Download as pdf or txt
Download as pdf or txt
You are on page 1of 39

‫بسم هللا الرحمن الرحیم‬

Introduction to computers and


programming

INSTRUCTOR : NAWSHERWAN WAHEDY


Course contents
Concept of an algorithm; Algorithms to programs:
specification, top-down development and stepwise
refinement. Use of high level programming
language for the systematic development of
programs. Introduction to the design and
implementation of correct, efficient and
maintainable programs. Introduction to computer
architecture; memory, ALU, CPU, I/O devices.
Introduction to system software; operating
systems, compilers and multi-user environment.
What is a Computer?
Computer
◦ Device capable of performing computations and
making logical decisions
◦ Computers process data under the control of sets
of instructions called computer programs
Hardware
◦ Various devices comprising a computer
◦ Keyboard, screen, mouse, disks, memory, CD-
ROM, and processing units
Software
◦ Programs that run on a computer
Computer Organization
Six logical units in every computer:
◦ Input unit
◦ Obtains information from input devices (keyboard, mouse)
◦ Output unit
◦ Outputs information (to screen, to printer, to control other devices)
◦ Memory unit
◦ Rapid access, low capacity, stores input information
◦ Arithmetic and logic unit (ALU)
◦ Performs arithmetic calculations and logic decisions
◦ Central processing unit (CPU)
◦ Supervises and coordinates the various components of the computer
◦ Secondary storage unit
◦ Cheap, long-term, high-capacity storage
◦ Stores inactive programs
Computer Architecture
A Computer Consists of
a central processing unit (CPU) consists of
◦ an arithmetic/logic unit (ALU) where math and logic operations are
performed,
◦ a control unit which directs most operations by providing timing and
control signals,
◦ and registers that provide short-term data storage and management
facilities.
a memory unit that stores instructions and data, and
input (e.g. keyboard, mouse, microphone, disk drive, etc.) and output
(e.g. monitor, status indicator lights, speakers, disk drive, etc.) units that
are used to transmit data into and out of the computer.
ALU
A : The type of operation that the ALU needs to
perform is determined by signals from the control
unit .
B: The data can come either from the input unit, or
C: from the memory unit.
D: Results of the operation can either be transferred
back to the memory unit or
E: directly to the output unit .
The memory unit - or random
access memory (RAM) -
stores instructions and/or data.
Memory is divided into an array of "boxes" each containing a byte of
information.
◦ A byte consists of 8 bits.
◦ A bit (binary digit) is either 0 (OFF) or 1 (ON).
◦ The memory unit also serves as a storage for intermediate and final results of
arithmetic operations.

F : Control signal (a read or a write operation).


G : A location in memory
H : Input to memory data lines when the control signal J is enabled.
I : Memory to the output unit when the control signal L is enabled.
Control Unit
contains logic and timing circuits that generate the appropriate signals
necessary to execute each instruction in a program.
It fetches an instruction from memory by sending an address (G) and
a read command (F) to the memory unit.
The instruction word(s) stored at the memory location specified by the address
is then transferred to the control unit (K).
After decoding this instruction, the control unit transmits the appropriate
signals to the other units in order to execute the specified operation.
This sequence of fetch and execute is repeated by the control unit until the
computer is either powered off or reset.
Common Software's
Operating System
Compilers
Assemblers
Interpreters
What Is an Operating System?

An interface between the hardware and the user.


Provides an easy and efficient use of the system resources.
Evolution of Operating Systems
Single_user Batch processing
◦ Do only one job or task at a time
Early Operating systems
◦ Manage transitions between jobs (minimizing transition time
between jobs)
◦ Increased throughput
◦ Amount of work computers process

Multiprogramming
◦ Computer resources are shared by many jobs or tasks (users still
waited a long time for their output)
Timesharing (access computers via terminals)
◦ Computer runs a small portion of one user’s job then moves on to
service the next user
Programming Language :
Definition

A vocabulary and set of grammatical rules for instructing a computer to


perform specific tasks.
Evolution of Programming languages
◦ First Generation : Machine languages
◦ Strings of numbers giving machine specific instructions
◦ Example:
+1300042774
+1400593419
+1200274027
◦ Second Generation : Assembly languages
◦ English-like abbreviations representing elementary computer operations
(translated via assemblers)
◦ Example:
LOAD BASEPAY
ADD OVERPAY
STORE GROSSPAY
◦ Third Generation : High-level languages
◦ Codes similar to everyday English
◦ Use mathematical notations (translated via compilers)
◦ Example: grossPay = basePay + overTimePay
PL hierarchy
What does the computer
understand?

Computer only understands machine language instructions.


Assembler
Instructions written in assembly language must be translated to
machine language instructions :
◦ Assembler does this

One to one translation : One AL instruction is mapped to one ML


instruction.
AL instructions are CPU specific.
Compiler
Instructions written in high-level language also
must be translated to machine language
instructions :
◦ Compiler does this
Generally one to many translation : One HL
instruction is mapped to many ML instruction.
HL instructions are not CPU specific but compiler is.
Translation from HLL to ML
Interpreter
An interpreter translates high-level instructions into an intermediate
form, which it then executes. In contrast, a compiler translates high-
level instructions directly into machine language.
Compiled programs generally run faster than interpreted programs.
The advantage of an interpreter, however, is that it does not need to
go through the compilation stage during which machine instructions
are generated. This process can be time-consuming if the program is
long. The interpreter, on the other hand, can immediately execute
high-level programs. For this reason, interpreters are sometimes used
during the development of a program, when a programmer wants to
add small sections at a time and test them quickly.
Different types of High-level PL

Weakly typed/strongly typed


Structured
And many other types
Typed Languages

Type information was added to programs to improve efficiency.


