l i t diamond d r i l l , core i s most f r e q u e n t l y availab1.e t o d a y . '
'

b u t t h e . q u a n t i t i e s are 1 i m i t e d because .the g e o l o g i s t s w i l l keep a

p o r t i o n , various. government agencies may r e q u i r e samples and p o r t i o n s
may be kept i n reserve. Hence, t h e research team may expect t o see
o n l y 1/4 t o 1/3 o f t h e whole. I n d i v i d u a l diamond d r i l l hole samples
should be kept separate a t l e a s t u n t i l t h e g e o l o g i s t ,and t h e metal-
l u r g i s t c o n f i r m . t h e i r representativeness and c a l c u l a t e t h e c o r r e c t
combining r a t i o s . I n i t i a l , t e s t s may be done 0n.a composite p o r t i o n . .
and l a t e r c o n f i n e d on t h e i n d i v i d u a l samp1,es o r t h e reverse order", .
may be recommended when known d i f f e r e n c e s are recognized e a r l y .

Samples o f ores which are known t o degrade, o x i d i z e o r otherwise ,.

change on contact w i t h a i r o r water should be sealed i n p l a s t i c bags,
p o s s i b l y s t o r e d i n strong metal containers and o c c a s i o n a l l y r e f r i g - ..
e r a t e d i n t h e case o f unstable sulphides. These ores should n o t be
crushed f i n e r than necessary t o f a c i l i t a t e handling and storage u n t i l
r e q u i r e d f o r t h e s p e c i f i c .tests plann,ed. When.asking f o r !'coarse"
samples, t h e m e t a l l u r g i s t should s t r e s s t h e p o i n t . t h a t he wants a + ",.
complete sample i n c l u d i n g coarse and f i n e s b u t t h a t t h e amount of ,
breakage should be l i m i t e d . t o y i e l d a. convenient t o p s i z e -
t y p i c a l l y 15 t o . 2 0 cms. . .
.. .
The o b t a i n i n g o f r e p r e s e n t a t i v e .samples'does n o t 'stop w i t h t h e
i n i t i a l research programs .because t h e metal 1u r g i s t w i l l r e q u i r e sam-
p l e s throughout t h e operating , l i f e o f . t h e concentrator t o monitor, .: ,
improve o r . r e v i s e t h e e f f i c i e n c y o f t h e flowsheets, equipment and :
reagents. Thus, t h e importance o f good sampl i n g techniques never ,

diminishes.
Mining

I t i s e s s e n t i a l t h a t t h e flowsheet development &gineers know t h e

proposed mining r a t e s , methods, sequences and m'ine equipment sizes.
A l l o f these features a f f e c t t h e choice o f m i l l equipment, o p e r a t i n g
hours i n crushing, storage capacity, manpower requirements and t h e
l o c a t i o n o f t h e concentrator. I t .makes an appreciable d i f f e r e n c e t o
a development and design engineer whether t h e o r e i s loaded from a
15 y a r d shovel, an' orepass o r a scooptram.and i s del i v e r e d , t o t h e
crusher by a 100 t o n t r u c k , an undergrou,nd t r a i n o r a-.front-end . .
loader and whet,her i . t w i l l be wet, d r y .or f u l l . of snow.
.
The r k e a r c h ' m e t a l 1 u r g i s . t w i l l be p a r t i c u l a r l y . i n t e r e s t e d i n the.
mining sequence because the' treatment methods i n the. ear1.y.production
phases may be s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i ' f f e r e n t than i n l a t e r periods d u e ' t o , . 1.
d i f f e r e n c e s in'respo:nse t o b e n e f i c i a t i o n techriiques f o r t h e v a r i o u s ' ,
 METALLURGICAL TESTING PROCEDURES 147

types o f o r e i n t h e same deposit. A1 t e r n a t i v e l y , t h e economics o f

t h e o v e r a l l operation may favour t h e treatment o f h i g h e r grade ores
than t h e mine average i n t h e e a r l y years o f production.
Markets and S p e c i f i c a t i o n s . ,

One cannot assume today t h a t any b e n e f i c i a t i o n product can be sold.

A l l consumers.of concentrates and a l l secondary processing p l a n t s a r e
encountering i n c r e a s i n g r e g u l a t o r y and qua1 it y c o n t r o l r e s t r i c t i o n s
and i t i s axiomatic t h a t t h e buyers a r e more q u a l i t y conscious when
they purchase concentrates. The research engineer must be aware o f
t h e c u r r e n t and probable concentrate s p e c i f i c a t i o n s and p a r t i c u l a r l y
t h e undesirable i m p u r i t i e s so t h a t minimum q u a l i t y o b j e c t i v e s can be
e s t a b l i s h e d and premium q u a l i t y products may be t a r g e t t e d i f
warranted.

The securing o f a market f o r t h e mine products must be another

p r e r e q u i s i t e d u r i n g flowsheet development, design and c o n s t r u c t i o n
because t h e f u t u r e f o r c e r t a i n products and f o r marginal s p e c i f i -
c a t i o n concentrates may be strong today b u t s o f t tomorrow unless a
s a t i s f a c t o r y c o n t r a c t can be obtained. Projected sales may be such
t h a t t h e s i z e o f t h e i n i t i a l p l a n t proposal i n t h e flowsheet devel-
opment stage may be adequate f o r a few years b u t may f a i l t o produce
products which w i l l meet market requirements l a t e r so t h a t p r o v i s i o n
f o r a l t e r a t i o n s , a d d i t i o n s o r expansion. may be wise. Saleable pro-
ducts may have t o be stored f o r long periods pending shipment (e.g.
potash because o f seasonal demand o r base metal concentrates i n t h e
a r c t i c due t o open n a v i g a t i o n seasons) d u r i n g which time, compaction
o r degradation may occur and i t may be necessary t o i n v e s t i g a t e
p o s s i b l e p r e v q n t a t i v e o r remedial a c t i o n . .
Environmental duidel ines , ,

A thorough awareness o f present, proposed and p o t e n t i a l r e s t r i c -

t i o n s which might be imposed on t h e operations due t o water and gas
emissions, space l i m i t a t i o n s , noise, a e s t h e t i c s and waste disposal .
i s recommended i n t h e e a r l y stages o f t h e research. I t i s probable
t h a t t h e m e t a l l u r g i s t s w i l l have t o p r o v i d e t h e backup data r e q u i r e d
f o r permit a p p l i c a t i o n s before any disturbance o f t h e area w i l l be
a1 lowed.
I n a d d i t i o n , one may expect t o encounter 1e g i s l a t i v e ' requirements
which would d i c t a t e a1t e r n a t e approaches t o minerals b e n e f i c i a t i o n
such as t h e replacement of one reagent f o r another more acceptable
t o t h e a u t h o r i t i e s . Simultaneously, a statement o f f a c t may be
r e q u i r e d t o show t h a t t h e flowsheet proposed i s the most p r a c t i c a l
route, t h e most economic and t h e t e c h n i c a l l y c o r r e c t approach.
~i
t e r a t u r e Review and P r a c t i c e

Although t h e m a j o r i t y o f companies contemplating new o r e pro-

 MINERAL PROCESSING PLANT DESIGN

cessing f a c i l i t i e s would have people w i t h experience i n t h e s p e c i f i c

f i e l d o f imterest, very few engineers today can keep abreast o f a l l
t e c h n i c a l developments even ' i n t h e i r own f i e l d s . Therefore, time
spent i n l i t e r a t u r e reviews on t h e s u b j e c t o r process o f i m t e r e s t can
be t i m e w e l l spent. In-house knowledge may n o t be disseminated as
w i d e l y as i t should be p a r t i c u l a r l y w i t h l a r g e companies and, there-
f o r e , good communications and exchanges o f i n f o r m a t i o n are t o be pro-
moted always. A t t h e same time, t h e most successful developers w i l l '
study i n d u s t r y p r a c t i c e t o take advantage o f i t s experience and
modernization trends and arrange v i s i t s t o processing f a c i l i t i e s
simi 1a r t o those proposed. Fortunately, t h e mining-metal l u r g i c a l
i n d u s t r y has. been r e l a t i v e l y f r e e w i t h i t s exchange o f ideas and, f o r
t h i s reason, progress i n minerals b e n e f i c i a t i o n has been more r a p i d
than i n some o t h e r f i e l d s .

LABORATORY TESTING -

The types o f t e s t s t o be recommended can be selected o n l y a f t e r

much o f t h e suggested p r i o r i n f o r m a t i o n mentioned above i s a v a i l a b l e .
There a r e a g r e a t number o f . t e s t s a v a i l a b l e t o t h e m e t a l l u r g i s t b u t
no o r e would need t o be subjected t o a1 1 o f them. Experience wi 11
d i c t a t e those which should be employed and problems encountered w i l l
f o r c e a t t e n t i o n t o o t h e r less-common techniques.

Bench t e s t i n g o f o r e samples i s one o f t h e most important steps i n

t h e long s e r i e s o f m e t a l l u r g i c a l and economic studies i n v o l v e d i n
b r i n g i n g new mines i n t o production. I f these i n v e s t i g a t i o n s a r e n o t
thorough, many questions and problems t h a t develop d u r i n g t h e
research programs, i n m i l l design engineering and l a t e r d u r i n g oper-
a t i o n s can be traced t o inadequate o r improperly i n t e r p r e t e d labora-
t o r y t e s t data. Experimental programs should n o t be terminated u n t i l
a s a t i s f a c t o r y general flowsheet w i t h a1 1 requirements from crushing
t o t a i l i n g disposal and concentrate load-out a r e met.

The l a b o r a t o r y t e s t i n g does n o t terminate when t h e operations com-

mence. On a r e g u l a r r o u t i n e basis, bench t e s t s , using a standardized
l a b o r a t o r y procedure, can be used t o determine t h e d i f f e r e n c e s i n o r e
types, responsea, reagents and flowsheet changes r e q u i r e d d u r i n g t h e
o p e r a t i n g 1i f e of t h e orebody. They a l s o can be used t o develop o r
t e s t new techniques o r processes p r i o r t o t h e f u l l scale p i l o t t r i a l s .
I f favourable. r e s u l t s can be obtained i n t h e l a b o r a t o r y under con-
t r o l l e d conditions, t h e f l o t a t i o n engineer gains assurance t h a t " i t
can be done" and thus new, improved, achievable o b j e c t i v e s can be
e s t a b l ished f o r t h e operations.

The p i l o t p l a n t concentrate production can be used by the p o t e n t i a l

buyers f o r t h e i r own m e t a l l u r g i c a l research. F i n a l l y , 1aboratory
t e s t s and p i l o t p l a n t programs can be used t o advantage t o t r a i n m i l l
operators - p a r t i c u l a r l y those responsible f o r f l o t a t i o n .
Crushing

The f i r s t s t e p i n m i n e r a l s b e n e f i c i a t i o n o f an o r e i s normally
crushing which has been d e f i n e d "as t h e operations r e q u i r e d t o reduce
run-of-mine o r e t o g r i n d i n g feed s i z e " .l I t would t h e r e f o r e f o l l o w
t h a t t h e f i r s t m e t a l l u r g i c a l t e s t i n g should be conducted on run-of-
mine o r e but, due t o i t s s i z e , t h i s would be r a t h e r i m p r a c t i c a l . How-
ever, t h e r e i s l i t t l e need t o t e s t l a r g e rocks because s m a l l e r com-
p e t e n t rocks upon examination and under t e s t c o n d i t i o n s can show
s i m i l a r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . Good r e l a t i o n s h i p s between rock sizes,
tonnage r a t e and equipment s i z e s have been e s t a b l i s h e d i n t h e i n d u s t r y .

Crushing t a b l e s s u p p l i e d by t h e manufacturer normally can be used

d i r e c t l y t o s i z e crushing equipment f o r a g i v e n flowsheet. However,
i f t h e o r e contains a l a r g e percentage o f primary f i n e s , wet s t i c k y
c l a y o r i s extremely competent, i t may be prudent t o conduct crushing
t e s t s i n t h e p i l o t p l a n t on r e p r e s e n t a t i v e samples o f t h e m a t e r i a l .
These t e s t s w i l l i d e n t i f y crusher power requirements o r unusual screen
s u r f a c e area f o r t h e o r e i n question.

I t i s seldom necessary f o r t h e owners o f a new mine t o i n v e s t

l a r g e sums o f money i n s o p h i s t i c a t e d l a b o r a t o r y crushing f a c i l it i e s
f o r t h e l i m i t e d number o f t e s t s which may be r e q u i r e d t o prove t h e
crushing c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e ore. A l l o f the major equipment manu-
f a c t u r e r s have research f a c i l i t i e s f o r determining crushing r e q u i r e -
ments, t h e i r personnel have experience and t h e y welcome t h e oppor-
t u n i t y t o work on new ores. They can do c r u s h a b i l i t y t e s t s t o d e t e r -
mine t h e work index o f t h e o r e and t h e amount o f work r e q u i r e d as
w e l l as t h e compressive s t r e n g t h t o determine t h e necessary s t r e n g t h
i n t h e crusher. However, t h e o r e dressing research s t a f f must be
a b l e t o evaluate t h e r e s u l t s from t h e crusher manufacturer because,
i n many instances,,they have t h e f i n a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r flowsheet
design and development.

Nevertheless, a t l e a s t one small jaw crusher and a small cone

crusher should be considered standard l a b o r a t o r y equipment f o r on-
going operations. The jaw crusher procedure should be standardized
and may even be c a l i b r a t e d a g a i n s t a "known" o r e t o compare breaking
characteristics.

Following c r u s h i n g i n t h e l a b o r a t o r y , t e s t sample l o t s should be

r i f f l e d , preweighed and t h e weight a d j u s t e d t o o b t a i n standard sample
l o t s . One o f these l o t s should be s e t aside f o r a comprehensive
physical a n a l y s i s f o l l o w e d by a chemical a n a l y s i s p o s s i b l y a f t e r t h e
i n i t i a l g r i n d i n g t e s t . One should crush no more o f an o r e than can
be s a t i s f a c t o r i l y t e s t e d on t h e bench s c a l e w i t h i n one month - par-
t i c u l a r l y when t r e a t i n g h i g h s u l p h i d e ores.

G r i ndi,ng

A1 though m e t a l l u r g i c a l t e s t i n g may n o t s t a r t w i t h g r i n d i n g ,
 MINERAL PROCESSING PLANT DESIGN

i n t e n s i v e research must be conducted i n t h i s area since t h e power and

media consumptions i n g r i n d i n g i n an operating p l a n t are f r e q u e n t l y
the most s i g n i f i c a n t operating c o s t items i n minerals b e n e f i c i a t i o n .
The purpose o f comminution i s t o a f f e c t adequate l i b e r a t i o n o f t h e
d e s i r a b l e components from each o t h e r and from t h e waste so t h a t sub-
sequently, they may be separated e f f i c i e n t l y by f l o t a t i o n o r o t h e r
processes. Grinding i s t h e i n i t i a l key v a r i a b l e t o d e f i n e and r e f i n e .
Exceptions t o t h i s statement may be noted i n t h e processing o f potash
and o t h e r non-metal1 i c s , i n handling extremely complex sulphide ores
and i n some o f t h e l e s s common ore treatment p l a n t s where expensive
o r l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s o f reagents are more c o s t l y than g r i n d i n g . There-
fore, as power, energy and m a t e r i a l costs escalate, i t behooves t h e
m e t a l l u r g i s t t o develop t h e most economical comminution techniques.

I n t h e e a r l y years o f t h i s modern m i l 1i n g era, t h e operators had

b u t .one choice o f g r i n d i n g media and method, i.e. b a l l s i n b a l l m i l l s .
Today, t h e r e i s a wide range t o s e l e c t from. Broadly speaking, t h i s
range includes f u l l y autogenous , semi -autogenous , pebble , r o d and
b a l l m i l l i n g and i t i s t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f t h e m e t a l l u r g i c a l .
research team t o choose t h e most e f f i c i e n t type o r combination o f
types. Grinding may be performed wet o r dry, although, i n t h e base
metal, uranium and i r o n ore i n d u s t r i e s , wet methods are u s u a l l y pre-
f e r r e d f o r a number o f reasons, c t i i e f o f which may be t h e ease o f
hand1ing, t h e p o s s i b l e e f f e c t s on m e t a l l u r g y and t h e environmental
advantages.

The geologists, m i n e r a l o g i s t s and miners can a s s i s t t h e metal l u r -

g i s t s t o do t h e p r e l i m i n a r y analyses on t h e ores t o determine t h e ,
p o t e n t i a l s f o r some form o f autogenous g r i n d i n g . They w i l l note
whether t h e o r e i s hard, s o f t , h i g h l y f r a c t u r e d , massive, weathered
o r blocky and many o t h e r s i g n i f i c a n t features. I f a t l e a s t p a r t o f
t h e g r i n d i n g may be accomplished i n t h i s manner, t h e number o f steps,
the number o f pieces o f processing equipment i n c l u d i n g conveyors and
t h e consumption of purchased g r i n d i n g media could be lowered. While
appreciably lower c a p i t a l costs i n t h e crushing p l a n t s w i l l be par-
t i a l l y o f f s e t by t h e higher costs o f t h e g r i n d i n g equipment, t h e
r e d u c t i o n i n operating costs may make t h e use o f autogenous g r i n d i n g
u n i t s very a t t r a c t i v e . Recently, methods2 have been proposed which
may permit e a r l y assessment f o r f e a s i b i l i t y o f autogenous g r i n d i n g
from diamond . d r i l l core.

I t i s common p r a c t i c e t o conduct t h e i n i t i a l g r i n d i n g t e s t s i n
l a b o r a t o r y r o d m i l l s o r b a l l m i l l s . For these t e s t s , t h e ore must be
crushed t o 6.5mm (114 i n c h ) o r l e s s and a uniform q u a n t i t y o f o r e
used f o r each t e s t . To evaluate the r e s u l t s , most research estab-
lishments use t h e procedure developed by F.C. Bond i n t h e A l l i s
Chalmers laboratories3. This method permits t h e c a l c u l a t i o n o f a
"Work Index" which may be defined as t h e kilowatt-hours r e q u i r e d t o
reduce one t o n o f ore from i n f i n i t e s i z e t o 80% passing 100 microns.
I 'The formula t o c a l c u l a t e t h e amount o f power r e q u i r e d i n g r i n d i n g
uses t h i s work index as a basis and may be w r i t t e n . a s f o l l o w s :
 METALLURGICAL TESTING'PROCEDURES

Where W = Work i n p u t - Kw Hr p e r t o n o f o r e
Wi= Work index
p = size i n microns through which 80% o f t h e product passes
f = size i n microns through which 80% o f t h e feed passes.

Equipment suppl i e r s and c o m e r i c a l l a b o r a t o r i e s are a v a i l a b l e t o

perform these t e s t s b u t most company research f a c i l i t i e s should be
o u t f i t t e d s i m i l a r l y because g r i n d i n g t e s t s w i l l be r e q u i r e d throughout
t h e l i f e o f the orebody t o c o n f i r m g r i n d requirements and prepare t e s t
l o t s f o r f l o t a t i o n , l.eachir(g.or o t h e r research.

I t i s suggested t h a t a t y p i c a l l a b o r a t o r y r o d m i l l m i g h t be f a b r i -
cated from 20 cm (8 i n c h ) diameter schedule 40 type 316 s t a i n l e s s
s t e e l p i p e and would be about 38 cm (15 inches) long. See Figure No.
I. The s t a i n l e s s s t e e l g r i n d i n g rods f o r t h i s s i z e o f m i l l may be a
graduated charge from 25 t o 10 nun diameter ( 1 i n c h t o 112 i n c h ) b u t
v a r i a t i o n s i n s i z e a r e n o t e s s e n t i a l . The A l l i s Chalmers Company uses
a 30 cm diameter x 61 cm l o n g (12 i n c h x 24 i n c h ) r o d m i l l w i t h 30 and
45 mm rods ( 1 114 i n c h and 1 314 i n c h ) . A s i m i l a r b u t s m a l l e r 30 cm x
30 cm (12 i n c h x 12 i n c h ) . b a l l m i l l w i t h 40, 30, 25 and 20 m b a l l s
( 1 112, 1 ,114, 1 and 314 i n c h ) i s .used f o r t h e i r b a l l m i l 1 work index
c a l c u l a t i o n s . S t a i n l e s s . s t e e 1 i s suggested because t h e abrasion and
c o r r o s i o n w i l l be n e g l i g i b l ' e , i t i s easy t o clean o u t and t h e r e . w i l 1
be no r u s t t o i n f l u e n c e t h e subsequent m e t a l l u r g i c a l r e s u l t s . However,
m i l d s t e e l o r carbon s t e e l t e s t m i l l s and rods o r b a l l s may be d e s i r -
a b l e f o r c e r t a i n ores t o d u p l i c a t e p l a n t f l o t a t i o n o r leaching prac-
t i c e when s o l u b l e i r o n has a bearing on t h e m e t a l l u r g y o r t h e s o l u t i o n
used m i g h t r e a c t w i t h the, commercial m i l l o r media. These i n f l u e n c e s
a r e claime t o have been demonstrated r e c e n t l y i n a research program
by Canmet. 1 .
, ,
.
Other s i z e s o f r o d m i l l s o r b a l l m i l l s can be used b u t i t . i s sug-
gested t h a t , regardless o f t h e choice, t h e same m i 11 should be used
on a l l ores and f o r a l l t e s t s . T h i s w i l l . p e r m i t continuous compar-
isons w i t h p a s t research and w i t h known ores.
The 20 x 38 cm l a b o r a t o r y m i l l mentioned above i s s u i t a b l e f o r
t e s t i n g 2000 gram l o t s o f most normal s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y ores. I f t h e
same q u a n t i t y o f sample and p u l p d e n s i t y a r e used f o r a l l t e s t s i n t h e
same m i l l , t h e r e s u l t s obtained when changing the g r i n d i n g time w i l l
be analysed r e a d i l y since t h e l e n g t h o f t i m e r e q u i r e d t o g r i n d t h e
sample i s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e work i n p u t .

I t i s i m p r a c t i c a l o r a t l e a s t extremely d i f f i c u l t t o measure t h e
g r i n d i n g power consumed by l a b o r a t o r y m i l l s d i r e c t l y because o f t h e
h i g h p r o p o r t i o n o f t h e power which i s consumed i n d r i v e i n e f f i c i e n c i e s
and f i x e d l o a d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . Without v e r y s o p h i s t i c a t e d i n s t r u -
ments, i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o t e l l t h e d i f f e r e n c e between a l a b m i l l which
, MINERAL PROCESSING.PLANT DESIGN

. .

FIGURE 1 - Laboratory Rod M i l l

 METALLURGICAL TESTING PR0,CEDURES 153

i s loaded w i t h s t e e l and p u l p o r one w i t h s t e e l alone. - Fortunately,

i t , i s n o t necessary t o measure t h i s power because a l t e r n a t e means t o
determine t h e work index a r e a v a i l a b l e .

Where t h e r e are no previous records o f g r i n d i n g m i l l power calcu-

l a t i o n s , i t may be necessary t o c o n s u l t w i t h a commercial o r an
a s s o c i a t e ' s 1aboratory personnel t o have t h e i n i t i a l work index
determinations done on y o u r o r e i n t h e i r l a b o r a t o r i e s and compared
w i t h reference ores. A second method i s a v a i l a b l e when an operating
g r i n d i n g m i l l i s processing an o r e which can be t e s t e d i n t h e labor-
atory. By producing t h e same product screen a n a l y s i s i n t h e labor-
atory, a d i r e c t comparison between t h e products i n t h e p l a n t and t h e
l a b o r a t o r y permits c a l c u l a t i o n s o f re1a t i v e work performed. A1 t e r -
nately, when your own research s t a f f s have e s t a b l i s h e d work i n d i c e s
d u r i n g previous p r o j e c t s , they w i l l have h i s t o r i c a l data upon which
t o base t h e i r present p r o j e c t . The research team w i l l f i n d t h a t t h e
s t r a i g h t l i n e s shown on l o g - l o g p l o t s o f t h e r e s u l t s from t h e various
ores t e s t e d w i l l be u s e f u l f o r comparisons.

The amount o f g r i n d i n g r e q u i r e d f o r any p r o j e c t i s e s t a b l i s h e d by

t h e e f f i c i e n c y o r adequacy o f t h e i n i t i a l and subsequent separating
stages. Hence, once t h e c o r r e l a t i o n between g r i n d and recovery has
been established, t h e economic power requirements can be estimated.
The most s u i t a b l e method o f g r i n d i n g which might be w i t h s t e e l o r .
autogenously can then be determined.
I f t h e i n d i c a t i o n s d u r i n g t h e e a r l y p h y s i c a l examinations o f t h e
o r e samples d i d n o t r e j e c t t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f autogenous grinding,
various t e s t s t o determine t h e f e a s i b i l i t y o f t h i s process should be
planned. T h i s means moving o u t o f t h e l a b o r a t o r y and i n t o t h e p i l o t
p l a n t where g r i n d i n g u n i t s - a r e l a r g e r . R e l a t i v e l y speaking, t h e r e ..
a r e very few mining companies who have in-house p i l o t p l a n t auto-
genous g r i n d i n g equipment and, therefore, t h i s type o f t e s t i n g wi 11
be done i n commercial l a b o r a t o r i e s . I n most cases, t h e m e t a l l u r g i s t s
and t h e owners o f t h e new p l a n t should i n s i s t on p i l o t i n g before pro-
ceeding w i t h f u l l scale p l a n t design because, despite t h e advances i n
t h e technology, t h e r e are g r e a t e r r i s k s i n choosing t h e autogenous
g r i n d i n g r o u t e than i n s t e e l g r i n d i n g . To date, no successful auto-
genous g r i n d i n g p l a n t s have been b u i l t w i t h o u t some p i l o t p l a n t +

research and t h e most successful a p p l i c a t i o n s have been t h e r e s u l t

o f t h e most extensive research.

I n t h e p i l o t p l a n t , i t w i l l be p o s s i b l e t o determine i f -some s t e e l
i s r e q u i r e d t o augment t h e o r e as g r i n d i n g media and t o determine i f
pebble m i l l i n g i s v i a b l e . Since t h e media i n primary autogenous
m i l l s and some pebble m i l l s must come from crushing p l a n t s , t h e flow-
sheet development o f t h e l a t t e r cannot proceed u n t i l answers t o
g r i n d i n g questions are obtained.

I f some form o f autogenous g r i n d i n g i s n o t the chosen route,

g r i n d i n g w i t h s t e e l i s t h e p r i n c i p l e a l t e r n a t e a v a i l a b l e b u t even
154 MINERAL PROCESSING PLANT DESIGN

then, t h e r e a r e a t l e a s t two options open - rods and b a l l s o r slugs -

p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r the, primary stage. There are few l a b o r a t o r y t e s t s
which can be conducted t o a s s i s t i n choosing between r o d m i l l i n g o r
b a l l m i l l i n g and, hence, many p r a c t i c a l f a c t o r s i n f l u e n c e t h e
c l t i m a t e choice.

Rod m i l l s may have been termed " f i n e crushing machines" b u t two

d i r e c t l y opposing statements about t h e i r operating costs have been
made.5 I n t h e e a r l i e r days o f t h i s century, one f r e q u e n t l y heard .
t h a t " i t i s cheaper t o crush than t o g r i n d " b u t today, w i t h t h e t r e -
mendous increase i n g r i n d i n g m i l l sizes and power u t i l i z a t i o n , i t i s
doubtful t h a t the statement i s s t i l l true. Since a r o d m i l l w i l l
accept a coarser feed than a b a l l m i l l , i t f i t s i n n a t u r a l l y as t h e
i n t e r m e d i a t e comminution step. However, r o d m i l l s , l i k e crushers,
must be operated under c o n t r o l l e d c o n d i t i o n s t o o b t a i n maximum
e f f i c i e n c y and' are more d i f f i c u l t t o operate than b a l l m i l l s . 1 Thus,
t h e u l t i m a t e choice between a r o d m i l l o r b a l l m i l l f o r t h e primary
g r i n d may depend on t h e o p e r a t o r ' s o r designer's experience as much
as t h e m e t a l l u r g i s t ' s research.