◦ For ex. An integer addition is performed more efficiently than floating point addition.
◦ Hence it is more advantageous to declare the value/variable as integer whenever it is
possible.
Weakly Typed/Strongly Typed
Language

A strongly-typed programming language is one in


which each type of data (such as integer, character,
hexadecimal, packed decimal, and so forth) is
predefined as part of the programming language and
all constants or variables defined for a given program
must be described with one of the data types.
Certain operations may be allowable only with
certain data types. The language compiler enforces
the data typing and use compliance.
Strongly Typed Language contd..

Different definitions are given for a language to be strongly typed and if


that condition is not defined by a particular language it is said to weakly
typed in that context.
For example..
1. A language is strongly typed if it contains
compile-time checks for type constraint
violations. If all checking is deferred to run time,
it is weakly typed.
2. A language is strongly typed if it contains
compile- or run-time checks for type constraint
violations. If no checking is done, it is weakly
typed.
3. A language is strongly typed if conversions
between different types are forbidden. If such
conversions are allowed, it is weakly typed.
More Examples..

4. A language is strongly typed if conversions


between different types must be indicated
explicitly. If implicit conversions are performed, it
is weakly typed.
5. A language is strongly typed if there is no
language-level way to disable or evade the type
system. If there are C-style casts or other type-
evasive mechanisms, it is weakly typed.
Where does C fit in?
For example, under definitions 3,4 and 5 the C language is weakly typed;
— with definitions 1 and 2 it is open for further debate since C does
perform type checks for compound types but not for scalar or array types.
C++/Java?

C++ and Java are stronger typed than C.


Typed Languages contd..
An advantage of strong data typing is that it
imposes a rigorous set of rules on a programmer
and thus guarantees a certain consistency of
results.
A disadvantage is that it prevents the programmer
from inventing a data type not anticipated by the
developers of the programming language and it
limits how "creative" one can be in using a given
data type.
Structured Programming

Structured programming
◦ Disciplined approach to writing programs
◦ Clear, easy to test and debug and easy to modify
Structured programming is hard and takes time
to master
Structured Programming contd..

A technique for organizing and coding computer


programs in which a hierarchy of modules is used,
each having a single entry and a single exit point, and
in which control is passed downward through the
structure without unconditional branches to higher
levels of the structure.
Three types of control flow are used: sequential,
test, and iteration
Structured programming
Only the following code structures are used to
write programs:
1.Sequence of sequentially executed statements.
2.Conditional execution of statements (i.e., "if"
statements).
3.Looping.
4.Structured SubRoutine calls (e.g., 'gosub' but not
'goto').
Structure Programming contd..
In particular, the following language usage is
forbidden:
"GoTo" statements.
"break" or "continue" out of the middle of loops.
Multiple exit points to a
function/procedure/subroutine (i.e., multiple
"return" statements).
Multiple entry points to a
function/procedure/subroutine.
Structured Programming contd..
Structured Programming is generally a non-issue when doing
ModularProgramming or ObjectOrientedProgramming as it's assumed
that individual methods are structured.
Structured VS unstructured
Languages
Structured languages, such as Pascal, Ada and dBASE, force the
programmer to write a structured program.
Unstructured languages such as FORTRAN, COBOL and BASIC require
discipline on the part of the programmer to write a structured program.
Structured VS unstructured
Languages
Unstructured languages define control flow largely in terms of a GOTO
command that transfers execution to a label in code. Structured
programming languages provide constructs (often called "if-then-else",
"switch", "unless", "while", "until", and "for") for creating a variety of
loops and conditional branches of execution, although they may also
provide a GOTO to reduce excessive nesting of cascades of "if"
structures, especially for handling exceptional conditions.
Strictly speaking, in a structured programming language, any code
structure should have only one entry point and one point of exit; many
languages such as C allow multiple paths to a structure's exit (such as
"continue", "break", and "return"), which can bring both advantages
and disadvantages in readability.
The Key Software Trend:
Object Technology
Objects
◦ Reusable software components that model items in the real
world
◦ Meaningful software units
◦ Date objects, time objects, paycheck objects, invoice objects,
audio objects, video objects, file objects, record objects, etc.
◦ Any noun can be represented as an object
◦ More understandable, better organized, and easier to
maintain than procedural programming
Java source code files (files with a .java extension)
are compiled into a format called bytecode (files with
a .class extension), which can then be executed by a
Java interpreter. Compiled Java code can run on most
computers because Java interpreters and runtime
environments, known as Java Virtual Machines
(VMs), exist for most operating systems, including
UNIX, the Macintosh OS, and Windows. Bytecode
can also be converted directly into machine language
instructions by a just-in-time compiler (JIT).

You might also like