Regrinding

The amount o f r e g r i n d i n g o f intermediate concentrate o r middl i n g

products and i t s l o c a t i o n i n t h e flowsheet can be determined o n l y
d u r i n g t h e t e s t i n g o f t h e separating techniques developed by t h e
research s t a f f . The need f o r r e g r i n d i n g i s more widespread today
because smelter c o n t r a c t s a r e more r e s t r i c t i v e than they used t o be
and thus, b e t t e r concentrate grades are required. C a l c u l a t i o n s f o r
s i z e s o f m i l l s and power i n p u t s w i l l be i n f l u e n c e d by t h e work index,
t h e degree o f 1ib e r a t i o n required, c i r c u l a t i n g loads, surface f r e s h -
ening o r p o l i s h i n g desired, v i s c o s i t y , chemical i n t e r a c t i o n s and
i n d u s t r y o r company experience. Therefore, a1though t h e amount of
r e g r i n d i n g outwardly m i g h t appear t o be r o u t i n e and t h e Bond Work
Index can be u t i l i z e d , t h e f i n a l choice may i n v o l v e as much reference
t o i n d u s t r y p r a c t i c e and judgement by t h e designers as by t h e theo-
r e t i c a l l a b o r a t o r y r e s u l t s . Fortunately, t h e q u a n t i t y t o be reground
i s normally appreciably l e s s than t h e tonnage o f primary o r e and,
hence, t h e i n c o r p o r a t i o n o f a few c a p a c i t y s a f e t y f a c t o r s i s n o t
l i a b l e t o represent appreciable increased c a p i t a l o r operating costs.

dassification

Although t h e hydrocyclone has earned a prominent place i n t h e

minerals b e n e f i c i a t i o n f i e l d , i t should n o t monopolize t h e c l a s s i -
f i c a t i o n step. 'There i s s t i l l room f o r t h e mechanical s p i r a l and
rake c l a s s i f i e r s i n s p e c i f i c areas despite t h e f a c t t h a t they may
r e q u i r e more space d u r i n g i n s t a l l a t i o n and more maintenance d u r i n g
operation.

T e s t i n g o f cyclone c l a s s i f i c a t i o n u n i t s on a bench scale i s d i f f i -

c u l t because t h e equipment openings s u i t a b l e f o r l a b o r a t o r y samples
 METALLURGICAL TESTING PROCEDURES 155

and q u a n t i t i e s 'are t o o small f o r passage of t h e normal s i z e d products.

The research may d e f i n e t h e d e s i r a b l e cyclone s p l i t t i n g p o i n t s b u t the
m e t a l l u r g i s t w i l l have t o rely on experience t o determine sizes,
types, openings, pressures, e t c . t o use i n s e l e c t i n g cyclones. For-
t u n a t e l y , t h e commercial l a b o r a t o r i e s and equipment s u p p l i e r s have
gained enough experience i n t h e past 20 years t h a t , w i t h t h e i r com-
p u t e r i z e d programs, t h e y can make r e l i a b l e recommendations based on
t h e screen analyses, s p e c i f i c g r a v i t i e s and d e n s i t i e s desired.

Mechanical c l a s s i f i e r s are u t i l i z e d today i n s p e c i a l i z e d circum-

stances o r by operator preference. They may be used f o r coarse par-
. t i c l e separation where power requirements f o r cyclone o p e r a t i o n would
be v e r y high and where t h e i r e f f i c i e n c y i s p r e f e r r e d . , '

Flotation .

I f comninution i s accepted as the key c o s t f a c t o r i n m i l l i n g , f l o -

t a t i o n can be termed t h e key m e t a l l u r g i c a l o r e f f i c i e n c y f a c t o r f o r
a l l base metal and many precious metal, f e r r o u s , non-metal1 i c and
s o l i d fuel b e n e f i c i a t i o n p l a n t s . The range o f t e s t s a v a i l a b l e i s end-
l e s s and should be used throughout t h e l i f e o f t h e orebody because
u n l i k e crushing, g r i n d i n g , g r a v i t y concentration, t h i c k e n i n g , e t c . ,
'
most changes i n f l o t a t i o n flowsheets a r e r e l a t i v e l y easy t o make
d u r i n g o p e r a t i o n w i t h o u t s i g n i f i c a n t c o s t as new reagents become
a v a i l a b l e o r new f l o w arrangements a r e deemed necessary.

As f l o t a t i o n i s s t i l l l a r g e l y an a r t , f l o t a t i o n t e s t s must be
planned by^ experienced f l o t a t i o n engineers on t h e b a s i s o f a c t u a l
experimental r e s u l t s w i t h l e s s c o n s i d e r a t i o n t o t h e o r y than most o t h e r
metal 1u r g i c a l processes r e q u i r e . No t e s t i n g program can be successful
unless t h e t e s t data are c o r r e c t l y i n t e r p r e t e d and succeeding t e s t s
c a r e f u l l y planned so t h a t a l l i n t e r e s t i n g avenues a r e i n v e s t i g a t e d . .

T y p i c a l f l o t a t i o n t e s t s a r e conducted i n l a b o r a t o r y f l o t a t i o n c e l l s
w i t h nominal c a p a c i t i e s from 50. t o 2000 grams and p i l o t p l a n t f l o -
t a t i o n c e l l s from 6 t o 75 l i t r e s . Some research groups have had t o
make t h e i r own u l tra-small c e l l s when v e r y h i g h r a t i o s o f concen-
t r a t i o n were involved. However, scale-up from these models t o p l a n t
equipment s i z e s i s n o t p r a c t i c a l .

I t i s convenient t o use t h e l a b o r a t o r y f l o t a t i o n c e l l as a condi-

t i o n e r should c o n d i t i o n i n g be a v a r i a b l e t o ' be tested. Most o f these
c e l l s a l s o have p r o v i s i o n t o add a gas ( a i r o r o t h e r ) as required.

Keen observation o f a l l d e t a i l s d u r i n g a c t u a l f l o t a t i o n t e s t i n g i s
e s s e n t i a l . Although most o f the p r i o r and subsequent steps can be
c a r r i e d o u t by competent technicians, t h e a c t u a l f r o t h c o l o r and'
removal should be observed b y experienced f l o t a t i o n engineers. It i s
n o t acceptable p r a c t i c e t o r e l y s o l e l y on inanimate,
.
product weights
and assays recorded a f t e r t h e t e s t runs.
 156 MINERAL PROCESSING PLANT DESIGN

Many a r t i c l e s and books have been w r i t t e n about f l o t a t i o n t e s t i n g

techniques. Macdonald and B r i s o n have w r i t t e n ab u t t h e i r own methods
and i n c l u d e a good summary o f reference a r y i c l e s . 8 The v a r i a b l e s t o
be t e s t e d i n f l o t a t i o n w i l l i n c l u d e b u t n o t be l i m i t e d t o t h e
following: .

Reagent Types
Reagent Q u a n t i t i e s
Pulp Density
Aeration and Conditioning
pH Regulation
Retention Time
Temperature
Water Qua1it y
Sample Agi ng.

It has been found t h a t , as these v a r i a b l e s are changed, t h e r e s u l t s

obtained w i l l be analysed most r e a d i l y .if p l o t t e d on graphs and/or
l i s t e d i n tables. Tables should show r e s h l t s a g a i n s t one v a r i a b l e
o n l y and graphs w i t h two o r t h r e e o n l y t o be most e a s i l y i n t e r p r e t e d .
'However, i n . c e r t a i n instances, a s e r i e s o f s t a t i s t i c a l design t e s t s
t o evaluate t h e rank and importance - o f a number o f v a r i a b l e s under
c o n t r o l l e d c o n d i t i o n s may be recommended.

I Reagent Types

I t i s beyond t h e scope o f t h i s a r t i c l e t o l i s t t h e reagents a v a i l -

a b l e o t h e r than by c l a s s i f i c a t i o n because t h e r e are so many, new ones
a r e c o n t i n u a l l y appearing and common ones a r e becoming obsolete, non-
a v a i l a b l e o r non-economic. S u f f i c e t o say t h a t t h e experienced
research m e t a l l u r g i s t w i l l know which reagents t o s t a r t w i t h and t h e
inexperienced w i l l f i n d numerous references t o s u i t a b l e ones i n t h e
l i t e r a t u r e . A t t h i s stage i n t h e research, i t i s probably more impor-
t a n t t o f i n d a reagent combination t h a t ensures t h e success o f s t a r t -
up r a t h e r than one which i s the " u l t i m a t e " - a c o n d i t i o n which i s
t r u l y never obtained. I n c e r t a i n instances - e.g. potash - s u p p l i e r s
a r e a c t u a l l y "customizing1' reagents t o f i t t h e s p e c i f i c ore. The
c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s o f reagents t o consider wi 11 i n c l u d e c o l l e c t o r s o r
promoters, f r o t h e r s , m o d i f i e r s o r a1 k a l i n i t y r e g u l a t o r s , dispersants,
emu1s i f i e r s , depressants, a c t i v a t o r s , p r o t e c t i v e c o l l o i d s and f l o c -
culants. The major commercial 1a b o r a t o r i e s and reagent suppl i e r s have
extensive l i t e r a t u r e on t h e i r products and f r e q u e n t l y provide samples
f o r research purposes.

Reagent Q u a n t i t i e s

An.integra1 p a r t o f reagent t e s t i n g i s t o vary t h e q u a n t i t i e s used.

Previous research, p l a n t p r a c t i c e o r t h e l i t e r a t u r e w i l l p r o v i d e a
good s t a r t i n g p o i n t from which t h e m e t a l l u r g i s t should vary up and
down t h e scale t o determine t h e optimum.
 METALLURGICAL TESTING PROCEDllRES 157

Minor o r major a f f e c t s may be observed o r show up i n t h e assaying

o f products whether dealing w i t h s t a r v a t i o n q u a n t i t i e s o r l a r g e doses.
Since r e l a t i v e l y small q u a n t i t i e s o f o r e a r e t o be tested, t h e amount
o f reagent t o be used w i l l be v e r y small and hence, most reagents
should be d i l u t e d o r e m u l s i f i e d p r i o r t o t h e i r a d d i t i o n t o l a b o r a t o r y
flotation cells.

Pulp Density
t

Throughout t h e t e s t i n g o f ores and t h e i r processing by mineral

dressing techniques, t h e d e n s i t y o f t h e s l u r r y w i l l be an important
f a c t o r which t h e research m e t a l l u r g i s t and operator w i l l want t o con-
t r o l . Before t h e s l u r r y d e n s i t y can be determined, t h e s p e c i f i c
g r a v i t y o f a l l products o f i n t e r e s t w i l l have t o be ascertained. The
diamond d r i l l core samples are convenient f o r making these deter-
mination.

When t h e g r a v i t y has been determined, t h e pulp d e n s i t y t a b l e s can

be used f o r t h e s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y o f i n t e r e s t o r t h e d e n s i t y c a n be
c a l c u l a t e d u s i n g t h e formula:7 .

Where: D = d e n s i t y o f p u l p i n grams per 1i t e r

P = sum o f t h e s o l i d s t o s o l u t i o n r a t i o
W = weight o f water i n pulp a t stated'percentage s o l i d s
C = a constant determined by d i v i d i n g 1.00 by t h e s p e c i f i c
- g r a v i t y o f t h e d r y s o l i d s i n t h e feed.

Viscosity o f the slurry, i n t e n s i t y o f agitation, mineral .crystal

shape and size, s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y o f s o l i d s and s o l u t i o n , e t c . a l l
have a bearing on t h e choice:of t h e most s u i t a b l e s l u r r y density.
Although t h e p u l p d e n s i t i e s t h a t a r e experienced i n t h e l a b o r a t o r y
are lower than i n p l a n t p r a c t i c e , they must be c o n t r o l l e d , v a r i e d and
recorded i n a l l research programs. I n primary g r i n d i n g w i t h labora-
t o r y r o d m i l l s , t h e d e n s i t i e s o f low s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y ores are gen-
e r a l l y about 50 percent solaids by weight and w i t h higher s p e c i f i c
g r a v i t i e s may be as high as 65 percent s o l i d s . With viscous ores,
d e n s i t i e s w i l l be l e s s than 50 percent s o l i d s and even may b e tlower
than 40 percent a s . r e c e n t l y demonstrated by Claridge and ~enbergen.8
Laboratory r e g r i n d i n g i n b a l l m i l 1s w i l l range f r e q u e n t l y between 20
and 35% s o l i d s p r i n c i p a l l y because i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o t h i c k e n i n t e r -
mediate f l o t a t i o n products.

Due t o t h e n e c e s s i t i e s t o wash g r i n d i n g media, t r a n s f e r pulps,

r a i s e c e l l volumes t o provide adequate f r o t h depths and t o wash down
f l o t a t i o n c e l l w a l l s during every i n d i v i d u a l t e s t , l a b o r a t o r y f l o -
t a t i o n pulp d e n s i t i e s are low. Common f i g u r e s are 15 t o 25 percent
s o l i d s and f r e q d e n t l y lower f i g u r e s w i l l be recorded, p a r t i c u l a r l y i n
cleaning.
 158 MINERAL PROCESSING PLANT DESIGN

Aeration and .Conditioning

The separation by d i f f e r e n t i a l f l o t a t i o n o f base metal minerals

from each o t h e r and from a sulphide gangue can be improved f r e q u e n t l y
by 15 t o 20 minutes o f a e r a t i o n p r i o r t o f l o t a t i o n . This f a c t may n o t
be recognized o r appreciated o r d i n a r i l y i n bench t e s t s because t h e
a c t i o n o f t r a n s f e r r i n g o f pulps from l a b o r a t o r y m i l l s t o buckets and
t o f l o t a t i o n c e l l s and t h e a g i t a t i o n i n t h e c e l l p r i o r t o f r o t h
removal introduce appreciable a i r t o t h e pulp. A frequent cause o f
t h e discrepancy i n m e t a l l u r g i c a l response o f h i g h sulphide ores
between t h e l a b o r a t o r y and the o p e r a t i n g concentrator can be t r a c e d
t o t h e r e l a t i v e degrees o f o x i d a t i o n o r oxygen demand i n t h e two.
Whether o r n o t a e r a t i o n i s c r i t i c a l t o good mineral separation can be
demonstrated by c o n d i t i o n i n g i n t h e l a b o r a t o r y f l o t a t i o n c e l l and con-
f i r m e d i n a 10 cm diameter x 2 meter l o n g ( 4 i n c h x 78 i n c h ) p i p e
mounted i n t h e v e r t i c a l p o s i t i o n and w i t h p r o v i s i o n t o add p l e n t y o f
a i r a t t h e bottom.

C o ~ d i t i o n i n gw i t h o u t s p e c i f i c a l l y adding a i r may be e s s e n t i a l o r
d e s i r a b l e f o r various lengths o f time f o r a l l ores and t h e r e f o r e
should be tested.

I pH Regulation
The e f f e c t s o f pH v a r i a t i o n s i n ' f l d t a t i o n ' d a n be very marked i n ' .
some instances w h i l e i n others, no detectable trends are apparent.
However, t h e r e are few ores t h a t can be completely b e n e f i c i a t e d by
f l o t a t i o n i n t h e ambient pH o f t h e l o c a l waters. Therefore, a planned
program w i t h m o d i f i e r s such as lime, soda ash, ammonia and/or s u l -
p h u r i c a c i d always must be included i n t h e research agenda.
..
Unfortunate1y, simple pH measurements alone are n o t enough w i t h
some high sulphide ores because t h e presence o f Ca++ o r Nat ions o r
both may be more s i g n i f i c a n t than pH. C e r t a i n ores - e.g. copper,
lead, z i n c - may r e q u i r e both soda ash and l i m e a t s p e c i f i c p o i n t s
i n t h e flowsheet f o r optimum grade and recovery c o n t r o l . S i m i l a r l y ,
t h e dispersing, f l o c c u l a t i n g o r b u f f e r i n g e f f e c t s o f these a1 k a l i s
may be h i g h l y s i g n i f i c a n t despite a low o r high pH. As w i t h many
o t h e r f l o t a t i o n reagents, t h e r a t e s and p o i n t s o f a d d i t i o n s o f these
chemicals can be c r i t i c a l and important. I n a d d i t i o n , changes from
a c i d i c t o basic c o n d i t i o n s and t h e reverse - p a r t i c u l a r l y w i t h some
h i g h sulphide ores and i n d i f f e r e n t i a l separation c i r c u i t s -may be
necessary t o o b t a i n t h e desired m e t a l l u r g i c a l r e s u l t s .

.. Retention Time

'the t o t a l amount o f time r e q u i r e d i n f l o t a t i o n o r i n t h e v a r i o u s

steps contemplated can vary from t h e one minute range t o one hour o r
more depending on t h e types o f minerals, c i r c u l a t i n g loads, t h e res-
ponse t o reagents and t h e stage i n v o l v e d such as roughing vs. cleaning.
The time f a c t o r helps t o e s t a b l i s h recovery, grade and c u t - o f f
 METALLURGICAL TESTING PROCEDURES

between g r a d i e n t assays f o r subsequent processing, c o n d i t i o n i n g w i t h i n

c e l l s , etc. and i s an e s s e n t i a l parameter t o c o n t r o l i n a l l t e s t s . It
i s very easy t o e x t r a c t products a t s p e c i f i c time i n t e r v a l s which, on
analyses and w i t h graphical p l o t s , w i l l i n d i c a t e c u t - o f f p o i n t s t o
commence recovery o f the second m i n e r a l o r t h e need f o r a l t e r a t i o n s
t o a f f e c t a d d i t i o n a l recovery p r i o r t o advancing t o t h e next 'step.

Temperature

A few ores w i l l show improved e f f i c i e n c i e s w i t h elevated o r

depressed temperatures and some p a r t i c u l a r l y complex ores and non-
m e t a l l i c ~show marked changes w i t h temperature v a r i a t i o n s . Therefore,
o c c a s i o n a l l y temperature r e l a t e d t e s t s should be performed and, even
f o r simple ores, t h e operating temperatures should be recorded. As
examples, warmer s o l u t i o n s may be r e q u i r e d i n chal c o p y r i te-galena o r
s p h a l e r i t e - p y r r h o t i t e separating c i r c u i t s w h i l e c o o l i n g can be bene-
f i c i a l i n potash f l o t a t i o n .

Water Qua1i t y

The d i f f e r e n c e i n response o f c e r t a i n ores t o separating techniques

by f l o t a t i o n p a r t i c u l a r l y i n cleaning steps can be pronounced when
comparing r e s u l t s o f t e s t s u s i n g f r e s h water vs. o t h e r types o f water.
Therefore, a m e t a l l u r g i s t ' s research should be done w i t h f r e s h water
and t h e t y p e ' o f water he may expect t o be provided w i t h i n p r a c t i c e .
-
Recycle water from w i t h i n t h e concentrator o r from t h e t a i l i n g dam,
t r e a t e d e f f l u e n t , mine water and/or sea water may be t h e a v a i l a b l e
f l u i d which wi-ll have t o be considered f o r most o f t h e m i l l s o f t h e
f u t u r e and even f o r t h e o l d e r m i l l s t o meet environmental guidelines.
I t may be necessary on occasion t o make up s y n t h e t i c s o l u t i o n s s i m i l a r
t o t h e water expected a t t h e mine s i t e f o r t e s t i n g purposes although
t h e r e s u l t s might be less' dependable and thus should be confirmed w i t h
some q u a n t i t y o f t h e a v a i l a b l e water obtained from t h e proposed con-
centrator site.

Sample Agi ng

Samples from t h e m a j o r i t y o f ores under examination could be

t r e a t e d today, s i x months from now o r two years from now w i t h 1i t t l e
o r no d i f f e r e n c e i n m e t a l l u r g i c a l response. . However, t h e r e are types
such as t h e complex sulphides w i t h a h i g h p y r r h o t i t e content o r t h e
degradeable ores such as t h e phosphates which should be t e s t e d f r e s h
from t h e mine o r kept i n p l a s t i c bags and/or under r e f r i g e r a t i o n u n t i l
required. I n a d d i t i o n , samples o f these unstable ores should n o t be
reduced i n s i z e by crushing o r g r i n d i n g u n t i l t h e research s t a f f i s
prepared t o conduct t h e f l o t a t i o n t e s t s . I n some cases, t h e o n l y '
a v a i l a b l e samples may be o l d and therefore, t h e research would be
conducted, o f necessity, on t h i s m a t e r i a l . However, p r i o r t o design,
confirmatory work should be done on f r e s h samples.
160 MINERAL PROCESSING PLANT DESrGN

Cycle Tests

The number o f batch t e s t s r e q u i r e d w i l l vary from a few on t h e sim-

p l e ores t o perhaps hundreds f o r some complex ores. When m i d d l i n g
products c o n t a i n s i g n i f i c a n t q u a n t i t i e s o f t h e metals t o be recovpred,
c y c l e t e s t i n g permits more accurate recovery c a l c u l a t i o n s by reducing
t h e percentage o f middlings t h a t a r b i t r a r i l y must be assigned t o f i n a l
concentrates o r t a i l i n g s . This type o f research i s normally b e s t per-
formed by two o r more t e c h n i c i a n s because a number o f f l o t a t i o n c e l l s
and g r i n d i n g m i l l s may be r e q u i r e d during t h e t e s t and simultaneously
w i l l h e l p t o confirm t h a t t h e technique proposed can be d u p l i c a t e d by
others. V a r i a b i l i t y w i t h i n a team s t r o n g l y suggests flowsheet weak-
nesses.

The f lowsheet ,. reagents, times, e t c . which have been developed .

d u r i n g batch t e s t s a r e used t o design a flowsheet f o r c y c l e t e s t s .
I n these t e s t s , intermediate products from one batch t e s t a r e saved
and reintroduced a t t h e appropriate p o i n t i n t h e subsequent batch
t e s t . The procedure i s repeated u n t i l e q u i l i b r i u m as determined by
weights and a n a l y s i s i s reached. Figure I 1 shows some suggested
t y p i c a l standard l a b o r a t o r y g r i n d and f l o t a t i o n flowsheets f o r batch
and c y c l e t e s t s . I t i s common t o see s i x batch t e s t s used i n one
c y c l e t e s t . D i l u t i o n becomes a problem i n these t e s t s and must be
c o n t r o l l e d . Dewatering between steps might be necessary b u t t h e solu-
t i o n s should be reused as a p p r o p r i a t e d i l u t a n t s and d r y i n g should n o t
be p r a c t i c e d unless i t i s proposed f o r t h e f u l l scale p l a n t .

When e q u i l i b r i u m has been established, t h e r e s u l t s of t h e l a s t two

t e s t s may be used t o c a l c u l a t e t h e p r o j e c t e d r e s u l t s f o r a f u l l scale
operation. I f e q u i l i b r i u m has n o t been reached, i t cannot be assumed
t h a t t h e intermediate products w i l l end up i n t h e d e s i r a b l e concen-
t r a t e s i n t h e r a t i o i n d i c a t e d by t h e o v e r a l l t e s t because some o f
these products may n o t be upgradeable. The more complex t h e sepa-
r a t i o n , t h e more c a u t i o n t h e research m e t a l l u r g i s t should be i n h i s
p r e d i c t i o n s . See Table 1 f o r an example.

Sand-Slime Separation

Sand-Slime separating techniques may be.advantageous a t any p o i n t

i n a flowsheet between crushing and t a i l i n g disposal so t h a t t h e
experienced metal 1u r g i s t wi 11 l o o k f o r t h e p o s s i b l e appl i c a t i o n s .
Although s t r i c t l y n o t "sand-slime separation", a c l a s s i f i c a t i o n step
may be incorporated i n t h e crushing p l a n t t o separate coarse and f i n e
f r a c t i o n so t h a t a clean sand may be leached by acid, .base o r
cyanide.a I f t h e slimes were p e r m i t t e d t o s t a y w i t h t h e sand, solu-
t i o n channeling might occur, i t might be impossible t o dewater t h e
mixture, t h e l i q u i d - s o l i d separating technique might be-so i n e f f i c i e n t
t h a t t h e product from subsequent p r e c i p i t a t i o n would be unacceptably
low i n grade o r reagent consumptions would be excessively high.

A1 t e r n a t e l y , during o r immediately a f t e r , crushing, t h e r e might be

 METALLURGICAL TESTING. PROCEDURES 161

. .
Condition 1st m i n e r a l Condition 2nd m i n e r a l
F e e 9 Tail
\ Grind Flo a t 'on Flotation

0-1 min. I I L
I

5-10 min.
Same a s f o r
1st m i n e r a l

Batch T e s t s 1-3 min. 3-5 min.

Roughing Only concentrates

1st m i n e r a l 2nd m i n e r a l

Grind F l o t t ion # Flotjtion pi'

Condition Condition
Same a s f o r
Scavenger 1st m i n e r a l

Batch T e s t s
Roughing a n d C l e a n i n g
&W
7M7I Cleaning Stages

- pc oan cl. .

Cleaner Tailings

nal
i1
Condition

Cycle T e s t s .
Roughing and C l e a n i n g

I_ C1 T a i l 1 L Cl T a i l 1
FIGURE 1 1 - S t a n d a r d L a b o r a t o r y G r i n d a n d F l o t a t i o n F l o w s h e e t s
162 MINERAL PROCESSING PLANT DESIGN

-
DETAILED RESULTS Cycle T e s t No: Van 325

Weight Assay % Distribution %

Sample Grams Ag' Pb Zn Ag Pb Zn

Pb C o n c e n t r a t e 1 27.8 31.04 72.06 5.46 7.19 8.15 0.30

2 56.2 24.89 58.33 8.21 11.53 13.16 0.19
3 59.8 24.79 56.63 8.95 12.22 13.66 1.04
4 54.6 25.11 55.90 8.25 11.38 12.37 0.88
5 54.9 23.06 51.90 8.74 12.39 13.61 1.11
6 57.8 23.82 54.30 8.14 11.38 12.69 0.92
Zn C o n c e n t r a t e 1 104.6 1.62 0.99 54.18 1.39 0.42 11.03
2 113.8 1.57 0.92 55.37 1.42 0.42 12.30
3 116.3 1.51 0.91 53.47 1.45 0.43 12.13
4 131.8 1.40 1.03 52.56 1.53 0.55 13.58
5 140.9 1.73 1.18 51.46 2.01 0.67 14.13
6 130.7 1.73 1.24 55.04 1.87 0.65 14.02
Zn Rough T a i l 1 590 0.21 0.42 0.45 1.03 1.00 0.52
2 726 0.32 0.43 0.45 1.92 1.26 0.64
3 721 0.21 0.52 0.48 1.25 1.51 0.67
4 741 0.21 0.52 0.56 1.29 1.55 0.81
5 763 0.32 0.52 0.62 2.02 1.60 0.92
6 765 0.32 0.57 0.60 2.03 1.76 0.90
Pb Scav Conc 6 73.6 2.48 3.60 12.02 1.50 1.07 1.72
Zn Scav Conc 6 53.4 1.08 1.36 4.02 0.48 0.29 0.42
1st Pb c l e a n e r t a i l 6 108.1 3.66 7.18 13.18 5.55 5.44 4.83
2nd 6 28.3 5.92 19.10 13.04 1.37 2.16 0.71
3rd 6 28.0 7.98 23.04 13.11 1.85 2.60 0.72
4th 6 16.1 9.59 21.93 12.83 1.28 1.42 0.40
1st Zn c l e a n e r t a i l 6 168.5 1.29 1.51 8.49 1.80 1.10 2.80
2nd 6 21.5 2.38 3.05 14.10 0.42 0.26 0.59
3rd 6 21.0 2.80 2.90 24.71 0.48 0.24 1.01

Head 5963.7 2.03 4.16 8.59 100 100 100

PROJECTED RESULTS

Pb C o n c e n t r a t e 61.3 23.44 53.14 8.44 75.0 85.0 6.3

Zn C o n c e n t r a t e 135.8 1.73 1.21 53.25 12.2 4.3 88.0
Zn T a i l 764.0 0.32 0.54 0.61 12.8 10.7 5.7
Head 961.1 1.99 3.99 8.55 100 100 100

T a b l e No. 1 - T y p i c a l F l o t a t i o n C y c l e T e s t R e s u l t s
 METALLURGICAL TESTING PROCEDURES 163

advantages t o separate t h e coarse from t h e f i n e s by screening o r sand-

slime techniques t o p e r m i t heavy media o r g r a v i t y b e n e f i c i a t i o n o f t h e
coarse f r a c t i o n .

Many ,researchers and operators have found i t advantageous t o t r e a t

sand and slime p o r t i o n s o f an o r e separately by f l o t a t i o n . There may
be instances where t h e processing should be s p e c i f i c f o r each f r a c t i o n
throughout t h e concentrator and others where separation would t a k e .
p l a c e a f t e r some i n i t i a l b e n e f i c i a t i o n and then probably on1 . t h e
coarser p o r t i o n would be t r e a t e d t o provide e x t r a recovery.lB However,
t h e m a j o r i t y o f ores do n o t r e q u i r e sand-sl ime separation f o r optimum
results.

Even i n dewatering steps, t h e r e may be m e r i t i n sand-sl ime separa-

t i o n t o provide more c a p a c i t y i n e x i s t i n g o r proposed equipment when
t h e i n d i c a t e d s e t t l i n g r a t e s o f t h e f r a c t i o n s are so d i f f e r e n t t h a t
unusual a c t i o n i s required.

G r a v i t y and Heavy Media Concentration

B e n e f i c i a t i o n o f ores by g r a v i t y concentration methods has been

p r a c t i c e d longer than by f l o t a t i o n and -doesn't appear t o be l o s i n g
ground. I n f a c t , t h e two techniques are r e q u e n t l y complementary
when t h e advantages o f both are i n general, g r a v i t y
b e n e f i c i a t i o n i s most e f f i c i e n t on coarse m a t e r i a l s w h i l e f l o t a t i o n
i s more s u i t a b l e f o r f i n e sizes from 35 mesh (420 microns) 'but
o c c a s i o n a l l y even from 8 mesh (2380 microns) i n potash f l o t a t i o n down
t o 10 microns.

Nature f r e q u e n t l y forms orebodies wherein t h e s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y o f

t h e d e s i r a b l e components i s s u f f i c i e n t l y d i f f e r e n t from t h e gangue o r
each o t h e r t h a t g r a v i t y can be u t i l i z e d t o a f f e c t separation. Some
i n d i c a t i o n s o f t h i s d i f f e r e n c e may be obtained by p h y s i c a l examina-
t i o n s , by microscopy o r even p l a i n v i s u a l means but, more f r e q u e n t l y ,
i t may be necessary t o t e s t t h e ground o r e i n various heavy l i q u i d
media. The d i f f e r e n c e s may be so pronounced (e.g. galena vs. s i l i c a )
t h a t recovery o f coarse f r a c t i o n s may be simple o r they may be so
s l i g h t (e.g. s a l t vs. potash) t h a t t h e separation may appear t o be
impossible. However, both types o f ore mentioned above and many
others are being b e n e f i c i a t e d i n g r a v i t y and heavy media c i r c u i t s
today.

I n t h e l a b o r a t o r y , d i f f e r e n c e s i n s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y .which might be
taken advantage o f i n mineral processing can be t e s t e d by superpanners,
i n f r a s i z e r s , tables, s p i r a l s , e l u t r i a t o r s , heavy media l i q u i d s , cyclo-
s i z e r s , c l a s s i f i e r s , c e n t r i f u g e s , j i g s , e t c . Some o f t h i s equipment
may n o t be t o o u s e f u l except i n t h e l a b o r a t o r y o r p i l o t p l a n t b u t i t
i s used t o determine t h e g r a v i t y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s so t h a t t h e proper
process equipment may be selected.

'The heavy l i q u i d s used i n t h e l a b o r a t o r y may be aqueous'solutions

164 MINERAL PROCESSING PLANT DESIGN

o f inorganic s a l t s such as z i n c c h l o r i d e o r heavy organic l i q u i d s such

as carbon t e t r a c h l o r i d e and o t h e r halogenated hydrocarbons.. These can
be adjusted t o g i v e a f u l l range o f d e n s i t i e s from S.G. 1.0 t o 4.0.
Unfortunately, most o f these heavy l i q u i d s are expensive and t o x i c and
thus have n o t been used i n q u a n t i t y y e t on a production scale.

I n i n d u s t r i a l p r a c t i c e , f i n e l y ground heavy minerals such as galena,

magnetite, barytes, f e r r o s i l i c o n s , etc. may be u n i f o r m l y suspended i n
a f l u i d by g e n t l e a g i t a t i o n and t h e r e s u l t a n t p u l p has many o f t h e
-
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f a t r u e heavy 1i q u i d . The f e r r o u s media magnetite
-
. and f e r r o s i l i c o n are more cormon i n commerce because they can be
recovered e f f i c i e n t l y and cleaned by magnetic separators.

Leaching

Laboratory leaching procedures .include s t u d i e s o f d i s s o l v i n g metal

ions w i t h an acid, a base o r cyanide. A1 though .not so. common today,
gold amalgamation may a l s o f a l l i n t h i s category. The t e s t i n g may
i n v o l v e f i e l d t e s t s on ore i n place, broken ore. i n stopes, o r e and
waste i n dumps o r crushed o r e i n v a t s and l a b o r a t o r y t e s t s o f ground
ore, concentrates o r c a l c i n e s i n a g i t a t o r s . The technique may be
used t o e f f e c t t h e - s e l e c t i v e s o l u b i l i z a t i o n o f a d e s i r a b l e component
such as copper, uranium o r g o l d o r t h e p u r i f i c a t i o n o f a product t o
remove i m p u r i t i e s such as MgO from z i n c concentrates, copper from
molybdenum concentrates o r i r o n from s i l i c a sands.

very l i t t l e l a b o r a t o r y t e s t i n g dan be done on 'ore i n place so t h a t

the research team w i l l have t o depend on d e s c r i p t i o n s o f t h e d e p o s i t
from t h e g e o l o g i s t , m i n e r a l o g i s t and miner, t e s t s on coarse rock sam-
p l e s and knowledge o f t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e ores o f t h e r e g i o n
involved. Leaching t e s t s on rock samples o f any s i z e from 20 cms t o
1 cm can .be simulated i n columns o f adequate diameter and h e i g h t .
The m e t a l l u r g i s t should choose a l a r g e enough diameter t h a t t h e r e i s
no adverse " w a l l e f f e c t " . Non-corrosive m a t e r i a l s o f c o n s t r u c t i o n
such as asbestos o r p l a s t i c p i p e should be u t i l i z e d f o r t h e columns
so tha.t maintenance i n t h e l a b w i l l n o t be h i g h and undesirable con-
s t i t u e n t s o f t h e pipe w i l l n o t e n t e r t h e leachant.

The bottom o f .the column should be . f i t t e d w i t h a s u i t a b l e f i l t e r

media. A p o s i t i v e c i r c u l a t i n g , corrosion-proof pump and r e s e r v o i r
system should be employed - u s u a l l y using p l a s t i c t u b i n g f o r s o l u t i o n
t r a n s f e r . The most important v a r i a b l e s t o monitor when leaching ores
are time, temperature, feed s i z e , additive,requirements, d e n s i t y and
leachant concentration and consumption vs. . e x t r a c t i o n o f d e s i r a b l e
and undesirable components..

A g i t a t i o n leaching o f ore, concentrates o r calcines may be e a s i e r

t o t e s t than s t a t i c leaching b u t l i q u i d - s o l i d separation o f t h e
residues may be a problem and should be i n c l u d e d i n t h e t e s t i n g . Con-
sumptions o f reagents may be h i g h e r than i n s t a t i c column t e s t s so
t h a t the e x t r a operating costs would have t o - b e j u s t i f i e d by higher
 METALLURGICAL TESTING PROCEDURES 165

recoveries. One i s n o t l i a b l e t o discover t h a t elevated temperatures

and/or pressures would be economic t o d a y w i t h h i g h energy costs i n
t r e a t i n g low grade ores by leaching b u t t h i s statement may n o t be .
t r u e w i t h some h i g h grade ores o r when t r e a t i n g h i g h value metals
such as uranium o r higher grade m a t e r i a l s such as concentrates o r .
calcines.

C e r t a i n a d d i t i v e s such as l i m e d u r i n g precious metal c y a n i d a t i o n

and oxidants d u r i n g uranium leaching w i l l be important reagents t o
monitor.

calcining'. o r Roasting

It i s not the i n t e n t o f t h i s a r t i c l e t o discuss p y r o - m e t a l l u r g i c a l

extraction o r refining. However, c a l c i n i n g p r i o r t o concentrating by
o r e dressing methods i s practiced occasionally i n order t o a l t e r the
mineral surface t o make i t amenable t o minerals b e n e f i c i a t i o n
techniques.

The term r o a s t i n g i s used' r a t h e r l o o s e l y here because t h e tempera-

t u r e s i n v o l v e d may n o t accomplish complete sulphur o r carbon d i o x i d e
e l i m i n a t i o n and may n o t be designed t o do so. Simple surface a l t e r a -
t i o n such as t h e heating o f copper concentrates t o destroy t h e s u r ~
face l a y e r o f reagents t o permit molybdenum-copper mineral separation
o r adequate r o a s t i n g t o p e r m i t e f f i c i e n t cyanide leaching of an
a r s e n i c a l g o l d o r e may be t h e o b j e c t i v e . o f these t e s t s .

Laboratory c a l c i n i n g equipment i s n o t commqn and indeed i t may. be

d i f f i c u l t t o j u s t i f y such an expenditure since t h e number o f times i t
would be needed may be v e r y l i m i t e d . However, most researchers can
g a i n atcess t o an assay o f f i c e m u f f l e furnace and a t l e a s t t h e pre-
l i m i n a r y t e s t s can be conducted w i t h these furnaces. Most extensive
research may have t o be done by commercial l a b o r a t o r i e s o r i n a p i l o t
plant.
12 '
I o n Exchange
, .
I o n exchange may be defined .as the. r e v e r s i b l e interchange o f ions
between s o l i d and l i q u i d phases i,n which t h e r e i s no permanent change
, i n t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e s o l i d . With few exceptions, t h e g r e a t u t i l i t y
o f i o n exchange r e s t s w i t h t h e a b i l i t y t o use and re-use t h e i o n
exchange m a t e r i a l s . The i n o r g a n i c exchangers which were connnon p r i o r
t o 1940 have been almost completely displaced by t h e resinous types
because o f t h e l a t t e r ' s physical and chemical s t a b i l i t y . .Uranium i s
commercially e x t r a c t e d from leach l i q u o r s by an i o n exchange and then
concentrated as w e l l as p u r i f i e d by e l u t i o n w i t h a s o l u t i o n o f n i t r i c
a c i d o r ammonium n i t r a t e . However, i n a number o f areas, i t i s
expected t h a t t h e use o f n i t r a t e s w i l l be discouraged i n t h e f u t u r e
f o r environmental reasons and, thus t h e operators may change t o
s u l phates o r c h l o r i d e s .
 .MINERAL PROCESSING PLANT DESIGN

The two p r i n c i p l e techniques of c o n t a c t i n g s o l u t i o n s w i t h i o n

exchange r e s i n s are known as t h e batch method and t h e column method.
The column method may be f u r t h e r subdivided as t o whether t h e r e s i n
bed i s f i x e d o r moving and whether t h e s o l u t i o n and regenerant solu-
t i o n f l o w past t h e r e s i n i n t h e same r e l a t i v e d i r e c t i o n o r i n opposite
d i r e c t i o n s . While i t i s o c c a s i o n a l l y convenient on a small s c a l e t o
use a r e s i n batchwise t o check some features, i t i s g e n e r a l l y imprac-
t i c a l t o regenerate t h e r e s i n f o r reuse w i t h t h i s method.

Commercially, t h e packed bed-downflow type o f column has had wide

acceptance b u t t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n i n r e c e n t years o f the f l u i d i z e d bed,
upflow, i o n exchange systems i s expected t o have a pronounced a f f e c t
i n t h e i n d u s t r y o f t h e f u t u r e . I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e advantage o f t h e
continuous o r semi-continuous n a t u r e o f these columns, t h e designers
and manufacturers hope t o handle s o l u t i o n s w i t h an 8 t o 10% s o l i d s
content thus simp1 i f y i n g 1i q u i d - s o l i d separations.

Before t e s t i n g may proceed, t h e m e t a l l u r g i s t w i l l want t o know

what t y p e o f r e s i n t o use, i.e. whether c a t i o n i c o r anionic. I n
uranium recovery systems (anionic), t h e r e a r e s t r o n g base r e s i n s and
weak base resins. The former a r e l e s s s e l e c t i v e b u t todate, t h e
l a t t e r have been o f low s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y and n o t s u i t a b l e f o r upflow
columns .
The v a r i a b l e s t o be determined i n t h e l a b o r a t o r y a r e t h e t y p e o f
r e s i n , r e s i n mesh size, degree o f cross-linkage of t h e r e s i n , tem-
perature, f l o w rates, r e s i n s e l e c t i v i t y , regenerant concentration,
absorption and e l u t i o n curves.

The 100 ml graduated b u r e t t e i s a r e a d i l y obtainable p i e c e o f

l a b o r a t o r y equipment which can be converted t o an i o n exchange column.
However, t o e l i m i n a t e t h e disadvantages o f t h i s s i z e o f b u r e t t e , t h e
use o f a 25 mm diam. x 2 meter h i g h (approx. one i n c h by 78 i n c h )
column should be considered. See f i g u r e No. 111 f o r an example. The
s o l u t i o n s t o be t r e a t e d are pumped continuously through t h e bed u n t i l
t h e i o n t h a t i s being removed i s detected i n t h e column e f f l u e n t .
Loading i s then discontinued and t h e bed i s regenerated t o t h e proper
form. The choice o f regenerant chemical w i l l depend on t h e i o n i c
species t o which i t i s d e s i r e d t o convert t h e r e s i n and i t s cost. I n
t h e l a b o r a t o r y , the research personnel should r u n enough c y c l e s t o be
sure t h e r e i s no poisoning of t h e r e s i n s by thionates, s i l i c a , heavy
metals, etc.
1

Sol v e n t ~ x t r a c t i o n ' '

The s o l v e n t e x t r a c t i o n process, as a p p l i e d i n uranium o r copper

e x t r a c t i o n plants, i,s i n many ways analagous t o the r e s i n i o n exchange
process and indeed. i s o f t e n r e f e r r e d t o as l i q u i d i o n exchange. The
d i s s o l v e d metal from t h e leaching steps i s e x t r a c t e d from t h e c l a r i -
f i e d pregnant s o l u t i o n by an organic agent, t h e two phases -organic
and aqueous - allowed t o separate and t h e p u r i f i e d o r concentrated
 METALLURGICAL TESTING PROCEDURES 167

metal s t r i p p e d from t h e organic i n t o a second aqueous phase p e r m i t t i n g

t h e barren organic t o be r e c y c l e d t o t h e e x t r a c t i o n step. The metal
o f i n t e r e s t i s then recovered from t h e aqueous phase by conventional
means such as p r e c i p i t a t i o n , e l e c t r o l y s i s o r other.

The development o f a l i q u i d i o n exchange process begins a t a bench

scale l e v e l using separatory funnel techniques. I t i s common t o make
a m i x t u r e of 5% by volume organic e x t r a c t a n t , 2.5% isodecanal and
92.5% kerosene and then t o contact t h e aqueous metal -pregnant sol u-
t i o n w i t h t h e e x t r a c t i o n phase t o 4 volumes o f feed s o l u t i o n . A good
i n d i c a t i o n of phase disengagement time and emulsion tendencies can be
gained through such experiments as can data showing t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n
o f t h e desired metal and i m p u r i t i e s between t h e phases under various
e x t r a c t i o n c o n d i t i o n s . The existance o f a tendency t o emulsify o r
form a t h i r d phase may be proven o n l y by l o n g continuous runs.
I

The e f f e c t s o f v a r y i n g organic phase composition, e x t r a c t i o n

reagent, a d d i t i v e , c a r r i e r , temperature, contact time and any ten-
dency f o r t h e organic phase t o become poisoned should be i n v e s t i g a t e d .
Poisoning can be determined by batch s t r i p p i n g studies i n t h e separa-
t o r y funnels w i t h separation and reuse o f t h e organic phase over and
over again so as t o determine any change i n i t s metal loading capacity.

U l t i m a t e l y , t h e procedure should be t e s t e d w i t h a continuous f l o w

s o l v e n t e x t r a c t i o n c i r c u i t having a number o f mixing and phase d i s -
engagement stages i n both t h e e x t r a c t i o n and s t r i p p i n g steps. To
determine t h e r e l a t i v e e x t r a c t i o n i n a s i n g l e stage, t h e percentage
e x t r a c t i o n i s r e l a t e d t o t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t as shown i n t h e
equation:

% Extracted = . - PK X 100
1 + PK
Where: P = phase r a t i o
and K = d i s t r i b u t i o n 'coefficient.

A second important use o f t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n isotherm i s i n p r e d i c t i n g

t h e number o f counter-current stages which would be r e q u i r e d t o
achieve any given e x t r a c t i o n o f t h e described metal. This i s done by
use o f a McCabe T h i e l e diagram.13 A popular arrangement f o r t h e l a b -
o r a t o r y c i r c u i t c o n s i s t i n g o f f o u r e x t r a c t i o n and t h r e e s t r i p p i n g
stages i s shown i n Figure No. I V . This t y p e o f l a b o r a t o r y equipment
i s a v a i l a b l e commercially.l4

Magnetic Separation

Magnetic separation u t i l i z e s t h e force of a magnetic f i e l d coacting

w i t h some o t h e r f o r c e t o roduce d i f f e r e n t i a l movements o f mineral
grains through t h e f i e l d O P 5 Most imporant magnetic separations i n
p r a c t i c e are those i n v o l v i n g i r o n ores, p y r r h o t i t e from pentlandi t e
and recovery o f magnetite i n a heavy media p l a n t b u t t h e r e are
numerous small scale appl i c a t i o n s . Laboratory equipment includes
 MINERAL PROCESSING PLANT DESIGN'

1" 1 . 0 COLUMN
-_I,
-
8mni GLASS

RUBBER STOPPER
TUBING

"PYREX' GLASS OR PI.ASTIC

PIPE. 1" LO.

r-.
-RURRER STOPPER

8mm GLASS TUBING .

FIGURE111 - L a b o r a t o r y I o n Exchange Column

S o u r c e : Dqw Chemical company12

IV -Typical mixer-scttler sol;ent extraction system.

FIGURE
Source: W. C. H a z e n . 1 3 ' . .
 METALLURGICAL TESTING PROCEDURES 169

Davis tubes, drum separators, hand magnets, etc. and t e s t s may be con-
ducted wet o r dry. Roughing and cleaning steps may be necessary. I n
some instances, r o a s t i n g may be d e s i r a b l e t o convert i r o n bearing . .
m a t e r i a l s i n t o a magnetic s t a t e and i n a . f e w cases, demagnetizing may
be necessary t o prevent agglomeration.

E l e c t r o s t a t i c Testing

E l e c t r o s t a t i c separation u t i l i z e s t h e f o r c e o f an e l e c t r i c f i e l d
coacting w i t h some o t h e r f o r c e t o produce d i f f e r e n t i a l movement o f
mineral gains.15 The b a s i s i s found i n t h e d i f f e r e n c e s i n i n t e r f a c i a l
r e s i s t a n c e offered by d i f f e r e n t minerals t o passage o f e l e c t r o n s t h e r e
through. Modifying f a c t o r s are s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y , size, shape, surface
c o n d i t i o n and p u r i t y of t h e minerals and e l e c t r i c a l a t t r i b u t e s o f t h e
separator.

Various makes o f separators are a v a i l a b l e on t h e commercial market.

E l e c t r o s t a t i c separations which are a p p l i e d i n p r a c t i c e i n the miner-
a l s b e n e f i c i a t i o n f i e l d , are r u t i l e from zircon, v e r m i c u l i t e from '
gangue and upgrading o f some phosphate f l o t a t i o n concentrates'.
Relative1y few l a b o r a t o r i e s would expect t o conduct e l e c t r o s t a t i c
separations and hence, few have t h e necessary equipment. Since i t s
use i s l i m i t e d , narrow and specialized, no e f f o r t t o describe l a b -
o r a t o r y procedures w i l l be included i n t h i s chapter. However, more
information on t h e s u b j e c t may be noted i n Chapter 21.

Fluorescence and R a d i o a c t i v i t y

The degree t h a t a mineral i s f l u o r e s c e n t .or r a d i o a c t i v e may be used

i n t h e l a b o r a t o r y , p r i n c i p a l l y f o r mineral i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s , ,but seldom
used today f o r .mineral separation i n p r a c t i c e because o f labour costs
and environmental hazards. However, machines have been developed i n
A f r i c a which, i t i s claimed r e l y on photometric o r r a d i o a c t i v e . p .r i n -
c i p l e s t o b e n e f i c i a t e ores.I6
. ,
Microscopic Studies

I n t h e t e c h n i c a l r o l e , microscopy i n v o l v e s t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f
ore lumps, crushed ore and m i l l products i n order t o i d e n t i f y t h e
mineral c o n s t i t u e n t s o f t h e ore and t o determine t h e i r p h y s i c a l l y
s i g n i f i c a n t features, which i n c l u d e shapes, chemical p r o p e r t i e s , mode
o f occurrence, mutual intergrowth, g r a i n sizes, p o s s i b l e a l t e r a t i o n ,
o x i d a t i o n and weathering products.

Mineral grains down t o 150 microns o c c a s i o n a l l y can be recognized

by t h e naked eye. This i s f r e q u e n t l y t h e g r a i n s i z e a t which t h e a r t
o f f l o t a t i o n i s most e f f i c i e n t w h i l e comminution i s n o t t o o expensive.
With t h e a i d o f a good microscope, however, g r a i n s i z e s down t o one
micron i n diameter can be d i s t i n g u i s h e d and c l a s s i f i e d . I n a d d i t i o n ,
i t i s claimed t h a t a new image analyser17 provides accurate q u a n t i t a -
t i v e m i n e r a l o g i c a l a n a l y s i s o f f i n e l y ground ores.
170 MINERAL PROCESSING PLANT DESIGN
-
A t r a i n e d m i n e r a l o g i s t m i c r o s c o p i s t can provide e f f e c t i v e g u i -
dance t o t h e m e t a l l u r g i s t during t h e l a t t e r ' s research. However,
r e g r i n d i n g requirements, poor concentrate grades o r h i g h t a i l i n g s
assays confirmed by 'the m i c r o s c o p i s t may be as much t h e f a u l t o f poor
l a b o r a t o r y techniques as they are t h e l a c k o f l i b e r a t i o n o r degree o f
association. Therefore, t h e microscope must n o t be used as a means
t o f i n d an excuse f o r poor separation technique and must be used w i t h
caution.

Screen Analyses
No laboratory, whether used s o l e l y f o r research o r f o r o p e r a t i o n
monitoring, w i l l be complete w i t h o u t minimum s e t s o f t e s t i n g sieves
and a sieve shaker. Throughout t h e research programs, t h e m e t a l l u r -
g i s t w i l l want t o analyse t h e products w i t h screens t o determine how
much work has been done o r how much more work t h e r e i s t o do t o per-
m i t t h e separation o b j e c t i v e . I n e a r l y research, a c o r r e l a t i o n be-
tween t h e chemical and screen analyses w i l l be e s s e n t i a l t o determine
where t h e values, contaminants and waste p o r t i o n s are concentrated
but as t h e work progresses, t h e chemical analyses may n o t be r e q u i r e d
as f r e q u e n t l y .

Knowing i n which s i z e f r a c t i o n s t h e metals o f i n t e r e s t are concen-

t r a t e d , the m e t a l l u r g i s t 'can formulate ideas o f subsequent treatment
such h s r e g r i n d i n g o r sand-slime separation, e t c . Frequently, graph-
i c a l p l o t s o f s i z e analyses vs. o t h e r v a r i a b l e s o f i n t e r e s t w i l l show
sharp o r adequate breaks i n t h e curves t o i n d i c a t e t h e p o i n t a t which
a c e r t a i n technique should be discontinued and a new a t t a c k planned.
However, screen analyses a l s o can be m i s i n t e r p r e t e d o r a p p l i e d
i n c o r r e c t l y . High chemical assays o f t h e coarse f r a c t i o n s o f a
t a i l i n g may be t h e r e s u l t o f improper f l o t a t i o n c o n d i t i o n s as f r e -
q u e n t l y as they may be due t o t r u e m i d d l i n g s wh.ile m i n e r a l o g i c a l
analyses may n o t be s u i t a b l e since many middlings w i l l f l o a t . Simi-
l a r l y , h i g h metal values i n t h e slime p o r t i o n o f a t a i l i n g may be a
r e s u l t o f poor f l o t a t i o n p r a c t i c e . Thus, re-examinations o f t h e
g r i n d i n g c o n d i t i o n s p e r i o d i c a l l y d u r i n g f l o t a t i o n research a r e
recommended.

Pumping

A l l t o o f r e q u e n t l y , pumping t e s t s have been neglected by t h e re-

search s t a f f s and omission o f these s t u d i e s has caused problems l a t e r .
Although t h e i n p u t by operators and designers has prevented many major
e r r o r s i n layouts o f new f a c i l i t i e s , t h e f a i l u r e t o appreciate t h e
p o t e n t i a l problems may have caused excessive maintenance o r excep-
t i o n a l amounts o f 1 i n e blockages. W i t h i n t h e plants, t h e l a c k o f
p r i o r pumping t e s t s may n o t be c r i t i c a l , b u t i f any long d i s t a n c e pipe
1 ines are t o be contemplated, a s e r i e s o f p i p e l i n e and pump l o o p
system t e s t s should be considered mandatory.
 METALLURGICAL T E S T I N G PROCEDURES 171

A simple l i n e lpop system as shown i n Figure No. V, i s easy and

inexpensive t o construct, a1though more extensive systems may be
recommended f o r v e r y s p e c i f i c problems. 'The q u a n t i t i e s o f sample o r
products o f i n t e r e s t f o r pumping generated i n a l a b o r a t o r y may n o t
be adequate f o r loop t e s t s and, thus, t h e t e s t s may have t o be delayed
u n t i l t h e p i l o t p l a n t can produce adequate q u a n t i t i e s .

Although, todate, a s i n g l e formula has n o t been developed which

permits proper c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f a1 1 f a c t o r s known t o i n f l u e n c e s l u r r y
f l o w c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , a commonly used formula t o scale-up from pump
l o o p systems t o process p i p i n g follows:
-

Where: D = Diameter o f l a r g e pipe

d . = Diameter o f small .pipe
V D = C r i t i c a l . v e l o c i t y i n l a r g e pipe
C
Vcd = C r i t i c a l v e l o c i t y i n small p i p e

This should y i e l d conservative r e s u l t s and t h e r e f o r e should be

m o d i f i e d f o r long l i n e s . .

AS w i t h a number o f o t h e r aspects o f m e t a l l u r g i c a l o r e dressing ,

research, t h e r e are a number o f commercial l a b o r a t o r i e s and pump manu-
f a c t u r e r s i n North American who are f u l l y equipped t o do pumping t e s t s .
'Therefore, i t i s n o t ' necessary t o s e t up one's own loop systems unless
t h e problem i s expected t o be very complex o r t h e t e s t s prolonged.

This research should be designed t o monitor and compare 1i n e veloc-

i t i e s , s l u r r y d e n s i t i e s , v i s c o s i t i e s , s e t t l i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , pres-
sures, abrasion, degradation o f product f r i c t i o n losses, c r i t i c a l
c a r r y i n g v e l o c i t i e s , screen analyses and s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y .
Thickenjng and S e t t l i n g
The c a p a c i t i e s o f thickeners and t a i 1ings dams are i n h e r e n t l y
r e l a t e d t o the s e t t l i n g r a t e s o f t h e 'material t o be d e n s i f i e d . Since
both u n i t s are i n c l i n e d t o be very expensive items, i t w e l l behooves
t h e research s t a f f t o t e s t t h e s e t t l i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s e x t e n s i v e l y .

I n i t i a l t e s t s should be done on t h e m a t e r i a l as i t comes from t h e

process. They may be done i n 1000 C.C. graduated c y l i n d e r s where t h e
i n t e r f a c e may be v i s i b l e and measured so t h a t a r a t e per hour and an
area can be calculated. A s a f e t y f a c t o r o f 33% should be used f o r
these r e s u l t s for. scale-up. Confirmatory t e s t s should be done i n a
7 t o 10 cm (3 t o 4 i n c h ) diameter p i p e which i s 2 t o 3 meters ( 6 t o 9
f e e t ) long, capped a t one ,end and tapped a t ' r e g u l a r i n t e r v a l s f o r sam-
p l e e x t r a c t i o n . The r e s u l t s o f t h e s e ' t e s t s should be m u l t i p l e d by
120% f o r safety. The area r e q u i r e d may be c a l c u l a t e d from t h e
 MINERAL.PROCESSING PLANT DESIGN
I.,
Y
S
 METALLURGICAL TESTING PROCEDURES 173

formula:

Where: A = area i n square meters/Tonne/24 Hours

F = i n i t i a l d e n s i t y ( p a r t s water t o s o l i d s by weight)
D = f i n a l d e n s i t y - from t h i c k e n e r
R = r a t e o f settlement i n meters/hour
g = s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y o f solution.

Confirmatory t e s t s should be done a t v a r i o u s feed d i l u t i o n s because

t h e s e t t l i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s can be appreciably d i f f e r e n t . A1 so,
s i n c e temperatures have a pronounced a f f e c t on s e t t l i n g r a t e s , r o u t i n e
t e s t s should be conducted a t t h e temperature expected i n p r a c t i c e .
P r e v i o u s l y heated pulps a f t e r c o o l i n g f r e q u e n t l y s e t t l e f a s t e r than
unheated pulps and, therefore, i f heat i s i n v o l v e d i n t h e process, t h e
researcher may want t o take p a r t i c u l a r note o f t h a t f a c t .

Normally, t h e s e t t l i n g t e s t s w i l l be done w i t h o u t s e t t l i n g a i d s .
Hence, i f t h e r e s u l t s a r e average o r reasonable,,a measure o f s a f e t y
i s a v a i l a b l e when operations begin, upsets are encountered and t h e
operator f i n d s t h a t s e t t l i n g a i d s have t o be used. However, some
m a t e r i a l s such as c l a y s o r f i n e p r e c i p i t a t e s a r e very d i f f i c u l t , i f
n o t imppssible, t o s e t t l e w i t h o u t f l o c c u l a n t s and, under these c i r -
cumstances, t h e n e x t step must be conducted using t h e a i d s a v a i l a b l e .
Although reasonable r a t e s may be demonstrated i n t h e l a b o r a t o r y ,
using these aids, i t would be wise t o use an a d d i t i o n a l s a f e t y f a c t o r
o f 20%.

There are,recorded instances where i t would appear . t h a t s e t t l i n g

o r f l o c c u l a t i n g i n t a i l i n g s dams i s extremely slow so t h a t l a r g e
basins and/or long p e r i o d o f time a r e r e q u i r e d t o g e t s a t i s f a c t o r y
e f f l u e n t s . Due t o t h e h i g h volumes which must be handled, i t i s .
d o u b t f u l t h a t i t would be economic t o add f l o c c u l a n t s t o speed up .
t h e t a i l i n g s e t t l i n g rates.
. . .; - .
~t eir iln g
. .
Throughout t h e l a b o r a t o r y testi;ng,.the research s t a f f ' w i l l ' be mon-
i t o r i , n g t h e r e s u l t s by c o l l e c t i n g , f i l t e r i n g , d r y i n g and assaying
intermediate and - f i n a l products. . -These preparatory steps on samples
w i l l g i v e t h e metal..lurgists a good Idea, about t h e product f i l t r a t i o n
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s so, t h a t i f anything ,unusual i s noted, special a t t e n -
t i o n should be p a i d t o dewatering. . Even i f no particu1,ar problems
show up i n -these i n t e r m e d i a t e tests., t h e f i l t r a t i o n tests. a r e simple .
and should be conducted using a simple vacuum d i s c f i t t e d with,.various
types o f a p p r o p r i a t e f i l t e r c l o t h s .
-.:
.
S i g n i f i c a n t f a c t o r s a f f e c t i n g f i l t r a t i o n are screen analysis,
mineral shape, v i s c o s i t y and d e n s i t y o f pulp, temperature,;. ..amount . . ,of
174 MINERAL' PROCESSING PLANT DESIGN

vacuum a v a i l a b l e , pH and presence o f m a t e r i a l s such as c l a y which t e n d

t o b l i n d f i l t e r c l o t h . Although good f i l t e r a i d s are a v a i l a b l e com-
m e r c i a l l y today, i t would not be deemed wise normally, even i f t h e
l a b o r a t o r y r e s u l t s were encouraging, t o depend on them s o l e l y when
scal ing-up t o p l a n t scale equipment. The a i d s could be termed t h e
s a f e t y f a c t o r s t o be used l a t e r i f necessary.

There are a number o f types o f f i l t e r s being manufactured and s i n c e

t h e i r a b i l i t y t o handle various qua1 i t i e s o f m a t e r i a l s i s d r a s t i c a l l y
d i f f e r e n t , s i g n i f i c a n t economics have been r e a l i z e d a f t e r a p p r o p r i a t e
t e s t i n g . The f o u r p r i n c i p l e types are drum ( w i t h i n s i d e o r o u t s i d e ,
'
c l o t h ) , a g i t a t e d disc, h o r i z o n t a l t a b l e and pressure f i l t e r s .

Laboratory vacuum f i 1t e r s w i l l y i e l d f i l t e r cakes more c l o s e l y

approaching those o f production vacuum f i l t e r s than l a b o r a t o r y pres-
sure f i l t e r s - p a r t i c u l a r l y w i t h reference t o moisture content.
F i l t r a t e s should o c c a s i o n a l l y be saved so t h a t f l o t a t i o n t e s t s may be
made w i t h them because most s i g n i f i c a n t l y , some o f the modern f i l t e r
a i d s i n use prevent t h e i r immediate reuse w i t h o u t aging.

Tests should a l s o be done t o t e s t t h e type o f f i l t e r c l o t h t o use

because t h e physical c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e s o l i d s and t h e chemistry
o f t h e s o l u t i o n s encountered t o d a y ' a r e extremely v a r i e d so t h a t many
o f them may r e q u i r e special c l o t h s . Even f o r o r d i n a r y concentrates,
s i g n i f i c a n t reductions i n moisture content can be demonstrated w i t h
some o f t h e s y n t h e t i c o r s p e c i a l l y woven c l o t h s . , .
Chemical Analyses
Throughout ore dressing l a b o r a t o r y and p l a n t research p r o j e c t s ,
t h e most s i g n i f i c a n t and common c o n t r o l f e a t u r e i s the chemical
a n a l y s i s o f products. I n c e r t a i n instances, o r w i t h a number o f
s p e c i f i c ores, physical and/or v i s u a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s may be very
important b u t t h e chemistry i s t h e one most f r e q u e n t l y used.

D e t a i l e d chemical analyses w i l l be r e q u i r e d f o r most o f t h e types

o f ore t o be tested, a l l t h e f i n a l concentrates produced and t h e
m a j o r i t y o f t h e waste products discharged. I t w i l l n o t be necessary
t o assay f o r every metal i n a l l t e s t s since most r o u t i n e work can be
monitored by watching one o r two elements. However, e a r l y i n t h e
program, t h e d e t a i l e d head analyses w i l l e s t a b l i s h t h e basic data and
r a i s e t h e warning f l a g s t o guide t h e m e t a l l u r g i s t s should any poten-
t i a l o b j e c t i o n a b l e elements show up. The concentrate analyses i n
d e t a i l w i l l be r e q u i r e d f o r t h e sales s t a f f because a1 1 smelting and
r e f i n i n g c o n t r a c t s take note o f t h e contaminants as w e l l as t h e
d e s i r a b l e metals. S i m i l a r l y , more and more d e t a i l e d waste product
analyses are being r e q u i r e d by r e g u l a t o r y a u t h o r i t i e s as more i o n s
and anions are s t a t e d t o be p o t e n t i a l environmental hazards which must
be recognized and perhaps c o n t r o l l e d .

.. Rapid c o n t r o l chemical analyses are r e q u i r e d d u r i n g t h e t e s t i n g

 METALLURGICAL TESTING PROCEDURES

because subsequent t e s t programs a r e dependant on t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e

c u r r e n t t e s t s . Assay 1a b o r a f o r i e s can become overloaded by samples
from research personnel so t h a t i t i s e s s e n t i a l t o p r o p e r l y plan t h e
e s s e n t i a l amounts and types o f chemical analyses.

E f f l u e n t Treatment

Almost a l l new concentrators w i l l p l a n on using s i g n i f i c a n t quan-

t i t i e s o f r e c y c l e waters and many o f t h e o l d e r p l a n t s which have n o t
been using r e t u r n s o l u t i o n s are, o r w i l l be, i n v e s t i g a t i n g t h e pos-
s i b i l i t i e s . I n those areas where t h e annual evaporation exceeds t h e
p r e c i p i t a t i o n , t h e r e i s p o s s i b l y no n e t e f f l u e n t and, t h e r e f o r e ,
treatment f o r environmental reasons i s n o t required. However, when
t h e n e t p r e c i p i t a t i o n i s p o s i t i v e o r when t h e make-up exceeds the sum
o f t h e losses, v a r i o u s water treatment techniques may be r e q u i r e d t o
meet imposed guide1 i n e s and the c o s t may be high.

Even though t h e water balance may be t h e o r e t i c a l l y s a t i s f a c t o r y i n

a number o f p l a n t s , some discharge t o t h e l o c a l streams may be neces-
sary because f r e s h water may have been e s s e n t i a l w i t h i n t h e process
f o r e f f i c i e n t separation i n c e r t a i n steps, f o r equipment c o o l i n g o r
f o r domestic purposes. I n o t h e r instances, i n t e r n a l r e c y c l e cannot
be used i m n e d i a t e l y w i t h o u t treatment and thus, these s o l u t i o n s may
have t o be dispatched t o t h e t a i l i n g dam f o r aging.

Therefore, d u r i n g l a b o r a t o r y research, sol'utions which a r e l i a b l e

t o be r e c i r c u l a t e d must be c o l l e c t e d and t h e i r use as make-up through-
o u t the c i r c u i t s tested. The qual i t y must be .assessed so t h a t , i f
discharge t o t h e surroundings i s contemplated, treatment techniques
can be developed i f t h e need i s i n d i c a t e d . The acid-producing and
t h i o s a l t generating p o t e n t i a l s when t r e a t i n g sulphide ores must be
i n v e s t i g a t e d so t h a t , i f detected i n t h e l a b o r a t o r y , remedial a c t i o n
can be planned f o r t h e o p e r a t i n g system. The chemical r e a c t i o n s w i t h -
i n a t a i l i n g impoundment system may change d r a s t i c a l l y seasonally.
I n w i n t e r i n n o r t h e r n climates, t h e i c e cover and c o l d temperatures
w i l l stop o r slow down o x i d a t i o n . I n t h e summer, e n t i r e ponds can
t u r n a c i d very q u i c k l y and t h e e f f l u e n t s w i l l have t o be t r e a t e d
p r i o r t o reuse o r discard.
Envi ronmental Research
Control o f t h e p h y s i c a l environment i s more a problem f o r the
designer, the mechanical engineer o r t h e m i l l superintendent than i t
i s f o r t h e research m e t a l l u r g i s t . Nevertheless, t h e m e t a l l u r g i s t ,
d u r i n g h i s research, should be aware o f p o t e n t i a l environmental o r
h e a l t h hazards which may occur. H i s analyses o f t h e ores, concen-
t r a t e s and t a i l i n g s and h i s knowledge o f how h i s proposed processes
m i g h t cause problems a r e e s s e n t i a l i n p u t s t o the o v e r a l l plans. Dust
qual i t y , wet o r d r y processing, fume p o t e n t i a l s , degree o f s o l u t i o n
c o r r o s i o n and reagent t o x i c i t y a r e a few of t h e i m p o r t a n t features
t o study. . .
 MINERAL PROCESSING PLANT DESIGN

A f i e l d t h a t w i l l r e q u i r e more and more research i s t h a t o f noise

and thus, hearing p r o t e c t i o n . So much o f present day m i l l equipment
presents a noise hazard above t h e c u r r e n t l y acceptable 8 0 t o 85
decibel l e v e l , t h a t s t u d i e s o f t h e machine c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , l o c a t i o n
i n the flowsheet, i s o l a t i o n and i n s u l a t i o n become i n t e g r a l p a r t s o f
t h e planning program.

Equipment

Most experienced designers, operators and researchers a r e f a m i l i a r

w i t h t h e types o r makes o f equipment which are common i n t h e mineral
dressing f i e l d . When t h i s i s the. case, t h e i r experience p l u s t h e
manufacturer's 1i t e r a t u r e . w i l l p e r m i t s u i t a b l e choices. However, as
t h e m e t a l l u r g i s t i n v e s t i g a t e s new f i e 1 ds and as technology introduces
new equipment, t e s t i n g o f these machines i s recommended. I f neigh-
bours o r associates are using t h e suggested item, t h e i r performance
data may be adequate f o r your purposes, b u t i f not, i t may be neces-
sary t o arrange f o r t r i a l s i n . some o t h e r p a r t s o f your o r g a n i z a t i o n
o r elsewhere i n t h e i n d u s t r y .
. .
Seldom can production s i z e equipment be t e s t e d i n t h e l a b o r a t o r y
and thus, models. may have t o be t r i e d i f a v a i l a b l e . Scale-up from
these small u n i t s can be simple o r a serious problem so t h a t thorough
s t u d i e s are recommended f o r unproven o r u n f a m i l i a r machines.

M a t e r i a l s o f c o n s t r u c t i o n must a l s o be t e s t e d by research s t a f f s .
This i s p a r t i c u l a r l y t r u e when severe c o r r o s i o n o r abrasion problems
are indicated. .

- REPORTS

The b e s t m e t a l l u r g i c a l research i n t h e w o r l d w i l l l o s e much o f i t s

value i f n o t presented i n a form t h a t i s r e a d i l y understood and use-
f u l t o a wide v a r i e t y o f p r o f e s s i o n a l s and executives. It i s w e l l t o
remember t h a t t h e r e p o r t t h a t i s generated w i l l be used by t h e manager,
geologist, miner, pyrometal l u r g i s t , designer, f i n a n c i e r , sales agent,
r e g u l a t o r y agencies and a host o f o t h e r i n t e r e s t e d p a r t i e s . Therefore,
t h e summaries, conclusions, tables, graphs, flowsheets, e t c . should
n o t be prepared i n a manner which o n l y t h e o r e dressing m e t a l l u r g i s t
would understand. "Executive" summaries serve a very u s e f u l purpose.
However, t h e r e p o r t s must be t e c h n i c a l i n nature and hence, t o be
f u l l y useful, should c o n t a i n considerable s c i e n t i f i c terms, t e c h n i c a l
language, m e t a l l u r g i c a l d e t a i l s and data. .

The e n t i r e research program should be planned i n depth. This does

n o t i m p l y t h a t r e s u l t s and conclusions w i l l be pre-judged, but rather
t h a t a minimum o f a c e r t a i n number and types o f t e s t s w i l l be under-
taken regardless o f e a r l y success o r f a i l u r e . A t t h e same time, i t
 METALLURGICAL TESTING PROCEDllRES

would be r a r e t h a t some o f t h e planned t e s t s d i d n o t prove o r indi.-

cate t h a t a d d i t i o n a l research i s required.

P r i o r t o embarking on t h e research program, t h e s t a f f should know

what format o f r e p o r t w i l l be used. Standard forms f o r screen anal-
yses, f l o t a t i o n t e s t s , tables, e t c . a r e common i n most l a b o r a t o r i e s
because they p e r m i t s i m i l a r r e p e t i t i v e t e s t s i n i d e n t i c a l o r d e r and
reduce t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f f o r g e t t i n g important procedures. Fre-
quently, t h e f i n a l r e p o r t w i l l have an appendix w i t h a l l t h e d e t a i l e d
t e s t r e s u l t s which w i l l be u s e f u l t o t h e d e t a i l e d a n a l y s t even i n t h e
handwritten state.

I t i s n o t expected t h a t everyone who i s i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e work w i l l

have t h e knowledge, desire, time o r need t o study a l l t h e d e t a i l e d
data and hence, summaries, conclusions, purposes, proposals, e t c .
should be prepared t o make up t h e p r i n c i p l e p o r t i o n o f t h e r e p o r t .
Also, engineers and m e t a l l u r g i s t s should remember t h a t t h e value o f
t h e r e p o r t diminishes r a p i d l y i f t h e English composition, grammar
andspellingispoor. .

Since t h e r e i s such a v a r i e t y o f m e t a l l u r g i c a l ores and t e s t s which

can be done on them, t h e form o f t h e r e p o r t w i l l change w i t h each pro-
gram and from company t o company. Nevertheless, t h e r e are common
features i n a l l o f t h e b e t t e r r e p o r t s . Although t h e order may change,
good r e p o r t s w i l l contain, b u t n o t be l i m i t e d t o :

A t i t l e page i n c l u d i n g d i s t r i b u t i o n
An index
An i n t r o d u c t i o n
o r i g i n o f samples
purpose o f research
B r i e f summary o f best p r a c t i c a l r e s u l t s
Conclusions
Recommendations f o r f u r t h e r work and/or flowsheet development
Detai 1ed summaries o f research
Step by Step and m a t e r i a l balances
Cycle t e s t r e s u l t s
Tab1 es
Graphs
F l owsheets
Appendices - d e t a i l e d t e s t r e s u l t s
Re1ated i n f o r m a t i o n
I n c l u s i o n o f unsuccessful t e s t s may be as meaningful as some
o f t h e good ones.

FLOWSHEET DEVELOPMENT

~ i l ' o .Plant
t

Not a l l ores must be t e s t e d i n a p i l o t p l a n t a f t e r t h e bench scale

178 MINERAL PROCESSING PLANT DESIGN

research i s completed. There w i l l be instances where t h e l a b o r a t o r y

r e s u l t s are very good and reproducible, where t h e o r e treatment i s
simple o r where t h e ore under t e s t i s n e a r l y i d e n t i c a l t o t h e o r e
being processed i n an operating concentrator. Under these circum-
stances, t h e costs o f a p i l o t p r o j e c t might n o t be j u s t i f i a b l e
although t h e research s t a f f may want t o confirm t h e i r -work by pro-
cessing a b u l k sample i n t h e e x i s t i n g c i r c u i t .
However, more and more ores are being t e s t e d i n t h e p i l o t p l a n t
and, f o r complex ores, f o r ores w i t h i n d i c a t e d problems o r u n c e r t a i n -
t i e s and f o r ores w i t h minute q u a n t i t i e s o f recoverable values, t h e
c o s t o f confirmatory t e s t s i n a p i l o t p l a n t i s warranted and recom-
mended. I f autogenous g r i n d i n g o r prototype equipment i s proposed
f o r t h e new p l a n t , i t should be t e s t e d i n t h e p i l o t p l a n t also.

The flowsheet f o r t h e p i l o t p r o j e c t should be based on t h e r e s u l t s

o f t h e best s e r i e s o f c y c l e t e s t s from t h e laboratory. However, one
must be prepared t o modify t h e flows and reagents i n t h e p i l o t stage.
The q u a n t i t i e s t o be processed w i l l depend on t h e ' c a p a c i t y o f t h e
p i l o t p l a n t comminution u n i t s more f r e q u e n t l y than on any o t h e r equip-
ment s i z e s o r numbers. The c o l l e c t i o n o f b u l k samples from t h e mine
development which w i l l be t h e usual feed f o r the p i l o t p r o j e c t should
be observed by t h e m e t a l l u r g i c a l research team i f possible. They
should be d e l i v e r e d i n advance o f scheduled s t a r t - u p b u t n o t so e a r l y
t h a t sample d e t e r i o r a t i o n might be a f a c t o r . As w i t h a l l research,
t h e b u l k sample must be r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o r t h e r e s u l t s w i l l be o f l e s s
than f u l l value.
D i r e c t scale-up from p i l o t p l a n t t o production i s r e l a t i v e l y
s t r a i g h t forward.
Process Flowsheet

The process flowsheet has been i n d i c a t e d by the bench s c a l e t e s t i n g

and confirmed by t h e p i l o t p l a n t t e s t s . Therefore, t h e p r e p a r a t i o n o f
a proposed production flowsheet i s r a t h e r simple. However, t h e num-
bers, types, sizes and l a y o u t s of equipment w i l l be judgement f a c t o r s
dependant on experienced personnel, power requirements, manufacturer's
s p e c i f i c a t i o n s , l a b o r a t o r y r e t e n t i o n times and o t h e r physical charac-
t e r i s t i c s . Safety f a c t o r s must be considered b u t n o t over-emphasi zed
t o t h e detriment o f excess capacity o r cost. P r o v i s i o n f o r expansion
may be important i f management deems i t p e r t i n e n t . Some o f t h e
f e a t u r e s which haven't been mentioned i n t h e previous p a r t s o f t h i s
a r t i c l e may be noted below.

The f i r s t size-reduction operation a f t e r mining normally w i l l be

done i n a primary crusher regardless o f whether t h e subsequent step
i s crushing o r grinding. The s i z e o f t h e crusher f r e q u e n t l y i s deter-
mined by physical f a c t o r s beyond t h e c o n t r o l o f t h e m e t a l l u r g i c a l
research s t a f f . The f a c t o r s , a1 though numerous, may be summarized as
b l a s t i n g techniques, - s i z e o f 1oading equipment, capacity o f haul i n g
 METALLURGICAL T E S T I N G PROCEDLIRES

o r h o i s t i n g machines, l o c a t i o n o f orebody (underground o r near sur- .

face), mining methods and r a t e . T h i s i n f o r m a t i o n must come from t h e
mine planning group and discussions on t h e i r recommendations a r e
beyond t h e scope o f t h i s chapter.

However, t h e s i z e o f primary crusher does a f f e c t t h e product s i z e

and t h i s i s s i g n i f i c a n t t o t h e flowsheet development team. I f t h e
o r e i s s u f f i c i e n t l y competent t o consider any degree o f autogenous
g r i n d i n g , t h e product discharged from t h e f i r s t crusher may become
g r i n d i n g media and, t h e r e f o r e , extremely important. T h i s f e a t u r e has
been discussed i n :more depth under g r i n d i n g research.

There a r e t h r e e p r i n c i p l e types o f primary crusher on t h e market

today. They a r e g y r a t o r y , jaw o r impact. Normally, t h e g y r a t o r y
crusher would be chosen f o r l a r g e tonnages o r l a r g e rock, t h e jaw f o r
i n t e r m e d i a t e tonnages and s i z e s , o r f o r underground s e r v i c e and t h e
impact crusher f o r s p e c i a l i z e d d u t y such as c l a y e y m a t e r i a l , l e s s
abrasive rock, ,product s i z e c o n t r o l , e t c .

The choice o f u n i t s f o r s e c o n d a r y - t e r t i a r y crushing may be a l i t t l e

more complex than f o r primary crushing but'the manufacturers' t a b l e s
a r e of g r e a t value. Wet o r s t i c k y ores may r e q u i r e s p e c i a l treatment
o r types o f crushers and these v a r i e t i e s . should have been t e s t e d
b e f o r e t h e f i n a l s e l e c t i o n s were made. Poor f l o w c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ,
tendencies t o pack, v a r i a b l e abrasiveness, etc. can be s e r i o u s f a c -
t o r s i f overlooked. Primary and secondary crushers a r e operated .
'

u s u a l l y i n open c i r c u i t w h i l e t e r t i a r y crushers a r e open c i r c u i t e d

about 50 percent o f t h e ' t i m e and closed f o r t h e balance.

Screens are used t o reduce t h e l o a d on t h e crusher i n secondary

and t e r t i a r y p l a n t s and t o c o n t r o l t h e f i n a l product s i z e p a r t i c u l a r l y
i n closed c i r c u i t s . Screen s i z e s e l e c t i o n i s l a r g e l y based on empir-
i c a l data from t h e manufacturers, b u t some t e s t i n g is.recommended f o r
those ores which have unusual .physical f a c t o r s , such as s t i c k i n e s s ,
'

preponderence o f f i n e s , abrasiveness, considerable f l a k e p o r t i o n o r

excessive water o r snow content.

The s e l e c t i o n o f g r i n d i n g equipment has been reasonably w e l l d e a l t

w i t h under the t e s t i n g procedures. However, because m i l l s a r e very
expensive items, i t i s worthwhile emphasizing again t h a t thorough
research, experience and judgement a r e r e q u i r e d when proposing
grinding mills.

I n p r a c t i c e , p u l p d e n s i t i e s during.continuous o p e r a t i o n a r e more
r e a d i l y c o n t r o l l e d than i n t h e l a b o r a t o r y and, i n general, t h e y w i l l
be somewhat higher. I n g r i n d i n g , t h e y u s u a l l y vary .between 65%
s o l i d s i n b a l l and pebble m i l l i n g t o 85% s o l i d s i n r o d m i l l g r i n d i n g
o f h i g h s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y sulphides. The more common ores a r e ground
between 70% and 80% s o l i d s . Rougher f l o t a t i o n w i l l most e f f i c i e n t l y
be conducted between 25% and 50% s o l i d s and t h e usual range i s from
35% t o 45% s o l i d s . Cleaner f l o t a t i o n may range from 35% down t o a
'
180 MINERAL PROCESSING PLANT DESIGN

few percent b u t more f r e q u e n t l y , i f c o n t r o l l a b l e , w i l l be between 10%

and 25% s o l i d s .

Adjustments may have t o be made t o t h e above d e n s i t y ranges when

f l o a t i n g i n s o l u t i o n s o t h e r than water such as b r i n e o r when f l o a t i n g
very coarse p a r t i c l e s . C e r t a i n s o l i d s such a s clay, etc., when mixed
w i t h f l u i d s , w i l l tend t o form viscous s l u r r i e s which must be d i l u t e d
t o p e r m i t separation by f l o t a t i o n .

The e f f e c t o f various den'siti'es d o e i n o t stop a f t e r g r i n d i n g and

f l o t a t i o n because t h e i n f l u e n c e i s g r e a t i n thickening, s e t t l i n g and
f i 1t e r i n g .

I n choosing f l o t a t i o n c e l l s , most research, design and o p e r a t i n g

personnel have found t h a t a f a c t o r o f a t l e a s t two, and i n t h e case o f
g o l d ores may be as. h i g h as f i v e , should be used when s c a l i n g up from
t h e f i g u r e s f o r r e t e n t i o n and f l o t a t i o n times developed i n t h e labora-
tory.

Considering pumping t e s t s alone i s n o t enough t o determine pump

o r 1i n e s i z e s f o r t h e f u l l scale p l a n t s because t h e m a j o r i t y o f concen-
t r a t o r products c o n t a i n various q u a n t i t i e s o f a i r o r f r o t h . Therefore,
a f t e r t h e basic engineering c a p a c i t i e s have been decided upon, most
operators have found i t necessary t o m u l t i p l y t h e r e s u l t a n t by a
" f r o t h f a c t o r " . 'This w i l l vary from 1.0 f o r f i n e t a i l i n g s t o 3.5 f o r
an extreme1y f r o t h y mi ddl ing o r concentrate.
Conversely, t h e f r i c t i o n l o s s o f pipe l i n e s handling s l u r r y o r
p u l p tends t o be l e s s than one would expect. It i s good p r a c t i c e t o
use a C f a c t o r o f 140 f o r i n - p l a n t pumping systems w i t h s h o r t p i p e
runs. The C 140 f a c t o r w i l l prevent over c a l c u l a t i n g system heads ,
and consequent over pumping by running o u t on constant speed pump
curves. On l o n g distance schemes where reduced f l o w has a more pro-
nounced e f f e c t on s t a b l e operations - e.g. t a i l i n g disposal - where
t h e TDH c o n s i s t s p r i m a r i l y f f r i c t i o n head, a good engineering
approach i s t o use C - 130(P9).

Most o t h e r scale-up and s a f e t y f a c t o r s have been i n c l u d e d i n t h e

discussions o f t e s t i n g procedures. .

SUMMARY

Metal 1u r g i c a l t e s t i n g and corresponding f lowsheet development

i n v o l v e a c q u i s i t i o n o f c e r t a i n basic i n f o r m a t i o n , a l a b o r a t o r y t e s t i n g
phase, t h e p r e p a r a t i o n o f . r e p o r t s and, f i n a l l y , flowsheet development.

Basic i n f o r m a t i o n includes i n f o r m a t i o n r e l e v a n t t o l o c a t i o n , t h e
n a t u r e of t h e o r e body, sampling, marketing and s p e c i f i c a t i o n s , en- .
vironmental guidelines, and a review o f l i t e r a t u r e and c u r r e n t prac-
tice.
 METALLURGICAL TESTING PROCEDURES 181

The l a b o r a t o r y t e s t i n g phase can be s u b s t a n t i a l and may.cover

t h e f o l l o w i n g : crushing, g r i n d i n g , r e g r i n d i n g , c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , f l o -
t a t i o n w i t h a study o f reagent types and q u a n t i t i e s , pulp d e n s i t y , ,
a e r a t i o n and c o n d i t i o n i n g , pH r e g u l a t i o n , r e t e n t i o n time, temperature,
water q u a l i t y , sample ageing and c y c l e t e s t s . Further testwork could
include: sand-slime separation, g r a v i t y and heavy media concentration,
leaching, c a l c i n i n g , s o l v e n t e x t r a c t i o n , i o n exchange, magnetic and
e l e c t r o s t a t i c separation, microscopic studies, pumping, thickening, -
f i l t e r i n g , e f f l u e n t treatment and environmental research. Equipment
i s f i n a l l y selected.

Flowsheet development may r e l y on p i l o t work; t h e f i n a l r e s u l t

i s a process flowsheet. . '

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2. MacPherson, A r t h u r L., -
A Simple Method t o P r e d i c t t h e Auto-
genous Grinding M i l 1 Requirements, AIME, 768327, 1976.
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Bond, F.C., - Crushing and Grinding Calculation, Canadian Mining

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Hazen, Wayne C., - Solvent E x t r a c t i o n Techniques, Denver T r e f o i l ,
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Lewis, C l i f f o r d J., -
Liquid Ion - Exchange Processes, Chemical
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The Appl i c a t i o n o f Q u a n t i t a t i v e M i n e r a l o g i c a l
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